Probability

Counting Principle and its applications

Mujahid Abbas
Department of Mathematics
Email address: mujahid@lums.edu.pk

First week 2015

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

1 / 24

Second Session

Counting:

We want to attach probabilities to the events associated with certain

random experiments.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

2 / 24

Second Session

Counting:

We want to attach probabilities to the events associated with certain

random experiments.

We want to address the question: What is the probability of

occurrence of a certain event?

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

2 / 24

Second Session

Counting:

We want to attach probabilities to the events associated with certain

random experiments.

We want to address the question: What is the probability of

occurrence of a certain event?

To answer this question: Some times ( in case of discrete sample

space), we need to count the number of elements residing in the
event as well as in sample space. Here we shall discuss some tricks
that helps us a lot while counting elements.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

2 / 24

Second Session

Fundamental Counting Principle:

The mathematical theory of counting is known as combinatorial analysis.

Multiplication principle/ Fundamental counting principle:
1

If a certain task to be completed can be divided in certain stages (

say two stages) so that rst stage can be completed in m ways and
the second stage can be completed in n ways then the whole task can
be completed in mn ways.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Question:

Example
In how many dierent ways can one answer all the question of true false
test consisting of n questions?

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Continued:

Solution
What is a task in this case?
1

To answer n questions!

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Continued:

Solution
What is a task in this case?
1

To answer n questions!

Each question can be answered in two ways.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

5 / 24

Second Session

Continued:

Solution
What is a task in this case?
1

To answer n questions!

Each question can be answered in two ways.

So the number of ways n questions can be answered is:

2.2.2...2(n times) ways

= 2n ways

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

5 / 24

Second Session

Example:

Example
How many licence plates of 3 letters followed by 3 numbers are possible?

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Continued:

Solution
The task in this case is to ll six empty spaces on a licence plate.
1

We have six places, three places for letters and three places for
numbers.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

7 / 24

Second Session

Continued:

Solution
The task in this case is to ll six empty spaces on a licence plate.
1

We have six places, three places for letters and three places for
numbers.
Three places reserved for letters can be lled with (26)3 ways

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

7 / 24

Second Session

Continued:

Solution
The task in this case is to ll six empty spaces on a licence plate.
1

We have six places, three places for letters and three places for
numbers.

Three places reserved for letters can be lled with (26)3 ways

Three places reserved for numbers can be lled with (10)3 ways

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

7 / 24

Second Session

Continued:

Solution
The task in this case is to ll six empty spaces on a licence plate.
1

We have six places, three places for letters and three places for
numbers.

Three places reserved for letters can be lled with (26)3 ways

Three places reserved for numbers can be lled with (10)3 ways

Thus total number of licence plates we can design is

(26)3 (10)3 = 17576 000

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

7 / 24

Second Session

Continued:

Solution
The task in this case is to ll six empty spaces on a licence plate.
1

We have six places, three places for letters and three places for
numbers.

Three places reserved for letters can be lled with (26)3 ways

Three places reserved for numbers can be lled with (10)3 ways

Thus total number of licence plates we can design is

(26)3 (10)3 = 17576 000

Note that there is no restriction on repetition.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Examples:

Example
In how many ways can one arrange a, b and c?

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Examples:
Solution
1

We can have the following arrangements

(a, b, c ), (a, c, b ), (b, c, a), (c, a, b ), (c, b, a), (b, a, c ).

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

9 / 24

Second Session

Examples:
Solution
1

We can have the following arrangements

(a, b, c ), (a, c, b ), (b, c, a), (c, a, b ), (c, b, a), (b, a, c ).

2

So if we have three objects, and we are to arrange them in a denite

order ( in form of 3 tuple), then we can do it in 6 ways which is in
actual 3!.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

9 / 24

Second Session

Examples:
Solution
1

We can have the following arrangements

(a, b, c ), (a, c, b ), (b, c, a), (c, a, b ), (c, b, a), (b, a, c ).

2

So if we have three objects, and we are to arrange them in a denite

order ( in form of 3 tuple), then we can do it in 6 ways which is in
actual 3!.

Note that 3! = 3(2)(1) = 6.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

9 / 24

Second Session

Examples:
Solution
1

We can have the following arrangements

(a, b, c ), (a, c, b ), (b, c, a), (c, a, b ), (c, b, a), (b, a, c ).

2

So if we have three objects, and we are to arrange them in a denite

order ( in form of 3 tuple), then we can do it in 6 ways which is in
actual 3!.

