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PHYS1500 Lecture Notes Astronomy
PHYS1500 Lecture Notes Astronomy
05 August 2013
12:43
Lecture 2
Chapter 7 Our Planetary System
Text Sections: 7.1 and 7.2
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
describe the main features of the planetary orbits
identify the differences between terrestrial and gas giant planets
Solar System
Sun is a yellow main sequence G2 star. It contains 99.8% of the solar system's mass.
All the planets lie in the ecliptic plane, to within 6 degrees.
Orbits
Various people including Copernicus, Kepler and newton proved that the planets moved
around the sun.
Definition of Planet
1. A planet is a celestial body that
a. Is in orbit around the sun
b. Has sufficient mass for its self gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes
hydrostatic equilibrium shape (round)
c. Has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit
2. A dwarf planet is a celestial body that
(a) is in orbit around the Sun
(b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a
hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape
(c) has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit
(d) is not a satellite.
The Solar System Page 2
13:08
Lecture 3
Chapter 8 Formation of the Solar System
Text Sections: 8.1 8.5
identify the evidence for the age of the solar system
identify the evidence related to the formation of the solar system
describe the main stages in the formation of the solar system and formation of the planets
describe the hypotheses explaining the vastly different compositions and masses of the terrestrial and
giant planets
Nebula hypothesis
Formation of the Sun and Structure of the Solar system
1. Ingredients: Fragment of an interstellar cloud. H (71%), He (27%), rest (~2%) by mass. Initially cold gas
2. External trigger: Supernova? Gravitational disturbance? Causes collapse
3. Collapse: R ~ 5-10,000 AU to R ~ 700,000 km in 10^6 years. (only a million years to form the Protosun) Central
density increases fastest, so the centre collapses fastest. Thus Sun forms in centre, where density and
temperature is highest.
4. Heating: Cloud collapse releases gravitational PE. Gas pressure eventually balances gravity.
5. Spin: Conservation of angular momentum. Velocity increases with collapse until it reaches orbital speeds
(neglecting viscous forces within the gas).
6. Flattening: From a cloud to a disk
a. Natural consequence of particles in a spinning cloud
This process is seen in other currently forming solar systems through the observation of IR caused by heating. Other
forming stars also appear to be ejecting jets outwards perpendicular to their disks.
Anomaly Explanations
It seems unlikley that Uranus and Neptume would form under this model, at their current distance
Thus it means that it is most likely that the orbits change
1. Giant planets formed 15-20 AU with a disk of planetismals further out
2. Orbits Slowly Expand until after 900 Myr Saturn ends up in a 2:1 gravitational resonance with Jupiter and
pushes the other planets out.
3. This can scatter planetismals towards inner solar system, producing late heavy bombardment
4. Neptunes orbit may also govern Kuiper belt objects (causing orbit to expand)
This means that the outer planets may not have formed where they currently are.
11:06
Comparative Planetology
The Moon
The Solar System Page 6
The Moon
Too small to retain heat of formation (therefore less volcanic activity)
Tidally locked to the Earth
The flooding of large impact basins caused by large impacts, puncturing the surface and producing mare.
(large flat lava plains)
This is because the near side has a thinner crust and is more easily punctured.
The mare was flooded late and thus there is 'saturation cratering' on highlands
Mars sized planetesimals collided with protoearth, thus creating the moon.
The moon has similar composition to the outside rocky layer of Earth and does not contain any
vaporizable material such as water
Cratering:
A meteorite approaches and hits. It is deformed heated and vaporised, forming a round crater.
Can bounce back in the centre forming a central peak.
Mare Imbrium:
An impact forms a large multi-ringed basin which continues to be impacted
More impacts form a few large craters, and about 3.8 bya lava flows into low regions
Repeated lava flow covers most of the inner ring and merge with the other flows
More impacts continue to form younger craters such as Copernicus
Mercury
Also too small to retain head of formation, thus the crust is winkled by shrinking during cooling
Causes steep cliffs
No large dark flooded impact basins
Partially flooded Caloris basin
Tidally coupled to the sun, 3 Rotations for 2 orbits.
Extreme surface temperatures because no atmosphere
Lost geological activity after 1 billion years, similar to moon
Relatively large metallic core, core shouldn't be liquid but produces weak magnetic field (unexplained)
Venus
(Information from spacecraft down on the surface, and radar altimetry)
Some mountains but mostly low lands
Clear evidence of large volcanoes, due to larger size
Dark grey basalts on the surface
The Solar System Page 7
Mars:
Half ancient cratered terrain~2-3 Gyr old and half smoother flood plains with relatively few craters
These Northern lowlands have had their craters erased by geological processes
Large shield volcanoes supported by thick crust
Polar caps of H2O and CO2
Small core- no magnetic field
Increasing evidence for surface water in the past
Atmosphere too thin at the moment to allow liquid water
Tied up as permafrost under the surface
Gullies and channels carved by liquid flows
Rounded pebbles
Polar ice caps
Atmospheres
Magnetospheres
Venus and Mars have very small magnetic fields due to their motion and size respectively
Mercury has a noticeable magnetic field possibly due to its large metallic core
If Mars was initially hotter, it would have had a magnetosphere which would allow for a thicker
atmosphere (because it is protected by solar winds.)
