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Discussion
Chapter 4: Discussion
are well known for production of antimicrobial compounds. These are ubiquitious in
nature and major component of microbial population found in natural and man-made
habitats. Actinomycetes were isolated from diverse ecological habitats including
agricultural, desert, dump site, dung, forest, garbage, garden, industrial areas, pesticide
treated, pond, radiation treated, ridge, sanitary landfill and valley soils which represented
a range of different habitats. The logic behind this approach was that actinomycetes
present in different ecological niches may exhibit variable metabolic activity and may be
the potential source of new bioactive metabolites. It has been reported in earlier studies
that actinomycetes isolated from diverse ecological habitats are producers of novel and
diverse chemical entities (Baur et al., 2006; Ji et al., 2007; Solanki et al., 2008; Nachtigall
et al., 2011; Poulsen et al., 2011; Hamedi et al., 2012; Schulz et al., 2012). Soil samples
were taken from a depth of 0-5cm of top layer. It has been known that top soil is rich in
organic matter and microbes where most of the biological activities occur. The population
of actinomycetes decreased significantly with soil depth as there is decrease in organic
substrate as well as aeration is poor in deeper layers of soils (Corke & Chase, 1964;
Essien & Udosen, 2000). Krishna et al., 2012 have analysed different soils and found that
there was remarkable decrease in bacterial, fungi and actinomycetes population with soil
depth. Takahashi & Omura, 2003 studied the vertical distribution of actinomycetes in
soils taken at 10cm intervals between 0 and 1 m and demonstrated that actinomycete
population was maximum in surface layer of soils and decreased with soil depth.
Soil samples were subjected to different physical and chemical pretreatment methods for
selective isolation of actinomycetes. These have been developed and used by researchers
for selective isolation of actinomycetes and some of these are genus specific (Hayakawa,
2008; Khanna et al., 2011). Air drying of samples was done for a variable duration
depending on the moisture content. Drying of the soil samples kills contaminant Gram-
1997; Seong et al., 2001; Baskaran et al., 2011). Therefore, number of actinomycete
colonies on isolation plates increased. Incubation of soil samples with calcium carbonate
93
Chapter 4: Discussion
Otoguro; 2001a; Qin et al., 2009a). Differential centrifugation was also tried, but no
actinomycete colonies could be isolated on yeast extract malt extract agar media. Other
researchers have also used this method but in conjunction with some specific media like
humic acid vitamin agar for selective isolation of actinomycetes (Hayakawa et al., 2000;
Otoguro et al., 2001 a,b). A range of selective media were tested for facilitating isolation
of actinomycetes including Yeast Extract-Malt Extract (YM agar) (Shirling & Gottlieb,
1966), Selective Media (SM-1, SM-2 and SM-3) (Tan et al., 2006), Starch Casein (SC
agar) (Kuester & Williams, 1964), Water Agar (WA agar) (Berd, 1973), Arginine
Glycerol (AG agar) (EL-Nakeeb & Lechevalier, 1963), Organic Agar Gause 2 (Gause et
al., 1983), Glycerol Asparagine agar (GA agar) (Shirling & Gottlieb, 1966) and MC agar
(Nonomura & Ohara, 1971). Among those, arginine glycerol agar, glycerol asparagine
agar, organic agar Gause 2 and starch casein agar were found to be most effective in this
study. These media have also been used by other research groups for isolation of
actinomycetes (Kuester & Williams, 1964; Shirling & Gottlieb, 1966; Gause et al., 1983;
Kutzner, 1986). Barcina et al. 1987, found that addition of glycerol and asparagine in the
isolation media favored the growth of actinomycetes. Zhang & Zhang, 2011 used glycerol
asparagine as the medium for selective isolation of actinomycetes. Seong et al., 2001 and
Kokare et al., 2004 found starch casein agar to be effective whereas Qiu et al., 2008 and
George et al., 2011 found glycerol arginine an efficient medium for isolation of
actinomycetes. Bredholdt et al., 2007 and Solanki et al., 2011 found effective isolation of
and bacteria without affecting the growth of actinomycetes. This has proved to be a
general strategy for promoting growth of slow growing actinomycetes in the absence of
contaminant fast growing colonies (Seong et al., 2001; Saintpierre-Bonaccio et al., 2004,
2005; Bredholdt et al., 2007; Sajid et al., 2009; Baskaran et al., 2011).