Note that 3! = 3(2)(1) = 6.

This question can be rephrased as following: How many dierent

tuples of three elements can be formed.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Permutation:

Suppose we are given n distinct objects and we want to arrange in

denite order all these objects or r objects (say) out of these n
objects.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Permutation:

Suppose we are given n distinct objects and we want to arrange in

denite order all these objects or r objects (say) out of these n
objects.

That is, how many dierent tuples of n elements can be formed or

how many dierent tuples of r elements can be formed

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

10 / 24

Second Session

Permutation:

Suppose we are given n distinct objects and we want to arrange in

denite order all these objects or r objects (say) out of these n
objects.

That is, how many dierent tuples of n elements can be formed or

how many dierent tuples of r elements can be formed

Then one such arrangement is called permutation.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

10 / 24

Second Session

Permutation:

Suppose we are given n distinct objects and we want to arrange in

denite order all these objects or r objects (say) out of these n
objects.

That is, how many dierent tuples of n elements can be formed or

how many dierent tuples of r elements can be formed

Then one such arrangement is called permutation.

The number of permutations of n distinct objects or total numbers of

dierent tuples of n elements is n!

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Explanation:
1

Suppose that there are n seats to be occupied whereas there are n

candidates for these seats.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Explanation:
1

Suppose that there are n seats to be occupied whereas there are n

candidates for these seats.
First seat can be occupied by n ways.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Explanation:
1

2
3

Suppose that there are n seats to be occupied whereas there are n

candidates for these seats.
First seat can be occupied by n ways.
Once rst seat has been occupied, second seat can be occupied by
n 1 ways.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Explanation:
1

2
3

Suppose that there are n seats to be occupied whereas there are n

candidates for these seats.
First seat can be occupied by n ways.
Once rst seat has been occupied, second seat can be occupied by
n 1 ways.
When rst two seat have been occupied, third seat can be occupied
by n 2 ways.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

11 / 24

Second Session

Explanation:
1

2
3

Suppose that there are n seats to be occupied whereas there are n

candidates for these seats.
First seat can be occupied by n ways.
Once rst seat has been occupied, second seat can be occupied by
n 1 ways.
When rst two seat have been occupied, third seat can be occupied
by n 2 ways.
Continuing this process, rth seat will be occupied by n (r 1)
ways. Finally nth seat ( last seat left) will be occupied by
n (n 1) = 1 way.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

11 / 24

Second Session

Explanation:
1

2
3

Suppose that there are n seats to be occupied whereas there are n

candidates for these seats.
First seat can be occupied by n ways.
Once rst seat has been occupied, second seat can be occupied by
n 1 ways.
When rst two seat have been occupied, third seat can be occupied
by n 2 ways.
Continuing this process, rth seat will be occupied by n (r 1)
ways. Finally nth seat ( last seat left) will be occupied by
n (n 1) = 1 way.
By multiplication principle, these all n seats will be occupied by
n(n 1)(n 2)...4.3.2.1 ways. That is by n! ways. Thus total
number of ways by which n seats can be occupied by n persons (that
is total number of arrangement or permutation of n distinct objects)
= n!
M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

11 / 24

Second Session

Permutation:

The number of permutations of r objects out of n objects will be denoted

by n Pr and is given by
n!
(n r ) !
1

It represents the number of ways r objects out of n objects are

arranged in a denite order.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

12 / 24

Second Session

Permutation:

The number of permutations of r objects out of n objects will be denoted

by n Pr and is given by
n!
(n r ) !
1

It represents the number of ways r objects out of n objects are

arranged in a denite order.

This number answers the questions: How many tuples of r elements

can be formed when you have n elements.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

12 / 24

Second Session

Explanation:

Suppose that there are r seats to be occupied whereas there are n

candidates for these seats. By multiplication principle, these r seats will be
occupied by
1

n (n

1)(n

M. Abbas (Institute)

2)...(n

(r

1)) ways or

Math 230

First week 2015

13 / 24

Second Session

Explanation:

Suppose that there are r seats to be occupied whereas there are n

candidates for these seats. By multiplication principle, these r seats will be
occupied by
1

n (n

1)(n

2)...(n

(r

1)) ways or

n (n 1 )(n 2 )...(n (r 1 ))(n r )!

(n r ) !

