Anti-lock Braking System

Mahatma Education Societys

Pillais Institute of Information Technology, Engineering and
Media Studies and Research
New Panvel
410206

Report on
Anti-lock Braking System

Submitted by:
Abdul Samad Mukadam
Ashish Ranjan
Tejas Sabnis
Bhavin Bhawsar
Second Year Automobile Engineering
Project guide: Prof. Darshana Panchkawade
Date of Submission: 12 November 2011

Academic Year: 2011-2012

Mahatma Education Societys

Pillais Institute of Information Technology, Engineering and
Media Studies and Research
New Panvel
410206

Mahatma Education Societys

Pillais Institute of Information Technology, Engineering and
Media Studies and Research
New Panvel
410206

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the requirements for the report entitled Anti-lock Braking
System have been successfully completed by the following students:
NAME

ROLL NO

1) Abdul Samad Mukadam

AE 317

2) Ashish Ranjan

AE 369

3) Tejas Sabnis

AE 363

4) Bhavin Bhawsar

AE 364

In the Department of Humanities, Pillais Institute of Information Technology,

Engineering and Media Studies and Research, New Panvel during the academic
year 2011-2012.
Dr. R. I. K. Moorthy

Dr. Malavika Sharma

(Principal)

(HOD Humanities)
Prof. Darshana Panchkawade
(Internal Examiner)

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

9 NOVEMBER 2011
To
Prof. Dr. Malavika Sharma
HOD (Humanities)
PIIT.
SUB: To seek permission to submit report on Anti-lock Braking System
Dear Madam,
On your request, we are submitting a report on Anti-lock Braking System due on 9
November 2011. The report gives a complete explanation on the concept of ABS.
The information formed on the basis of report was collected sources that include
books, websites and research theses. The members involved in the preparation of
the report are Abdul Samad Mukadam, Ashish Ranjan, Tejas Sabnis and Bhavin
Bhawsar.
We request the approval for presenting the report.

Thank you
Yours faithfully
(On behalf of the group)
Abdul Samad Mukadam

PREFACE

The importance of Anti-lock Braking System is well known in Automobile

engineering fields. This report is structured to cover the key aspects of the topic.
This report uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this topic. It
provides logical methods of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise
methods to explain important topics. Each topic is well supported with necessary
illustrations. All the topics in the report are arranged in proper sequence that
permits each topic to build upon earlier studies.
The report not only covers the entire scope of this subject but explains the
philosophy of the subject. This makes the understanding of the subject clearer and
more interesting. The report will be very useful to all people whether aware or
unaware of the subject.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all we would like to thank The Almighty for giving this wonderful
opportunity. We would like to thank academicians who reviewed our manuscript
and provided with feedback that enhanced the quality of the manuscript.
We wish our deep gratitude to all those who have directly or indirectly encouraged
and assisted in realization of this report. We also extend our thanks to our principal
Dr. R. I. K. Moorthy for his continous support and inspiration.
We take this opportunity to express our gratitude to our teacher Prof. (Mrs.)
Darshana Panchkawade for her encouragement and guidance in her endeavour
without which we would have found it difficult to maintain the tempo and come
out with such a good report.
We are thankful to the HOD of Humanities Prof. Dr. Malavika Sharma
And all the staff members of PIIT, New Panvel for providing us with constant
support and facilities. We also thank the college authorities, non teaching staff and
the professors concerned who have helped us in many ways in preparing this
report.Finally, we would like to thanks our parents for their love. We would also
like to acknowledge with appreciation of their support in our studies.

ABSTRACT

Anti-lock braking System is a safety system that allows the wheels on a motor
vehicle to continue interacting tractively with the road surface as directed by driver
steering inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from locking up (that is,
ceasing rotation) and therefore avoiding skidding. It also highlights the importance
of ABS in vehicle safety. It also gives vivid explanation on working of the system.
It expresses the various parameters where ABS works with slight difference in
operation with respect to the environment. It explains the various types of
components of ABS which include Wheel Speed Sensor (WSS), Electronic Control
Unit (ECU), Hydraulic Modulator Unit (HMU), Valves and Brakes.