(Fungus) and Candida albicans (Yeast). These strains are used routinely for assessing
94
Chapter 4: Discussion
were used for primary screening. These methods were adopted as these were easy to
perform and a large number of strains could be tested simultaneously in short time.
Various modifications of these methods have been adopted for antimicrobial studies
(Kokare et al., 2004; Xie et al., 2005; Selvin et al., 2009). Each method has its own
checked whereas agar plug method helps in the comparative analyses of different
12%, 15% and 8% isolates had shown activities against Bacillus cereus,
respectively. The results of primary screening revealed that most of the isolates were
active against gram positive bacteria (Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus) as
compared to gram negative bacteria, yeast and fungus (Escherichia coli, Fusarium
oxysporum and Candida albicans). The reason for differential activity against Gram
positive and negative bacteria might be due to the morphological differences between
them. Gram negative bacteria have an outer polysaccharide membrane carrying the
them more susceptible to antimicrobial compounds (Scherrer & Gerhardt, 1971). This
kind of difference in the activities of actinomycetes against pathogenic strains have
been reported earlier by Basilio et al., 2003; Oskay et al., 2004; Anansiriwattana et
al., 2006; Charoensopharat et al., 2008.
Depending on the results of primary screening, eight isolates namely B.69, L3.41,
L3.46, RI.24, RI.30, S.4A, S.43 and SL.4 were selected for further studies. Nearly all
95
Chapter 4: Discussion
of them had substantial activities against more than one sensitive strain and had been
collected from various ecological habitats (Table 3.2). Bioactive compounds from
these isolates were extracted both from culture broth and solid media plates.
studies that compounds active against Bacillus cereus could be extracted in ethyl
Staphylococcus aureus in methanol. Ethyl acetate extracts either showed very low
Extraction method has definite effect on the isolation of bioactive compounds. This
could be due to difference in their polarity. Compounds extracted in ethyl acetate are
less polar as compared to those extracted in methanol. Polar antibiotics were found to
membrane and facilitate the entry of polar antibiotics (Nikaido, 2003; Davin-Regli et
al., 2008). Both polar and nonpolar extracts worked against Fuarium oxysporum and
Candida albicans. It has been known that both these type of antibiotics act on fungi
leak out and facilitating entry of protons to neutralize the charge. This results in
internal acidification and death of the cell (Hammond & Kliger, 1976). Gram positive
bacterium Bacillus cereus was inhibited by ethyl acetate extracts that entered the cell
through its less selective peptidoglycan layer. Actinomycin D, soluble in ethyl acetate
enters the bacterial cell and intercalates in DNA to inhibit bacterial growth (Guy &
Taylor, 1978). Polar extracts inhibited Staphylococcus aureus in this study. This is in
agreement to observations that polar aminoglycosides like kanamycin disrupt the
96
Chapter 4: Discussion
integrity of bacterial cell membrane and inhibit protein production (Gourevitch et al.,
acetate and other organic solvents did not show activity against Candida albicans
whereas anticandida compound could be extracted with ammonium sulphate
precipitation method. Boudjella et al., 2006 used five different solvents n-hexane,
ideal solvent for extraction of the non-polyene antifungal antibiotic from culture
supernatant of Streptomyces albidoflavus PU 23 and hexane was found to be most
Activity of extracts was quantified and compared with each other as well as with standard
antibiotics by two different methods including agar well method and MIC determination
(Solanki et al., 2011). L3.41 ethyl acetate extract showed maximium activity against
Bacillus cereus followed by extracts of L3.46, B.69, RI.24, S.43 and SL.4. The control
antibiotic kanamycin acid sulphate produced inhibition zones bigger in size as compared
to all extracts. Among all extracts used against Fusarium oxysporum, L3.46 methanolic
extract showed maximum activity followed by L3.46 and L3.41 ethyl acetate extracts by
using the agar well diffusion method. Among controls used against Fusarium oxysporum,
Activity of RI.24 methanolic extract was lower against Staphylococcus aureus and
Escherichia coli as compared to that produced by the control kanamycin acid sulphate. It
has been known that size of inhibition zones depends both on diffusion parameters of
antibiotic in the agar medium as well as on activity of the compound being tested (Linton,
1983; Antal et al., 2005; Augustine et al., 2005; Bonev et al., 2008).