M. Abbas (Institute)

ways or

Math 230

First week 2015

13 / 24

Second Session

Explanation:

Suppose that there are r seats to be occupied whereas there are n

candidates for these seats. By multiplication principle, these r seats will be
occupied by
1

n (n

1)(n

2)...(n

(r

1)) ways or

n (n 1 )(n 2 )...(n (r 1 ))(n r )!

(n r ) !
n!
ways
(n r ) !

M. Abbas (Institute)

ways or

Math 230

First week 2015

13 / 24

Second Session

Explanation:

Suppose that there are r seats to be occupied whereas there are n

candidates for these seats. By multiplication principle, these r seats will be
occupied by
1

n (n

1)(n

Thus n Pr =

2)...(n

(r

1)) ways or

n (n 1 )(n 2 )...(n (r 1 ))(n r )!

(n r ) !
n!
ways
(n r ) !

M. Abbas (Institute)

ways or

n!

(n

r )!

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Cyclic Permutation:
Denition
The number of permutations of n distinct objects arranged in a circle
(called circular permutation) is

(n
1

1) !

Now if we have 3 seats in a circle then we dont have 6 dierent

arrangements. we have two distinct arrangements (2! ways in stead of
3! ways) as we dont get a dierent permutation if every one moves
to the chair to his right.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

14 / 24

Second Session

Cyclic Permutation:
Denition
The number of permutations of n distinct objects arranged in a circle
(called circular permutation) is

(n

1) !

Now if we have 3 seats in a circle then we dont have 6 dierent

arrangements. we have two distinct arrangements (2! ways in stead of
3! ways) as we dont get a dierent permutation if every one moves
to the chair to his right.

Two permutations are not considered dierent and are counted only
once if corresponding objects in the two arrangements have the same
object to their left and to their right. ( Fix one element and permute
the remaining elements).
M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Combinations:
1

Total number of ways we can select r objects out of n objects without

taking care of order is given by

M. Abbas (Institute)

n!
(r !)(n r )!
n
=n Cr = n choose r
r

Math 230

First week 2015

15 / 24

Second Session

Combinations:
1

Total number of ways we can select r objects out of n objects without

taking care of order is given by

=
2

n!
(r !)(n r )!
n
=n Cr = n choose r
r

Thus n Cr gives number of combination of r objects out of n objects.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

15 / 24

Second Session

Combinations:
1

Total number of ways we can select r objects out of n objects without

taking care of order is given by

=
2
3

n!
(r !)(n r )!
n
=n Cr = n choose r
r

Thus n Cr gives number of combination of r objects out of n objects.

It gives the number of ways a group of r items can be picked out ( all
at once) from a group of n items.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

15 / 24

Second Session

Combinations:
1

Total number of ways we can select r objects out of n objects without

taking care of order is given by

=
2
3

n!
(r !)(n r )!
n
=n Cr = n choose r
r

Thus n Cr gives number of combination of r objects out of n objects.

It gives the number of ways a group of r items can be picked out ( all
at once) from a group of n items.
Any such selection of a group is called a combination.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

15 / 24

Second Session

Combinations:
1

Total number of ways we can select r objects out of n objects without

taking care of order is given by

=
2
3

4
5

n!
(r !)(n r )!
n
=n Cr = n choose r
r

Thus n Cr gives number of combination of r objects out of n objects.

It gives the number of ways a group of r items can be picked out ( all
at once) from a group of n items.
Any such selection of a group is called a combination.
n
Numbers
are called binomial coe cients because
r
n
n r n r
(a + b )n =
a b
which is a binomial theorem
r =0 r
M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

15 / 24

Second Session

Permutation and Combination:

When you want to nd the number of ways of choosing r objects from n
objects you need to ask yourself:
Does the order of these objects matter?
1

If the order does matter, then you are counting permutations; answer
n!
is
(n r ) !

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

16 / 24

Second Session

Permutation and Combination:

When you want to nd the number of ways of choosing r objects from n
objects you need to ask yourself:
Does the order of these objects matter?
1

If the order does matter, then you are counting permutations; answer
n!
is
(n r ) !
if order does not matter, then you are counting combinations; answer
n!
is
r ! (n r ) !

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

16 / 24

Second Session

Permutation and Combination:

When you want to nd the number of ways of choosing r objects from n
objects you need to ask yourself:
Does the order of these objects matter?
1

If the order does matter, then you are counting permutations; answer
n!
is
(n r ) !
if order does not matter, then you are counting combinations; answer
n!
is
r ! (n r ) !
This is how lotteries work. The numbers are drawn one at a time, and
if you have the lucky numbers (no matter what order) you win! ( we
just want to know which r persons are chosen not the order in which
they are chosen).

