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Chapter 1 H-EX
Chapter 1 H-EX
Chapter 1 H-EX
CHAPTER ONE
HEAT TRANSFER
FUNDAMENTALS
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Conduction
Radiation
Convection
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1.2.1 Conduction
Conduction is defined as the transfer of heat from one part of a
body to another part of the same body or from one body to a second body
in direct contact with the first one, without any appreciable displacement
of the particles of the body or bodies.
All physical states of matter (solids, liquids and gases) are able to
conduct heat to some degree. Solids may either be good conductors (e.g.
the metals) or poor conductors ("insulators", such as non-metal elements,
cork, asbestos, etc...), whereas gases and liquids are, as a rule, very poor
heat conductors.
Steady state conduction of heat through a homogeneous solid one
dimensional body is represented mathematically by the following
equation, which is known as Fourier's law:
q KA
dt
dx
Where,
q
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dt
dx
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The units in which the various terms in the equations are expressed
may be either of the metric or the British system, but should be
consistent.
Plane walls:
KA( t1 t 2 )
x
Cylindrical walls:
K .2( t1 t 2 )L
r
2.3 log 2
r1
A( t1 t 2 )
Xa Xb Xc
Ka Kb Kc
2.3
2( t1 t 2 )L
log( ra' / ra ) log( ra' / ra )
Ka
Kb
cylindrical vessel
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1.2.2 Convection
Convection is one of the most mechanisms by which heat is
transferred in industrial equipment. As was mentioned before, in most
practical cases heat transfer takes place by a combination of radiation,
conduction and convection, but as a rule convection plays the most
important part.
Convection may be caused by currents which are the result of
differences in density at various points in a medium owing to temperature.
Differences and is then known as natural convection. When some kind of
mechanical agitation is employed, the convection is known as forced
convection.
A practical example of natural convection is the heating of a tank
filled with oil with the aid of a steam coil at the bottom of the tank. Forced
convection takes place, for instance, when the contents of a steam heated
tank are circulated by means of the pumps.
As will be seen when dealing with the practical applications of heat
transfer, the type of flow of the fluids between which heat is transferred is
very important. It is well known that a fluid can be transported either in
stream line flow (viscous or laminar flow) or in turbulent How, depending
upon the value of the Reynolds number represented by the following
mathematical expression:
Re
dV
DG
Dv
Where,
Re
Reynolds number
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mass velocity
kinamatic viscosity
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Where,
q
Nusselt Number
Nu
h
hL
k/L
k
Nu A Re a Pr b
Prandtl Number
Pr
C p
k
Reynolds Number Re
^
V L
Re
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The thickness and thermal conductivity of the dirt and/or scale layer
on the outside of the tube.
The thickness and thermal conductivity of the dirt and/or scale layer
on the inside wall of the tube.
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1
1
1
1
1
1
U U o hi ( Ai / Ao ) ( K w / I w ) ( K o / I o ) ( K i / I o )( Ai / Ao )
Where,
U
ho
hi
(kw/Iw)
(ko/Io)
(Ai/Ao)
In most practical cases the resistance of the tube wall is so low that
it can usually be neglected without causing a serious error in the overall
coefficients. The scale deposits and the film coefficient are the two major
controlling resistances. In many cases when there are no scale deposits
and one of the fluids has a very high film coefficient, the overall coefficient
can be calculated with sufficient accuracy by calculating only the other
(low) film coefficient. However, in a large number of cases the scale
deposits are the major resistances to heat transfer.
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Tm
______________________________
(T1 - t2)
(T2 - t1)
Where T1 and T2 are the inlet and outlet temperatures of the hotter
fluid and t1 and t2 those of the colder fluid. The values for (t1 - t2) and (T2
t1) can then be substituted and the mean temperature difference (MTD)
can be computed.
When the ratio of the larger to the smaller temperature differences
is less than 2, little error (<4%) arises from the use of the arithmetic
average.
However, most of the heat exchange equipment used in the
petroleum industry is the shell and tube type. One of the fluids flows
through the tubes and the other fluid flows around the tubes in the shell.
In order to improve the efficiency of the heat exchange without
unduly increasing the size of the equipment, the fluids are usually forced,
to flow through the tubes and the shell in several passes by special baffle
arrangements. Consequently the direction of the flow is reversed several
times, which results in a lower Tm than the value which is calculated from
the terminal temperatures. Charts have been drawn up from which a
correction factor for Tm can be rapidly computed. Figures 1.4A to 1.4D
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410 -------------155
330
110
-------------
80
45
From equation (5) Tm = 61 F
Ratio
Figure 1.4C
Figure 1.4D
2a. What is the maximum temperature could the rich oil be gained
if the flow is concurrent?
2b. Otherwise what will be the minimum temperature could the lean
oil be reached for the concurrent case?
3. Which flow type is therefore preferred?
1.2.2.4 Economic Approach Temperature
When considering the principles underlying heat transfer it will be
clear that heat exchanging fluids can never reach the same temperature
at either of the exchange terminals (Figure 1.4). A certain temperature
difference will always exist, which is known as the "approach
temperature".
Chapter 1 Heat Transfer Fundamentals
Enppi Copyright Enppi 2007
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fluids are flowing with or without change of state and whether the hotter
fluid flows inside or around the tubes.
In order to facilitate the calculations, graphical correlations have
been derived and may be found in the literature. The film coefficients
obtained by these graphical methods apply to clean surfaces, and for the
calculation of the overall heat transfer coefficient the fouling resistance
has to be incorporated. Usually the fouling resistances or fouling factors
are given in terms of resistance to heat transfer instead of conductance.
1
A
1
ro rw ri o
ho
Ai
1
A
hi i
Ao
Where,
ro
ri
rw
1.2.3 Radiation
Heat radiation follows the same general laws as light, but it has a
much longer wave length than light waves. Radiant heat is, therefore,
reflected or absorbed by surfaces upon which it falls, the degree of
reflection or absorption depending on the nature of the body. It has been
found that dark surfaces absorb a large percentage of radiant heat, while
light colored or shiny bodies reflect radiant heat.
Furthermore, experiments and theoretical considerations have
shown that a body which readily absorbs radiant heat is also a good
emitter of heat waves. The two factors governing the absorption and
emission of heat are the nature of the body and its temperature. For
theoretical purposes the concept of the perfect black body has been
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q AT 4
Where,
q
0.173 10 8 BTU /( hr . ft 2 )( R 4 )
4.94 10 8 Kcal /( hr .m 2 )( K 4 )
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Thus the net rate of heat transfer is dependent not only upon the
temperature and emissivity of the body, but also upon the temperature
and emissivity of the surroundings.
For the case of an isothermal surface completely enclosed by
another isothermal surface being separated by a non-absorbing medium,
the net rate of radiant heat transfer can be represented as follows:
( T )4 ( T )4
q Ae 1 2 Fe
100 100
Where,
q and
same as in previous
Ae
effective area
Fe
two
surfaces.
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