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GH Bladed Theory Manual
GH Bladed Theory Manual
Theory Manual
Document No
Classification
Issue no.
Date
282/BR/009
Commercial in Confidence
11
July 2003
Author:
E A Bossanyi
Checked by:
D C Quarton
Approved by:
D C Quarton
DISCLAIMER
Acceptance of this document by the client is on the basis that Garrad Hassan and
Partners Limited are not in any way to be held responsible for the application or use
made of the findings of the results from the analysis and that such responsibility
remains with the client.
Recipients only
Commercial in Confidence
GHP only
Clients Discretion
Published
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CONTENTS
1.
Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2.
Purpose
Theoretical background
Support
Documentation
Acknowledgements
1
2
3
3
3
AERODYNAMICS
2.1
3.
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
13
3.1
Modal analysis
3.1.1 Rotor modes
3.1.2 Tower modes
3.2
Equations of motion
3.2.1 Degrees of freedom
3.2.2 Formulation of equations of motion
3.2.3 Solution of the equations of motion
3.3
Calculation of structural loads
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
5.
5.1
5.2
4
4
5
6
8
9
9
9
9
11
11
13
14
15
16
16
16
17
18
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
21
22
23
24
24
25
27
Introduction
The fixed speed pitch regulated controller
-i-
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6.
SUPERVISORY CONTROL
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28
28
28
30
31
31
32
33
33
36
37
38
38
39
40
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Start-up
Normal stops
Emergency stops
Brake dynamics
Idling and parked simulations
Yaw control
6.6.1 Active yaw
6.6.2 Yaw dynamics
6.7
Teeter restraint
40
41
41
42
42
42
42
43
44
45
Wind shear
7.1.1 Exponential model
7.1.2 Logarithmic model
Tower shadow
7.2.1 Potential flow model
7.2.2 Empirical model
7.2.3 Combined model
Upwind turbine wake
7.3.1 Eddy viscosity model of the upwind turbine wake
7.3.2 Turbulence in the wake
Time varying wind
7.4.1 Single point time history
7.4.2 3D turbulent wind
7.4.3 IEC transients
Three dimensional turbulence model
7.5.1 The basic von Karman model
7.5.2 The improved von Karman model
7.5.3 The Kaimal model
7.5.4 Compatibility with IEC 1400-1
7.5.5 Using 3d turbulent wind fields in simulations
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
47
48
50
51
51
51
52
53
53
55
59
59
59
61
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
8.
8.1
8.2
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9.
POST-PROCESSING
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62
63
63
64
64
66
67
68
68
68
69
69
69
69
71
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Basic statistics
Fourier harmonics, and periodic and stochastic components
Extreme prediction
Spectral analysis
Probability, peak and level crossing analysis
Rainflow cycle counting and fatigue analysis
9.6.1 Rainflow cycle counting
9.6.2 Fatigue analysis
9.7
Annual energy yield
9.8
Ultimate loads
9.9
Flicker
10.
FINAL
References
71
71
72
75
75
76
76
77
78
79
79
80
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
GH Bladed is an integrated software package for wind turbine performance and loading
calculations. It is intended for the following applications:
Preliminary wind turbine design
Detailed design and component specification
Certification of wind turbines
With its sophisticated graphical user interface, it allows the user to carry out the following
tasks in a straightforward way:
Specification of all wind turbine parameters, wind inputs and load cases.
Rapid calculation of steady-state performance characteristics, including:
Aerodynamic information
Performance coefficients
Power curves
Steady operating loads
Steady parked loads
Dynamic simulations covering the following cases:
Normal running
Start-up
Normal and emergency shut-downs
Idling
Parked
Dynamic power curve
Post-processing of results to obtain:
Basic statistics
Periodic component analysis
Probability density, peak value and level crossing analysis
Spectral analysis
Cross-spectrum, coherence and transfer function analysis
Rainflow cycle counting and fatigue analysis
Combinations of variables
Annual energy yield
Ultimate loads (identification of worst cases)
Flicker severity
Presentation: results may be presented graphically and can be combined into a word
processor compatible report.
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This document describes the theoretical background to the various models and numerical
methods incorporated in GH Bladed.
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1.3 Support
GH Bladed is supplied with a one-year maintenance and support agreement, which can be
renewed for further periods. This support includes a hot-line help service by telephone, fax
or e-mail:
Telephone:
Fax:
E-mail
1.4 Documentation
In addition to this Theory Manual, there is also a GH Bladed User Manual which explains
how the code can be used.
1.5 Acknowledgements
GH Bladed was developed with assistance from the Commission of the European
Communities under the JOULE II programme, project no. JOU2-CT92-0198.
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2. AERODYNAMICS
The modelling of rotor aerodynamics provided by Bladed is based on the well established
treatment of combined blade element and momentum theory [2.1]. Two major extensions of this
theory are provided as options in the code to deal with the unsteady nature of the aerodynamics.
The first of these extensions allows a treatment of the dynamics of the wake and the second
provides a representation of dynamic stall through the use of a stall hysteresis model.
The theoretical background to the various aspects of the treatment of rotor aerodynamics
provided by Bladed is given in the following sections.
The reduced wind velocity at the rotor disk is clearly determined by the magnitude of a, the axial
flow induction factor or inflow factor.
By applying Bernoullis equation and assuming the flow to be uniform and incompressible, it
can be shown that the power P extracted by the rotor is given by :
P = 2 AU o3a( 1 a )3
where
The thrust T acting on the rotor disk can similarly be derived to give:
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T = 2 AU o2 a( 1 a )
and:
CT = T / ( 1 2 AU o2 ) = 4a( 1 a )
The maximum value of the power coefficient CP occurs when a is 1 /3 and is equal to 16/27 which
is known as the Betz limit.
The thrust coefficient CT has a maximum value of 1 when a is 1 /2.
2.1.2 Wake rotation
The actuator disk concept used above allows an estimate of the energy extracted from the wind
without considering that the power absorbed by the rotor is the product of torque Q and angular
velocity
of the rotor. The torque developed by the rotor must impart an equal and opposite
rate of change of angular momentum to the wind and therefore induces a tangential velocity to
the flow. The change in tangential velocity is expressed in terms of a tangential flow induction
factor a. Upstream of the rotor disk the tangential velocity is zero, at the disk the tangential
velocity at radius r on the rotor is ra and far downstream the tangential velocity is 2 ra.
Because it is produced in reaction to the torque, the tangential velocity is opposed to the motion
of the blades.
The torque generated by the rotor is equal to the rate of change of angular momentum and can be
derived as:
Q=
R 4 (1 a )a ,U o
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where W is the magnitude of the apparent wind speed vector at the blade element,
is
known as the inflow angle and defines the direction of the apparent wind speed vector
relative to the plane of rotation of the blade, c is the chord of the blade element and CL and
CD are the lift and drag coefficients respectively.
The lift and drag coefficients are defined for an aerofoil by:
CL = L / ( 1 2 V 2 S )
and
CD = D / ( 1 2 V 2 S )
where L and D are the lift and drag forces, S is the planform area of the aerofoil and V is the
wind velocity relative to the aerofoil.
The torque dQ developed by a blade element of length dr located at a radius r is given by:
dQ = 1 2 W 2 r( CL sin
CD cos )cdr
In order to solve for the axial and tangential flow induction factors appropriate to the radial
position of a particular blade element, the thrust and torque developed by the element are
equated to the rate of change of axial and angular momentum through the annulus swept out
by the element. Using expressions for the axial and angular momentum similar to those
derived for the actuator disk in Sections 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 above, the annular induction factors
may be expressed as follows:
a = g1 / ( 1 + g1 )
and
a , = g2 / ( 1 g 2 )
where
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g1 =
Bc ( CL cos + CD sin )
H
2 r
4 F sin 2
g2 =
Bc ( CL sin
CD cos )
2 r
4 F sin cos
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and
Here B is the number of blades and F is a factor to take account of tip and hub losses, refer
Section 2.1.4.
The parameter H is defined as follows:
for a
0.3539, H = 10
.
4a (1 a )
(0.6 + 0.61a + 0.79a 2 )
In the situation where the axial induction factor a is greater than 0.5, the rotor is heavily
loaded and operating in what is referred to as the turbulent wake state. Under these
conditions the actuator disk theory presented in Section 2.1.1 is no longer valid and the
expression derived for the thrust coefficient:
CT = 4a( 1 a )
ak
tol
a'k
a'k
tol
and
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s )]
d
where s is the distance of the radial station from the tip of the rotor blade and d is the distance
between successive helical sheets.
A similar loss takes place at the blade root where, as at the tip, the bound circulation must fall to
zero and therefore a vortex must be trailed into the wake, A separate hub loss factor Fh is
therefore calculated and the effective total loss factor at any station on the blade is then the
product of the two:
F = Ft Fh
The combined tip and hub loss factor is incorporated in the equations of blade element
theory as indicated in Section 2.1.3 above.
