Chapter 1 PDF

BITS Pilani
Mathematics-II
MATH F112
Dr. Ashish Tiwari
Pilani Campus
1/28/2015
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Happy New Year

1/28/2015
Course Structure
Linear Algebra (Dr. Ashish Tiwari & Dr. Amit K. Verma)
Complex Variables Functions (Dr. B. Dubey/Dr. Trilok Mathur)
Quizzes: There will be four unannounced quizzes of 20 marks each to
be conducted in tutorial classes and out of 4, best 3 quizzes will be
considered.
Assignments: Two assignments will be given for your practice and
does not require submission. However, at least one question will be
asked from each assignment in mid-sem and comprehensive
examination.
Notices: All course notices will be posted on NALANDA and dept.
notice board.
Chamber Consultation Hour: To be announced in your tutorial
section. For Instructor-Incharge, it will be Friday, 3-4 PM.
1/28/2015
3
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
(i) det (AT) = det (A)

(ii) If C is determinant of matrix where two
rows of A are interchanged, then
C= -det (A)
(iii) If two rows or two columns of A are
identical then det (A)=0
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4
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
(iv) If D is obtained by multiplying a row or column

of A through a real constant c then
det (D)= c det (A)
(v) If D is the matrix in which ith row of matrix A is
replaced by ri + q rj
det (D)= det (A)
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5
Upper triangular Matrix :

if aij =0 for i>j , then
matrix is called upper

triangular.
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6
Determinant of a upper triangular matrix

is product of its diagonal elements.
Determinant of product of two matrices is
product of their determinants.
Similarly one can define lower triangular
Matrices.
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7
Solutions of System of
Linear Equations
(Section 2.1)
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8
System of Linear Equations
A general system of m linear equations, in n

unknowns, is written as
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9
a x a x .....a x .....a x b
11 1 12 2
1j j
1n n 1
a x a x .....a x .....a x b
21 1 22 2
2j j
2n n
2
a x a x .....a x .....a x b
i1 1 i 2 2
ij j
in n i
a x a x .....a x .....a x b
m1 1 m2 2
mj j
mn n
m
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10
If all bi are zero then the then the

system is said to be a homogeneous
system of linear equations otherwise it
will be a non-homogeneous system of
linear equations.
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11
The above system of equation can be

written in matrix form as
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12
A X =B,
a11
a
21
ai1
am1
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a12
a22
ai 2
am 2
a1n
a2 n
ain
amn
x1
x
2

x
j

xn
b1
b
2

bi

bm
13
We know that the solution of the system of linear

equation does not change if we
1. Interchange any two equations
2. Multiply any equation by a non-zero scalar
3. Replace a equation by the sum of itself and a
scalar multiple of another equation.
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14
Above three operations can be

Transformed for matrices and can be
called as row operations on
matrices
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15
Our attention will be towards the

technique of solving the system of
linear equations, then conclude
whether the system
Has Unique solution
Has Infinitely many solutions
Fails to have solution
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16
Row operations on matrices
1. Multiplications of any row by a non-zero

number
2. Interchanging any two rows.
3. Replacing a row by sum of itself and a
scalar multiple of any other row.
Note: Above operations are similar to
three operations done on system of
equations.
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17
Row Equivalent Matrices

If two matrices A and C of same
order are obtained from each other
by performing finite number of row
operations of type 1,2 & 3,
then matrices A and C are called
row equivalent and
are denoted by A C.
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Leading entry of a row

First non zero entry of a non zero row is
called leading entry of that row .
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Reduced Row Echelon (RRE)

form of a matrix
(i) All zero rows, if there are any, are at

the bottom of matrix
(ii) First nonzero entry from the left of a
nonzero row is 1 (such an entry is
called leading one of its row)
(iii)For each non-zero row, leading one
comes to the right and below any
leading ones in previous rows
(iv)If a column contains leading one the all
other entry in that column are zero
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Row Echelon (RE) form of a

matrix
An mn matrix satisfying properties

(i), (ii) & (iii) is said to be row echelon
form.
Note: Discuss point (ii) regarding
leading element need not be one .
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Example-1: Echelon Matrix :