Aging of the planet causes core to cool, reducing the magnetosphere and exposing it to solar wind
This would allow UV light to penetrate and break down water molecules as welll
14:19
outline the formation of the gas giants, and contrast this with the formation of the terrestrial planets
compare the sizes, masses and compositions of the giant planets
identify the cloud layers in the giant planets atmospheres
describe the belt and zone circulation in Jupiter's atmosphere
These planets initially all started beyond the ice line (where it was cold enough for hydrogen compounds to
condense) as ice-rich planetesimals about 10x the mass of Earth. They then accreted Hydrogen and Helium until
the solar winds blew the nebula away. The closer planets would be able to capture more.
Comparison
Atmosphere comparison
Jupiter has ammonia ice layer with water ice close under
Saturn has ammonia layer
Ice is further down because it is colder
Uranus has ammonia layer but cannot see further down
Neptune has ammonia layer
Interiors
Since Jovian planets were bigger during formation of solar system, they can pull in the Hydrogen which escapes
from smaller planets such as Earth.
Jupiter
Visible Clouds then gaseous, liquid and metallic hydrogen in Jupiter
Hydrogen mantle is conductive material and will form the magnetic field
Internal heat may be a result of ongoing contraction
Saturn
Visible Clouds then gaseous, liquid and metallic hydrogen as well
Hydrogen mantle is conductive material and will form the magnetic field
Saturn is not as big and thus there is not as much metallic hydrogen
Internal heat may be a result of helium rain which can condense; thus differentiation
Uranus and Neptune
In Uranus and Neptune, not large enough to compress hydrogen down into a solid (metallic) state.
Gaseous Hydrogen, Water with Rocky centre
Less extreme temperatures allow interiors to differentiate
Magnetic fields
Aurora
Occurs on Jupiter and Saturn due to their magnetospheres
Jupiter observed to emit radio waves due to charged particles hitting Jupiter and magnetic environment.
Rings
Rings structures are governed by moons and gravitational resonances.
Saturn
Poorly understood- extremely thin (<1km)
Thin rings suggests small, icy objects (bright)
Dirtier rings are closer to Saturn
Rings are not stable, lose angular momentum due to the small embedded moon
Brightness suggests they are quite young, as solar winds will darken rings
Origin
Likely: Disruption by tidal forces, Moon goes too close to planet and gets ripped apart
Impact from comet and spraying material off
Small moons losing material from the sun and occasionally being ripped apart constantly replenishes rings
Division in rings ; Governed by gravitational resonances
Caused by: Moon orbiting in the division; causing density waves
Moon in orbital resonance
Braided ring have Shepard moons on either side, causing particles of the ring to stay together in a tight ring
Jupiter
Dark and reddish rings (not bright) because it is too close to the sun to be an icy structure
Densest near the inner moons, therefore probably blasted off these moons
Uranus and Neptune
Extremely dark, due to methane ice being broken down
Very narrow rings due to Shepard moons
Not too old since particles are blasted from moons
Clumpiness suggests too young to have reached steady state
Lecture 6: Moons
15 August 2013
15:25
Io
Most volcanically driven active object in
the solar system- due to resonances
that cause orbit to be slightly elliptical
Europa
Tidal heating effect exists but is much
smaller. It must exist because older
craters are erased
Smoothest object in the Solar System
Ice crust hiding deep ocean, heated
by mantle
Criss-crossing bands 20-40 km wide
and thousands of km long are
fractures filled by water that froze,
coloured because of contaminants
Has a magnetic field which responds
to changes in Jupiter's. Thus Europa
must have a liquid layer of conducting
material.
Activity driven by tidal heating
Ganymede
Largest moon in the solar system
Moon like ice surface
Some regions are dark and densely cratered while others are light coloured with very few
The Solar System Page 14
Some regions are dark and densely cratered while others are light coloured with very few
craters (indicating upwelling of liquid)
Limited tidal heating because far away from Jupiter, thus perhaps combination of tidal heating and
radioactive decay (larger mass) cause a water interior
Callisto
Heavily cratered ice ball
White spots are craters from large impacts which have blasted out 'clean' ice from underneath
Titan
Second largest moon in the Solar System
Big and far enough from heat to have an atmosphere
Thick smog denser than our atmosphere:
Mostly Nitrogen, methane and traces of organic compounds
Janus, Epimetheus
Two moons which have a Co-orbital: orbital radii differ by <50 km
Due to gravitational attraction, moons trade orbits periodically
Neptune
Triton
Very unusual terrain, intense geological activity despite being so far away
Ice volcanoes, nitrogen geysers
Only major moon to have a retrograde orbit and at a high inclination to Neptune's equator
One of two moons to have an atmosphere
Possibly explains Neptune's odd spin and orbit after Triton was captured
Moons show enormous variety in their structure.
13:07
Chapter 12 Asteroids, Comets and Dwarf Planets: Their Nature, Orbits and Impacts
Text Sections: 12.1 12.4
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
identify the locations and nature of the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud
describe how meteorites are related to asteroids and comets
sketch the structure of a comet
describe their formation and roles in supplying long and short period comets to the inner solar system
describe the nature of Pluto, Eris and other Kuiper Belt objects
discuss the danger of asteroid impacts on Earth
Asteroid Belt
The leftover of rocky planetesimals of the inner solar system.