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For a blade element, bounded by radii R1 and R2 , and subject to uniform axial flow at a wind
speed Uo, the elemental thrust, dT, can be expressed as:
dT = 2U o am + U o m A a&
where m is the mass flow through the annulus, mA is the apparent mass acted upon by the
annulus and a is the axial induction factor.
The mass flow through the annular element is given by:
m = U o (1 a )dA
R3
Therefore the thrust coefficient associated with the annulus can be derived to give:
C T = 4a (1 a ) +
16 (R 32
3 U o (R 22
R 13 )
R 12 )
a&
This differential equation can therefore be used to replace the blade element and momentum
theory equation for the calculation of axial inflow. The equation is integrated at each time
step to give time dependent values of inflow for each blade element on each blade. The
tangential inflow is obtained in the usual manner and so depends on the time dependent axial
value. It is evident that the equation introduces a time lag into the calculation of inflow which
is dependent on the radial station.
It is probable that the values of time lag for each blade element calculated in this manner will
under-estimate somewhat the effects of dynamic inflow, as each element is treated
independently with no consideration of the three dimensional nature of the wake or the
possibly dominant effect of the tip vortex. The treatment is, however, consistent with blade
element theory and provides a simple, computationally inexpensive and reasonably reliable
method of modelling the dynamics of the rotor wake and induced velocity flow field.
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The model used within Bladed is a development of the Beddoes model which has been validated
against measurements from several stall regulated wind turbines. The model utilises the
following elements of the method described in [2.8] to calculate the unsteady lift coefficient
The indicial response functions for modelling of attached flow
The time lagged Kirchoff formulation for the modelling of trailing edge separation and
vortex lift
The use of the model of leading edge separation has been found to be inappropriate for use on
horizontal axis wind turbines where the aerofoil characteristics are dominated by progressive
trailing edge stall.
The time lag in the development of trailing edge separation is a user defined parameter within
the model implemented in Bladed. This time lag encompasses the delay in the response of the
pressure distribution and boundary layer to the time varying angle of attack. The magnitude of
the time lag is directly related to the level of hysteresis in the lift coefficient.
The drag and pitching moment coefficients are calculated using the quasi-steady input data along
with the effective unsteady angle of attack determined during the calculation of the lift
coefficient.
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3. STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
In the early days of the industry, wind turbine design was undertaken on the basis of quasistatic aerodynamic calculations with the effects of structural dynamics either ignored
completely or included through the use of estimated dynamic magnification factors. From the
late 1970s research workers began to consider more reliable methods of dynamic analysis
and two basic approaches were considered: finite element representations and modal analysis.
The traditional use of standard, commercial finite element analysis codes for dealing with
problems of structural dynamics is problematic in the case of wind turbines. This is because
of the gross movement of one component of the structure, the rotor, with respect to another,
the tower. Standard finite element packages are only used to consider structures in which
motion occurs about a mean undisplaced position and for this reason the finite element
models of wind turbines which have been developed have been specially constructed to deal
with the problem.
The form of wind turbine dynamic modelling most commonly used as the basis of design
calculations is that involving a modal representation. This approach, borrowed from the
helicopter industry, has the major advantage that it offers a reliable representation of the
dynamics of a wind turbine with relatively few degrees of freedom. The number and type of
modal degrees of freedom used to represent the dynamics of a particular wind turbine will
clearly depend on the configuration and structural properties of the machine.
At present, largely because of the very extensive computer processing requirements
associated with the use of finite element models, the state of the art in the context of wind
turbine dynamic modelling for design analysis is based squarely on the use of limited degree
of freedom modal models. The representation of wind turbine structural dynamics within
Bladed is based on a modal model.
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Rotation of the hub will affect the frequencies and mode shapes of the in-plane rotor modes.
With the shaft brake engaged and the rotor locked in position, the in-plane modes will
include both symmetric and asymmetric cantilever-type modes. With the rotor free to rotate,
the cantilever-type asymmetric modes will be replaced by asymmetric modes involving
rotation about the rotor shaft.
The rotational speed of the rotor.
The frequencies and mode shapes of both in-plane and out-of-plane modes will be dependent
on the rotational speed of the rotor. This dependence is explained by the additional bending
stiffness developed because of centrifugal loads acting on the deflected rotor blades. The user
of Bladed may select different rotational speeds for which the modal analysis is carried out.
During subsequent dynamic simulations, the modal frequencies appropriate to the
instantaneous rotational speed are therefore obtained by quadratic interpolation of the results
of the modal analyses.
The frequencies and mode shapes of the rotor modes are computed from the eigen-values and
eigen-vectors of a finite element representation of the rotor structure. The finite element
model of the rotor is based on the use of two-dimensional beam elements to describe the mass
and stiffness properties of the rotor blades.
The outputs from the modal analysis of the rotor are the modal frequencies and mode shapes
defined in the rotor in-plane and out-of-plane directions. The modal damping coefficients are
an input defined by the user and may be used to represent structural damping.
3.1.2 Tower modes
The representation of the bending dynamics of the tower is based on the modal degrees of
freedom in the fore-aft and side-side directions of motion. As for the rotor, the tower modes
are defined in terms of their modal frequency, modal damping and mode shape.
The modal frequencies and mode shapes of the tower are calculated based on the following
information:
The mass distribution along the tower.
The mass distribution is defined as the local mass density (kg/m) at each tower station height
in addition to the magnitude and location of any discrete, lumped masses.
The bending stiffness along the tower.
The tower is assumed to be axisymmetric with the bending stiffness therefore independent of
bending direction.
The mass, inertia and stiffness properties of the tower foundation.
The influence of the foundation mass and stiffness properties on the tower bending modes
may be taken into account. The model takes account of motion of the foundation mass and
inertia against both translational and rotational stiffnesses.
The mass and inertia of the nacelle and rotor
For calculation of the tower modes, the nacelle and rotor are modelled as lumped mass and
inertia located at the nacelle centre of gravity and rotor hub respectively. For one and twobladed rotors, the influence of the rotor inertia on the tower modal characteristics depends on
the rotor azimuth and this may therefore be defined by the user. The variation of the tower
modal frequencies with rotor azimuth is normally small and the assumption of a single rotor
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azimuthal position for the modal analysis is therefore a reasonable approximation. The user
can, of course, determine the extent of the azimuthal variation in the tower modal frequencies
by undertaking the modal analysis at a series of different rotor azimuths.
The frequencies and mode shapes of the tower modes are computed from the eigen-values
and eigen-vectors of a finite element representation of the tower structure. The finite element
model of the tower is based on the use of two-dimensional beam elements to describe the
mass and stiffness properties of the tower.
The outputs from the modal analysis of the tower are the modal frequencies and mode shapes
defined in the fore-aft and side-side directions. The modal damping coefficients are an input
defined by the user and may be used to represent structural damping.
q&&i + 2
q& +
i i
2
i
q = Fi / Mi
where:
qi is the time dependent modal displacement,
Mi =
m(r )
2
i
rotor
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and:
Fi =
Here f(r) is the distributed force over the rotor or tower component.
The modal degrees of freedom are, of course, coupled and the formulation of the equations of
motion within Bladed is as follows:
&& + [ C]q& + [ K ]q = F
[ M ]q
where [M], [C] and [K] are the modal mass, damping and stiffness matrices, q is the vector
of modal displacements and F the vector of modal forces. The system matrices are full due to
the coupling of the degrees of freedom and contain periodic coefficients because of the time
dependent interaction of the dynamics of the rotor and tower.
Because of their complexity, the equations of motion are not presented in this manual. The
following key comments are, however, provided:
Although the equations of motion are based on a linear modal treatment of the structural
dynamics, the model does contain non-linear terms associated primarily with gyroscopic
coupling.
The rotor teeter degree of freedom is provided through the first out-of-plane mode and the
equation of motion includes representation of mechanical damping, stiffness and pre-load
restraints as specified by the user.
The equation of motion for the nacelle yaw degree of freedom is based on the inertia of
the wind turbine about the yaw axis with mechanical restraints provided through yaw
damping and stiffness as specified by the user.
The aeroelasticity of the wind turbine is taken into account in the equations of motion by
consideration of the interaction of the total structural velocity vector with the wind
velocity vector at each element along the rotor blades. The total structural velocity vector
at each element on the rotor blades is composed of the appropriate summation of the
velocities associated with each structural degree of freedom. In addition to the feedback of
the structural velocities into the rotor blade aerodynamics, the structural displacement
associated with the rotor teeter and nacelle yaw is also taken into account.
3.2.3 Solution of the equations of motion
The equations of motion are solved by time-marching integration of the differential equations
using a variable step size, fourth order Runge Kutta integrator.
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The turbine rotor is accelerated by the torque imbalance between the aerodynamic torque
(adjusted for the effect of edgewise modes as explained in Section 4.1.2) and the low speed
shaft torque. The generator rotor is accelerated by the imbalance between high speed shaft
torque and generator reaction torque. The shaft torques are calculated from the shaft twist,
together with any applied brake torque contributions depending on the location of the brake,
which may be specified as being at either end of either the low or high speed shaft.