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

16 / 24

Second Session

Permutation and Combination:

When you want to nd the number of ways of choosing r objects from n
objects you need to ask yourself:
Does the order of these objects matter?
1

If the order does matter, then you are counting permutations; answer
n!
is
(n r ) !
if order does not matter, then you are counting combinations; answer
n!
is
r ! (n r ) !
This is how lotteries work. The numbers are drawn one at a time, and
if you have the lucky numbers (no matter what order) you win! ( we
just want to know which r persons are chosen not the order in which
they are chosen).
How many subsets of r elements can be formed from the set of n
elements.
M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

16 / 24

Second Session

We derive a formula:

Let X be the total number of subsets of r elements when the

universal set contains n elements.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

We derive a formula:

Let X be the total number of subsets of r elements when the

universal set contains n elements.

One subset of r elements give r ! tuples of r elements.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

17 / 24

Second Session

We derive a formula:

Let X be the total number of subsets of r elements when the

universal set contains n elements.

One subset of r elements give r ! tuples of r elements.

Now X subsets of r elements give X (r !) tuples of r elements.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

17 / 24

Second Session

We derive a formula:

Let X be the total number of subsets of r elements when the

universal set contains n elements.

One subset of r elements give r ! tuples of r elements.

Now X subsets of r elements give X (r !) tuples of r elements.

n!
Total numbers of r elements tuples =
.
(n r ) !

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

17 / 24

Second Session

We derive a formula:

Let X be the total number of subsets of r elements when the

universal set contains n elements.

One subset of r elements give r ! tuples of r elements.

Now X subsets of r elements give X (r !) tuples of r elements.

n!
Total numbers of r elements tuples =
.
(n r ) !
n!
n!
Thus X (r !) =
implies that X =
.
(n r ) !
(r !)(n r )!

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

17 / 24

Second Session

How new factor jumped in:

We are to choose three players out of 7 players.
7!
1 There are
= 210 dierent ways that 3 players could be seated in
4!
dierent order out of 7 players. Thus we have 210 tuples of three
players. Thus we have 210 groups of players

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

18 / 24

Second Session

How new factor jumped in:

We are to choose three players out of 7 players.
7!
1 There are
= 210 dierent ways that 3 players could be seated in
4!
dierent order out of 7 players. Thus we have 210 tuples of three
players. Thus we have 210 groups of players
2 Let us say that you just want to know which 3 players were chosen,
not the order.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

18 / 24

Second Session

How new factor jumped in:

We are to choose three players out of 7 players.
7!
1 There are
= 210 dierent ways that 3 players could be seated in
4!
dierent order out of 7 players. Thus we have 210 tuples of three
players. Thus we have 210 groups of players
2 Let us say that you just want to know which 3 players were chosen,
not the order.
3 Now many of groups out of 210 will be the same to us now, because
we dont care about order!

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

18 / 24

Second Session

How new factor jumped in:

We are to choose three players out of 7 players.
7!
1 There are
= 210 dierent ways that 3 players could be seated in
4!
dierent order out of 7 players. Thus we have 210 tuples of three
players. Thus we have 210 groups of players
2 Let us say that you just want to know which 3 players were chosen,
not the order.
3 Now many of groups out of 210 will be the same to us now, because
we dont care about order!
4 For example, let us say players 1, 2 and 3 were chosen. If order
matters we can form six groups of players: (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (2, 1, 3),
(2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 2), (3, 2, 1). If order does not matter then there is only
one group f1, 2, 3g

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

18 / 24

Second Session

How new factor jumped in:

We are to choose three players out of 7 players.
7!
1 There are
= 210 dierent ways that 3 players could be seated in
4!
dierent order out of 7 players. Thus we have 210 tuples of three
players. Thus we have 210 groups of players
2 Let us say that you just want to know which 3 players were chosen,
not the order.
3 Now many of groups out of 210 will be the same to us now, because
we dont care about order!
4 For example, let us say players 1, 2 and 3 were chosen. If order
matters we can form six groups of players: (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (2, 1, 3),
(2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 2), (3, 2, 1). If order does not matter then there is only
one group f1, 2, 3g
5 So, in case of selection with order, we will have 6 times as many
7!
1
1
groups. Thus multiply
with =
to get the number of ways,
4!
6
3!
three players can be selected out of 7 players with out taking care of
M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

Combinatorial Identities

n
r

n
n

called symmetry property

Any selection of r objects out of n is same as the selection of n

remaining objects) out of n.
Example
If

n
8

r (

n
12

Then n = 20.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

19 / 24

Second Session

Multinomial coe cients:

1

The number of distinct permutations of n objects ( distinct n tuples)

of which n1 are of one kind, n2 are of second kind,..., nk are of kth
kind is
n!
called multinomial coe cient
n1 !n2 !...nk !
where n = n1 + n2 + n3 + ... + nk .