Preferred orbits governed by the gravitational influence of Jupiter.
Bands of gaps which are in resonance with Jupiter.
About 100,000km away from each other
Most are extremely dark; Variety of compositions: C, S, Metal etc.
33 main asteroid belts approx. 200km across
The asteroid belt and the Kuiper belt are protected regions from gravitational influence.
This is why asteroids are not everywhere from the formation of the solar system
Large objects such as Jupiter cause objects to be thrown out into scattered orbits
Halley's Comet
Periodic visits every 75-76 years
Comet Nuclei
Big ball of ice mixed with some dust
Marked on surface due to impacts
Comet Shoemaker Levy 9
Comet broke up into sub comets and then collided with Jupiter
Impacts on Jupiter caused chemical changes in its surface
13:07
Sun will become red giant and things may start warming up
Earth has atmosphere and signs of an impact indicate the past when the moon was formed
A sharp large shadow indicates a small planet, Jupiter and other planets are too big and too far
away from their moons
Uranus is facing side on however moons still orbit in the same plane
Brown dwarfs will have a slight glow
Lecture 9: Exoplanets
26 August 2013
13:07
Lecture 9
Chapter 13 Other Planetary Systems: Their Nature, Orbits and Impacts
Text Sections: 13.1 13.4
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
Solutions
A star will wobble back and forth as the star and planets orbit the common centre of mass
Planets can block light from stars
Planets also gravitationally bend light
Methods
Radial Velocity: The Doppler Effect
Star will orbit around the barycentre of a solar system
The light will be red shifted and blue shifted by different amounts due to the effects of the planet.
This tells us the periodic variation in velocity which indicates an unseen planet.
Microlensing
When a planet is directly in front of light from a distant star it can bend the light and focus it.
The light will be magnified first by the star in the solar system and then again by the planet
However can only happen once and does not occur regularly and thus is not as useful
Direct Imaging
Reducing the intensity until objects can be seen around
the star. Light is subtracted from an image
Hard to achieve
Pulsar Timing
Measuring changes in velocity of a pulsar
Detection Bias
We are not necessarily seeing 'typical' solar systems
Radial velocity: favours close in, massive planets. (because they have a bigger effect on the star)
Transit: favours large, close in, short period planets. (Larger planets will cause a bigger change in intensity)
Typical observing campaigns favour shorter periods (days or months). (Because planets are not observed
for years at a time)
The Solar System Page 21
Conclusions
Three important results from Kepler
More smaller planets (almost down to size of Earth) than planets such as Jupiter and Neptune
Many solar systems found where two more planets transit across star (thus in same plane)
Indicates same Nebula Hypothesis explanation of a flattened disc of gas and dust around the young
star
At least 500 million (1%) of planets in the habitable zone
13:33
Lecture 10
Chapter 14 Our Star
Text Sections: 14.2 and 14.2
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
Core: High density core which provides energy through nuclear reactions
Radiative zone: Where photons of light travel through radiation, photons are continually deflected
randomly and gradually move out through radiative diffusion
Convective Zone: Since gas is cooler here, photons can be absorbed. Thus it starts to boil and convection
begins. Lumps of hot gas start to rise up, like boiling water.
Photosphere-Where the gas peters out. The place where on average, a photon will escape (visible layer)
Granulation Pattern- The 'bubbling' layer on the surface of the sun.
Sunspots- Areas that are cooler with intense magnetic fields. Indicate active regions. Occur in a 22
year cycle
Solar maximums have high periods
of solar activity (and more sunspots)
and occur on an 11 year basis.
Furthermore the magnetic field will
flip every 11 years as well. Thus
forming a 22 year cycle. (to flip back
to normal)
Chromosphere is where temperature increases with altitude and most of the UV light is emitted
Corona forms outer layer, which is significantly hotter than photosphere
Corona is usually observed in Xrays and is the outer layer, most easily in seen in solar eclipses
Shows material being thrown out from sun
Not very dense but extremely hot
2. Mathematical Models
3. Solar Neutrinos
Predicted to be formed and also detected
Initially not enough were detected, but then it was found that nuetrino's can decay into different
types
12:45
Lecture 11
Chapter 5 Light and Matter
Text Sections: 5.4
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
Groups of Stars
Stars occur singly or in groups- Most stars are born in groups
Binary/multiple systems
Stars that are gravitationally bound
Stellar Associations
Young stars that are not gravitationally bound
Star Clusters
Can stay together for hundreds or millions of years (or more)
Open Clusters (galactic Star clusters)
Not gravitationally bound so disperse
over time
Less tightly packed
Associated with the spiral arms and
disk of our galaxy
The diagram below shows the
The Stars Page 26
Measuring Distance
Trigonometric Parallax
One method uses trigonometric parallax
Uses baseline of the earth's orbit (6 months apart)
Moves approx. 1 arc second
D(pc)= 1/parallax (arc seconds)
Nearest star is 1.3pc away
1 pc = 3.26 ly = 3.08x10^13 km
Apparent Magnitudes
Apparent Magnitudes (m) are brightness's as seen from the earth measured relative to a set of
standard stars
mA mB = 2.50log10 (fA/ fB)
Correspondence
Sun's apparent magnitude: -26.7
Absolute Magnitudes
Apparent magnitude if the star was placed at a distance of 10 pc
Other magnitudes
Flux from a star will vary with wavelength
U Effective 365 nm,
bandwidth ~ 70 nm
B effective- 440 nm,
bandwidth ~ 100 nm
V effective 550 nm,
bandwidth ~ 90 nm
12:20 PM
14:38
Balmer lines of H
Strength of H lines is proportional to:
The number of atoms with electrons available
Too cool means not enough electrons would START in the number 2 level (all in number 1)
Too hot means not enough electrons would FINISH in the number 2 level (all at higher levels
or not in the atom)
i.e. Even though the sun has lots of hydrogen. It is too cool for the optimum Hydrogen transitions.
