El t i l Measurements

Electrical
M
t
Code: EPM1202
Lecture: 4

Tutorial: 2

Total: 6

Dr. Ahmed Mohamed Azmy

Department of Electrical Power and Machine Engineering
Tanta University - Egypt
Faculty
F
l off
Engineering

Tanta University

DC and AC bridges
Used to measure values of all electric components
including, resistance, inductance and capacitance
Theyy are the most accurate devices for the
measurements of resistance and impedance
B id
Bridges
are commonly
l used
d as impedance
i
d
t voltage
to
lt
converters
Bridges have four arms with different elements, an
indicator and a dc or ac source
They depend on the use of a null-balance meter to
compare two voltages

DC and AC bridges
It is a simple, accurate and widely used measurement
method that depends on an instrument reading being
adjusted
j
to read zero current onlyy
If there is a deflection, then some current is flowing
If there
th
i no deflection,
is
d fl ti
no currentt flows
fl
( nullll
(a
condition)
It is unnecessary for a meter sensing current flow to
be calibrated
A sensitive milliammeter or microammeter with centre
zero position setting, called a galvanometer, are used

DC bridges
Wheatstone bridge
It is used for medium resistance measurements

R1

R2
I1

I2
2

G
Ia
Ra

IX
RX

Wheatstone bridge
It is used for medium
resistance measurements
Zero indication occurs when
V-Ra is equal to V-RX
The balance is independent
on the supply voltage

R1

R2

I1
1
Ia
Ra

I2
G

IX
RX

The resistances R1 and R2 are precision devices of

known value
The resistance Ra is an adjustable resistance to
reach the bridge-balanced
g
condition

Wheatstone bridge
Under balanced conditions:
R1

I1 R1 = I 2 R2
I a Ra = I X R X

R2

I1
1
Ia

I2
G

IX

Ra

The current I1 is equal

q
to Ia
The current I2 is equal to IX

I 1 Ra = I 2 R X

R1 R2
=
Ra RX

RX

Wheatstone bridge
Ra R2
RX =
R1

R1

R2

I1

The
standard
adjustable
resistor
i t is
i called
ll d the
th rheostat
h
t t
The other two resistors are
called
ll d the
th ratio
ti arms

1
Ia

I2
G

IX

Ra

RX

A number of known variable resistors is required

The accuracy of the resistance measurement can
reach 99.5%

Errors of the Wheatstone bridge

g
Limiting errors
of the three
known resistors
Temperature variation
affects resistor values
With different resistors
resistors,
the power loss and the
variation is not the same

The inadequate
sensitivity of the
null detector
The resistances of
connectors and leads
are added to the total
circuit resistance

These factors limit the measurements of Wheatstone

bridge for resistances higher than 1.0

Wheatstone bridge
Example:
In a Wheatstone bridge ABCD, a galvanometer is
connected between A and C,
C and a battery between
B and D. A resistor of unknown value is connected
between A and B. When the bridge is balanced, the
resistance between B and C is 100 ,
that between
C and D is 10 and that between D and A is 400 .
Calculate the value of the unknown resistance.

Wheatstone bridge
Solution:

B
Rx

The balance equation

is given as:

100
A

Rx * 10 = 100 * 400
Rx = 4000

R1

400

10

Ra

R2
D

Kelvin Bridge
If the measured resistance is low, the resistance of
the connecting wires affect the measurement

R1

R2
I1

I2

G
Ia
Ra

P
IX

n
RX

Ry

Kelvin Bridge
Ry is the resistance
of the connecting
g lead
from R2 to RX
At point m
m , the
resistance Ry is
added to the RX,
giving higher value

R1
I1
1

R2
I2

G
Ia
Ra

P Ry
IX

n
RX

At p
point n,, Ry is added to R2 decreasing
g RX

Kelvin Bridge
At point P:
Ra
RX + Rnp = (R2 + Rmp )
R1
Ra
Ra
RX = R2
+ Rmp
Rnp
R1
R1

R1
I1
1

R2
I2

G
Ia

IX

Ra

m
n

P Ry

RX

The effect of the connecting lead will be canceled, if

the sum of the last two terms is zero

Rmp

Ra
Rnp = 0
R1

Ra Rnp
=
R1 Rmp

Kelvin Bridge
Two resistances are added to Wheatstone bridge to
form Kelvin double bridge
g to measure resistance
below 1
4
R1

R2
I1

I2
P

G
Ia

IX

Ra
2

RX

Kelvin Bridge
4

R
Rmp and R
Rnp are firstly
adjusted

R1
I2

I1

Ra Rnp
=
R1 Rmp

R2
m

P
Rmp
3
G
Rnp
Ia
IX
n
Ra
2

RX

The stray voltage drops between Ra and RX are

adjusted by sizing Rmp and Rnp with ratio equal to
the two ratio arms

Kelvin Bridge
4

The balance occurs

when the voltage across
the resistance Ra is
equal to the voltage
across
the
two
resistances R
X and
Rnp in series
The unknown Resistor
RX in a balanced Kelvin
Bridge is given by