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

20 / 24

Second Session

Multinomial coe cients:

1

The number of distinct permutations of n objects ( distinct n tuples)

of which n1 are of one kind, n2 are of second kind,..., nk are of kth
kind is
n!
called multinomial coe cient
n1 !n2 !...nk !
where n = n1 + n2 + n3 + ... + nk .

This represents number of n letter words formed with k distinct

letters say L1 , L2 , , , , Lk used n1 , n2 , , , nk times respectively.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

20 / 24

Second Session

Multinomial coe cients:

1

The number of distinct permutations of n objects ( distinct n tuples)

of which n1 are of one kind, n2 are of second kind,..., nk are of kth
kind is
n!
called multinomial coe cient
n1 !n2 !...nk !
where n = n1 + n2 + n3 + ... + nk .

This represents number of n letter words formed with k distinct

letters say L1 , L2 , , , , Lk used n1 , n2 , , , nk times respectively.

It provides us the number of ways a set of n objects be partitioned

into k cells so that n1 elements go to rst cell, n2 elements go to
second cell, and so forth. A set of n distinct objects are divided into r
distinct groups of respective size n1 , n2 , ..., nk with
n = n1 + n2 + n3 + ... + nk
M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

:
Continued
1 If we take n = n = n = ... = n = 1 then it is total number of
1
2
3
k
permutations of n objects.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

21 / 24

Second Session

:
Continued
1 If we take n = n = n = ... = n = 1 then it is total number of
1
2
3
k
permutations of n objects.
2 If we take k = 2, it reduces to binomial coe cient: Divide the players
into two groups or partition them into two cells. One cell consists of r
elements and other cell consists of n r elements. Then using
multinomial coe cient technique, the total number of ways we can
n!
as
select r objects out of n objects is given by
r !.(n r )!
r + (n r ) = n

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

21 / 24

Second Session

:
Continued
1 If we take n = n = n = ... = n = 1 then it is total number of
1
2
3
k
permutations of n objects.
2 If we take k = 2, it reduces to binomial coe cient: Divide the players
into two groups or partition them into two cells. One cell consists of r
elements and other cell consists of n r elements. Then using
multinomial coe cient technique, the total number of ways we can
n!
as
select r objects out of n objects is given by
r !.(n r )!
r + (n r ) = n
n!
3
(x1 + x2 + ... + xk )n = (
)x1n1 x2n2 x3n3 ...xknk , where the
n1 !n2 !...nk !
sum is taken over all tuples (n1 , n2 , , , , nk ) which add up to n.

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

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Second Session

:
Continued
1 If we take n = n = n = ... = n = 1 then it is total number of
1
2
3
k
permutations of n objects.
2 If we take k = 2, it reduces to binomial coe cient: Divide the players
into two groups or partition them into two cells. One cell consists of r
elements and other cell consists of n r elements. Then using
multinomial coe cient technique, the total number of ways we can
n!
as
select r objects out of n objects is given by
r !.(n r )!
r + (n r ) = n
n!
3
(x1 + x2 + ... + xk )n = (
)x1n1 x2n2 x3n3 ...xknk , where the
n1 !n2 !...nk !
sum is taken over all tuples (n1 , n2 , , , , nk ) which add up to n.
4
(x1 + x2 + x3 )2 = x12 + x22 + x32 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 =
x12 x20 x30 + x10 x22 x30 + x10 x20 x32 + 2x11 x21 x30 + 2x1 x20 x3 + 2x10 x2 x3
M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