Thus the temperature of the star determines what elements are going to show up strongly.
Line strength mainly reflects temperature sensitivity, not abundance.
i.e2. Titanium Oxide will break down in stars that are too hot but have lines in stars that are cooler
Spectral Classes
Since spectral lines depend on temperature. Stars began to be classified, depending on their temperature.
Brown dwarfs (core temp is too low to sustain H fusion) have new classes: (L and T)
Lots of spectral lines represent lots of metal lines.
The Stars Page 31
Luminosity Classes
Luminosity classes are based on the width of spectral lines. (They indicate how big the star is)
This diagram indicates 3
stars of the same spectral
class (temperature).
However, they are all of
different luminosity.
1.The top star has thin
spectral lines. This is
because it is giant, with a low
gas density. Thus limited
broadening
The 2nd and 3rd stars are
The Stars Page 32
HR Diagrams
Plots Luminosity
Or Absolute Magnitude
Against Temperature
Or Spectral Type
Or Colour Index
Properties
On the main sequence , increasing temperature means increasing luminosity
Therefore for the main sequence, spectral classes also sequence in mass
Spectral effects
M dwarfs are very common but are usually invisible
O dwarfs are rare but are visible as naked eye dwarfs to 1000 pc
14:06
Lecture 13
Chapter 16 Star Birth
Text Sections: 16.1 16.3
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
1. Molecular Cloud
Giant molecular clouds are the primary place for star formation. Should be cold and dense. Cold
temperatures are due to interstellar dust which radiate away thermal energy
UV light cannot break up molecules deep inside the cloud (as they are protected by the outside)
Cold temperatures are needed so that Gravity can overcome thermal pressure of gas clouds
Gas particles in molecular clouds remove thermal energy by emitting photons
Clouds occupy 1% of volume but contain 90% of mass of ISM (interstellar medium)
2. Cloud Collapse
If conditions are right the clouds may collapse
Nearby supernova or galactic spiral density wave
Clouds collapse under self-gravity if they exceed the jeans mass
The colder the cloud is, and the denser the cloud is; the more likely it is that it's going to collapse
Collapse is uneven-> Core collapses faster than outer layers and approaches equilibrium while outer
layers still free fall inwards. This forms the protostar in the centre
3. Protostar
Density starts increasing and thus the radiation gets trapped and absorbed -> Protostar heats up
Forms a pre-main sequence star
Stellar Structure
Tells us about the lifetimes of Main Sequence stars
Hydrostatic Equilibrium: Gravity vs. Pressure
Equation of state: Ideal Gas, gas molecules don't interact (How the gas behaves)
Energy generation: Fusion
Energy Transport: Radiation, Convection.
These things help us understand the lifetimes of stars on the main sequence.
14:06
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
identify that the evolution of a star is determined by its initial mass
describe the evolution of a low-mass star into a red giant, a planetary nebula and a white
dwarf
identify that fusion of elements heavier than hydrogen requires higher temperatures
Helium Flash
1. Helium begins to build in the core from hydrogen fusion in the shell.
a. Instead of the fusion being able to be regulated by expanding and cooling in a MS star, the new helium
causes further contraction.
b. This causes the helium core to rise in temperature
2. When the temperature of the star is high enough (100million K) Helium burning begins in the core. (triple
alpha process He->C)
3. The onset of helium fusion heats core rapidly without expansion (because degeneracy pressure, not
thermal, was holding the inert helium core before)
4. This causes a massive increase in luminosity in core, called helium flash
5. As temperature rises
due to He burning in
core and H burning in
shell: radius and
luminosity will drop
(even though two types
of fusion), but
temperature will
increase; thus changing
colour from red back to
yellow.
6. The weaker pull of
gravity will also cause
the release of mass in
stellar winds
It will now be on the
main sequence of He
burning
The radiation from the hot remnant core will ionise the gas in the expanding shell, making it hlow
This nebula will disappear within a few million years
Death
Cannot fuse iron together, so gas pressure drops and gravity takes over
Core Collapse in less than 1 second (electron degeneracy pressure cannot hold)
Collapse rebounds from a superdense state and Blows off the outer layers as a supernova explosion
(10 billion times the luminosity of our sun)
Ejecta produces a supernova remnant.