R1

R2
I2

I1

P
Rmp
3
G
Rnp
Ia
IX
n
Ra
2

Ra R2
RX =
R1

RX

Ac Bridges
The magnitude and the angle have to be considered
The balance gives two equations to get two unknowns
The ac bridge consists of four impedance arms, ac
source and
d a nullll detector
d t t
Two conditions should be fulfilled: the first is related to
the magnitude and the other is related to phase angle
Two independent adjusting elements are necessary in
order
d to
t balance
b l
such
h bridge
b id circuit
i it

Ac Bridges
Z1 Z X = Z a Z 2

ZX

Za Z2
=
Z1

ZX

Za Z2
=
Z1

Zx

G
Za

Z X = Z a + Z 2 - Z1

Z2

Z1

Ac Bridges
It will not be enough to achieve a balance regarding
only the impedance magnitudes without phase angles
I this
In
thi case, there
th
will
ill still
till be
b voltage
lt
across the
th
terminals of the null detector
The standard component has to be adjusted until the
null detector device indicates zero reading
The value of the unknown component can be
determined directly from the setting of the calibrated
standard using some mathematical calculations

Ac Bridges
To get the balance equations of ac bridges circuits:
(i) Determine the impedance in each arm in complex
form and write down the balance equation
q
(ii) You may need to use XL and XC instead of L or
1/(C)
1/(C)
(iii) Isolate the unknown terms on the left-hand side of
the equation
eq ation in the form a + j b
(iv) Augment the terms on the right-hand side of the
equation into the form c + j d
((v)) Equate
q
the real p
parts a = c, and the imaginary
g
y
parts b = d

Inductive comparison bridge simple

M
Maxwell
ll bridge
b id
Used to determine the value of unknown impedance
containing an inductance
R1

R2
D
LX

LS
RS

RX

Simple Maxwell bridge

Z1 = R1

R1

Z 2 = R2
Z 3 = Rs + jLs
Z 4 = R X + jL X

Z1 * Z4 = Z2 * Z3

R2
D
LX

LS
RS

R1 ( R X + jLX) = R2 ( Rs + jLs)

R1 R X + j R1 LX = R2 Rs + j R2 Ls

RX

Simple Maxwell bridge

R1 R X + j R1 LX = R2 Rs + j R2 Ls
R1 R X = R2 Rs

R1

R1 LX = R2 Ls
R2
RX =
Rs
R1
R2
LX =
Ls
R1

R2
D
LX

LS
RS

RX

Capacitance Comparison Bridge

Used to measure the value of unknown impedance
comprising a resistance and capacitance in series
R1

R2

D
CS
RS

RX
CX

Capacitance Comparison Bridge

Z1 = R1

R1

Z 2 = R2

1
Z 3 = Rs - j
C s

D
CS

1
Z 4 = RX j
C X
1
1
R1 ( R X j
) = R2 ( R s j
)
C X
Cs
C

R2
RX =
Rs
R1

R2

R1
CX =
Cs
R2

RS

CX

RX

The Hay bridge

It is used to measure the resistance and inductance
of a coil having a very high L
L / R
R ratio
R1

R2

C1
D

LX
R3

RX

The Hay bridge

R1

1
Z1 = R1 - j
C1
Z 2 = R2

R2

C1

Z 3 = R3

Z 4 = R X + j L X

R3

R1 - j
(R X + jL X ) = R2 R3
C1

LX
RX

R1RX + LX / C1 = R2 R3

LX R1 - RX / C1 = 0

R1 RX C1 + LX = R2 R3 C1

LX = RX / 2 C1 R1

The Hay bridge

R1 RX C1+ RX / 2 C1 R1
= R2 R3 C1

R2 R3 C1
RX =
1
R1 C1 + 2
C1 R1

RX =

2
C1 R1R2 R3
1 + 2 C12 R12

R1
C1
D
R3

C1R2 R3
LX =
2 2 2
1 + C1 R1

R2

LX
RX

The bridge is frequency

dependant

The Maxwell-Wien Bridge

It is used to measure the resistance and inductance
of a coil having a low or medium L
L / R
R ratio
C1

R2
R1
D
LX
R3

RX

The Maxwell-Wien Bridge

Z1 = R1 // (-jX C )

Z 2 = R2

C1

R2
R1

Z 3 = R3

Z 4 = R X + j L X
1
Y1 =
+ j C1
R1
Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 Y1

R3

LX
RX

R X + jL X = R2 R3 + j C1
R1

The Maxwell-Wien Bridge

1

R X + jL X = R2 R3 + j C1
R1

R2 R3
RX =
R1
LX = R2 R3 C1

The Schering Bridge

It is used to measure the capacitance and equivalent
series resistance of a capacitor
It can be used also
to measure the
power factor of an
insulating materials
The dielectric loss
may be determined
for any insulating
materials
from
these calculations

