TCRP Report 57 - Track Design Handbook For Light Rail Transit

T
R A N S I T
O O P E R A T I V E
E S E A R C H
R O G R A M
SPONSORED BY
The Federal Transit Administration
TCRP Report 57
Track Design Handbook for

Light Rail Transit
Transportation Research Board

National Research Council
TRANSIT
RESEARCH
COOPERATIVE
PROGRAM
Report 57
Track Design Handbook
Light Rail Transit
PARSONS
BRINCKERHOFF
QUADE
Herndon,
VA
Subject
& DOUGLAS,
INC.
Area
Rail
Research
Sponsored
by the Federal Transit
Cooperation
with the Transit Development
TRANSPORTATION
NATIONAL
Administration
Corporation
RESEARCH
RESEARCH
BOARD
COUNCIL
NATIONAL
ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 2000
in
for
TRANSIT
COOPERATIVE
RESEARCH
PROGRAM
The nations
growth and the need to meet mobility,
environmental,
and energy objectives place demands on public
transit systems. Current systems, some of which are old and in need
of upgrading, must expand service area, increase service frequency,
and improve efficiency to serve these demands. Research is
necessary to solve operating problems, to adapt appropriate new
technologies from other industries, and to introduce innovations into
the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative Research Program
(TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the transit
industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet
demands placed on it.
The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special
Report 213-Research
for Public Transit: New Directions,
published in 1987 and based on a study sponsored by the Urban
Mass Transportation
Administration-now
the Federal Transit
Administration
(FTA). A report by the American
Public
Transportation
Association (APTA), Transportation
2000, also
recognized the need for local, problem-solving
research. TCRP,
modeled after the longstanding and successful National Cooperative
Highway Research Program, undertakes research and other technical
activities in response to the needs of transit service providers. The
scope of TCRP includes a variety of transit research fields including
plan-ning, service configuration, equipment, facilities, operations,
human resources, maintenance, policy, and administrative practices.
TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992.
Proposed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was
authorized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation
Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13,1992, a memorandum
agreement outlining TCRP operating procedures was executed by
the three cooperating organizations: FTA, the National Academies,
acting through the Transportation Research Board (TRB); and
the Transit Development Corporation,
Inc. (TDC), a nonprofit
educational
and research organization
established by APTA.
TDC is responsible for forming the independent governing board,
designated as the TCRP Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS)
Committee.
Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically
but may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the
responsibility
of the TOPS Committee to formulate the research
program by identifying the highest priority projects. AS part of the
evaluation, the TOPS Committee defines funding levels and
expected products.
Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel,
appointed by the Transportation Research Board. The panels prepare
project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and
provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the
project. The process for developing research problem statements and
selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing
cooperative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, TCRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation.
Because research cannot have the desired impact if products fail
to reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on
disseminating TCRP results to the intended end users of the
research: transit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB
provides a series of research reports, syntheses of transit practice,
and other supporting material developed by TCRP research. APTA
will arrange for workshops, training aids, field visits, and other
activities to ensure that results are implemented by urban and rural
transit industry practitioners.
The TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can
cooperatively address common operational problems. The TCRP
results support and complement other ongoing transit research and
training programs.
TCRP
REPORT
57
Project D-6 Fy95

ISSN 1073-4872
ISBN O-309-06621-2
Library of Congress Catalog Card No 99-76424
Transpotition
0 2ooO
Research Board
NOTICE
The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the Transit Cooperative
Research Program conducted by the Transportation ResearchBoard with the
approval of the Governing Board of the National Research Council. Such
approval reflects rhe Governing Boards judgment that the project concerned is
appropriate with respect to both the purposes and resources of the National
Research Council
The members of the technical advisory panel selected to monitor this project and
to review this report were chosen for recognized scholarly competence and with
due consideration
for the balance of disciplines appropriate to the project The
opinions and conclusions expressed or implied are those of the research agency
that performed the research. and while they have been accepted as appropriate
by the technical panel. they are not necessarily
those of the Transportation
Research Board, the National Research Council, the Transit Development
Corporation,
or the Federal Transit Administration
of the U S Department of
Transportation
Each report is reviewed and accepted for publication
by the technical panel
according
to procedures
established
and monitored
by the Transportation
Research Board Executive Committee and the Governing Board of the National
Research Council
To save time and money in disseminating
the research findings, the report is
essentially the original text as submitted by the research agency This report has
not been edited by TRB
Special
Notice
The Transportation
Research Board, the National Research Council, the Transit
Development
Corporation,
and the Federal Transit Administration
(sponsor of
the Transit
Cooperative
Research Program)
do not endorse products
or
manufacturers.
Trade or manufacturers
names appear herein solely b&cause they
are considered essential to the clarity and completeness
of the project reporting.
Published
TRANSIT
are available
reports
of the
COOPERATIVE
RESEARCH
from:

National Research Council
2101
Constitution
Washinson, D.C
Avenue,
20418
NW
and can be ordered through the Internet at

http://www4.nationalacadem.ies.or@rb/homepage.nsf
Printed in the United Statesof America
PROGRAM
This Handbook will be of interest to light rail track system design engineers, operations and maintenance professionals, vehicle design engineers and manufacturers, and
BY StUfl others interested in the design of light rail track systems. The Handbook provides
TransportationResearch guidelines and descriptions for the design of various types of light rail transit track. The
Board
track structure types covered include ballasted, direct fixation (ballastless), and
embedded track. The components of the various track types are discussed in detail. The
guidelines consider the characteristics and interfaces of vehicle wheels and rail, track
and wheel gauges, rail sections, alignments, speeds, and track moduli. The Handbook
includes chapters on vehicles, alignment, track structures, track components, special
trackwork, aerial structure/bridges, corrosion control, noise and vibration, signals, and
traction power. These chapters provide insight into considerations that affect track
design and require interface coordination.
FOREWORD
Transit agencies frequently build new light rail transit (LRT) systems, procure light
rail vehicles (LRVs), and undertake track improvements to existing systems to increase
operating speeds, enhance service, and expand ridership. Many agencies have experienced accelerated vehicle wear and track degradation, attributed to the increased speeds
and incompatibility of contemporary LRVs with the track structure. These problems
lead to reduced service quality and increased maintenance expenditures. Considerable
research has been conducted in recent years to understand the mechanisms involved in
track-vehicle interaction and its effect on track design. However, no widely accepted
guidelines have been developed to aid in the design of light rail transit track. Consequently,
transit agencies have frequently relied on practices developed primarily for heavy rail
transit and freight operations that are not well suited for light rail transit systems.
Under TCRP Project D-6, research was undertaken by Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade
& Douglas to (1) better understand the interactions among track structure, LRVs, and
operating characteristics and (2) develop a Handbook for the design of light rail transit track to assist the various transit disciplines in selecting the appropriate track and
vehicle characteristics for specific situations.
To achieve the project objectives, the researchers first identified the trackstructure parameters, vehicle characteristics, environmental factors, and operating
conditions that influence track-vehicle interaction and, hence, should be considered in
the design of ballasted, direct fixation, and embedded track systems. The researchers
then collected and reviewed information pertaining to the design and construction of
light rail transit track. A literature search of articles, manuals, texts, and manufacturers pamphlets pertinent to light rail transit was conducted. In addition, a review
of 17 North American light rail systems, as well as systems in Belgium, France, and
Germany, was undertaken to investigate the different methods of design and construction. In most cases, site visits were conducted that included extensive interviews
with operating and maintenance engineers. Design and construction techniques were
then assessed in terms of performance, safety, and constructability. On the basis of
this assessment, a Handbook providing guidance for the design of light rail track
systems was prepared.
CONTENTS
l-l
CHAPTER
1 General Introduction
2-l
CHAPTER
2 Light
Rail Transit Vehicles
3-l
CHAPTER
3 Light
Rail Transit Track Geometry
4-1
CHAPTER
4 Track Structure
5-l
CHAPTER
5 Track Components
6-1
CHAPTER
6 Special Trackwork
7-l
CHAPTER
7 Aerial
8-l
CHAPTER
8 Corrosion
9-l
CHAPTER
9 Noise and Vibration
10-l
CHAPTER
10 Transit
Signal Work
11-l
CHAPTER
11 Transit
Traction
Design
and Materials
Structures/Bridges
Control
Power
COOPERATIVE
RESEARCH
PROGRAMS
STAFF
ROBERT J. REILLY, Director, Cooperative Research Programs