During a parked simulation, or once the brake disk has come to rest during a stopping
simulation, the equations of motion change depending on the brake location. If the brake is
immediately adjacent to the rotor or generator then there is no further rotation of that
component, but the other component continues to move and oscillates against the torsional
flexibility of the shafts. If the brake is adjacent to the gearbox and both shafts are flexible,
then both rotor and generator will oscillate. However, if the torque at the brake disk
increases to overcome the maximum or applied brake torque, then the brake starts to slip
again.
The flexible drive train model may be used in combination with flexible drive train
mountings. In this case the equations of motion are more complex - see Section 4.3.
It should be pointed out that while the flexible shaft model provides greater accuracy in the
prediction of loads, there is potential for one of the drive drain vibrational modes to be of
relatively high frequency, depending on the generator inertia and shaft stiffnesses. The
presence of this high frequency mode could result in slower simulations.
Q& = 1 [h(
where
) Q]
Pr
h=
r
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(1 + S/100) where
Rs
xs
xr
xm
Ra
C
Xa
Rs = Stator resistance
xs = Stator reactance
Rr = Rotor resistance
xr = Rotor reactance
xm = Mutual reactance
C = Power factor correction
Ra = Auxiliary load resistance
Xa = Auxiliary load reactance
s = slip
Steady state
1st order
2nd order
4th order
The steady state model simply calculates the steady-state currents and voltages in Figure 4.1
at each instant. The 1st order model introduces a first order lag into the relationship between
the slip (s) and the effective rotor resistance (Rr/s), using the short-circuit transient time
constant given by [4.1]:
X s X r x 2m
XsR r s
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behind a transient
is (rs + jX) = vs where is and vs are the stator current and terminal voltage respectively. The dynamics of the
rotor flux linkage r may be written as
1
& r = rr i r + js
(
+
s
)
1
s
where s is the fractional slip speed (positive for generating) and ir is the rotor current. This
can be re-written in terms of the induced voltage using
xm
r = j
Xr
to give
T0 & =
rs + jX s
rs + jX
js
T0
+j
Xs X
vs
rs + jX
where
T0 =
Xr
.
s rr
The 4th order model is a full d-q (direct and quadrature) axis representation of the generator
which uses Parks transformation [4.2] to model the 3-phase windings of the generator as an
equivalent set of two windings in quadrature [4.3]. Using complex notation to represent the
direct and quadrature components of currents and voltages as the real and imaginary parts of
a single complex quantity, we can obtain
xsx r
s
x 2m d i s
dt i r
x r rs + jx 2m (1 + s)
x m rs
jx m x s (1 + s)
x m rr + jx m xr (1 + s)
x s rr
jx s x r (1 + s)
is
ir
xr
v
xm s
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Qd
(1 + e s)
where Qd is the demanded torque, Qg is the air-gap torque, and e is the time constant of the
first order lag. Note that the use of a small time constant may result in slower simulations. If
the time constant is very small, specifying a zero time constant will speed up the simulations,
without much effect on accuracy.
A variable speed turbine requires a controller to generate an appropriate torque demand, such
that the turbine speed is regulated appropriately. Details of the control models which are
available with Bladed can be found in Section 5.
The minimum and maximum generator torque must be specified. Motoring may occur if a
negative minimum torque is specified.
The phase angle between current and voltage, and hence the power factor, is specified, on the
assumption that, in effect, both active and reactive power flows into the network are being
controlled with the same time constant as the torque, and that the frequency converter
controller is programmed to maintain constant power factor.
An option for drive train damping feedback is provided. This represents additional
functionality which may be available in the frequency converter controller which adds a term
derived from measured generator speed onto the incoming torque demand. This term is
defined as a transfer function acting on the measured speed. The transfer function is supplied
as a ratio of polynomials in the Laplace operator, s. Thus the equation for the air-gap torque
Qg becomes
Qg =
Qd
Num(s)
+
(1 + e s) Den(s)
where Num(s) and Den(s) are polynomials. The transfer function would normally be some
kind of tuned bandpass filter designed to provide some damping for drive train torsional
vibrations, which in the case of variable speed operation may otherwise be very lightly
damped, sometimes causing severe gearbox loads.
4.2.4 Variable slip generator
A variable slip generator is essentially an induction generator with a variable resistance in
series with the rotor circuit [4.3, 4.4]. Below rated power, it acts just like a fixed speed
induction generator, so the same parameters are required as described in Section 4.2.1.
Above rated, the variable slip generator uses a fast-switching controller to regulate the rotor
current, and hence the air-gap torque, so the generator actually behaves just like a variable
speed system, albeit with a limited speed range. The same parameters as for a variable speed
system must therefore also be supplied (see Section 4.2.3), with the exception of the phase
angle since power factor control is not available in this case.
Alternatively, a full electrical model of the variable slip generator is available. The generator
is modelled as in Section 4.2.2, and the rotor current controller is modelled as a continuoustime PI controller which adjusts the rotor resistance between the defined limits (with
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integrator desaturation on the limits), in response to the difference between the actual and
demanded rotor current. The steady-state relationship between torque and rotor current is
computed at the start of the simulation, so that the torque demand can be converted to a rotor
current demand. The scheme is shown in Figure 4.2.
Torque
demand
Current
demand
1
|I|
PI with
limits
Rotor
resistanc
e
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Mechanical losses in the gearbox and/or shaft bearings are modelled as either a loss torque or
a power loss, which may be constant, or interpolated linearly from a look-up table. This may
be a look-up table against rotor speed, gearbox torque or shaft power, or a two-dimensional
look-up table against rotor speed and either shaft torque or power. Mechanical losses
modelled in terms of power are inappropriate if calculations are to be carried out at low or
zero rotational speeds, e.g. for starts, stops, idling and parked calculations. In these cases, the
losses are better expressed in terms of torque.
The electrical losses may specified by one of two methods:
Linear model: This requires a no-load loss LN and an efficiency , where the electrical power
output Pe is related to the generator shaft input power Ps by:
Pe =
(Ps - LN)
Look-up table: The power loss L(Ps) is specified as a function of generator shaft input power
Ps by means of a look-up table. The electrical power output Pe is given by:
Pe = Ps - L(Ps)
Linear interpolation is used between points on the look-up table.
Note that if a full electrical model of the generator is used, additional electrical losses in this
form cannot be specified since the generator model implicitly includes all electrical losses.
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Other turbines
(if required)
Wind
turbine
R1 + jX1
Windfarm
interconnection
impedance
PCC
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Network
connection
impedance
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5.1 Introduction
Closed loop control may be used during normal running of the turbine to control the blade
pitch angle and, for variable speed turbines, the rotor speed. Four different controller types
are provided:
1. Fixed speed stall regulated. The generator is directly connected to a constant frequency
grid, and there is no active aerodynamic control during normal power production.
2. Fixed speed pitch regulated. The generator is directly connected to a constant frequency
grid, and pitch control is used to regulate power in high winds.
3. Variable speed stall regulated. A frequency converter decouples the generator from the
grid, allowing the rotor speed to be varied by controlling the generator reaction torque. In
high winds, this speed control capability is used to slow the rotor down until aerodynamic
stall limits the power to the desired level.
4. Variable speed pitch regulated. A frequency converter decouples the generator from the
grid, allowing the rotor speed to be varied by controlling the generator reaction torque. In
high winds, the torque is held at the rated level and pitch control is used to regulate the
rotor speed and hence also the power.
For a constant speed stall regulated turbine no parameters need be defined as there is no
control action. In the other cases the control action will determine the steady state operating
point of the turbine as well as its dynamic response. For steady state calculations it is only
necessary to specify those parameters which define the operating curve of the turbine. For
dynamic calculations, further parameters are used to define the dynamics of the closed loop
control. The parameters required are defined further in the following sections.
Note that all closed loop control data are defined relative to the high speed shaft.
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Electric
power
Turbine
Blade pitch
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Power
Measured
transducer power Controlle
Pitch
actuator
Pitch
demand
Power
set-point
Figure 5.1 shows schematically the elements of the fixed speed pitch regulated control loop
which are modelled.
5.2.1 Steady state parameters
In order to define the steady-state operating curve, it is necessary to define the power setpoint and the minimum and maximum pitch angle settings, as well as the direction of pitching
as described above. The correct pitch angle can then be calculated in order to achieve the setpoint power at any given steady wind speed.
5.2.2 Dynamic parameters
To calculate the dynamic behaviour of the control loop, it is necessary to specify the dynamic
response of the power transducer and the pitch actuator, as well as the actual algorithm used
by the controller to calculate a pitch demand in response to the measured power signal.
Section 5.5 describes the available transducer and actuator models, while Section 5.6
describes the PI algorithm which is used by the controller.