TABLE OF CONTENT
Letter of Transmittal.
Preface..
Acknowledgement.
Abstract.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Introduction.
History.
ABS Concept
Motivation for ABS.
Principles for ABS Operation..
ABS Components Overview....
a. Wheel Speed Sensor (WSS)
b. Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
c. Hydraulic Modulator Unit (HMU)..
d. Valves and Brakes..
7. Types of ABS..
8. Effectiveness
9. Applications.
10.Conclusion...
Appendix...
Bibliography..
Glossary.
Index..

1. INTRODUCTION

Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS) are designed to maintain driver control and
stability of the car during emergency braking. The anti-lock brake controller is also
known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock Brake). Locked wheels will slow a car
down but will not provide steering ability. ABS allows maximum braking to be
applied while retaining the ability to 'steer out of trouble . The operation of ABS
can slightly reduce stopping distance in some cases like on wet road surfaces, but it
can increase the stopping distance in others, as may be the case in deep snow or
gravel. For passenger car applications, the majority of ABS components are often
housed together in a single, under-hood mounted module.
Applying brakes too hard, or on a slippery surface, can cause the wheels to lock.
When wheels lock, steering control is lost and, in most cases, it produces longer
stopping distances. The antilock braking system prevents wheels locking or
skidding, no matter how hard brakes are applied, or how slippery the road surface.
Steering stays under control and stopping distances are generally reduced. Even
when applying the full force of braking power, the vehicle remains under your
complete control thanks to the Anti-lock Brake System. It uses precise regulation
of the braking pressure on the individual wheels to ensure that the vehicle can
always be steered easily. ABS prevents the wheels from locking, regardless of the
road surfaces friction coefficient and the applied brake pressure.
ABS is an abbreviation for Anti-lock Braking System. It was designed to help the
driver maintain some steering ability and avoid skidding while braking. ABS was
introduced in the mid -1980s and has become "standard" equipment on the
majority of vehicles sold in Canada. ABS in cars and most Multi-purpose Vehicles
(MPVs) works on all four wheels. This promotes directional stability and allows
steering while maximizing braking. The ABS in most pick-up trucks works only on
the rear wheels, which promotes directional stability only. However, there are some
available with ABS on all four wheels. Anti-lock Braking systems were developed
to reduce skidding and maintain steering control when brakes are used in an
emergency situation. However, cars with anti-lock brakes are up to 65% more
likely to be in fatal crashes than cars without them, says a new US study.

2. HISTORY

The ABS was first developed for aircraft use in 1929 by the French
automobile and aircraft pioneer, Gabriel Voisin, as threshold braking on
airplanes is nearly impossible. These systems use a flywheel and valve
attached to a hydraulic line that feeds the brake cylinders. The flywheel is
attached to a drum that runs at the same speed as the wheel.
In normal braking, the drum and flywheel should spin at the same speed.
However, if a wheel were to slow down, then the drum would do the same,
leaving the flywheel spinning at a faster rate. This causes the valve to open,
allowing a small amount of brake fluid to bypass the master cylinder into a
local reservoir, lowering the pressure on the cylinder and releasing the
brakes. This system revolutionized the field of vehicle security.

Timeline
1936: German company Bosch is awarded a patent for an Apparatus for
preventing lock-braking of wheels in a motor vehicle.
1936-: Bosch and Mercedes-Benz partner - R&D into ABS.
1972: WABCO partners with Mercedes-Benz developing first
trucks.

ABS for

1978: First production-line installation of ABS into Mercedes

vehicles.

and BMW

1981: 100,000 Bosch ABS installed.

1985: First ABS installed on US vehicles.

. 1986: 1M Bosch ABS installed.

 1987:

Traction control in
on passenger vehicles.

conjunction

with

ABS

used

used

1989: ABS hydraulic unit combined with standard hydraulic

brake unit
1992: 10M Bosch ABS installed.
1995: Electronic Stability - in conjunction with ABS and
TCS - for passenger cars.
1999: 50M Bosch ABS installed.
2000: 6 of 10 new cars on the road are ABS equipped.
2003: 100M Bosch ABS installed.
1986: 1M Bosch ABS installed.
1987:

Traction control on passenger vehicles.

in

conjunction

with

1989: ABS hydraulic unit combined with standard hydraulic

brake unit
1992: 10M Bosch ABS installed.
1995: Electronic Stability - in conjunction with ABS and
TCS - for passenger cars.
1999: 50M Bosch ABS installed.
2000: 6 of 10 new cars on the road are ABS equipped.
2003: 100M Bosch ABS installed.