CHRISTOPHER JENKS, Senior Program Ojjker
EILEEN P. DELANEY, Managing Editor
JAMIE M. FEAR, Associate Editor
PROJECT
PANEL
D-6
JOHN D. WILKINS,
New Jersey Transit Corporation (Chair)
KENNETH J. BELOVARAC,
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
ANTHONY BOHARA, Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority
RICHARD A. BROWN, Dallas Area Rapid Transit
SIEGFRIED FASSMANN, BRW, Inc., Portland, OR
ARTHUR J. KEFFLER, Parsons Transportation Group, Washington, DC
BRIAN H. LONGSON, Toronto Transit Commission
WALTER BUD MOORE, Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation
JEFFREY G. MORA, FTA Liaison Representative
ELAINE KING, TRB Liaison Representative
AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research and development of the Track Design Handbook
was performed under TCRP Project D-6 by Parsons Brinckerhoff
Quade and Douglas, Inc.; Wilson, Ihrig and Associates, Inc.; and
Laurence E. Daniels. Parsons Brinckerhoff was the prime contractor for this project. Parsons Brinckerhoff subcontracted noise and
vibration studies to Wilson, Ihrig and Associates and track research
to Laurence E. Daniels.
Gordon W. Martyn, Senior Professional Associate, Parsons
Brinckerhoff Transit and Rail Systems, was the principal investigator. The Handbook authors were as follows:
Chapter 1: General Introduction: Gordon W. Martyn, Eugene C.
Allen, Lawrence G. Lovejoy
Chapter 2: Light Rail Transit Vehicles: Harold B. Henderson,
Theodore C. Blaschke, Gordon W. Martyn
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Authority
3:
4:
5:
6:
7:
8:
Light Rail Transit Track Geometry: Lee Roy Padget

Track Structure Design: Gordon W. Martyn
Track Components and Materials: Gordon W. Martyn
Special Trackwork Lawrence G. Lovejoy
Aerial Structures/Bridges: David A. Charters
Corrosion Control: Kenneth J. Moody, Lawrence G.
Lovejoy, Gordon W. Martyn
Chapter 9: Noise and Vibration: James T Nelson
Chapter 10: Transit Signal Work: Harvey Glickenstein, Gary E.
Milanowski
Chapter 11: Transit Traction Power: Kenneth Addison, Lawrence
G. Lovejoy
Technical editing was performed by Eugene C. Allen of Parsons
Brinckerhoff. Charles G. Mendell edited the text. Research of transit agencies was undertaken by the project team members.
Chapter
l-General
Introduction
Table of Contents
CHAPTER l-GENERAL
1 1 Introduction
1.2 Purpose
INTRODUCTION
1.3 What is Light Rail, and Why Is it So Heavy?

1.4 Handbook Organization
l-i
l-l
l-l
1-2
1-2
1-3
CHAPTER
l-GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
1 .I INTRODUCTION
and to the designers

light rail vehicles.
The purpose of this Handbook is to provide to

those
responsible
for
the
design,
procurement, construction, maintenance, and
operation of light rail transit systems an up-todate guide for the design of light rail track,
based on an understanding of the relationship
of light rail track and other transit system
components.
The contents of the Handbook
were compiled as a result of an investigation of
light rail transit systems, a review of literature
pertaining to transit and railroad standards and
methods, and personal hands-on experience of
the authors. Current research also has been a
source of valuable data.
and manufacturers
of
Much research has been conducted

in an
effort to understand the mechanisms involved
in track-vehicle interaction and its impact on
track design.
However, no widely accepted
guidelines
exist to specifically aid in the
design and maintenance
of light rail transit
track.
Consequently
the light rail transit
industry
frequently
relies
on
practices
developed primarily for heavy rail transit and
railroad
freight
operations
that are not
necessarily well suited for light rail systems,
This Handbook does not seek to establish
universal
standards
within
an
industry
operating in a wide range of environments.
Instead it seeks to offer choices and to
present the issues that must be resolved
during the design process.
This Handbook
furnishes the reader with
current practical guidelines and procedures
for the design of the various types of light rail
track including ballasted, direct fixation, and
embedded track systems.
It discusses the
interrelationships
among
the
various
disciplines associated with light rail transit
engineering-structures,
traction power stray
current control, noise and vibration control,
signaling, and electric traction power.
The
Handbook includes a chapter on light rail
vehicles, describing the impact of vehicle
design and operation on the track system. It
also discusses the interaction between tracks
and aerial structures, which is crucial when
continuously welded rail and direct fixation
track are used.
The user of the Handbook assumes all risks

and responsibilities for selection, design, and
construction to the guidelines recommended
herein.
No warranties are provided to the
user, either expressed or implied. The data
and discussions
presented
herein are for
informational purposes only.
The reader is assumed to be an engineer or
individual familiar with trackwork terminology
and experienced in the application of guideline
information to design.
For that reason, a
glossary of terms that would be familiar to a
trackwork engineer has not been included
herein. Definitions of common trackwork terms
are included in the Manual for Railway
Engineering,
published
by the American
Railway Engineering & Maintenance-of-Way
Association. Terms that are unique to light rail
transit are defined within the text of the
There are many different practical designs for

light rail track, and the goal of this Handbook
is to offer a range of options to the engineer.
A key focus of the Handbook is to differentiate
between light rail transit track and those
similar, but subtly different, track systems
used for freight, commuter,
and heavy rail
transit operations. These differences present
challenges both to light rail track designers
Handbook as they are introduced.
l-l
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
and sometimes even sharper,