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Generator
speed
Speed
transducer
Electrical
power
Power
Measured Controlle
transducer
power
FINAL
Measured
speed
Turbine
Generator
torque
demand
Desired
power,
torque,
speed
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R5 Cp( ) / 2
G3
where
= air density
R = rotor radius
= desired tip speed ratio
Cp( ) = Power coefficient at tip speed ratio
G = gearbox ratio
Then when the generator torque demand is set to K 2 where is the measured generator
speed, this ensures that in the steady state the turbine will maintain tip speed ratio and the
corresponding power coefficient Cp( ). Note that power train losses may vary with rotational
speed, in which case the optimum rotor speed is not necessarily that which results in the
maximum aerodynamic power coefficient.
As an alternative to the parameter K , a look-up table may be specified giving generator
torque as a function of speed.
5.3.2 Dynamic parameters
To calculate the dynamic behaviour of the control loop, it is necessary to specify the dynamic
response of both power and speed transducers, as well as the actual algorithm used by the
controller to calculate a generator torque demand in response to the measured power and
speed signals. Section 5.5 describes the available transducer and actuator models.
Two closed loop control loops are used for the generator torque control, as shown in Figure
5.4. An inner control loop calculates a generator torque demand as a function of generator
speed error, while an outer loop calculates a generator speed demand as a function of power
error. Both control loops use PI controllers, as described in Section 5.6.
Below rated, the speed set-point switches between S1 and S4. In low winds it is at S1, and
the torque demand output is limited to a maximum value given by the optimal tip speed ratio
curve BG. This causes the operating point to track the trajectory ABG. In higher winds, the
set-point changes to S4, and the torque demand output is limited to a minimum value given by
the optimal tip speed ratio curve, causing the operating point to track the trajectory BGH.
Once the torque reaches QR, the outer control loop causes the speed set-point to reduce along
HI, and the inner loop tracks this varying speed demand.
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controller
Power
set-point
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PI
controller
Speed
demand
Measured power
Measured speed
Generator torque demand
Figure 5.4: Stall regulated variable speed control loops
Wind
Generator
speed
Speed
transducer
Measured
speed
Turbine
Controlle
Blade pitch
Pitch
actuator
Pitch
demand
Generator
torque
demand
Desired
torque
and speed
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Once rated torque is reached at point H, the torque demand is kept constant for all higher
wind speeds, and pitch control regulates the rotor speed. A small (optional) margin is
allowed between points H (where the torque reaches maximum) and L (where pitch control
begins) to prevent excessive mode switching between below and above rated control modes.
However, this margin may not be required, in which case points H and L coincide. As with
the stall regulated controller, the line GH may collapse to a point if desired.
Clearly the parameters needed to specify the steady state operating curve are:
The minimum speed, S1
The maximum speed in constant tip speed ratio mode, S4
The speed set-point above rated (S5). This may be the same as S4.
The maximum steady-state operating speed. This is normally the same as S5.
The above rated torque set-point, QR.
The parameter K which defines the constant tip speed ratio line BG, or a look-up table.
This is as defined in Section 5.3.1.
5.4.2 Dynamic parameters
To calculate the dynamic behaviour of the control loop, it is necessary to specify the dynamic
response of the speed transducer and the pitch actuator, as well as the actual algorithm used
by the controller to calculate the pitch and generator torque demands in response to the
measured speed signal. Section 5.5 describes the available transducer and actuator models.
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Figure 5.7 shows the control loops used to generate pitch and torque demands. The torque
demand loop is active below rated, and the pitch demand loop above rated. Section 5.6
describes the PI algorithm which is used by both loops.
Below rated, the speed set-point switches between S1 and S4. In low winds it is at S1, and
the torque demand output is limited to a maximum value given by the optimal tip speed ratio
curve BG. This causes the operating point to track the trajectory ABG. In higher winds, the
set-point changes to S4, and the torque demand output is limited to a minimum value given by
the optimal tip speed ratio curve, causing the operating point to track the trajectory BGH, and
a maximum value of QR. When point H is reached the torque remains constant, with the
pitch control loop becoming active when the speed exceeds S5.
Above rated
Speed
set-point
Below rated
Measured speed
Blade
PI
controller
PI
controller
pitch
1
(x
T
y)
where x is the input and y is the output. The input is the actual power or speed and the output
is the measured power or speed, as input to the controller.
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function may be a first order lag, a second order response, or a general transfer function, up
to 8th order.
The first order lag model is represented by
y& =
1
(x
T
y)
where x is the input and y is the output. The second-order model is represented by
&&
y + 2! y& =
(x
y)
where is the bandwidth and ! the damping factor. The general transfer function model is
represented by numerator and denominator polynomials in the Laplace operator.
For detailed calculations, especially to understand the loads on the pitch actuator itself and
the duty which will be required of it, it is possible to enter a more detailed model. This can
take into account any internal closed loop dynamics in the actuator, and also the pitch motion
resulting from the actuator torque acting on the pitching inertia, with or against the
aerodynamic pitch moment and the pitch bearing friction. The bearing friction itself depends
critically on the loading at the pitch bearing.
Figure 5.8 shows the various options for controlling the pitch angle, starting from either a
pitch position demand or a pitch rate demand. The pitch position demand may optionally be
processed through a ramp control, shown in Figure 5.9, which smooths the step changes in
demand generated by a discrete controller by applying rate and/or acceleration limits. Then
the pitch position demand can act either through passive dynamics to generate a pitch
position, or through a PID controller on pitch error to generate a pitch rate demand. Rate
limits are applied to the output, with instantaneous integrator desaturation to prevent wind-up
in the PID case. Thus the pitch rate demand may come either from here or directly from the
controller. This rate demand can act either through passive dynamics to generate a pitch rate,
or through a PID controller on pitch rate error to generate an actuator torque demand. In the
latter case, the pitch actuator passive dynamics then generate an actual actuator torque, which
acts against bearing friction and any aerodynamic pitching moment to accelerate the pitching
inertia of the blades and the actuator itself. An optional first order filter on each PID input
allows step changes in demand from the controller to be smoothed, and instantaneous
integrator desaturation prevents wind-up when the torque limits are reached.
Both PID controllers include a filter on the differential term to prevent excessive high
frequency gain. Also there is a choice of derivative action, such that the derivative gain may
be applied either to the feedback (i.e. the measured position or rate), the error signal, or the
demand. The latter case represents a feed-forward term in the controller.
If passive pitch rate dynamics are selected, the response will be subject to acceleration limits
calculated from the aerodynamic pitching moment, bearing friction and the actuator toque
limits acting on the pitching inertia. If the total pitching inertia is zero, no limits will be
applied.
The pitch bearing sliding friction torque is modelled as the sum of four terms: a constant, a
term proportional to the bending moment at the bearing, and a terms proportional to the axial
and radial forces on the bearing. Sometimes the actuator cannot overcome the applied
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torques and the pitch motion will stick. Before it can move again, the break-out or stiction
torque must be overcome. This is modelled as an additional contribution to the friction
torque while the pitch is not moving. This additional contribution is specified as a constant
torque, plus a term proportional to the sliding friction torque.
Pitch position
demand from
controller
Measured
pitch
position
Pitch rate
demand from
controller
Measured
pitch rate
Bearing
loads
Ramp control
Pitching
moment
PID controller
Actuator
torque
limits
Pitch rate
demand
+
Pitching
inertia
Acceleration
limits
Passive
dynamics
PID controller
Actuator
torque
demand
Passive
dynamics
Passive
dynamics
Actuator
torque
Pitching
inertia
Pitch rate
Actual pitch
position
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1.2
Demand
0.8
0.6
0.4
Raw demand
Rate limit
0.2
Acceleration limit
Rate & acceleration limits
0
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
Timesteps
The ramp is re-started each timestep. If the ramp is not completed by the end of the timestep
and an acceleration limit is specified, the slope at the start of the next timestep will be nonzero.
Figure 5.9: Ramp control for pitch actuator position demand
y& = K p x& + Ki x
where Kp and Ki represent the proportional and integral gains. The ratio Kp/Ki is also known
as the integral time constant. Calculation of appropriate values for the gains is a specialist
task, which should take into account the dynamics of the wind turbine together with the
aerodynamic characteristics and principal forcing frequencies, and should aim to achieve
stable control at all operating points and a suitable trade-off between accuracy of tracking the
set-point and the degree of actuator activity.
Straightforward implementation of the above equation leads to the problem of integrator
wind-up if the output y is subject to limits, as is the case here. This means that the raw
output calculated as above continues to change as a result of the integral (Ki) term even
though the actual output is being constrained to a limit. When the direction of movement of y
changes, it will then take a long time before it comes back to the limit so that the final
(constrained) output starts to change. This is avoided in the continuous-time implementation
of the PI controller by an additional term -"y/Td in the above equation, where "y is the
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amount by which the raw output y has gone beyond the limit, and Td is the desaturation time
constant which must be supplied by the user.