C1

R2
R1
D

C3

CX
RX

The Schering Bridge

Z1 = R1 // (-jX C )
Z 2 = R2

C1
R1

1
Z3 =
j C3
1
Z 4 = RX +
j C X
1
Y1 =
+ j C1
R1

R2
D

C3

Z 4 = Z 2 Z3Y1

CX
RX

The Schering Bridge

1
R2
RX +
=
jC X
jC3
C1
R2
RX =
C3

+ j C1
R1

C1

R2

R1

R2
1
=
j R1 C3
j C X
R1
CX =
C3
R2

D
C3

CX
RX

The Owen Bridge

It is used to measure the resistance and inductance
of coils possessing a large value of inductance
C2

C1

R2
D
RX
R4

LX

The Owen Bridge

1
Z1 =
j C1

Z2

C1

1
= R2 +
j C 2

Z 3 = R x + j L x

C2
R2
D

R4

Z 4 = R4

1
1
) R4
( Rx + jL x ) = ( R2 +
j C1
j C 2

RX
LX

The Owen Bridge

( Rx + jLx ) =

C1

C1
( j C1 R2 +
) R4
C2

L x = C1 R2 R4

R2
D

R4

C1
Rx =
R4
C2

C2

RX
LX

Example: The bridge is used to measure the

capacitance CX and resistance RX. (a) Derive the
balance equations (b) Given R3 = R4, C2 = 0.2 F, R2
=2 5 kW and the frequency of the supply is 1 kHz,
=2.5
kHz
determine the values of RX and CX at balance
CX
RX

R4
D
R3

C2
R2

1
1
1
1
j
=
+
=
+
ZX R X - jX C X R X X C X
Z2 = R 2 j X C 2

1
1
+ j C X
RX

ZX =

1
1
+ j C X
RX

Z3 = R 3

Z4 = R 4

R3 = (R2 j X C X )R4

CX

R3
1
=
+ j C X
(R2 j X C 2 )R4 R X

R3 (R2 + j X C X )

R22

X C2 2

)R4

1
=
+ j C X
RX

RX

R4
D
R3

C2
R2

R3
1
R3 R2
C2
+ j C X =
+j
RX
2
2
1
1
R2 + 2 2 R4
R2 + 2 2 R4
C2
C2

1
R3 R2
=
RX 2
1
R2 + 2 2 R4
C2

R4 R22 2 C 22 + 1
RX =
R2 R3 2 C 22

R4 1 + 2 C 22 R22
RX =
R2 R3 2 C 22

R3
CX =
C 2 R4 R22 2 C 22 + 1 / 2 C 22

R3 2 C 22
CX =
C 2 R4 2 C 22 R22 + 1

R3 C 2
CX =
R4 1 + 2 C 22 R22

Substituting the given values given that R3 =R4:

RX =

RX =

R4 1 + 2 C 22 R22
R2 R3 2 C 22

) = 1 + 2 C 22 R22
R2 2 C 22

) (2.5 *10 )
2
3
6 2
(2.5 *10 )(2 *1000) (0.2 *10 )

1 + (2 *1000) 0.2 *10

2

6 2

1 + 9.8696
RX =
= 2.75 k
3
3.9478 *10
C2
R3 C 2
=
CX =
2 2 2
2 2 2
1
+

C 2 R2
R4 1 + C 2 R2

0.2 *10- 6
CX =
= 0.0184 F = 18.4 nF
1 + 9.8696

3 2

Example: For the bridge shown in the figure,

examine
i
f the
for
th bridge
b id
b l
balance.
If the
th bridge
b id
i nott
is
balanced, suggest different modifications to restore
balance
1000

1000
Z1

Z3
D
500

Z4

100
100

Z2
500
500

Z1 = 1000 90
Z 3 = 1000 0

Z 2 = 500 0

Z 4 = 100
00 + j500 = 509.90
509.90278.69

509 902 78.69

78 69 = 509902 - 11.3
11 3
Z1 Z4 = 1000 - 90 * 509.902
Z2 Z3 = 5000 * 1000 0 = 5000000
Both the magnitude and the angle are not identical
Th configuration
The
fi
ti itself
it lf has
h to
t be
b modified
difi d

Modifications: Maxwell-Wien bridge

R2 R3
R1 =
R4

=1000 * 500 / 100

= 5000
L4 = R2 R3 C1
L4 = R2 R3 C1
XL4 = R2 R3 / XC1
= 500 * 1000 /1000
= 500

R1
D
500

This is the same value given in the circuit

circuit, which
means a balanced condition

Modifications: Owen Bridge

(100 +

j 500 )( J 1000 )

= 1000(500 - jX C2 )

500 *1000
= 1000 * 500

C2

D
500

100 * ( 1000 )

= 1000(- X C2 )

Xc2 = 100