Corey Berman 9H2

January 2012
Test #4- 1/4/2012 -- Essays
Outline
1.

2.

3.

4.

Membranes
a. Form fits function
i. Describe structure of cellular membrane, including
phospholipid bilayer and transport proteins, as well as
cholesterol and other steroids
ii. Describe how things pass over the membrane
iii. Explain how the structure of the membrane allows this
process to happen
b. ATP synthesis and membranes
i. Describe how membranes take part in ATP synthesis in
mitochondria and chloroplasts (cellular respiration and
photosynthesis)
ii. Detail the enzyme ATP synthase and how it is used in the
production of ATP
iii. Give brief overview of cell.resp. and photosynthesis with
emphasis on ATP production
Cell Resp. and Photosynthesis
a. Describe, in detail and specifically, the similarities and
differences between the two processes, including reactions,
formulas, products and reactants.
b. Include energy transfers and include where the energy came
from for each process
c. Talk about how the ATP is used by cells for cellular processes
d. Talk about how the cell uses ATP to produce G3P ->
carbohydrates
Rate of Photosynthesis
a. See that homework we did about the factors that could affect
rate of reactions, graph, etc.
b. Use temperature (heat) OR wavelength (electromagnetic
spectrum) OR light intensity (distance?? Maybenot sure
exactly on this) and make an experiment to determine how that
factor affects rate of reaction (use scientific method, including
hypothesis, experiment, results, gathering info, etc.)
c. Make sure to include why the results make sense (she likes this
part I think)
Fermentation
a. This experiment
i. Kind of like the graph we did on the first bio test with the
gas bubbles produced in the wine
ii. Explain the role of enzymes in fermentation and why it
would affect the specific graph she gave us on this chart
iii. Apply details of fermentation to this experiment and
explain why it makes sense
b. Fermentation

i. Explain the chemical reactions that occur in the yeast

using your notes on fermentation, explaining the chemical
reactions that result in the gas bubbles

Essays
Essay 1:
Membranes are important structural features of cells. The main
component of the cell membrane is phospholipids. Phospholipids are special
lipids that are composed of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. The
heads are polar and charged, while the tails are not charged. Another
important component of the cell membrane are proteins that go through the
bilayer, including integral and peripheral proteins. Integral proteins are
responsible for transport and receiving messages that are then carried inside
the cell. Peripheral proteins are proteins that remain only on the top or
bottom of the membrane. The top peripheral proteins are responsible for
communication with other cells, and are the cells nametags. They also have
carbohydrates attached to them. The bottom proteins are mostly enzymes.
In the 1970s, Singer and Nicolson proposed the Fluid Mosaic Model as
the structure of the cell membrane, because the phospholipid bilayer
reminded them of a mosaic. There is constant lateral movement between
proteins in the membrane. Cholesterol adds to the membrane by giving it a
firm structure.
The structure of the membrane is very related to the transport of
materials across the membrane. The membrane is selectively permeable,
meaning it only allows specific things to go in and out of the cell. There are
multiple types of transport that the cell does. Passive transport is the
movement of molecules from a high to low concentration, and does not
require energy. Passive transport includes diffusion and osmosis. There are
two types of diffusion- simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. The only
things in the cell that cross the membrane by diffusion are oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Since you want oxygen in the cell and carbon dioxide out,
you need a higher oxygen concentration outside the cell, and a higher carbon
dioxide concentration inside the cell, so diffusion will take place and keep
things the way the body needs. In facilitated diffusion, a transport protein is
required because the material trying to cross the membrane is too big to
cross on its own. Osmosis is the facilitated diffusion of water from high to low
concentration using the transport protein aquaporins. Active transport, on
the other hand, requires energy, and takes materials against the
concentration gradient, from low to high concentration. This process also
requires a transport protein. A classic example is the sodium-potassium
pump, in which sodium and potassium are pumped out of and into the cell,
respectively.
These processes are heavily reliant on the specific structure of the cell
membrane. The phospholipid bilayer allows water to exist inside and outside
the cell, without water getting inside, where the hydrophobic heads are. In
addition, while some nonpolar molecules can pass through the membrane
easily, other important molecules need help from membrane proteins to cross
through. The easiest to cross the plasma membrane would be small,
hydrophobic molecules like carbon dioxide and oxygen. These molecules can
simply pass through the membrane by simple diffusion. The next easiest are
small, hydrophilic molecules such as water. These molecules can go through
passive transport and diffuse through protein channels. Large molecules,

