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Maternal Depression Gross Final
Maternal Depression Gross Final
Maternal Depression Gross Final
Mother-Daughter Relationships
Kevin H. Gross, Ph.D, CFLE
East Carolina University
Linda Robinson, Ph.D, CFLE
Louisiana State University AgCenter
Sharon M. Ballard, Ph.D, CFLE
East Carolina University
ABSTRACT. Maternal depression has been linked to a variety of negative developmental
outcomes for children. Using data from Waves I and III of The National Longitudinal Study of
Adolescent Health, this study used a three-generational model (child, mother, grandmother) to
examine maternal depression as it relates to the quality of the mother-daughter relationship and
childrens behaviors. The study found that young women were more likely to report feeling
depressed both prior to and following childbirth when they perceived problems in relating with
their own mothers. Behavior problems were more prevalent for children who had mothers with
more depressive symptoms.
Acknowledgments. This research uses data from Add Health, a program project designed by J.
Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris, and was funded by a grant P01HD31921 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development with cooperative
funding from 17 other agencies. Special acknowledgement is due to Ronald R. Rindfuss and
Barbara Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Persons interested in obtaining data files
from Add Health should contact Add Health, Carolina Population Center, 123 W. Franklin
Street, Chapel Hill, NC 27516-2524 (addhealth@unc.edu). To contact the authors of the study, email Dr. Kevin Gross at grossk@ecu.edu
Overall
Wave 1 CES-D
Wave III CES-D
Wave III child behavior
Mother-daughter relationship characteristics
Mother report of relationship
w/daughterb, mean (SE), r
Daughter report of relationship
w/motherb, mean (SE), r
Daughter report of relationship
w/motherc, mean (SE), r
Mothers well-beingb
Happy
Yes
No
Individual Characteristics
Race/ethnicity
Numbera
Percent
CES-D
Wave I
(mean, SE)
1221
1140
1137
1120
93.4
93.1
91.7
7.37 (.21)
CES-D
Wave III
(mean, SE)
Child
behavior
(mean, SE)
5.18 (.15)
2.41 (.15)
14.89 (.14)
-.17
-.10
-.01
16.26 (.16)
-.20
-.11
-.04
10.29 (.09)
-.09
-.18
.04
7.18 (.20)
9.36 (.75)
5.04 (.16)
6.68 (.75)
2.38 (.09)
2.78 (.35)
1138
70
93.2
5.7
5.64 (.37)
5.47 (.46)
4.99 (.17)
-.08
2.50 (.17)
2.64 (.25)
2.34 (.11)
-.03
-.04
-.09
6.21 (.51)
5.03 (.18)
2.50 (.23)
2.37 (.09)
4.95 (.19)
5.61 (.29)
2.43 (.10)
2.36 (.12)
-.08
-.05
5.56 (.30)
5.03 (.20)
2.48 (.14)
2.38 (.11)
5.88 (.25)
4.95 (.20)
2.67 (.17)
2.32 (.10)
4.81 (.26)
5.45 (.21)
2.38 (.13)
2.43 (.11)
4.94 (.18)
6.12 (.31)
2.41 (.10)
2.37 (.19)
.05
.12
4.86 (.28)
5.31 (.18)
2.15 (.11)
2.53 (.12)
5.58 (.24)
4.81 (.20)
2.27 (.11)
2.54 (.13)
5.02 (.26)
5.18 (.20)
2.44 (.13)
2.36 (.10)
5.66 (.54)
5.11 (.18)
3.23 (.34)
2.33 (.09)
5.01 (.30)
5.22 (.22)
2.49 (.16)
2.37 (.10)
5.71 (.59)
5.11 (.18)
2.57 (.32)
2.39 (.09)
*p < .05.
Wave 1 CES-D
95% CI
Wave 3 Depression
B
95% CI
-0.19*
-0.20*
-1.78
(-0.32, -0.06)
(-0.33, -0.07)
(-2.72, 0.36)
-0.06
-0.01
-0.24*
-0.63
(-0.19, 0.06)
(-0.13, 0.11)
(-0.42, -0.07)
(-2.09, 0.83)
0.59
0.56
-0.02
(-0.28, 1.46)
(-0.47, 1.61)
(-0.25, 0.21)
0.40
-0.02
-0.11
(-0.40, 1.21)
(-0.84, 0.81)
(-0.31, 0.09)
-0.15
1.43
-0.15
(-0.34, 0.05)
(-0.19, 3.05)
(-1.01, 0.70)
-0.01
-0.12
-0.23
(-0.17, 0.15)
(-1.25, 1.02)
(-0.97, 0.52)
.09
-0.02
0.26
0.38
0.18
0.20*
0.10
(-0.22, 0.19)
(-0.41, 0.93)
(-0.41, 1.16)
(-0.55, 0.90)
(0.12, 0.28)
Table 3
Linear Regression Model of Variables Associated with Child Behaviors at Wave III
Wave III Child Behavior
B
95% CI
Mother-daughter relationship characteristics
Mother report of relationship w/daughtera
Daughter report of relationship w/mothera
Daughter report of relationship w/motherb
Mother well-being, happy - yes/noc
Individual Characteristics
Race/ethnicity
Black
Hispanic
Whitec
b
Age
Family of origin characteristicsa
Mother years of education
Family of procreation characteristicsb
Participant years of education
Public assistance - yes/noc
Most recent child characteristicsb
Intended pregnancy yes/noc
Low birth weight (< 2500g) yes/noc
Sex male/femalec
Age
CES-D Wave III
Total R2
a
0.00
-0.04
0.08*
0.02
(-0.05, 0.05)
(-0.09, 0.01)
(0.02, 0.15)
(-0.65, 0.68)
0.08
-0.07
-0.07
(-0.32, 0.48)
(-0.57, 0.44)
(-0.16, 0.02)
-0.08
(-0.19, 0.03)
0.01
0.18
(-0.09, 0.55)
(-0.19, 0.55)
0.25
0.88*
-0.36*
0.18*
0.06*
0.08
(-0.04, 0.53)
(0.22, 1.55)
(-0.69, -0.03)
(0.05, 0.31)
(0.03, 0.09)
-
Childrens behavior at Wave III was related to the mother-daughter Wave III relationship
quality, low birth weight, childs sex, age, and Wave III depression (see Table 3). Interestingly,
higher quality mother-daughter relationships at Wave III were associated with higher child
behavior (i.e., more difficult) scores. Higher child behavior scores were characteristic of low
birth weight (< 2500g), female, and older children. Increased depressive symptoms also were
associated with higher child behavior scores. Approximately 8% of the variation in child
behavior scores were accounted for with this model.
Discussion
In the current study, young women were less likely to be depressed prior to childbirth when
the mother-daughter relationship was perceived as positive. No other family of origin or
demographic factor was significant in relation to Wave I depression when combined linearly
with quality of the mother-daughter relationship. However, at Wave III, depression in daughters,
who at this time had become mothers themselves, was predicted by their earlier (Wave I)
perception of the mother-daughter relationship as well as their previous (Wave I) level of
depression. This finding indicates that young mothers were more likely to be depressed when
they were depressed five years earlier, but they were less likely to be depressed if their
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