This can produce a shockwave of fast moving gas which sweeps out from the supernova
Heavier elements are generated during a supernova via neutron capture
Leaves behind a neutron star (which may collapse into a black hole)
Supernova remnant
These are expanding clouds of debris which are left after a supernova
12:54 PM
Neutron Stars
Mass of 1.5-3 solar masses. (but 10-20 km across)
Supported by neutron degeneracy pressure
Spinning very fast due to conservation of angular momentum, thus very strong magnetic field spinning
around, causes narrow beams of radio waves.
Black Holes
Proof
Know of binaries (also X-ray binaries) where one companion MUST be a black hole
Evidence for super-massive black holes in cores of galaxies
4:50 PM
describe the orbits of the stars in the Galactic disc and bulge
sketch the major structural components of the Galaxy
describe the composition of interstellar gas
identify the phases of the interstellar medium
identify the effects of intervening dust on the properties of stars
define HII regions, reflection nebulae and molecular clouds
The Milky Way appears in the sky as a faint band of light. Obscured by dusty gas clouds, which are part of the
interstellar medium. This cosmic dust mostly comes from supernovas and solar winds from red giants and is part of
interstellar medium.
X rays are observed from
hot gas above and below
the disk.
21cm radio waves
emitted by atomic
Hydrogen shows gas
across the disc
Radio emission from CO
shows locations of
molecular clouds.
Long wavelength IR
emission shows where
young stars are heating
dust grains.
Gamma Rays shows
where cosmic rays from
supernovae collide with
atomic nuclei in gas
clouds.
The Components of the Galaxy
The main components of the galaxy. Are the bulge, the disc and the halo.
Proof of the ISM (how do we see this gas since it's not hot enough to be part of a star or emit xrays?)
Interstellar spectral absorption lines from the visible light from stars
The 21 cm emission from H can be observed all across the galaxy.
This arises from the spin of the electron and proton. When the spin flips, a 21 cm emission line will be emitted
Mapping HI can be done by telescopes such as the Parkes telescope. Since this is an emission line, velocities can also
be determined.
Nebulae
Can range from small globules to Giant Molecular Clouds
Emission Nebulae:
UV light from hot young stars ionises hydrogen to form a HII
region- causing them to emit visible light (esp. red H line)
Are found near short-lived, high mass stars, signifying active
star formation.
Reflection Nebulae:
In these star forming regions starlight is reflected from dust grains
produces a blue colour.
This is because blue is more easily scattered by interstellar dust
The Milky Way Page 45
Reflection Nebulae:
In these star forming regions starlight is reflected from dust grains
produces a blue colour.
This is because blue is more easily scattered by interstellar dust
Dark Nebulae:
Dense clouds leading to reddening, with no starlight passing through
Molecules
OH and CO are easy to see at radio wavelengths
H2 is hard to see at UV wavelengths so, CO is used as a tracer for H2 .
These molecules are easily destroyed by UV photons from hot stars, and thus can only survive within
dense, dusty clouds where they are protected
15:01
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
sketch the rotation curve of the Galaxy and explain how it constitutes evidence for dark matter
describe the global cycle of star formation and chemical enrichment of interstellar gas that occurs in the
Galaxy
identify the relative contributions of low and high mass stars to the total luminosity, mass and chemical
enrichment of the interstellar medium
define metallicity, and explain how the metallicity of the interstellar medium evolves with time
describe the trends in the spatial variation of metallicity within the Galaxy
describe the various ways in which star formation may be triggered
identify objects that trace spiral arms
explain the winding problem for spiral arms
describe the density wave theory of spiral structure
define population I and II objects, and identify several examples of each
Stars: Make elements beyond hydrogen by nuclear fusion and return this gas to interstellar gas
Lower mass stars return gas through stellar winds and planetary nebula
High mass stars have strong stellar winds
Supernovas:
As supernova remnant will cool and begin to emit visible light as it expands.
The new elements made by supernova will mix into the interstellar medium. (heavier elements are
made during explosions though neutron capture)
Multiple supernovae can create hot bubbles that can blow out of the disk of the galaxy. This
produces a galactic fountain. The gas will escape to a certain distance up, then cools and comes back.
As time goes on the ISM will become enriched with heavier elements. However with each new generation of stars,
despite recycling some gas will be tied up in brown dwarfs and stellar corpses. Thus there is only a finite amount of
gas
Population III:
Proposed earliest generations of star with ZERO metal content (because even population 2 have SOME
metals such as Iron, which must have come from supernovae)
These exploded in supernovae
inner stars would orbit in less time than the outer and this would result in the spiral arms winding or tightening.
(and we don't see this)
12:23 PM
Lecture 19
Chapter 19 Our Galaxy
Text Sections: 19.2
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
sketch the rotation curve of the Galaxy and explain how it constitutes
evidence for dark matter
identify objects that trace spiral arms
explain the winding problem for spiral arms
describe the density wave theory of spiral structure
The milky way is a barred spiral galaxy with diameter ~100,000 light years and a mass ~1012 solar masses, much
of it invisible!
Observe objects at other wavelengths, and catalogue their directions and distances (because of the
presence of dust)
Trace the orbital velocities of objects in their different directions relative to our position
Globular Clusters
Approximately 200 known in the halo. Quite bright because so many stars
Clustered around the centre of the galaxy
IR observations of stars and dust reveal a CENTRAL BAR across the bulge.