Chapter 4: Discussion
L3.41 and L3.46 ethyl extracts were comparable to MIC of the control antibiotic
kanamycin acid sulphate against Bacillus cereus, while MICs of B.69, RI.24, S.43 and
SL.4 ethyl acetate extracts were higher than that of the control antibiotic. MIC of
amphotericin B was lowest as compared to MIC of cycloheximide and of all extracts
tested against Fusarium oxysporum. L3.46 methanolic extract had lowest MIC against
Fusarium oxysporum followed by L3.41 and L3.46 ethyl acetate extracts. MIC of
RI.30 extract was lower as compared to L3.46 methanolic extract against Candida
acid sulphate. It has been found that in most cases activities of control antibiotics were
higher as compared to the extracts being tested both by agar well and MIC methods. A
possible explanation could be that extracts being tested were crude containing
proportionately lesser amount of bioactive moiety in comparison to highly purified
commercial antibiotics being used as controls. There was also some discrepancy in
activity of extracts as well as of control antibiotics when compared by agar well and
MIC methods. In agar well method size of inhibition zones produced by amphotericin
B against Fusarium oxysporum were smaller as compared to those generated by
oxysporum was the lowest. L3.46 ethyl acetate extract produced bigger inhibition
zones as compared to L3.41 ethyl acetate extract whereas MIC of former was higher
than off latter. Similarly, sizes of inhibition zones produced by amphotericin B against
Candida albicans were smaller as compared to extract whereas MIC was low. The
possibility of smaller inhibition zones in agar well diffusion method might be due to
amphotericin B and flucytosine by both agar and broth dilution methods and observed
significant differences in the results obtained by these two methods. Vander Heijden et
polymyxins and observed discrepancies in results of agar diffusion and broth dilution
methods. Sakoulas et al., 2012 found that agar dilution consistently gave higher MIC
Chapter 4: Discussion
Actinopolyspora sp., Sachharopolyspora sp. and Micromonospora sp. and came to the
same conclusion. Arasu et al., 2008 extracted bioactive compounds from culture plates
determination. Matsuzawa et al., 1980 and Schimana et al., 2000 determined MIC of
antibioticus respectively by broth dilution method whereas Lu & Shen, 2007 used disk
diffusion assay for Naphthomycin K obtained from Streptomyces sp.
solvent system needs to be used for proper fractionation. Various solvent systems
were tested for ethyl acetate and methanolic extracts. Among all the solvent systems
tested for ethyl acetate extracts, Dichloromethane: methanol (9:1) was found most
effective whereas in case of methanolic extracts Butanol:acetic acid:water (3:1:1)
gave the best results for separation of fractions. Taddei et al., 2006 also found best
al. 2006 used Butanol:acetic acid:water (3:1:1) for separation of culture extract. On
the other hand, Selvameenal et al, 2009 found good separation of extracts in
and had a tentative idea about the possible chemical moieties present in our extracts.
Most of the bands showed UV absorption at 254 and 365nm in both ethyl acetate and
color fractions obtained by staining with these two chemicals indicated the presence of
sugar moieties in our extracts whereas yellow, orange, pink, and slate color fractions
99
Chapter 4: Discussion
were those which did not have any sugar moiety (Taddei et al., 2006). Aminoglycoside,
nucleoside, glycopeptide, macrolide and anthracycline antibiotics have sugar moieties
in their chemical structures on the other hand polypeptides, xanthone antibiotics do not
have. In the initial stage, we could predict that our compounds having sugar moieties
may belong to macrolide and anthracycline antibiotics based on physical properties
whereas others may belong to polypeptides and xanthones. Taddei et al., 2006 showed
usefulness of chemical screening for avoiding strain duplication on the basis of their
metabolic fingerprint and found best results with anisaldehyde/ H2SO4 staining. Sajid et
al., 2009 used chemical screening for selection of best actinomycetes on the basis of
extracts. Immersion biautography was used, bioactive zones were visualized and
identified after staining with 3-{4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl}-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium
bromide (MTT). L3.41 had one bioactive fraction with Rf value of 0.67. Three
fractions having Rf values of 0.60, 0.56 and 0.45 from L3.46 ethyl acetate extract
were found bioactive whereas in L3.46 methanolic extract one fraction with Rf value
0.64 was found bioactive. In RI.30 methanolic extract the fraction with Rf value of
0.55 was bioactive whereas in S.43 ethyl acetate extract two fractions with Rf values
of 0.86 and 0.49 were found bioactive. In SL.4 ethyl acetate extract two fractions
having Rf values of 0.78 and 0.66 were found bioactive. Selvameenal et al., 2009
identified bioactive fraction having Rf value of 0.768 from extract of Streptomyces
hygroscopicus subsp. ossamyceticus corresponding to a bioactive sugar compound by
using bioautography. Boudjella et al., 2006 could detect four active spots having Rf
values 0.74, 0.68, 0.61 and 0.36 belonging to the group of glycosylated aromatics,
100
Chapter 4: Discussion
dioctyl phthalate. Different authors have used various bioautography methods for
identification of bioactive fraction. Sajid et al., 2009 used contact bioautography,
Bioactive constituents from ethyl acetate extracts of L3.41, L3.46, B.69 and
methanolic extract of L3.46 were isolated and purified by repeated rounds of TLC and
subjected to 1H NMR and mass spectrometry for structure elucidation. Igarashi et al.,
2005; Maskey et al., 2006 and Rakotoniriana et al., 2012 have used these techniques
for structure elucidation of their compounds.