even if hydrophilic, have a harder time passing through because there is a

hydrophobic region of the plasma membrane, and as such these molecules
have to cross through facilitated diffusion. The molecules that have the
hardest time passing through are ions, which need active transport to pass
through because they are charged and not lipid-soluble.
The two general types of transport the membrane does are exocytosis
and endocytosis. Exocytosis is the release of molecules from a cell. This is
when vesicles in the cytoplasm fuse with the membrane and release their
contents, which leave the cell. The vesicles membrane merges with the
cells and replace material lost during the opposite process, endocytosis. In
endocytosis, energy is required, and the plasma membrane folds into the cell,
forming pockets, which pinch off into vesicles in the cell. When large
particles are absorbed it is called phagocytosis, often bacteria.
The normal percentage of sodium chloride in a solution is .9%, called a
saline solution. When the outside environment is also .9% salt, the solution is
in a state of equilibrium with its environment, which is called an isotonic
environment. Since there is more solvent outside than inside a cell, the
solution is hypertonic to the cell. When the opposite is the case, it is
hypotonic to a cell. Animals thrive in isotonic environments to their cells and
bodies, because otherwise cells will shrivel or burst, in hypertonic and
hypotonic environments, respectively. Plants want waster diffusing in to fill
up the central vacuole, at which point the turgor pressure makes the vacuole
press up against the cell wall, keeping the cell upright. Therefore, plants
thrive in hypotonic solutions. Hypertonic solutions can cause plasmolysis to
occur, where the plant wilts. In isotonic solutions, plants vacuoles are not
full, and that is not good either. This relates to the cell membrane and
transport because different organisms require different membrane
permeability and environments, which are dependent on the cell membrane.
Clearly, the structure of the cell membrane is crucial to transport of materials
across the membrane.
The membrane takes part in ATP synthesis in plants. During the first
step of photosynthesis, the light reactions, ATP and NADPH are produced.
When the chlorophyll a in Photosystem II is excited, the electrons pass
through an electron transport chain into Photosystem I. Photolysis occurs,
splitting water into electrons that are donated, oxygen that is released, and
protons that are pumped to make ATP using the energy from the electron
transport chain. The protons are pumped into the thylakoid easily, and flow
down the concentration gradient into the stroma through the enzyme ATP
synthase, which produces ATP when ADP bonds with P. The NADPH and ATP
produced in the light reactions go on to the Calvin cycle and are used to
create G3P, used to make sugar. In this way, the structure of the membrane,
its selective permeability, and its involvement in transport and ATP
production are important features of cells.
Essay 2:
Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are two biological processes
that are very similar and yet very different. For one thing, the reactants and
products in each process are reversed- cellular respiration takes in sugar and
oxygen and releases carbon dioxide, water, and ATP, while photosynthesis

takes in radiant energy, carbon dioxide, and water and releases sugar and
oxygen. Cellular respiration is done in all organisms, whereas all plants,
some Protista, and some bacteria do photosynthesis. Cellular respiration is
done in the mitochondria of cells and photosynthesis takes place in the
chloroplast. Cellular respiration produces energy for all the work the cell
does, while photosynthesis uses the energy it produces to make sugar for the
plant to eat. Both processes produce ATP, adenosine triphosphate, as energy
currency. In addition, in cellular respiration, sugar (high energy) is oxidized
into carbon dioxide (low energy), while in photosynthesis the reverse takes
place. In cellular respiration, oxygen (low energy) is converted into water
(high energy) and the reverse happens in photosynthesis. While cellular
respiration releases energy from organic compounds and uses it to provide
energy for the cell, photosynthesis uses radiant energy and stores it in
organic compounds.
Cellular respiration is a process that requires energy to break down
sugar. The first step of cellular respiration is glycolysis. In glycolysis,
glucose (6 carbons) is broken down into 2 pyruvic acids (3 carbons each), 2
NADHs (electron carriers) and energy in the cytoplasm of the cell. No energy
is involved yet. Then, the pyruvic acids cross into the mitochondria, and
since part of it has no more energy, it releases carbon dioxide and NADH.
Whats left is called Acetyl (2 carbons left), which bonds with Coenzyme A to
make Acetyl CoA. The Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle in the
mitochondrion. Each turn of the Krebs cycle produces 1 ATP, 1 FADH2
(another electron carrier), and 3 NADHs. Two carbon dioxides are
byproducts, which are exhaled. Oxygen is necessary for the next part, the
electron transport chain. In the electron transport chain, electrons delivered
by NADH and FADH are carried from compound to compound. Water is
produced here, and oxygen pulls electrons off to end cellular respiration. The
energy of the electrons fuels a pump that sends hydrogen ions (protons) out
of the matrix into the inner membrane space. Then they want to diffuse back
in, but need to do so through an enzyme called ATP synthase, which creates
ATP by putting ADP + P into ATP. The production of ATP is similar in some
ways to the way it is produced in photosynthesis.
In photosynthesis, the pigment chlorophyll a clumps together into two
photosystems, Photosystem I and Photosystem II. Electrons from
Photosystem I jump to an electron receptor when sunlight shines on it. The
electrons then jump down electron-receiving compounds until they bond and
form NADPH. Electrons from Photosystem II go down an electron transport
chain into the chlorophyll a of Photosystem I to replace the electrons.
Photolysis occurs, splitting water in protons, which go into the thylakoid,
electrons, which replace the electrons that had been in Photosystem II, and
oxygen, which is released into the air. The protons are pumped into the
thylakoid easily, and flow down the concentration gradient into the stroma
through the enzyme ATP synthase, which produces ATP when ADP bonds with
P. The next step of photosynthesis is the Calvin cycle. 3 carbon dioxides are
fused with 3 RuBPs (Ribulose biphosphates) by the enzyme Rubisco. This is
where carbon fixation is done (carbon goes from inorganic to organic
molecule.) Then, ATP and NADPH convert the six 3-carbon molecules into six
3-carbon sugars called G3P. One G3P comes off the cycle, and the remaining