Gas density increases as you move inwards, peaking in a collection of clouds called the molecular
ring.
Dark Matter
99% of the mass of the solar system is the Sun so orbital velocity decreases with distance as expected, however
this is not the case for galaxies.
14:07
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
describe the evidence for a massive black hole at the Galactic centre
outline a scenario for the formation of the Galaxy
Black Holes
Milky Way's black hole is believed to be about 4 million solar masses
When stars fall in into a rotating black hole, they are torn apart and release X rays.
Unlike most black holes, Sgr A* does not continually emit X-rays. Thus we can assume that it does not have
an accretion disk, possibly because matter falls into it in big chunks instead of a smooth swirling flow of an
accretion disk.
This model explains many features of our galaxy, but upon further inspection it does not explain the heavy
element proportions
1. Galaxy forms a giant gas cloud
2. Halo stars form first as gravity caused the cloud to contract
3. Remaining gas settles into a spinning disk
4. Stars continuously form in the disk as the galaxy grows older
Current Picture
1. Halo stars formed in smaller clumps (protogalactic clouds) then later merged
2. Accretion of smaller satellite galaxies continues
3. Gas in the milky way's disk is replenished from outside
Accretion of Dwarf Galaxies (step 2)
Dwarf galaxies leave behind a long filament of stars trailing in its path around the galaxies, which will
eventually merge with halo stars
This is something that continues today
14:07
Specific Objectives
describe the various types of galaxies
contrast the stellar populations and gas content of irregular, spiral and elliptical Galaxies
Edwin Hubble
Proposed: The more remote a nebula is, the faster it appears to be moving away from the observer
Introduced the concepts of elliptical and spiral galaxies
Types of Galaxies
Classified by appearance of stellar population. (Though sometimes there is no clear division)
Elliptical:
regular appearance, no obvious disk
Dominant stellar population is old (with little or no recent star formation)
Type 0-7 according to eccentricity
Red-yellow colour suggests older population (though some may have regions of new)
Both giants and dwarfs
This particular galaxy is surrounded by 10,000
globular clusters. Thus thought that many of
these clusters were formed in cataclysmic event.
Especially since they are quite young
Interstellar gas is mainly hot, gaseous corona
often seen in X-Rays. (therefore cannot form
gas)
Lenticular Galaxy:
Intermediate between spiral and elliptical
Has disc shape but doesn't have dust or spiral arms
Full of older stars
Thought to be spiral galaxies that are not making new stars
Multiphase interstellar medium, mainly cold neutral gas in disk and spiral arms
Sombrero galaxy is in between elliptical and spiral. Spiral like shape is due to a ring of captured gas, around much older stars in
the centre. This may have happened when an initially spiral galaxy was dragged through the hot gas in the centre of a cluster;
stripping its own gaseous disk away.
Spiral:
Extra-Galactic Astronomy Page 55
Spiral:
regular appearance, obvious disk, selection effect (70%) because of bright O/B stars
Old stars (Pop II) in halo, younger stars (Pop I) in disc
Classified into a b and c according to tightness of arms, size of bulge and amount of gas
Multiphase interstellar medium with cold neutral gas
Irregular:
irregular/asymmetric in appearance.
Blue white colour indicates ongoing star formation (in the case of the magellanic cloud)
Various origins; result of collisions and mergers
Usually dwarf galaxy satellites
Extremely faint
Diverse population, some galaxies are rich in cold neutral gas others have zero
Spectroscopic Classification of Galaxies
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Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
explain how to determine distances to galaxies using observations of distance indicators (Cepheids and type Ia
supernovae)
describe the Hubble law and how it can be used to determine distance
identify the Local Group
describe the expansion of the universe and the interpretation of redshift
Most of these methods are standard candle techniques, which figure out the true luminosity, compare it to
apparent magnitude and work out the distance.
Redshift
Redshift is an observation which can be used to measure distances for galaxies extremely far away
Hubble's Law
By observing relatively nearby galaxies he plotted their apparent velocity (from redshift) against known
distance (from other methods)
More modern methods allow plotting of galaxies which are much further away
This demonstrates a relationship between Velocity and distance
Extra-Galactic Astronomy Page 58
Since the distances between galaxies is relatively small, galaxy collisions DO occur.
The galactic nuclei will merge
Stars will not collide that often to due large distances, so essentially it is gas clouds colliding
Immediate burst of intense star formation (starburst) then supernovae and stellar winds blow away
mass, leaving no new stars to form
Stars die out leading to the formation of a large elliptical galaxy
Super clusters and voids
Local groups such as ours form
part of larger clusters and super
clusters such as the Virgo super
cluster
Maps of galaxies reveal voids and
super clusters which probably
started off as regions of varying
density
Galaxies cluster together in
throughout the universe in a non
uniform fashion when you are
observing on a big scale
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Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
Text Sections: 21.1 21.2
describe the models for the formation of galaxies
Text Sections: 23.1 23.3
explain what is meant by dark matter and dark energy
describe methods to determine the masses of galaxies (rotation curve, velocities within a cluster)
describe the evidence for dark matter in galaxies and clusters
explain the gravitational lens effect
Histories of Galaxies
When looking at galaxies extremely far away, we see how galaxies are when they are young. Around this time
galaxy shapes were much less distinct. There must have been low level irregularity for the formation of galaxies.