Molecular weight of compound L3.41 (1) isolated and purified from L3.41 culture
was found to be 1255g/mol which is similar to that of the antibiotic Actinomycin D.
resemblance between them (Barber et al., 1988). 1H NMR data of L3.41 (1) showed
possessed similarity in their physical and biological activities. On the basis of these
studies, it was confirmed that compound isolated from L3.41 is Actinomycin D. This
antibiotic is a polypeptide and has been reported from various Streptomyces species
parvulus, Streptomyces plicatus, Streptomyces griseoruber (Katz & Pugh, 1961; Lam
et al., 2002; Praveen & Tripathi, 2009). Actinomycin D has also been isolated from
protein synthesis (Wadkins et al., 1998). It is used in the treatment of several types of
cancers including sarcomas, Wilms tumour, germ cell cancers, testicular cancer,
101
Chapter 4: Discussion
H
C
NH2
O
CH3
CH3
Figure 4.1: Bioactive moiety of Actinomycin D and compound L3.41 (1) (Phenoxazine)
Similarly, the compound L3.46 (1) isolated from L3.46 ethyl acetate had a molecular
weight of 681 g/mol which is similar to mycinamycin III, belonging to the macrolide
antibiotic class. Although, mass fragmentation pattern indicated structural similarity
with mycinamycin III but NMR data showed peaks which correspond to additional
Micromonospora griseorubida sp. nov (Satoi et al., 1980) but not yet reported from
Streptomyces sp. However, a non mycinamycin producing but tylosin producing strain
dihydromycinamicin IV (Lotvin et al., 1982). There are similar reports from literature
produce identical compounds (Waksman & Bugie, 1943; Larsen et al., 2005). There is
102
Chapter 4: Discussion
Bioactive compound B.69 (1) from B.69 had a molecular weight of 840 g/mol, which
(Hayashi et al., 1980). Rhamnose could be the likely sugar in B.69 (1) compound as it
group (Figure 4.2) of L3.46 (1) and B.69 (1) compounds imparted antibacterial
activity against Bacillus cereus (Kaysser et al., 2010).
Et
O
OH
CH3
Me
Me
O
Figure 4.2: Bioactive moiety of compounds L3.46 (1) and B.69 (1) (Aglycone)
Compound L3.46 (2) isolated from methanolic extract of L3.46 possessed a molecular
weight of 771 g/mol. On the basis of NMR data, it showed similarity to xantholipin in its
core structure but differs from it in possessing extra side chains and the structure could be
Streptomyces sp (Terui et al., 2003). Actinoplanones A and B, Sch 56036, Sch 42137,
albofungin, cervinomycins, simaomicins are other xanthone antibiotics that have been
reported from Streptomyces, Actinoplanes and Actinomadura (Gurevich et al., 1972;
Omura et al., 1982; Kobayashi et al., 1988; Nakagawa et al., 1987; Maiese et al., 1990;
Cooper et al., 1992; Chu et al., 1998). Structure activity relationship of the compound
was studied and suggested that presence of 1,4 dioxygenated xanthone moiety (Figure
103
Chapter 4: Discussion
4.3) was responsible for bioactivity against Candida albicans and Fusarium oxysporum
(Nicholas et al; 2011). In addition, presence of ketonic functional group attached with
CH3
O
O
HO
Figure 4.3: Bioactive moiety of compound L3.46 (2) and (Xanthone group and ketonic ring moiety)
In this study, isolates named as B.69, L3.41, L3.46, RI.24, RI.30, S.4A, S.43 and SL.4
methods of Shirling & Gottlieb; 1966. Morphological studies on different ISP media
(ISP 1-7) were performed to study growth, sporulation, color of substrate and aerial
mycelium and production of any diffusible and melanin pigment. All strains showed
good growth and sporulation on ISP media no. 2,3,4,5 and 7. Color of aerial
mycelium of different strains belonged to white, grey, pink, black and brown series
and substrate mycelium showed different colors including beige, brown, cream,
yellow, white, grey, black, red, orange. These colors of substrate and aerial mycelium
are commonly observed in the Streptomyces species (Jiang et al., 2007; Le Roes-Hill
et al., 2009; le Roes-Hill & Meyers, 2009; Pimentel-Elardo et al. 2009; Reddy et al.