In practice the control algorithm is usually implemented in a digital controller working on a
discrete timestep. In the Bladed model, the continuous implementation of the controller is an
approximate representation, although the discrete timestep is usually fast enough for the
approximation to be a very good one. Since the integrator desaturation in a discrete
controller can be implemented by fully adjusting the raw integrator output at every timestep,
a suitable approximation for the continuous case is to use a desaturation time constant
approximately equal to the discrete controller timestep.
Alternatively, perfect or instantaneous desaturation can be specified by setting the
desaturation time constant to zero.
5.7.1 Gain scheduling
Since the characteristics of the turbine, especially the aerodynamic characteristics, are not
constant but will vary according to the operating point, and hence the wind speed, it may be
necessary to adjust the controller gains as a function of the operating point in order to ensure
that suitable control loop characteristics are achieved at all wind speeds. This is known as
gain scheduling, and the gain scheduling model provided in Bladed allows both the
proportional and integral gains of any control loop to be scaled by a factor 1/F, where F is a
function of some variable V which is accessible to the controller and which is representative
of the operating point in some way.
The choices available are:
F = constant
F = F(V) as defined by a look-up table
F = F(V) as defined by a polynomial, but with minimum and maximum limits applied to F
The choice of variable V depends on the particular control loop. The following choices are
provided:
Fixed speed pitch regulated controller:
Electrical power, pitch angle, wind speed.
Variable speed below-rated torque controller:
Electrical power, generator speed, wind speed, and pitch angle (in the pitch regulated
case).
Variable speed stall regulated above-rated controller:
Electrical power, generator speed, wind speed.
Variable speed pitch regulated above-rated controller:
Electrical power, generator speed, wind speed, pitch angle.
The variables shown in bold are normally recommended. Gain scheduling is unlikely to be
required for the variable speed below rated controllers. For the variable speed stall regulated
above-rated controller, no general rule can be given. Gain scheduling on wind speed is not
usually a practical proposition because of the difficulty of measuring a representative wind
speed, and this option is only provided for research purposes. The wind speed used is the
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hub wind speed, which may differ from any wind speed measured by an anemometer
mounted on the nacelle, especially in the case of an upwind turbine.
Gain scheduling on pitch angle is recommended for the pitch regulation controllers, to
compensate for the large changes in the sensitivity of aerodynamic torque to pitch angle over
the operating range. The steady loads calculation may be used to calculate the partial
derivative of aerodynamic torque with respect to pitch angle, and F may be set proportional
to this. In many cases, simply setting F proportional to pitch angle is a good approximation,
but a lower limit for F must be set to prevent excessive gains at small pitch angles.
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It is also recognised that simulations must be able to be adapted to use any particular
controller design, both to allow algorithms different from the standard ones described above,
and also to allow the modelling of discrete controllers, for example so that the effect of
controller timestep can be investigated.
For these reasons, Bladed offers the possibility of incorporating user-defined controllers in
the dynamic simulations. Through a defined interface which makes use of a shared file, a
users control program, written in any language, can be used to control the simulation.
The user-defined controller may do any of the following:
Blade pitch angle or blade pitch rate control during any phase of operation including
power production, stops, starts, idling etc.
Generator torque control for variable speed turbines
Control the generator contactor, allowing the generator to be switched on or off for
simulating stops and starts
Control the shaft brake, to simulate transitions between parked, idling, starting, stopping,
and power production states.
Control of nacelle yaw to simulate closed loop yaw control algorithms and/or yawing
strategies for start-up, shutdown etc.
The User Manual describes how to write a user-defined control program.
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6. SUPERVISORY CONTROL
This section of the manual covers the modelling of the following aspects of turbine operation:
Start-up
Shut-down (normal and emergency stops)
Non-operational situations (rotor parked or idling)
Operation of the shaft brake
Teeter restraints
Yaw control
6.1 Start-up
Simulation of a wind turbine start-up begins with the rotor at a specified speed (usually but
not necessarily zero) and the generator off-line. The brake is assumed to be released at the
start of the simulation (i.e. at time zero).
If blade pitch or aileron control is available, the initial pitch or aileron angle is specified,
along with a constant rate of change which continues until either a specified angle is reached
or the closed loop controller takes over.
When a specified rotational speed is reached, the generator comes on line, and the closed
loop controller begins to operate. The simulation continues until the specified simulation end
time.
In the case of a variable speed turbine, there may be a transition period after cut-in of the
closed loop controller before the turbine is fully in the normal running state. There are two
different cases:
Variable speed pitch regulation: in the case when the pitch angle has not yet reached the
normal operating value (fine pitch) at the moment when the closed loop controller cuts in,
then the pitch change rate for start-up continues to apply until either fine pitch is reached, or
until the conditions of Section 5.8 for starting the closed loop pitch controller are satisfied.
Variable speed stall regulation: when the closed loop controller cuts in, the above-rated
control mode is assumed to apply initially. In practice this assumption does not affect the
start-up since in low winds the operating point would be constrained by the quadratic
optimum-Cp characteristic in any case.
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the simulation end time overrides this, so it must be set long enough for the stop event to be
completed.
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Tower
Controlled
torque
Yaw spring
Friction
Demanded
yaw rate
No
Yes
Yes
No
Damper
Friction
No
No
Yes
Yes
Controlled
torque
No
No
No
Yes
In the case of flexible or free yaw, the yaw damping Dy may be specified. This specifies a
torque Qd which opposes the yaw motion, given by
Qd = Dy ( & 0
&)
In the case of flexible yaw, a yaw spring may be specified either as a linear spring or as a
hydraulic accumulator system such as is often used to provide flexibility in hydraulic yaw
drives. The hydraulic system is assumed to be double-acting, with one accumulator (or set of
accumulators) on either side of the yaw motor. The torque opposing the motion is provided
by compression of the gas in the accumulators. If the nominal gas volume is V0 and the
instantaneous gas volumes either side of the yaw motor are v1 and v2 then the opposing torque
Qk is given by
Q k = KP0
V0
v1
V0
v2
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Pre-load
Spring constant
free
teeter
angle
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h
V (h) = V (h0 )
h0
Specifying the exponent as zero results in no wind speed variation with height.
7.1.2 Logarithmic model
This model is defined in terms of the ground roughness length z0:
V (h) = V (h0 )
log(h / z0 )
log(h0 / z0 )
V ( x , z ) = AV0
where
A = 1+
D
2
( x2 z2 )
( x2 + z2 )2
provided the point is at an azimuth within +60 from bottom dead centre relative to the hub
centre. For azimuth within +60 of top dead centre it is assumed that V(x,z) = V0 , and to
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ensure a smooth transition between these two zones, for all other azimuths, the factor A is
modified to A( 0.5 cos( )) + (0.5 + cos( )) where is the blade azimuthal position
7.2.2 Empirical model
For rotors operating downwind of the tower, an empirical model is provided, based on the
work of Powles [7.2] which uses a cosine bell-shaped tower wake. For a point at a distance z
behind the tower centreline and x to the side of the wind vector passing through the
centreline, the wind speed V is given by:
V ( x , z ) = AV0
where
A = 1 " cos 2
x
WDT
for azimuth angles within +60 of bottom dead centre. For other azimuth angles, the same
correction is applied as for the potential flow model, Section 7.2.2. Here " is the maximum
velocity deficit at the centre of the wake as a fraction of the local wind speed, and W is the
width of the tower shadow as a proportion of the local tower diameter DT. These quantities
are defined for a given downwind distance, also expressed as a proportion of DT . For other
distances, W increases, and " decreases, with the square root of the distance.
7.2.3 Combined model
The combined model simply uses the potential flow model at the front and sides of the tower,
and whichever of the other models gives the larger deficit at any point downwind. To ensure
a smooth transition, the product of the A factors of the two models is used in any small areas
where the potential flow model gives accelerated flow and the empirical model gives a
velocity deficit.
V = V0 1 "e
2W2
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where V0 is the undisturbed wind speed, " is the fractional centre line velocity deficit, and W
is the width of the wake (the distance from the wake centre line at which the deficit is
reduced to exp(-0.5) times the centre line value).
Two options are provided for defining the velocity deficit " and the wake width W . They
can be defined directly, or they can be calculated by Bladed by specifying the characteristics
of the upwind turbine. In the latter case, an eddy viscosity model of the wake is used,
developed by Ainslie [7.8,7.9] and described in the next section.
7.3.1 Eddy viscosity model of the upwind turbine wake
The eddy viscosity wake model is a calculation of the velocity deficit field using a finitedifference solution of the thin shear layer equation of the Navier Stokes equations in axissymmetric co-ordinates. The eddy viscosity model automatically observes the conservation
of mass and momentum in the wake. An eddy viscosity, averaged across each downstream
wake section, is used to relate the shear stress term in the thin shear equation to gradients of
velocity deficit. The mean field can be obtained by a linear superposition of the wake deficit
field and the incident wind flow. An illustration of the wake profile used in the eddy
viscosity model is shown in Figure 7.1.