ABS

3. ABS Concept
An ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping
distances on dry and slippery surfaces for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces
like gravel or snow-covered pavement, an ABS can significantly increase braking
distance, although still improving vehicle control.
Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have
evolved considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking,
but also electronically control the front-to-rear brake bias. This function, depending
on its specific capabilities and implementation, is known as electronic brakeforce
distribution (EBD), traction control system, emergency brake assist, or electronic
stability control (ESC).
An ABS system monitors four wheel speed sensors to evaluate wheel slippage. Slip
can be determined by calculating the ratio of wheel speed to vehicle speed, which
is continuously calculated from the four individual wheel speeds. During a braking
event, the function of the control system is to maintain maximum possible wheel
grip on the road - without the wheel locking - by adjusting the hydraulic fluid
pressure to each brake by way of electronically controlled solenoid valves.
The ABS is a four-wheel system that prevents wheel lock-up by automatically
modulating the brake pressure during an emergency stop. By preventing the wheels
from locking, it enables the driver to maintain steering control and to stop in the
shortest possible distance under most conditions. During normal braking, the ABS
and non-ABS brake pedal feel will be the same. During ABS operation, a pulsation
can be felt in the brake pedal, accompanied by a fall and then rise in brake pedal
height and a clicking sound. ABS assists the driver by preventing the wheels from
completely locking and applying the optimum braking pressure to the individual
wheels, thus ensuring the vehicle can still be steered and shortening braking
distances on slippery surfaces.
ABS regulates the force of brake pressure on each wheel to provide both maximum
braking effectiveness while still allowing the wheel to continue rotating in a

controlled way. If the system recognizes that a wheel is locked or almost locked, it
momentarily reduces the brake force, letting the wheel rotate.

4. Motivation for ABS

Stopping a car in a hurry on a slippery road can be very challenging. Anti-lock
braking systems (ABS) take a lot of the challenge out of this sometimes nervewracking event. In fact, on slippery surfaces, even professional drivers can't stop as
quickly without ABS as an average driver can with ABS.
The ABS was first developed for aircraft use in 1929 by the French automobile and
aircraft pioneer, Gabriel Voisin, as threshold braking on airplanes is nearly
impossible. These systems use a flywheel and valve attached to a hydraulic line
that feeds the brake cylinders. The flywheel is attached to a drum that runs at the
same speed as the wheel. In normal braking, the drum and flywheel should spin at
the same speed. However, if a wheel were to slow down, then the drum would do
the same, leaving the flywheel spinning at a faster rate. This causes the valve to
open, allowing a small amount of brake fluid to bypass the master cylinder into a
local reservoir, lowering the pressure on the cylinder and releasing the brakes.
The use of the drum and flywheel meant the valve only opened when the wheel
was turning. In testing, a 30% improvement in braking performance was noted,
because the pilots immediately applied full brakes instead of slowly increasing
pressure in order to find the skid point. An additional benefit was the elimination of
burned or burst tires.
The basic design of a braking system has been around and in use in other
applications for many years. The brakes in a car use the simple principle of
hydraulics. This principle reduces the amount of work required by the user
The problem with the traditional braking system is that the force exerted by
the brakes on the wheel cannot exceed the force of friction between the wheel and
the road. If the braking force exceeds the force of friction from the road the vehicle
will begin to slide. This problem brought about the invention of the anti-locking
breaking system (ABS). The ABS detects drastic changes in the speed of the
wheels. When a sharp deceleration is detected the ABS will reduce the hydraulic
pressure supplied to the braking system until the wheel begins to accelerate again.
When the acceleration is detected the pressure is again increased until an unusual

amount of deceleration is detected. The process is repeated until the user removes
their foot from the brake pedal or the vehicle comes to a complete stop.