2011). Strain B.69, L3.41 and S.43 produced brick-red, yellow and orange colored
diffusible pigment on some of the ISP media while other strains lack this property.
Comparable situation occur in Streptomyces where some species produce pigment
while others do not (Miyajima et al., 1998; Meyers et al., 2004; Zhu et al., 2007;
Labeda et al., 2009; Pimentel-Elardo et al. 2009; Luo et al., 2011; Reddy et al. 2011;
Sazak et al., 2011). Spore chain configuration is an important taxanomic marker in
three categories recognized and adopted for the International Streptomyces Project
were straight to flexuous (Rectiflexibles); hooks, loops or spirals with one to two
turns (Retinaculiaperti) and spirals (Spirales) (ISP, Shirling & Gottlieb, 1966). Strains
104
Chapter 4: Discussion
in the present study also possessed spore chains which belonged to one of the three
described categories. Spore chains of strains L3.41 and L3.46 were of spirales type,
strains RI.30 and B.69 possessed rectiflexibles type of spore chains and spore chains
of RI.24, S.4A, S.43 and SL.4 belonged to retinaculiaperti type (Li et al., 2002;
Meyers et al., 2004; Jiang et al., 2007; Le Roes-Hill et al., 2009; Le Roes-Hill &
arabinose, L-rhamnose, meso-inositol, raffinose and sucrose. Among all the sugars tested
casein, hypoxanthine, starch, tween and urea. Tween and urea were metabolized by all
strains. Hypoxanthine was preferably metabolized as compared to starch and casein
(Labeda et al., 2009; Luo et al., 2011; Reddy et al., 2011; Sazak et al., 2011).
Morphological, microscopic and biochemical characteristics of strains were compared
Homology studies of 16S rRNA gene sequences with those of validly described
B.69, L3.41, L3.46, RI.24, RI.30, S.4A and SL.4 confirmed the hypothesis that
isolates were species of Streptomyces. 16S rRNA gene is the most commonly used
marker for phylogenetic studies because of its ubiquitous and highly conserved nature
appropriate level of variation between different bacteria. 16S rRNA gene sequences of
our strains exhibited sequence similarity in the range of 99-100% with those of
validly described species of genus Streptomyces. High 16S rRNA gene sequence
similarities are often found between members of Streptomyces (Guo et al., 2008). Zhu
et al., 2007 found 99.4% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity of their strain with
Streptomyces bikiniensis ATCC 11062T, Liu et al., 2012 found 99.61 % similarity of
105
Chapter 4: Discussion
NBRC 12555T. However, novelty in all cases could still be confirmed by DNA-DNA
hybridization (Zhu et al., 2007; Zhao et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2012).
The closest relatives of B.69, L3.41, L3.46 and SL.4 were Streptomyces atriruber NRRL
16365T (DQ026641) (Williams et al., 1989 & Ningthoujam et al., 2011) was closest
relatives of RI.24 and S.4A respectively whereas Streptomyces globosus LMG 19896T
(AJ781330) (Luo et al., 2011) was relative of RI.30. Strain RI.24 and S.4A shared 100%
16S rRNA gene sequence similarities and exhibited similarity in their morphological,
microscopic and biochemical features. S.43 16S rRNA gene could not be amplified with
standard universal primers. Gradient PCR was also tried with different annealing
temperatures but no amplification of 16S rRNA gene could be observed. The strain is
known to produce a copious amount of pigment that possibly hindered binding of primers
to the DNA not allowing amplification of gene to occur (Cook & Meyers, 2003).