five rearrange using ATP to form 3 RuBPs again. After two rounds of the
Calvin cycle, there are 6 carbon dioxides, or one glucose.
In the end, one can see many similar steps in the two processes, such
as the involvement of an electron transport chain in each, recycling
processes, the presence of electron carriers, and the production of ATP
through ATP synthase. The processes differ in that humans cannot do
photosynthesis, the products and reactants are reversed, and cellular
respiration releases energy from organic compounds, while photosynthesis
stores it in organic compounds. The ultimate energy source in cellular
respiration is sugar, and in photosynthesis energy comes from sunlight and
water. Organisms that do cellular respiration use ATP for various cellular
activities and processes, while the ATP produced in photosynthesis can only
be used to produce sugar, which the plant eats.
Overall, cellular respiration and photosynthesis are two very related
but different processes, each of which is crucial to life. In the end,
photosynthesis is the root of all life as we know it, and we rely on it every day.
Cellular respiration is they way organisms use plants products to function.
Essay 3:
The rate of photosynthesis may vary with changes that occur in
environmental temperature, wavelength of light, and light intensity. I would
do an experiment to test the effect of temperature on the rate of
photosynthesis in the aquatic plant Elodea. In my experiment, I would place
a piece of this plant in a beaker of water. I would put a lamp at a specific
distance from the beaker and keep it there throughout the experiment, to
ensure that light intensity does not have an effect on the experiment. I would
make a small slit in the stem of the plant so that as photosynthesis occurred,
bubbles would be released and I would be able to count them. After even
intervals of time, I would raise the temperature in the beaker, using a
thermometer to measure the temperature of the water. I would start with
cold water and slowly raise the temperature of the water and then proceed to
wait the set amount of time for photosynthesis to occur. When
photosynthesis occurs, I would measure how much gas the plant produced
per the set amount of time by measuring how many gas bubbles were
emitted from the plant. After raising the temperature ten times, I would have
varied numbers of gas bubbles produced, and then I would know the varied
rates of photosynthesis. The results I would obtain would follow a pattern in
which the rate of photosynthesis would change from temperature to
temperature. This is because the enzyme production would be increased as
the substrates moved faster at the optimum temperature, and beyond that
the enzymes would start to denature. There would be a peak of
photosynthesis rate at the optimal temperature, with the rate building up to
the peak and then going down as the enzyme denatured in too much heat.
Essay 4:
The results shown above are directly correlated with the enzymes
catalyzing reactions in fermentation. The first phase of fermentation is
glycolysis. In each step of glycolysis, an enzyme catalyzes a reaction in order

to make it work. These catalyzed reactions eventually break down the

glucose into two pyruvic acid molecules. The two pyruvic acids and the NADH
produced from the first stage of fermentation, are converted to two ethanol,
two carbon dioxide molecules and two NAD. The two carbon dioxide
molecules are responsible for the number of bubbles of gas produced per
minute found on the chart. The number of bubbles of gas produced per
minute is the rate of fermentation.
Ethanol fermentation is done by yeast in the absence of oxygen.
Pyruvic acids lose a carbon dioxide to become a two-CO2 molecule. NADH
from glycolysis then reduces this to ethanol and oxidizes back into NAD+ so
the cycle can repeat and then continue to ATP production.
On the chart, as the temperature increases so does the rate of
fermentation. This is due to the enzymes that facilitate fermentation. The
rate of fermentation rises as the temperature increases. Then, after the
temperature passes 30 degrees Celsius, the amount of bubbles produced
decreases and therefore so too the rate of fermentation. This is explained by
the concept of protein denaturation. If there is a change in heat, enzymes will
reach a point where they will begin to lose their function. This is because heat
will denature an enzymes structure so that it cannot properly perform its
function. In the experiment, the enzymes responsible for catalyzing reactions
in fermentation began to denature at a certain point. The enzymes reached
their optimum at 30 degrees Celsius. After that the heat was too much for the
enzyme, and it began to denature, eventually losing its function at 70
degrees C. Therefore, the results are due to the denaturation of the enzymes
which facilitate fermentation.