Note: Before 300,000 years all we can see is the cosmic microwave background radiation. Light was scattered
during this time. We see low level structure, but at this point there were no galaxies.
We assume:
Matter (mainly dark matter)
originally filled all of space almost
uniformly
Gravity of denser regions pulled in
surrounding matter
This picture shows the positions of
galaxies in the universe.
Milky Way
Star formation occurs at high redshift (early galaxies) in high mass galaxies in dense environments. At low
redshift (closer to present) these dense environments have little star formation activity.
Formation
The Milky Way is a typical spiral galaxy. It has evolved (as most spirals) in moderately over dense regions, but
not dense clusters.
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Dark Matter
In Individual Galaxies
1. We expect orbital velocities of stars to reach a peak then decrease.
(as they do in the solar system)
Spiral Galaxies
tend to have flat
rotation curves;
indicate large
amounts of dark
matter
Rotation curve
comes from red
and blue shift.
2. In elliptical galaxies, the broadening of spectral lines tells us how fast the stars are orbiting (due to
Doppler shift). More broadening means broader lines. This high velocity is also explained by dark matter
In clusters of Galaxies
1. Orbits of galaxies in clusters: found that galaxies have much greater masses than their luminosity would
suggest
2. Clusters contain large amounts of X-Ray emitting hot gas which fills the space between galaxies. The
temperature of hot gas tells us the cluster mass.
85% dark matter
13% hot gas
2% stars
3. Can also be seen through gravitational lensing. The bending of light rays by gravity can also be used to
determine a cluster's mass. This method is important as it uses a different method to using newton's law of
gravitation
To get the amount of gravitational lensing
observed, more mass is required than can be
Extra-Galactic Astronomy Page 61
Evidence
All three methods (velocities, hot gas and lensing) indicate similar amounts of dark matter.
Thus either:
1. Dark matter really exists and we are observing the effects of its gravitational attraction
2. Or something is wrong with our understanding of gravity, causing us to mistakenly infer the existence of
dark matter
Types of Dark Matter (candidates)
Baryonic Matter (normal matter) - Things like brown dwarfs or planets etc. Could make up some of the
dark matter- collectively called massive compact halo objects (MACHOs).
Weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPS, the common view)- More exotic particles like axions
14:07
describe the observed properties of quasars and the evidence that they lie at great distances
describe the observed properties of radio galaxies and Types I & II Seyfert galaxies
describe the unified model of active galaxies and explain how it explains their observed
properties
Composite Quasar Spectrum: Formed by taking all quasar spectrum and adding together
Their optical spectrum is dominated by lines from ionised gas (not stars, since the galaxy is far below the
bright light)
Radiate over a wide range of
wavelengths, indicating they
contain matter with a wide
range of temperatures
Brightness and distance imply luminosities that can be greater than 10 12 Lsun
Galaxies around quasars often show evidence of mergers/interactions
Radio Galaxies
Radio galaxies were observed to be objects which emit unusually strong radio waves. (from pairs of radio
Extra-Galactic Astronomy Page 64
Radio galaxies were observed to be objects which emit unusually strong radio waves. (from pairs of radio
lobes). Quasars and radio galaxies are thought to be the same object viewed in different ways.
AGN shoots out jets of high energy particles directed by a twisting magnetic field. These strike the intergalactic medium to create the radio emitting lobes. Now these lobes give off radio waves
The radio waves are coming from relativistic electrons moving at near light speed (synchrotron emission)
Radio Lobes
Trails of plasma can be radio imaged. Emissions from jets pointing towards us are enhanced compared to the jet
moving in the other direction.
This can reveal many things such as how AGN can shoot out blobs of plasma moving at nearly the speed of light (it
can appear as super luminal motion) Material in the jet is 'chasing' the light it emits.
Seyfert Galaxies
Have active galactic nuclei which are less powerful
Variability ~50% over a few months
Probably what a Quasar looks like in its old age (much less luminous)
orbital speed and distance of gas orbiting them. These black holes may seem to be dormant active galactic nuclei.
All galaxies may have passed through a quasar-like stage earlier in time
The mass of a galaxys central black hole is closely related to the mass of its bulge - implying that the
development of a central black hole must somehow be related to galaxy evolution.
The unified model helps explain the properties of AGN by viewing angles. The black hole will create an accretion disk
and jets of material will be streamed out from this black hole at high velocities. However these broad emission lines
will only be seen at a certain angle, and when seen in the plane they are obscured by slower moving gas.
6:57 PM
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
describe the assumptions of cosmology
describe and explain Olbers' paradox
describe and explain the primordial background radiation in the context of the big bang theory
explain how the abundances of elements supports the big bang theory
identify the main stages in the history of the universe according to standard big-bang theory of
cosmology, including recombination
Assumptions in Cosmology
The Location Principle: It unlikely that we occupy a special place in the universe.
Universality: that all the laws of physics are the same everywhere in the universe
The Cosmological principle: Considering the largest scales in the universe, we make the following
fundamental properties
Homogeneity: On the largest scales, the universe has the same physical properties everywhere
Isotropy: On the largest scales, the local universe looks the same in any direction that one observes
Olber's Paradox
Why is the sky dark at night?