1
0
0
0
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3
1
0
0
4
7
1
0
22
Example-2: Echelon Matrix :

0
0
0
0
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1
0
0
0
4
1
0
0
5
6
1
0
6
5
9
0
23
Ex: Reduced Row Echelon Matrix

01
00
00
00
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3
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
4
3
2
0
0
0
0
1
24
Pivot position: is a position of a

leading entry in an echelon form of
the matrix.
Pivot: a nonzero number that
either is used in a pivot position to
create 0s OR is changed into a
leading 1, which in turn is used to
create 0s.
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Pivot row/column: a row/column

that contains a pivot position.
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26
PROBLEM : Find Reduced Row Echelon form of a

Matrix
0 3 6 4 9
1 2 1 3 1
A
2 3 0 3 1
1 4 5 9 7
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Step 1: Selecting Pivot column :

Begin with the leftmost nonzero column.
9
0 3 6 4
1 2 1 3
3 1
2 3 0
4
5 9 7
1
Pivot Column
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Step 2: Selecting Pivot Position:

Select a nonzero entry in the pivot column as
a pivot. If necessary interchange rows to
move this entry into the pivot position.
Pivot
Position
0
1
3
2
6
1
4
3
3
4
0
5
3
9
Pivot Column
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29
Step 2: (Continued):
Using the elementary row operation
4
5 9 7
1
1 2 1 3 1
R1 R4 2 3 0 3 1
0 3 6 4 9
Pivot
Pivot Column
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Step 3:
Use elementary row operations to create
zeros in all positions below the pivot.
Pivot
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1
1
4 5 9 7 Apply
row
2 1 3 1 operation
3 0 3 1 R R R
R R 2R
3 6 4 9
2
31
Step 3: (Continued):
After a few computations we get
1 4 5 9 7
0 2 4 6 6
0 5 10 15 15
9
0 3 6 4
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Step 4:
Ignore the row containing the pivot position

and cover all rows, if any, above it.
Apply steps 1-3 to the remaining submatrix. Repeat the process until there are
no more nonzero rows to modify.
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33
Possible Pivots
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1
0
6
5 10 15 15
3 6 4 9
4
2
5
4
9
6
34
Let us take pivot as
1 4 5 9 7
0 2 4 6 6
0 5 10 15 15
9
0 3 6 4
Make this pivot element to 1 by applying
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R2 12 R2
35
R4 R4 3R2
R3 R3 5R2
1
0
0
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4
1
5
2
9
3
0
0
0
0
0
5
3
0
0
36
1
0
0
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4 5 9 7 Apply
R
1 2 3 3 3
4
And this pivot -5
0 0 0 0 to 1
0 0 5 0
37
1
0
4 5 9 7
1 2 3 3
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Note: This is a
row echelon form
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38
Step 5: Beginning with the rightmost

pivot and working upward and to the
left, create zeros above each pivot.
1
0
0
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4 5 9 7
1 2 3 3
0 0 1
0
0 0 0
0
Pivot
39
1
0
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4 5 9 7
1 2 3 3 R R 9 R
1
1
3
0 0 1 0 R R 3R
2
3
2
0 0 0 0
40
1
0
0
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4 5 0 7
1 2 0 3
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Pivot
41
1
0
4 5 0 7
1 2 0 3
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Pivot as this is
first non-zero
element in 2nd row
R1 R1 4R2
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42
1
0
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0 3 0 5
1 2 0 3
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Reduced
Row
Echelon
Form
43
Results :
1.Echelon form of a matrix may
not be unique.
Pivot
Position
0
1
3
2
6
1
4
3
3
4
0
5
3
9
Pivot Column
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44
Results :
2. Reduced row echelon form of a
matrix is unique
3. Every matrix is row equivalent
to its echelon form.
4. Every matrix is row equivalent
to its row reduced echelon form
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45
Now let us apply to the system of

linear equations
a11x1 a12 x2 ......... a1n xn b1

a21x1 a22 x2 ......... a2n xn b2
ai1 x1 ai 2 x2 ......... ain xn bi
am1 x1 am 2 x2 ......... amn xn bm