&U
&U
1 &( ruv)
+V
=
&x
&r
r
&r
The turbulent viscosity concept is used to describe the shear stresses with an eddy viscosity
defined by [7.11]:
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uv =
&U
&r
Lm and Um are suitable length and velocity scales of the turbulence as a function of the
downstream distance x but independent of r. The length scale is taken as proportional to the
wake width Bw and the velocity scale is proportional to the difference UI Uc across the
shear layer.
Thus the shear stress uv is expressed in terms of the eddy viscosity.
differential equation to be solved becomes:
The governing
&U
&U
&( r&U / &r )
+V
=
&x
&r
r
&r
Because of the effect of ambient turbulence, the eddy viscosity in the wake can not be wholly
described by the shear contribution alone. Hence an ambient turbulence term is included, and
the overall eddy viscosity is given by [7.12]:
= FK 1 B w ( U i
Uc ) +
amb
where the filter function F is a factor applied for near wake conditions. This filter can be
introduced to allow for the build up of turbulence on wake mixing. The dimensionless
constant K1 is a constant value over the whole flow field and a value of 0.015 is used.
The ambient eddy viscosity term is calculated by the following equation proposed by
Ainslie [7.12]:
2
amb
= F. K k . I amb / 100
Kk is the von Karman constant with a value of 0.4. Due to comparisons between the model
and measurements reported by Taylor in [7.13] the filter function F is fixed at unity.
The centre line velocity deficit Dmi can be calculated at the start of the wake model (two
diameters downstream) using the following empirical equation proposed by Ainslie [7.12]:
D mi = 1
Uc
= Ct
Ui
0.05
[(16C t
Assuming a Gaussian wind speed profile and momentum conservation an expression for the
relationship between the deficit Dm and the width parameter Bw is obtained as
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3.56C t
8D m (1 0.5D m )
Using the above equations, the average eddy viscosity at a distance 2D downstream of the
turbine can be calculated. The equations can then be solved for the centre-line deficit and
width parameter further downstream.
Assuming to the Gaussian profile, the velocity deficit a distance r from the wake centreline is
given by:
r
3.56
Bw
D m ,r = exp
0 .5
3.56
0.96
in which all turbulence intensities are expressed as percentages. Using the value of added
turbulence and the incident ambient turbulence the turbulence intensity Itot at any turbine
position in the wake can be calculated as
xn =
n r0
dr
dx
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where
r0 = R
m=
n=
m +1
2
1 Ct
(1
0.214 + 0.144m 1
0.214 + 0.144m
0.134 + 0.124m
0.134 + 0.124m
dr
=
dx
dr
dx
dr
dx
and
dr
dx
dr
dx
+
$
dr
dx
+
m
dr
dx
=
m
(1
m ) 1.49 + m
is the contribution due to shear-generated turbulence,
(1 + m ) 9.76
= 0.012 B
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directions, and long enough in the longitudinal (along-wind) direction to allow a simulation
of the desired length as the whole wind field moves past the rotor at the mean wind speed. At
any point in time, the position in the longitudinal direction is calculated. The position in the
lateral and vertical directions is calculated depending on the radial (r) and azimuthal position
( ) of any particular point on the rotor at that time, and 3-dimensional linear interpolation is
then used to calculate the appropriate wind speed deviation +. The actual wind speed is then
given by
V(r, ,t) = V0Fs0 (Fs + I.+(r, ,t)) .FT .FW
where
Fs0 is the wind shear factor from the reference height (for mean speed V0 ) to the hub height,
Fs is the wind shear factor from the hub height to the point (r, ),
FT is the tower shadow factor for the point (r, ), and
FW is the upwind turbine wake factor for the point (r, ).
7.4.3 IEC transients
The transient variations of wind speed, shear and wind direction defined in the international
standard for the safety of wind turbine systems, IEC 1400-1 [7.1, 7.7], may be simulated with
Bladed. Transient changes in each of the following quantities may be independently
simulated, each with its own parameter values:
Wind speed
Wind direction
Horizontal shear (linear variation of wind speed from one side of the rotor to the other)
Vertical shear (linear variation of wind speed from bottom to top of the rotor)
Each may be either a half-wave transient or a full-wave transient. The transients are
sinusoidal, with a more complex shape defined in edition 2 of the standard [7.7]. The
parameters needed to define each transient are the starting value Y0, the start time t0, the
duration T, and the amplitude A. These parameters are illustrated in Figure 7.2.
12.5
Half wave
Y0 + 12
A
11.5
11
Full wave
10.5
Y0
10
IEC edition 2
9.5
9
-0.2
t00
0.2
0.4
0.6
Time
0.8
t0 1+ T
1.2
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nSuu (n)
, 2u
4n~u
(1 + 70.8n~u2 )5/ 6
where Suu is the auto-spectrum of wind speed variation, n is the frequency of variation, , u is
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n xLu
n~u =
U
Here xLu is the length scale of longitudinal turbulence and U is the mean wind speed.
If the three-component model is selected, the corresponding spectra for the lateral (v) and
vertical (w) components are:
nSii (n)
, i2
4n~i (1 + 755.2n~i2 )
=
(1 + 282.3n~i2 ) 11/ 6
where
n x Li
n~i =
U
and i is either v or w.
Associated with the von Karman spectral equations is an analytical expression for the
cross-correlation of wind speed fluctuations at locations separated in both space and time,
derived assuming Taylor's frozen turbulence hypothesis. Accordingly for the longitudinal
component at points separated by a distance "r perpendicular to the wind direction, the
coherence Cu ("r,n), defined as the magnitude of the cross-spectrum divided by the autospectrum, is:
1
2
- u 5/ 3 A1/ 6 (- u ))
Here Aj(x) = xj Kj(x) where K is a fractional order modified Bessel function, and
nLu ( "r , n)
"r
- u = 0.747
1 + 70.8
Lu ( "r , n)
U
2/3
( y L u "y) 2 +( z L u "z) 2
"y 2 + "z 2
where "y and "z are the lateral and vertical components of the separation "r, and yLu and zLu
are the lateral and vertical length scales for the longitudinal component of turbulence.
For the lateral and vertical components, the corresponding equations are:
Ci ( "r , n) =
0.597
4.781# i2 A5/ 6 (- i )
2
2.869# i 1
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where
nLi ( "r , n)
"r
- i = 0.747
1 + 70.8
Li ( "r , n)
U
and
#i =
- i Li ( "r , n)
"
for i = v or w.
In this case the local length scales are given by:
L v ("r, n ) = 2MIN(1.0,0.05n
2/3
( y L v "y / 2) 2 +( z L v "z) 2
"y 2 + "z 2
and
L w ("r, n ) = 2MIN(1.0,0.2n
1/ 2
( y L w "y) 2 +( z L w "z / 2) 2
"y 2 + "z 2
The three turbulence components are assumed to be independent of one another. This is a
reasonable assumption, although in practice Reynolds stresses may result in a small
correlation between the longitudinal and vertical components near to the ground.
7.5.2 The improved von Karman model
The improved von Karman model [7.5] attempts to rectify some deficiencies of the basic
model at heights below about 150m. The autospectral density for the longitudinal component
of turbulence is given by:
nS uu (n)
, u2
= .1
2.987n~u / a
2
1 + ( 2 n~u / a )
5/ 6
+ .2
1294
. n~u / a
(1 + (
2
n~u / a )
5/ 6
F1
where Suu is the auto-spectrum of wind speed variation, n is the frequency of variation, ,u is
the standard deviation of wind speed variation and n~u is a non-dimensional frequency
parameter given by:
n xLu
n~u =
U
Here xLu is the length scale of longitudinal turbulence and U is the mean wind speed.
If the three-component model is selected, the corresponding spectra for the lateral (v) and
vertical (w) components are:
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1 + ( 4 n~i / a )
11/ 6
+ .2
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1294
. n~i / a
2
1 + (2 n~i / a )
FINAL
5/ 6
F2
where
n x Li
n~i =
U
and i is either v or w.
The five additional parameters a, . 1, . 2, F1 and F2 are defined as follows:
[
]
F = 1 + 2.88 exp[ 0.218( n~ / a ) ]
F1 = 1 + 0.455 exp 0.76(n~u / a )
0.8
0. 9
. 2 = 1 .1
.1 = 2.357a 0.761
a = 0535
.
+ 2.76(0138
.
A) 0.68
where
A = 0115
. [1 + 0.315(1 z / h) 6 ]2 / 3
Here z is the height above ground, and h is the boundary layer height obtained from:
h = u * / (6 f )
f = 2 sin(
is the latitude)
The turbulence intensities of the three components of turbulence are also defined for the same
choice of z, z0, U and , as follows:
- = 1 6 f . z / u*
p = -16
,u =
7.5-( 0538
.