If the universe is infinite then every line of sight should end on the surface of a star at some point. (the night should
be as bright as the surface of stars)
Therefore this implies there is only a finite number of stars/galaxies that have light which had time to travel to us,
because the universe began at a particular moment.
General relativity predicts different possible histories of the universe: Cosmology studies which model we
live in
i.e. Negative curvature- infinite space
Flat models - infinite space
Positive Curvature- finite space
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It is also able to explain structure by inflation increasing the wavelength of quantum fluctuations, called
quantum ripples. This would cause density enhancements which would explain the structure of the
universe (density enhancements without inflation are too small)
It is also able to explain the flatness of the universe because the enormous expansion would have
flattened any curvature that the universe may have previously had
Dark Matter (another factor)
Is dark matter some kind of normal matter? However the density of baryonic matter is only 4% of the critical
density and thus most dark matter must be non baryonic.
However even with dark matter observations show that the total density of matter is only about 25% of
the critical density
Dark Energy
Dark energy can curve space time in the same way as dark matter. Calculations show that the amount of dark
energy required for acceleration of the universe is very similar to the amount needed for the observed flat
universe.
This dark energy Is thought to exert a repulsive force that causes the expansion of the universe to
accelerate with time
Revision Lecture
14 November 2013
14:08
Lectures Page 74
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Special Lecture 1
Chapter 2 Discovering the Universe for Yourself
Text Sections: 2.1
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
explain the significance of the constellations
describe how the sky moves from different parts of the Earth
Constellations
Constellations are random patterns of stars, usually with no physical association between
them
Represent mythological figures but are now well-defined patches of sky.
Star names
Typically only the brightest stars are named (Arab names) but can have many names in
different cataogues
I.e. Betelguese is called Ori.
Magnitudes
Apparent magnitudes: A 1st magnitude star is 100x brighter than a 6th magnitude star.
Difference of 5 magnitudes means factor 100 brighter
therefore 1 magnitude is 2.512
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Special Lecture 2
Chapter S1 Celestial Timekeeping and Navigation
Text Sections: S1.1 and S1.2
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
Explain the concepts of days, months and years
Describe celestial coordinate systems
Chapter 2 Discovering the Universe for Yourself
Text Sections: 2.2 2.4
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
describe the origin and significance of precession
explain the origin of the seasons
explain the phases of the moon
describe and explain lunar and solar eclipses
describe the annual motion of the sun and planets
Chapter 4 Making Sense of the Universe
Text Sections: 4.5
explain the origin of lunar tides
Coordinate Systems
Altazimuth coordinate system
Specifies a position as seen from a particular location and time
As the Earth moves, the Sun appears to move against the background of stars. This traces out
a path around the celestial sphere called the ecliptic
During Summer Solstice, Sunlight is spread over less area. Thus it is hotter as there is more
energy per square meter. It is also when the Sun appears directly overhead
Procession
Over a 26,000 period the Earth wobbles around and tilts its axis (changes completely every
13,000 years); called procession
The moon
Phases of the moon
The moon is tidally locked to the earth. So the same point is always pointing towards the
earth.
It rotates once, in the same time that it orbits the Earth
Tides
Gravitational force of the moon on the Earth varies on either side of the Earth. This causes a
tidal force, 'stretching' the Earth and explaining High Tide (like a rubber band)
Low Tides occurs at the places in between the tidal bulge
Tidal bulges are slightly tilted in the direction of the Earth's rotation
Lunar Eclipses
When the Earth moves in front of the moon
Solar Eclipse
The shadow of the Earth on sun. Since the moon is moving further away this will not happen in the
distant future
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Special Lecture 3
Chapter 5 Light and Matter
Text Sections: 5.2
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
Telescopes
Most telescopes at many wavelengths are basically similar
Important factors are:
Configuration- Lens, mirror, paraboloids, prime focus, casse grain, grazing incidence
Surface materials- glass, metal sheet, chicken wire
Surface accuracy- 'diffraction limited' optics that are too small for a large wavelength will be unable to
observe them. Needs to be correct down to 1/8th of the wavelength
The bigger the mirror the smaller the diffraction pattern is
Radio telescopes such as the park telescope do not have to have as accurate a surface as a visible light
telescope
Magnification is not very important
Collecting area- light gathering power (sensitivity)
Sensitivity
Is effected by
Atmospheric transmission- must choose wavelength
Collecting area
Special Lectures Page 82
Collecting area
System throughput- energy lost in the system, such as through an inefficient mirror
Detector quantum efficiency
Observing time
Background - e.g. scattered light. As well as natural sources, man-made pollution is a major problem for
astronomy. At optical wavelengths for example.
Resolution
We need to overcome the diffraction problem
The bigger the angle, the smaller the diffraction effect
In practice, this is limited (for optical, IR) by seeing - practical limit is 0.3 ~ 1.0 arcsec.
At visible light wavelengths the earth's atmosphere will blur the image
At radio wavelengths, telescope size is the limiting factor.
We can improve resolution
Using:
Adaptive and Active Optics-which sharpen up the image
And Interferometry- which combines telescopes working together to create a larger base diameter