21 / 24

Second Session

:
Continued
1 If we take n = n = n = ... = n = 1 then it is total number of
1
2
3
k
permutations of n objects.
2 If we take k = 2, it reduces to binomial coe cient: Divide the players
into two groups or partition them into two cells. One cell consists of r
elements and other cell consists of n r elements. Then using
multinomial coe cient technique, the total number of ways we can
n!
as
select r objects out of n objects is given by
r !.(n r )!
r + (n r ) = n
n!
3
(x1 + x2 + ... + xk )n = (
)x1n1 x2n2 x3n3 ...xknk , where the
n1 !n2 !...nk !
sum is taken over all tuples (n1 , n2 , , , , nk ) which add up to n.
4
(x1 + x2 + x3 )2 = x12 + x22 + x32 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 =
x12 x20 x30 + x10 x22 x30 + x10 x20 x32 + 2x11 x21 x30 + 2x1 x20 x3 + 2x10 x2 x3
5 Note that (2, 0, 0), (0, 2, 0), (0, 0, 2), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1) add up
to 2
M. Abbas (Institute)
Math 230
First week 2015
21 / 24

Second Session

Explanation:

In how many distinct ways can one arrange the letters P, E , P, P, E , and R
1

Let us label them as P1 , E1 , P2 , P3 , E2 , and R. There are 6! = 720

ways to arrange these letters ( that is, there are 720 dierent
possibilities to ll six places if all places were to be lled up by
distinct letters but we have repeats).

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

22 / 24

Second Session

Explanation:

In how many distinct ways can one arrange the letters P, E , P, P, E , and R
1

Let us label them as P1 , E1 , P2 , P3 , E2 , and R. There are 6! = 720

ways to arrange these letters ( that is, there are 720 dierent
possibilities to ll six places if all places were to be lled up by
distinct letters but we have repeats).

Consider any one of these permutations ( a possible denite

arrangement out of 720 arrangements)

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

22 / 24

Second Session

Explanation:

In how many distinct ways can one arrange the letters P, E , P, P, E , and R
1

Let us label them as P1 , E1 , P2 , P3 , E2 , and R. There are 6! = 720

ways to arrange these letters ( that is, there are 720 dierent
possibilities to ll six places if all places were to be lled up by
distinct letters but we have repeats).

Consider any one of these permutations ( a possible denite

arrangement out of 720 arrangements)

P1 P2 E1 P3 E2 R

M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

22 / 24

Second Session

Permutation:
1

If we now arrange P 0 s among themselves (P1 , P2 and P3 can be

arranged among themselves by 3! = 6 distinct ways.) and E 0 s (E1
and E2 can be arranged among themselves by 2! = 2 distinct ways.)
among themselves ( with a given possibility, we should have 12
dierent arrangements if letters were distinct).

If we had distinct letters we would have written 720 words ( possibilities) but 12 possibilities
reduces in to one word. 720 possibilities reduce into 60 words
M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

23 / 24

Second Session

Permutation:
1

If we now arrange P 0 s among themselves (P1 , P2 and P3 can be

arranged among themselves by 3! = 6 distinct ways.) and E 0 s (E1
and E2 can be arranged among themselves by 2! = 2 distinct ways.)
among themselves ( with a given possibility, we should have 12
dierent arrangements if letters were distinct).
In our case, the resultant arrangement would still be of the form
PPEPER as P1 , P2 and P3 = P and E1 and E2 = E .

If we had distinct letters we would have written 720 words ( possibilities) but 12 possibilities
reduces in to one word. 720 possibilities reduce into 60 words
M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

23 / 24

Second Session

Permutation:
1

If we now arrange P 0 s among themselves (P1 , P2 and P3 can be

arranged among themselves by 3! = 6 distinct ways.) and E 0 s (E1
and E2 can be arranged among themselves by 2! = 2 distinct ways.)
among themselves ( with a given possibility, we should have 12
dierent arrangements if letters were distinct).
In our case, the resultant arrangement would still be of the form
PPEPER as P1 , P2 and P3 = P and E1 and E2 = E .
That is all 3!.2! = 12 permutations are of the form PPEPER. Thus
12 (otherwise ) arrangements in "P1 P2 E1 P3 E2 R" produce one
distinct arrangement.1 Hence there are
6!
= 60
3!.2!
distinct letter arrangement of the letters P, E , P, P, E , and R ( divide
by 12 to avoid duplicity).

If we had distinct letters we would have written 720 words ( possibilities) but 12 possibilities
reduces in to one word. 720 possibilities reduce into 60 words
M. Abbas (Institute)

Math 230

First week 2015

23 / 24

Second Session

Explanation:

n
n1

n1
n2

M. Abbas (Institute)

(n1 + n2 )
n3

Math 230

6
3

3
2

1
1

= 60

First week 2015

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