+ 0.09 ln( z / z0 )) p u *
1 + 0156
. ln u * / f . z0
Iu = , u / U
I v = I u 1 0.22 cos4
z
2h
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2h
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although these may be changed by the user for any particular simulation.
The nine turbulence length scales are also defined, as follows:
Lu =
A1.5 , u / u * z
2.5Kz1.5 (1 z / h) 2 (1 + 5.75z / h)
(
= 05
. L (1
(
0.68 exp(
Lu
))
))
35( z / h)1.7
Lv = 05
. x Lu (, v / , u ) 3
x
Lw = 0.5x Lu ( , w / , u ) 3
y
Lv =2 y Lu (, v / , u ) 3
z
Lv = zLu ( , v / , u ) 3
y
Lw = yLu (, w / , u ) 3
z
Lw =2 z Lu (, w / , u ) 3
x
where
K z = 019
.
( 019
.
K0 ) exp B( z / h)
K0 = 0.39 / R 0.11
B = 24 R 0.155
N = 124
. R 0.008
u*
R=
f . z0
Associated with the von Karman spectral equations is an analytical expression for the
cross-correlation of wind speed fluctuations at locations separated in both space and time,
derived assuming Taylor's frozen turbulence hypothesis [7.6]. Accordingly for the
longitudinal component at points separated by a distance "r perpendicular to the wind
direction, the coherence Cu ("r,n), defined as the magnitude of the cross-spectrum divided by
the auto-spectrum, is:
1
2
- u 5/3 A1/ 6 (- u ))
Here Aj(x) = xj Kj(x) where K is a fractional order modified Bessel function, and
-i =
0.747 "r
2 Li
2 n"r
+ c
U
for i = u
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L u ("r, n ) =
"y 2 + "z 2
while
c = max(10
. ,
with
16
. ( "r / 2 Lu ) 0.13
- 0b
b = 0.35( "r / 2 Lu )
0.2
and
-0 =
0.747 "r
2 Lu
2 n"r
+
U
"y and "z are the lateral and vertical components of the separation "r, and yLu and zLu are the
lateral and vertical length scales for the longitudinal component of turbulence.
For the lateral and vertical components, the corresponding equations are:
Ci ( "r , n) =
0.597
4.781# i2 A5/ 6 (- i )
2
2.869# i 1
A11/ 6 (- i )
for i = v,w
#i =
- i 2 Li ( "r , n)
"
( y L v "y / 2) 2 +( z L v "z) 2
"y 2 + "z 2
and
L w ( "r, n ) =
( y L w "y) 2 +( z L w "z / 2) 2
"y 2 + "z 2
The three turbulence components are assumed to be independent of one another. This is a
reasonable assumption, although in practice Reynolds stresses may result in a small
correlation between the longitudinal and vertical components near to the ground.
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nSuu (n)
, 2u
4n~u
(1 + 6.0n~u )5/ 3
where Suu is the auto-spectrum of wind speed variation, n is the frequency of variation, , u is
the standard deviation of wind speed variation and n~u is a non-dimensional frequency
parameter given by:
n L1
n~u =
U
Here L1 = 2.329 xLu where xLu is the length scale of longitudinal turbulence, and U is the
mean wind speed as before.
A simpler coherence model is used in conjunction with the Kaimal model. With the same
notation as in Section 7.5.1, the coherence is given by
C ( "r , n) = exp
8.8"r
n
U
012
.
+
L( "r , n)
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which was specified for the simulation since this assumes that the whole time history will
be used. Note also that a turbulence history of length Lwind with an along-wind step size of
"L would be calculated at Lwind/"L points in the along-wind direction. This must be a
power of two for efficient calculation, since Fast Fourier Transform techniques can then be
used. If it is not a power of two, then the spacing "L will automatically be decreased to
make Lwind/"L a power of two.
Different time histories with the same turbulence characteristics can be generated by
changing the random number seed.
A sinusoidal half- or full-wave wind direction transient as described in Section 7.4.3 may
be superimposed on the turbulent wind field. This is intended for use with turbulent wind
fields when only the longitudinal component has been generated, to ensure that some yaw
error occurs during the simulation. Using all three components of turbulence should give a
more realistic variation of yaw error.
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a) Simple Monopile
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2
2 H s Tp
f
fp
f
125
.
fp
exp
#.
where f is the wave frequency (in Hz), H s is the significant wave height, Tp is the peak
spectral period, f p = 1 Tp , # is the JONSWAP peakedness parameter,
$2 =
0.0624
. = exp 0.5
and
0.185
1.9 + #
0.230 + 0.0336#
, = 0.07 for f
f
fp
fp
0.3123H s2 Tp
f
fp
exp
f
1.25
fp
If the JONSWAP / Pierson-Moskowitz option is selected, the user is required to enter values
for H s , Tp and # .
8.2.2 User-defined Spectrum
A user-defined spectrum may be entered in the form of a look-up table. Up to 100 pairs of
S! ( f ) and f may be entered. The values of S! ( f ) at the lowest and highest frequencies
entered should be zero. At frequencies between the specified values of f , values of S! ( f )
are linearly interpolated.
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1
radius
The radius is taken as the minimum tower radius between the sea bed and a height of 3
standard deviations of the wave elevation above the mean water level. At any instant, the
wave elevation has a probability of 99.85% of being within this range.
u wx =
H
cos w cosh k (d + z ) cos($
2 sinh( kd )
t)
u wy =
H
sin w cosh k (d + z ) cos($
2 sinh( kd )
t)
u wz =
H
sinh k (d + z ) sin($
2 sinh( kd )
u& wx =
u& wy =
u& wz =
t)
H
cos w cosh k (d + z ) sin($
2 sinh( kd )
H
sin w cosh k (d + z ) sin($
2 sinh( kd )
H
sinh k (d + z ) cos($
2 sinh( kd )
p=
gH
cosh k (d + z ) cos($
2 cosh( kd )
!=
H
cos($
2
t)
t)
t)
t)
t)
where
= 2 f is the angular wave frequency, f is the wave frequency, t is time, d is the
water depth (assumed to be constant), is the water density, g is the acceleration due to
gravity and
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ky sin w
where w is the direction from which waves arrive at the tower. The wave number k is found
as the solution to the dispersion relation:
2
= gk tanh kd
The co-ordinate system used for the wave and current calculations is a right-handed Cartesian
system in which the xy plane is horizontal with the x-axis pointing to the North, the y-axis
pointing to the West and the z-axis pointing vertically upwards. The origin of the co-ordinate
system lies where the tower centre line intersects the mean water level. Angles are defined
relative to the x-axis (North) and increase positively toward the East.
For the calculation of regular extreme waves, the above equations are used directly to
calculate the wave particle kinematics at each submerged tower station. For fatigue load
calculations, however, it is necessary to calculate an irregular (i.e. random, non-repeating)
series of waves. This is achieved using the filtered white noise shift register procedure
described in section 8.6 below.
d + ! (t )
d
+ ! (t )
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The filters used to process the pseudo-random white noise are Finite Impulse Response (FIR)
filters and are defined in terms of their frequency transforms. The transformed filter for
response r is given by:
zm,r = Rr ( f m )
m ,r
S ( f m )"f
4N
exp i0 r ( f m )
= z m ,r
where
f m = m"f
"f = f max N
N.
The filter weights are then obtained as the transform of the expression:
wn ,r =
m = N +1
z m,r exp
imn
N
Having generated the filter functions for each parameter at each required location, time
histories are generated using a shift-register technique. Firstly an N-element array of
normally-distributed random numbers is created. The random numbers are generated by
converting the output of a simple random number generator to a normally distributed deviate
with zero mean and unit variance using the Box-Muller method. For each filter function in
turn, the N filter weights are multiplied by the values of the equivalent elements in the
random number array and the N products are then summed to give the value of the property at
one particular instant in time. To calculate the value of the property at the next time step, the
elements of the random number array are shifted one place higher in the array, a new
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random number is introduced at element 1 and the multiplication and summation process is
repeated.
( x, z ) =
where
N
n=2
X n sinh(nk ( z + d )) cos(nkx)
X 1 = wavelength
X n +1 =
u=
&
&y
and
v=
&
&x
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&2
&2
+
=
&x 2 &y 2
= f( )
u=
1
&y
&y
and
&
v=
&y
&x
&
The accuracy of the solution relies on a sufficiently fine mesh in the x, plane to resolve
the structure of the flow and to allow the evaluation of derivatives on the boundaries of the
computational domain, particularly at the free surface. For this purpose a regular grid in the
x, plane is rather inefficient and therefore a stretched grid is employed which is finer near
the free surface than the sea bed.
After solving the finite difference relations on this plane, the flow velocities are calculated
using the equations above and dynamic pressures are calculated using Bernoullis equation.
Reference [8.5] should be consulted for further details of this method.