5. Principles for ABS operation

Design Goals:

attain minimum stopping distance

maintain stability and steerability

Design Solution:
Develop a system that rapidly modulates the braking force under hard braking
conditions to:

maintain the ideal tire slip percentage to maximize braking force

( 15%), recalling that Fbrake = BN

permit the vehicle to be steered with stability maintained by

preventing skidding

6. ABS Components Overview

Typical ABS Components:

Wheel Speed Sensors (up to 4)

Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

Brake Master Cylinder, Hydraulic Modulator Unit with Pump and Valves
Vehicles Physical Brake

Wheel Speed Sensor (WSS)

Teeth on the sensor ring rotate past the magnetic sensor, causing a reversal
of the magnetic field polarity, resulting in a signal with frequency related to
the angular velocity of the axle. The anti-lock braking system needs some
way of knowing when a wheel is about to lock up. The speed sensors, which
are located at each wheel, or in some cases in the differential, provide this
information.

Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

The signal from the WSS is proportional to angular velocity. By differentiating

this signal, acceleration of each wheel is known. If a wheel is decelerating too
quickly the brake pressure is modulated.
A fifth input to the ECU is from a brake pedal switch. This signal can shift
program execution from a standby to an active state
The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each
individual wheel speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to
the controller, the controller will then limit the brakeforce (EBD) and activate the
ABS modulator which actuates the braking valves on and off

Hydraulic Modulator Unit (HMU)

The hydraulic modulator unit contains the ABS pump as well as solenoid valves
for each brake line.
The fifth line - far right - is from the brake master cylinder, which is connected
to the brake pedal.

Valves and Brakes

The valves modulate the brake pressure up to 20 times per second,

effectively realizing the ideal tire slip percentage. There is a valve in the
brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems, the valve
has three positions:
In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is
passed right through to the brake.
In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the
master cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should the
driver push the brake pedal harder.
In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.
Pump
Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be
some way to put that pressure back. That is what the pump does; when a

valve reduces the pressure in a line, the pump is there to get the pressure
back up.
ABS pumps the brakes much faster than any driver could.

7. Types of ABS
Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes
in use. They can be differentiated by the number of channels: that is, how many
valves that are individually controlledand the number of speed sensors.
Four-channel, four-sensor ABS
This is the best scheme. There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a
separate valve for all four wheels. With this setup, the controller monitors
each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving maximum braking
force.
Three-channel, four-sensor ABS
There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for each of
the front wheels, but only one valve for both of the rear wheels.
Three-channel, three-sensor ABS
This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS, has a
speed sensor and a valve for each of the front wheels, with one valve and
one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed sensor for the rear wheels is
located in the rear axle. This system provides individual control of the front
wheels, so they can both achieve maximum braking force. The rear wheels,
however, are monitored together; they both have to start to lock up before
the ABS will activate on the rear. With this system, it is possible that one of
the rear wheels will lock during a stop, reducing brake effectiveness. This
system is easy to identify, as there are no individual speed sensors for the
rear wheels.

One-channel, one-sensor ABS

This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS. It has one
valve, which controls both rear wheels, and one speed sensor, located in the rear
axle. This system operates the same as the rear end of a three-channel system.

8. Effectiveness
A 2003 Australian study by Monash University Accident Research Centre found
that ABS:
Reduced the risk of multiple vehicle crashes by 18 percent,
Reduced the risk of run-off-road crashes by 35 percent.
On high-traction surfaces such as bitumen, or concrete, many (though not all)
ABS-equipped cars are able to attain braking distances better (i.e. shorter) than
those that would be easily possible without the benefit of ABS. In real world
conditions even an alert, skilled driver without ABS would find it difficult, even
through the use of techniques like threshold braking, to match or improve on the
performance of a typical driver with a modern ABS-equipped vehicle. ABS
reduces chances of crashing, and/or the severity of impact. The recommended
technique for non-expert drivers in an ABS-equipped car, in a typical full-braking
emergency, is to press the brake pedal as firmly as possible and, where appropriate,
to steer around obstructions. In such situations, ABS will significantly reduce the
chances of a skid and subsequent loss of control.
In gravel, sand and deep snow, ABS tends to increase braking distances. On these
surfaces, locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. ABS prevents
this from occurring. Some ABS calibrations reduce this problem by slowing the
cycling time, thus letting the wheels repeatedly briefly lock and unlock. Some
vehicle manufacturers provide an "off-road" button to turn ABS function off. The
primary benefit of ABS on such surfaces is to increase the ability of the driver to
maintain control of the car rather than go into a skid, though loss of control
remains more likely on soft surfaces like gravel or slippery surfaces like snow or
ice. On a very slippery surface such as sheet ice or gravel, it is possible to lock
multiple wheels at once, and this can defeat ABS (which relies on comparing all
four wheels, and detecting individual wheels skidding). Availability of ABS
relieves most drivers from learning threshold braking.