al., 2011; Reddy et al., 2011; Sazak et al., 2011; Khanna et al., 2012). Antibiotic
production profile of strains B.69, L3.41, L3.46, RI.24, RI.30, S.4A, S.43 and SL.4
were also compared with those of their clade members (Tables 4.1-4.7). Though
106
Chapter 4: Discussion
Table 4.1: Antibiotics produced by clade members of B.69
Strains
Streptomyces
atriruber
Streptomyces
durhamensis
Streptomyces
filipinensis
Streptomyces
coastaricanus
16S rRNA
similarity
99.71%
98.16%
97.93%
97.94%
Compounds
Not known
Durhamycin
(Gordon & Lapa,
1966)
Chemistry
Antinematodal and
antifungal compound
(Esnard et al., 1995)
Polyene
Pentane
Activity
Activity
Antifungal
Antifungal
Compounds
Streptomyces parvulus
Streptomyces olivaceus
Streptomyces pactum
var. pactum
100%
99.29%
99.29%
Actinomycin D (Williams
& Katz; 1977)
Chemistry
Polypeptide
Activity
Antibacterial, Antifungal,
Antitumor
Kanchanamycins (Fiedler
et al., 1996)
Chemistry
36 membered polyol
macrolide
Activity
Antibacterial, Antifungal
Pactamycin (Weller et
al., 1978)
Chemistry
Aminocyclitol
Activity
Antitumor
Streptomyces samsunensis
99.85%
Not known
99.43%
Streptomyces malaysiensis
107
Chapter 4: Discussion
Table 4.4: Antibiotics produced by clade members of RI.24
Strains
16S rRNA
similarity
Compounds
Streptomyces
vinaceusdrappus
Streptomyces
plicatus
Streptomyces
rochei
99.85%
100%
Amicetin
(Zhang et al., 2012)
Chemistry
Nucleoside
Activity
Antibacterial
Antiviral
i) Amicetin
(Haskell et al., 1958)
Chemistry
Nucleoside
Activity
Antibacterial
Antiviral
ii) Plicacetin
(Haskell et al., 1958)
Chemistry
Nucleoside
Activity
Antibacterial
iii) Norplicacetin
(Evans & Weare, 1977)
Chemistry
Nucleoside
Activity
Antibacterial
Streptomyces
enissocaesilis
100%
100%
Borrelidin
(Berger et al.,
1949)
Chemistry
18
membered
macrolide
Activity
Antibacterial,
Antimalarial
Not known
Compounds
rRNA
99.36%
Streptomyces globosus
2-deoxystreptamine (El-khatib
2008)
Chemistry
Aminocyclitol aminoglycoside
Activity
Antibacterial, Antifungal
Streptomyces toxytricini
99.36%
et
al.,
Compounds
Streptomyces
vinaceusdrappus
Streptomyces
plicatus
99.85%
100%
Amicetin
(Zhang et al., 2012)
i) Amicetin
(Haskell et al., 1958)
108
Streptomyces
rochei
Streptomyces
enissocaesilis
100%
100%
Borrelidin
(Berger et al.,
Not known
Chapter 4: Discussion
Chemistry
Nucleoside
Activity
Antibacterial
Antiviral
Chemistry
Nucleoside
Activity
Antibacterial
Antiviral
ii) Plicacetin
(Haskell et al., 1958)
Chemistry
Nucleoside
Activity
Antibacterial
iii) Norplicacetin
(Evans & Weare, 1977)
Chemistry
Nucleoside
Activity
Antibacterial
1949)
Chemistry
18 membered
macrolide
Activity
Antibacterial,
Antimalarial
Compounds
Sreptomyces
atrovirens
Streptomyces albogriseolus
Streptomyces
viridodiastaticus
99.65%
99.65%
99.64%
Antibiotic
(Cho & Kim; 2012)
Chemistry
Benzaldehyde
Activity
Antibacterial
Antibiotic complex
(Gauze et al., 1980)
Chemistry
Amphomycin group
Activity
Antibacterial
Not known
of potent strains for further studies. Bioactive compounds were extracted using
were as effective as well known antibiotics and showed broad spectrum activities.
Thin layer chromatography helped in fractionation of extracts followed by
109
Chapter 4: Discussion
110