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System of linear equations can be

written in matrix form as
a11
a
21
ai1
am1
a12
a22
ai 2
am 2
a1n
a2 n
ain
amn
x1
x
2

xj

xn
b1
b
2

bi

bm
A X =B,
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Augmented Matrix
a11 a12 a1n b1

a
a
b
21
22
2
n
2
am1 am2 amn bm
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48
Graphical Approach to Solutions:
Example: Two equations in

two variables
x1 x2 10
x1 x2 0
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x1=5, x2=5
is the unique
Solution, as line
intersect at a
Unique point.
49
Graphical Approach to Solutions:

x1
two variables
x2 8
2 x1 2 x2 16
This linear system has

infinitely many solutions.
Lines intersect at every
point.
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x1 2 x2 3
two variables
2 x1 4 x2 8
This linear system has no

solutions. Lines do not
intersect at any point.
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51
Example: Three equations in three variables. In this

case each equation determines a plane in the 3D
space.

a unique solutions. The
planes intersect at one
point.
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52

infinitely many solutions.
The planes intersect in one
line.
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53

no solutions. There is no
point in common to all
three planes.
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54
Definition
:
Consistent :
If solution exist
Inconsistent : If solution does not exist .
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55
Row-rank of matrix
Definition: Number of non-zero rows in
row echelon form (or row reduced
echelon form) of matrix is called rowrank of matrix .

Notation: Row-Rank of A = rank(A).
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Theorem: Let Ax = b be a system.

Then
1. rank(A) rank(A:b)
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Solution doesnt exists

i.e. INCONSISTENT
(Example 4, P-89)
57
2. rank(A) = rank(A:b) = No. of

Unknowns
Implies
UNIQUE SOLUTION (Example 2, P-84)
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3. rank(A) = rank (A:b) < No. of

Unknowns
Implies
INFINITELY MANY SOLUTIONS
(Example 5, P-90)
Note : For consistency
rank (A) = rank (A:b)
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Ex: Consider Linear system of

equations
x1 2 x2 x3 0
2x2 8 x3 8
4 x1 5 x2 9 x3 9
Find the solution, if exists, reducing the
augmented matrix to (i) row echelon form
and (ii) row reduced echelon form
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60
The augmented matrix :
1
0
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2
2
5
8 8
9 9
1
61
x1 2 x2 x3 0
1 2 1 0
2
x
8
x
8
or
0
2
8
8
2
3
4 x1 5 x2 9 x3 9
4 5 9 9
R3 R3 4R1
x1 2 x2 x3 0
1 2 1 0
2x2 8 x3 8 or 0 2 8 8
0 3 13 9
3x2 13x3 9
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62
x1 2 x2 x3 0
1 0
1 2
2x2 8 x3 8 or 0 2 8 8
0 3 13 9
3x2 13x3 9
Let us take 2 as a pivot
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63
1
R2 R2
2
x1 2 x2 x3 0
1 2 1 0
4
x
4
or
0
1
4
4
2
3
3x2 13x3 9
0 3 13 9
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64
R3 R3 3R2
x1 2 x2 x3 0 1 2 1 0
x2 4 x3 4 or 0 1 4 4
x3 3 0 0 1 3
(i) This is the row echelon form.
Is the system consistent?

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65
The system is consistent since

rank(A) = rank(A:b) =3=
No. of Unknowns
(i) At this stage we can use back substitution

(Gauss-Elimination Method). Here row
echelon form will be enough
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66
1 2 1 0
0 1 4 4

0 0 1 3
x1 2 x2 x3 0
x2 4 x3 4
x3 3
x1, x2 , x3 29, 16, 3

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(ii) Gauss-Jordan Method:

Reduce the augmented matrix to reduced row
echelon form and then find the solution. i.e.
apply following operations to preceding matrix
in row echelon form:
R2 R2 4R3
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and
R1 R1 (1) R3
68
x1 2 x2
x2
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x1
x2
-3
1 2 0 3
16 or 0 1 0 16
0 0 1 3
x3 3
R1 R1 2R2
29 1 0 0 29
16 or 0 1 0 16
x3 3 0 0 1 3
69
This is the reduced row echelon form.
x1, x2 , x3 29, 16, 3
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70
Ex: Solve the system (if possible)
x2 4 x3 8
2 x1 3x2 2 x3 1
5 x1 8 x2 7 x3 1
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71
0 1 4 8
2 3 2 1 R1 R2
5 8 7 1
2 3 2 1
0 1 4 8
1
R1 R1
2
5 8 7 1
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72
1
0
3 / 2
1
8
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1 1/ 2
4
8
7
1
R3 R3 5R1
73
1
0
3 / 2
1
1
4
1 2
1
0
3 / 2
1
1 1/ 2
Is the system
4
8
consistent ?
0 5 2
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1/ 2
8
3 2
1
R3 R3 R2
2
74
2 x1 3x2 2 x3 1
x2 4 x3 8
0 5 2
The last equation is a Contradiction.
Hence the System has no solution
( INCONSISTENT)
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75
Ex: Solve the system of equations

x + 2y -3z = 6
2x y +4z = 2
4x + 3y -2z = 14
1/28/2015
76
1 2 3 6
2 1 4 2
4 3 2 14
R2 R2 2 R1
R3 R3 4 R1
1 2 3 6
0 5 10 10
0 5 10 10
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R2 1 R2
5
77
1 2 3 6
0 1 2 2
0 5 10 10
1 2 3 6
0 1 2 2
0 0 0 0
1/28/2015
R3 R3 5R2
R1 R1 2 R2
78
1 0 1 2
0 1 2 2
0 0 0 0
Is this system consistent? What is the value of n-r?
Here x + z = 2
y - 2z = 2
Let z=r (any real number) (variable corresponding to
non-pivot column in RREF )
x = 2 r, y = 2 + 2r
The solution can be written as {(2-r,2+2r,r):rR}
Conclusion: System has Infinitely many solutions
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Ex :
Find the values of a for which the
linear system has unique solution, no
solution and infinitely many solutions.
x + y + z
= 2
2x + 3y + 2z
= 5
2x + 3y + (a2-1)z = a + 1
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80
1
2
1 1
2 3
2
5
2 3 a 2 1 a 1
1
2
1 1
0 1
0
1
0 1 a 2 3 a 3
1/28/2015
R2 R2 2 R1
R3 R3 2 R1
R3 R3 R2
81
1
2
1 1
0 1
0
1
0 0 a 2 3 a 4
unique solution if a 3
no solution if a 3
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82
AX=0
X = 0 is always a solution
called TRIVIAL SOLUTION
Homogeneous system is always consistent.
Results:
1. rank(A) = No. of Unknowns
Then there will be only Unique Solution as
X = 0.
2. rank(A) < No. of Unknowns
Then there will be Infinitely many Solutions.
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83
Exa :Find all the solutions to the given

system
x + 2y + 3z = 0
x + y + z =0
5x + 7y + 9z = 0
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84
1 2 3 0
1 1 1 0
5 7 9 0
Using R2 R2-R1 & R3 R3-5R1

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85
3 0
1 2
0 1 2 0
0 3 6 0
The RRE is
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1 0 1 0
0 1 2 0
0 0 0 0
86
rank(A) = 2 < No. of Unknowns = 3

Hence Infinitely many solutions.
Equivalent system is
x-z=0 & y+2z=0
Let z=r ( any real number)
Then the solution is:
{(r,-2r,r):rR}
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87
Example: Solve
x + y + z =0
x + z
=0
2x +y -2z = 0
x + 5y +5z = 0
1/28/2015
88
Note: In both methods of solving linear

equations, we reduce matrix to REF or
RREF and then look at the augmented
matrix or reduced system of equations to
conclude about the solutions.
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89
Note on Gauss Jordan Method:
If there is a row having all zeros on the left side of

the augmentation bar of augmented matrix but its
last entry is non zero (on the right side of the bar)
then the system Ax=b will be inconsistent.
If not but on the left side of the augmentation bar
of augmented matrix there is a column having no
non zero pivot entry then the system will have
infinitely many solutions. The non pivot columns
correspond to independent variables and the
values of other variables are determined from
those independent variables.
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Otherwise, system will have unique solution. 90
Note: These conclusions are same as what