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where cw , cs and cn are the directions from which the three current components arrive
at the tower. Components of the calculated current velocities are then combined linearly:
u c = u cw + u cs + u cn
where us ( z10 ) is an input parameter, representing the mean wind speed at a height 10m above
the mean water surface. 2 ( z ) is given by the formulae:
z
if 15m
15
2 ( z ) = 0.0 if z < 15m
2 ( z ) = 0.01 1
0m
z+d
d
17
u s 0 ( z = 0)
for 0 4 z 4 d , where d is the water depth and u s0 ( z = 0) is an input parameter equal to the
velocity at the sea surface.
8.8.3 Near-Shore Current
The near-shore current velocity has a uniform profile, independent of depth. The design
velocity at the location of the breaking wave is defined as:
ucn = 2 s gH B
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, s is the beach slope and H B is the breaking wave
height given by:
HB =
b
a
1
+
d B gTB2
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b = 1.6 1 + exp( 19 s)
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d B is the water depth at the location of the breaking wave and TB is the period of this wave.
For very small beach slopes H B may be estimated using the formula H B = 0.8d B .
us
1)
D2
u& t +
4
D2
1
Lu& w + Cd DLut ut
4
2
is the
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The added mass acting in the longitudinal direction is very small and so the longitudinal
forces are estimated using the hydrodynamic pressure in the ambient wave field acting over
the change in cross-sectional area of the tower between the top and bottom faces of each subelement. For a tower with diameter Da at the top of a sub-element and diameter Db at the
bottom, the longitudinal force acting on this portion of the tower is:
F=
(D
2
a
Db2
)p
No pressure force is included where the end of the tubular member passes through the free
surface or terminates at the sea-bed.
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9. POST-PROCESSING
Bladed includes an integrated post-processing facility which allows the results of wind
turbine calculations to be processed further in various ways. The theory behind these postprocessing calculations is described in this section.
MIN(x)
MAX(x)
x
Standard deviation
,=
Skewness
(x
x )3 / , 3
Kurtosis
(x
x )4 / , 4
(x
x )2
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p( x ) =
,x 2
x 2 / 2, 2x
where ,x is the standard deviation of x. For such a signal, Rice [9.1] has derived the
probability distribution of signal peaks as:
p$ ( x ) =
1 #2
,x 2
- 2 / 2 (1 # 2 )
-#
e
2, x
-2 / 2
1 + erf
#2
where
- = x /, x
# = 50 /5m
50 =
M2
M0
5m =
M4
M2
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Mi =
f i H ( f )df
f = frequency (Hz)
H ( f ) = power spectral density (see next section for calculation details), and
erf () = error function.
Knowing the probability distribution of peaks for such a process, the probability distribution
of extremes can then be deduced. For the extreme of the signal in a given period to be x, one
peak must have this value and all other peaks in the period must have a lesser value. The
probability distribution can be written
N
p$$ (-) = Np$ (-)(1 Q(-))
where
6
p$$ (-) = - e
where
2
= 5 0 T e - / 2 and
T = time period.
The mean of this distribution is
-ext = . +
$
.
where
. = 2 ln(5 0 T ) and
$ = 0.5772 (Eulers constant).
As the term 5 0 T increases, the distribution of extremes has a larger mean and becomes very
narrow.
For an operational wind turbine whose loads are a combination of stochastic and periodic
components, Madsen et al [9.3] proposed an approach based on Davenports model of the
stochastic signal, with the assumption that the extremes in the total signal occurred at minima
and maxima of the periodic component. This allows the periodic time history to be idealised
as a square waveform as follows:
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z
t1
zmax
t2
zmean
Time
t3
zmin
T0
The resulting expressions for the mean and standard deviation of the extreme distributions
are:
For extreme maxima:
ye max = z max + , x . 1 +
, e max = , x
$
.1
6. 1
where
. 1 = 2 ln( 15 0T )
1 =
t1
=
T0 ( zmax
, 2z
zmean )( z max
zmin )
ye min = zmin
, e min = , x
, x .3 +
$
.3
6. 3
where
. 3 = 2 ln( 35 0T )
3
t
= 3 =
T0 ( zmean
, 2z
zmin )( z max
z min )
Here , z is the standard deviation of the periodic component z. The time period T should be
taken as the total time for which the condition being modelled will be experienced during the
lifetime.
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(1 cos(2 f )) / 2
0.54 0.46 cos(2 f )
(e) Welch:
1 (2 f
1) 2
where f is the fractional position along the segment (0 at the start, 1 at the end). One of the
last three windows (which are all quite similar) is recommended.
Trend removal is usually desirable.
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the signal. There is an option to remove the mean of the signal: this merely moves the mean
of the calculated distribution to zero.
The peak analysis bins only those signal values which are turning points of the signal. Peaks
and troughs are binned separately, so that the probability distribution of each can be output.
For the level crossing analysis, the number of up-crossings and down-crossings are counted at
each of the bin mid-points. The number of crossings per unit time in each direction is output
for each bin mid-point.
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sinusoidal load of constant frequency f which would produce the same fatigue damage as the
original signal. The equivalent load is therefore given by:
1 ni Si m
1
m
Tf
where ni is the number of cycles in stress range Si and T is the duration of the original time
history.
9.6.2 Fatigue analysis
As is described above, a complex stress history can be represented in terms of constituent
cycles by use of the rainflow cycle counting technique. The distribution of rainflow cycles is
defined in terms of the number of cycles binned against stress range and mean value.
The basis of the fatigue analysis provided in Bladed is that fatigue failure is predicted to
occur according to the Palmgren-Miner [9.4] linear cumulative damage law. Failure will
occur when the accumulated fatigue damage number is equal to 1.0 as follows::
ni
1N
i
= 1.0
where ni is the number of rainflow cycles of the ith stress range and Ni is the corresponding
number of cycles to failure. The summation is defined as the accumulated damage.
For rainflow cycles of stress range Si, the number of cycles to failure Ni is given by the S-N
curve for the material. The user of Bladed must supply the S-N curve in one of two ways.
The first possibility is that the S-N curve is provided as a log-log relationship of the form:
log S =
1
log k
m
1
log N
m
so that:
N = kS
The user must specify the value of m, the inverse slope of the log S against log N relationship.
The user must also specify the intercept of the log-log relationship, c. The parameter k above
is related to the intercept c by:
k = cm
The second option is for the user to specify the S-N curve as an arbitrary function through the
use of a look-up table.
For a material where the mean stress has an influence on the fatigue damage accumulated,
Bladed offers the option of converting each cycle range to the equivalent range assuming a
zero mean stress value. (A cycle with a zero mean value has a R-ratio of -1, where R is the
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F (V ) = 1 e
V
cV
where F is the cumulative distribution of wind speed V. Thus the probability density f(V) is
given by
Vk 1
f (V ) = k
e
(cV ) k
V
cV
Here k is the Weibull shape factor, and c is the scale factor. For a true Weibull distribution,
these two parameters are related by the gamma function:
c = 1/ 7 1+
1
k
Unless the user supplies a value for c, its value is calculated as above. Note that if a different
value is supplied, the resulting distribution will have a mean value which is different from
V .
The annual energy yield is calculated as
cutout
E =Y
P (V ) f (V )dV
cutin
where
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Frequently a steady state power curve is used, combined with a Weibull distribution of hourly
mean wind speeds. For a more accurate calculation, it is desirable to use a dynamically
calculated power curve given as the average power from a series of simulations based on a
model of the turbulent wind field. It is common practice to use 10-minute simulations to
capture the effects of turbine dynamics and wind turbulence. Strictly speaking, the
appropriate Weibull distribution to use in this case would be one representing the distribution
of 10-minute mean wind speeds in a year. This will typically have a slightly smaller shape
factor than that for hourly means.
9.9 Flicker
The Flicker calculation generates short-term flicker severity values (Pst), either from a voltage
time history, or from time histories of active and reactive power. Such time histories are
available from simulations with the full electrical model of the fixed speed induction
generator, and also with the variable speed generator model.
The flicker severity is a measure of the annoyance created by voltage variations through
perception of the resulting flicker of incandescent lights. The calculation of flicker from a
voltage time history is defined in [9.5]. An algorithm conforming to this standard is
incorporated into the Bladed post-processor. It can also calculate flicker from a time history
of active and reactive power. In this case a voltage time history is calculated first, and this
can be calculated for any given network impedance to which the wind turbine might be
connected. In fact the flicker for several different network impedances can be calculated in a
single calculation. The network impedances are entered as a set of short circuit power levels
and network angles, the network angle being arctan(X/R), where X and R are the network
reactance and resistance respectively. The voltage is calculated as the solution of the
following equation:
U4 + U2(2{QX - PR} - U02) + (QX - PR)2 + (PX + QR)2 = 0
where U0 is the voltage at the infinite busbar, and P and Q are the active and reactive power
respectively.
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10. REFERENCES
2.1
Glauert H, An aerodynamic theory of the airscrew, Reports and memoranda, AE. 43,
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