A June 1999 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) study

found that ABS increased stopping distances on loose gravel by an average of 22
percent.
According to the NHTSA,
"ABS works with your regular braking system by automatically pumping them. In
vehicles not equipped with ABS, the driver has to manually pump the brakes to
prevent wheel lockup. In vehicles equipped with ABS, your foot should remain
firmly planted on the brake pedal, while ABS pumps the brakes for you so you can
concentrate on steering to safety."
When activated, some earlier ABS systems caused the brake pedal to pulse
noticeably. As most drivers rarely or never brake hard enough to cause brake lockup, and a significant number rarely bother to read the car's manual, this may not be
discovered until an emergency. When drivers do encounter an emergency that
causes them to brake hard, and thus encounter this pulsing for the first time, many
are believed to reduce pedal pressure, and thus lengthen braking distances,
contributing to a higher level of accidents than the superior emergency stopping
capabilities of ABS would otherwise promise. Some manufacturers have therefore
implemented a brake assist system that determines that the driver is attempting a
"panic stop" (by detecting that the brake pedal was depressed very fast, unlike a
normal stop where the pedal pressure would usually be gradually increased, Some
systems additionally monitor the rate at the accelerator was released) and the
system automatically increases braking force where not enough pressure is applied.
Hard or panic braking on bumpy surfaces, because of the bumps causing the speed
of the wheel(s) to become erratic may also trigger the ABS. Nevertheless, ABS
significantly improves safety and control for drivers in most on-road situations.
Anti-lock brakes are the subject of some experiments centred around risk
compensation theory, which asserts that drivers adapt to the safety benefit of
ABS by driving more aggressively. In a Munich study, half a fleet of taxicabs
was equipped with anti-lock brakes, while the other half had conventional brake
systems. The crash rate was substantially the same for both types of cab, and
Wilde concludes this was due to drivers of ABS-equipped cabs taking more
risks, assuming that ABS would take care of them, while the non-ABS drivers
drove more carefully since ABS would not be there to help in case of a
dangerous situation. A similar study was carried out in Oslo, with similar
results.

9. Applications
There are many different variations and control algorithms for use in an ABS. One
of the simpler systems works as follows:

1. The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for
decelerations in the wheel that are out of the ordinary. Right before a wheel
locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration. If left unchecked, the wheel
would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might take a car five
seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 km/h) under ideal conditions, but a wheel
that locks up could stop spinning in less than a second.

2. The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it

reduces the pressure to that brake until it sees acceleration, then it increases
the pressure until it sees the deceleration again. It can do this very quickly,
before the tire can actually significantly change speed. The result is that the
tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the tires
very near the point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the system
maximum braking power.

3. When the ABS system is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the
brake pedal; this comes from the rapid opening and closing of the valves.
This pulsing also tells the driver that the ABS has been triggered. Some ABS
systems can cycle up to 16 times per second.

10.Conclusion

An ABS typically consists of:

Up to 4 wheel speed sensors
An ABS ECU
A Brake Master Cylinder, with accompanying Hydraulic Modulator
Unit and Solenoid Valves
The vehicles physical brakes
An ABS is designed to modulate braking pressure to attain the peak
coefficient of kinetic friction between the tire and the road, and to avoid total
wheel lockup.
An ABS, under hard braking conditions, is designed to reduce stopping
distances under most conditions, while maintaining vehicle stability and
steerability.

You have to understand that ABS does not raise the traction limits of your
vehicle. It only helps you stay within the limits. Period. So, don't get caught
up in believing that ABS will allow you to drive any faster, brake later or go
around a corner any faster - or allow you to safely follow any closer.

Appendix
ABSAn

abbreviation

for

"anti-lock

braking system."

ABS SWITCHSensor that monitors hydraulic system pressure and

controls the pump motor in an ABS application.
AC Alternating current.
AC GENERATORA device that produces alternating current; an alternator.
ACTUATOR A device that performs an action or outputs a signal in
response to a signal from a computer.
AIR BRAKESVehicle

brakes actuated

by

air pressure.