we have stated using rank of a matrix.
Note: Row space of a matrix will be
discussed after introducing the concept of
vector space.
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91
The Inverse of a Matrix
(Section 2.4)
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92
An n x n matrix A is
NON-SINGULAR / INVERTIBLE
if there exists an n x n matrix B
such that
AB=BA=I
B is called inverse of A.
If there exists no such matrix B, Then
A is SINGULAR.
1/28/2015
93
1 4
9 4
B
A
2 1
2
9
1/28/2015
94
since A B = B A = I
i.e. B is inverse of A
Hence A is NONSINGULAR
Th: Inverse of a matrix is
unique, if it exists.
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95
Properties of the Inverse

Let A and B be nonsingular matrices
Then 1. (A-1)-1 = A
2. (AB)-1 = B-1A-1
3. (AT)-1 = (A-1)T
Th: Let A1, A2, ... , Am are n x n
nonsingular matrices. Then
(A1A2 ... Am)-1 = Am-1 ... A1-1
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96
Th.: Let A and B are n x n matrices.

1. A.B = I implies B.A = I
2. B.A = I implies A.B = I
Th.: A is non-singular matrix and if m & n
are integer, then
m n
1. A
A A
m
2.( A ) ( A )
m n
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n m
97
Remarks:
(i) Reduced row echelon form of

a non-singular matrix is an
Identity Matrix
(ii) If at least one row of row
reduced echelon form of a
matrix is zero, then inverse of
that matrix does not exist
1/28/2015
98
Inverse for 2x2 matrix

a b
For A
c d
1 d b
1
A
provided ad - bc 0
ad bc c a
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99
Algorithm for finding
-1
A
Form the matrix [ A | In ]

Apply the row operations
to the [ A | In ]
Reduce A to reduced row
-1
echelon form: [ In | A ]
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100
Ex: Find inverse of A, if exists

1 1 1
A 1 2 3
0 1 1
Let us write
Same Operations
to this matrix
1 1 1 1 0 0
1 2 3 0 1 0 R2 R2 R1
0 1 1 0 0 1
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101
1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 2 1 1 0 R3 R3 R2
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0
0 1 2 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
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0 R3 1R3
1
102
1 1 1 1 0 0
R2 R2 2 R3
0 1 2 1 1 0 R R R
1
1
3
0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 2 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 2 R1 R1 R2
0 0 1 1 1 1
1/28/2015
103
1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 2
0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1
1
A 1 1 2
1 1 1
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104

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BITS Pilani

Happy New Year

(i) det (AT) = det (A)

(iv) If D is obtained by multiplying a row or column

Upper triangular Matrix :

matrix is called upper

Determinant of a upper triangular matrix

System of Linear Equations

A general system of m linear equations, in n

System of Linear Equations

System of Linear Equations

If all bi are zero then the then the

System of Linear Equations

The above system of equation can be

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

System of Linear Equations

We know that the solution of the system of linear

System of Linear Equations

Above three operations can be

System of Linear Equations

Our attention will be towards the

Row operations on matrices

1. Multiplications of any row by a non-zero

Row Equivalent Matrices

Leading entry of a row

Reduced Row Echelon (RRE)

(i) All zero rows, if there are any, are at

Row Echelon (RE) form of a

An mn matrix satisfying properties

Example-1: Echelon Matrix :

Example-2: Echelon Matrix :

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Ex: Reduced Row Echelon Matrix

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Pivot position: is a position of a

Pivot row/column: a row/column

PROBLEM : Find Reduced Row Echelon form of a

Step 1: Selecting Pivot column :

Step 2: Selecting Pivot Position:

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Ignore the row containing the pivot position

Let us take pivot as

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Step 5: Beginning with the rightmost

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Now let us apply to the system of

a11x1 a12 x2 ......... a1n xn b1

ai1 x1 ai 2 x2 ......... ain xn bi

am1 x1 am 2 x2 ......... amn xn bm

System of linear equations can be

a11 a12 a1n b1

am1 am2 amn bm

Graphical Approach to Solutions:

Example: Two equations in

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Graphical Approach to Solutions:

Example: Two equations in