AIR COMPRESSOR A pump that forces air, under pressure, into a storage
tank.
ALTERNATORAn ac generator.
ALTERNATOR BEARINGNeedlelow friction surface for a rotor.
AMMETERAn electric meter
electric circuit. AMPEREA unit
measurement.

or

ball-type bearings used to provide a

that measures current, in amperes, in an

of electric current flow

ANTI-LOCK BRAKE COMPUTERECM that accepts wheels sensor inputs

and controls braking of the vehicle.
ANTI-LOCK BRAKESComputer controlled brakes that will not "lock" and
permit the wheels to skid. ANTI-RATTLE CLIPSMetal components designed
to keep brake pads from vibrating and rattling. ANTI-SKID SYSTEM
Another name for anti-lock braking system.
ARMATURE Rotating support for multiple windings in a motor.
ASPECT RATIOThe relationship of tire height to width or profile.

Bibliography
D. L. Lewis and L. Goldstein, The Automobile and American Culture (1983);
J. J. Flink, The Automobile Age (1988);
B. Olsen and J. Cabadas, The American Auto Factory (2002);
P. Wollen (ed.) and J. Kerr (ed.), Autopia: Cars and Culture (2003).
John R. Meyer and Jose A. Gomez-Ibanez, Autos, Transit, and Cities
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).
James J. Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1975).

http://ehow.com
http://howstuffworks.com
http://carabs.com
http://automotiva.com

Glossary
A
ABS
Acronym for Anti-Lock Braking system. Anti Lock braking systems sense the
speed and rate of deceleration of each of the wheels of a vehicle independently
and, through a microprocessor control system, act to prevent lock up of any of the
tyres under braking force by cycling the line pressure to the wheel that is
approaching lock up. Most current passenger cars are fitted with ABS.
Air brake
A brake system where all the braking energy is supplied from a separate source,
(air under pressure).

B
Brake bias
The term used to indicate the ratio between the amount of braking force exerted on
the front tyres compared to the rear.
Brake lining
Friction material, usually applied to drum brakes.

C
Coefficient of friction
see "Mu" A dimensionless indication of the ratio between the applied force and the
normal reaction force. Brake friction materials give a coefficient of friction of
between 0.35 and 0.5 when clamping onto a iron disc. A tyre will have a coefficient
of friction of between 0.7 and 1.0 on a dry tarmac road surface.

D
Disc brake
A type of brake using a rotor as a surface on which a caliper generates frictional
forces.

O
Off brake drag
A condition in which the brake pads do not fully retract when line pressure is
released. Off brake drag increases temperature and wear while decreasing
acceleration, top speed and fuel mileage. It is caused by either non-optimum seal
design, seals that have been hardened by thermal stress or excessive disc run out.

T
Traction Control
see "ASR" A system to prevent wheel spin under rapid acceleration. Utilising the
foundation brakes and engine control.

S
Servo
Generally used for a vacuum brake booster. A large diameter can which creates
additional braking force in proportion to the pedal force. It's takes it's power from
the manifold vacuum or a vacuum pump.
Silicone brake fluid
Brake fluid based on silicone. Used by the military as it can operate in wide
ambient temperature conditions and classic and custom cars where paint damage
from glycol ester based fluids would be disastrous. While silicone based fluids are
not hygroscopic they are subject to "frothing" when subjected to high frequency
vibration and when forced through small orifices readily trapping air particles.
Stainless steel brake lines
Flexible brake hoses made of extruded PTFE protected by a tightly braided cover
of stainless steel wire. They virtually eliminate line swelling under pressure giving
shorter stiffer brake pedal feel and allowing smaller master cylinder diameters to
be specified. Many do not comply with road regulations as the have no traceability
markings and fail flex tests by fraying at the end fittings. Universally used in
racing where suspension travel is limited and life is short. Fully complying road
parts are available buyer beware.

Index
A
ABS Concept
ABS Components Overview
Applications
E
Electronic Control Unit
Effectiveness
H
History
Hydraulic Modulator Unit (HMU)
I
Introduction
M
Motivation for ABS
P
Principles for ABS Operation
V
Valves and Brakes
W
Wheel Speed Sensor (WSS)