traverse city streets.
1.2 PURPOSE
This Handbook furnishes the reader with

current practical information about light rail
trackwork and guidelines for the design of the
various types of light rail track including
ballasted, direct fixation, and embedded track.
It describes the impacts of other disciplines on
trackwork, which offers the designer insights
into the coordination of design efforts among
all disciplines. The purpose of this Handbook
is to offer a range of design guidelines, not to
set a standard for the industry.
in order to
Vehicles are not constructed to structural

criteria (primarily crashworthiness or buff
strength) needed to share the track with
much heavier railroad commuter
and
freight equipment.
While purists may quibble with some of the

finer points of this definition, it will suffice for
the purposes of this Handbook.
The two most important defining elements of
light rail trackwork are the construction of
track in streets, and the interface between the
wheel of the light rail vehicles and the rails.
Track
in
streets
requires
special
consideration,
especially with regard to the
control of stray electrical current that could
cause corrosion and the need to create a
formed flangeway that is large enough for the
wheels but does not pose a hazard to other
users of the street.
Light rail wheels, in the
past, were smaller and had shallower flanges;
contemporary
light rail vehicle wheels are
smaller and narrower than standard railroad
wheels.
These variations require special
care in track design, especially in the design
of special trackwork such as switches and
frogs. The compatibility of the vehicle and
track designs is a central issue in the
development
of a light rail system if both
components
are to perform to acceptable
standards. These issues are discussed at
length in this Handbook.
1.3 WHAT IS LIGHT RAIL, AND WHY IS IT

SO HEAW?
Tracks for light rail transit are generally

constructed with the same types of materials
used to construct heavy rail, commuter rail,
and railroad freight systems. Also, light rail
vehicles may be as massive as transit cars on
heavy rail systems.
Consequently, the term
light rail is somewhat of an oxymoron and
often misunderstood.
Therefore,
for the
purposes of this book, it is appropriate to
define light rail transit.
Light rail is a system of electrically
propelled passenger vehicles with steel
wheels that are propelled along a track
constructed with steel rails.
Propulsion
power is drawn from an
overhead distribution wire by means of a
pantograph and returned to the electrical
substations through the rails.
While light rail may need to share right-of-way

(ROW) with pedestrians and vehicles, the
designer should create an exclusive ROW for
light rail tracks wherever possible. This will
make maintenance
and operations
less
expensive, and will eliminate platform height
issues
associated
with Americans
with
Disabilities Act (ADA) compliance.
The tracks and vehicles must be capable

of sharing the streets with rubber-tired
vehicular traffic and pedestrians.
The
track system may also be constructed
within exclusive rights-of-way.
Vehicles
are capable of negotiating
curves as sharp as 25 meters (82 feet)
1-2
General
1.4 HANDBOOK
ORGANIZATION
Chapter 2 elaborates on vehicle design and

critical issues pertaining to track and vehicle
interface.
These topics include wheel/rail
profiles, truck steering within restricted curves
and primary and secondary
suspension
systems, and the effect of these parameters
on track and operations
3 details issues related to light rail

track geometry with particular attention to
restrictions imposed by alignment characteristics, such as tight radius curvature, severe
vertical curves, and steep profile grade lines.
Chapter
4 elaborates on the three basic types

of track structures:
ballasted, direct fixation,
and embedded track. The chapter takes the
designer through a series of selections
pertaining to the track design. The chapter
discusses track and wheel gauges, flangeways, rail types, guarded track (restraining
rail), track modulus, stray current, noise and
vibration, and signal and traction power
requirements.
Chapter
Introduction
longitudinal restraint, and probable conditions

at a rail break on the structure
The analysis
includes the conditional forces generated by
locating special trackwork
on an aerial
structure and methods of contending with
them
Corrosion control is a major issue arising from
the use of the running rail as a negative return
Chapter
8
in the traction power system.
highlights
the issues pertaining
to stray
current and discusses the need to isolate the
rail and retard the potential for electrical
Methodologies
for establishing
leakage
and
identifying
sources,
magnitude,
developing corrective measures are part of
this chapter.
9 introduces the designer to another
environmental
issue pertaining to light rail
It explains
transit-noise
and vibration.
wheel/rail
noise and vibration
and the
fundamentals of acoustics. It also discusses
mitigation
procedures
and treatments
for
tangent, curved, and special trackwork.
Chapter
10 highlights signal issues for light

rail transit and discusses some of the
interfacing issues and components that must
be considered by a track designer.
Chapter
The various track components

discussed in Chapter 5.
and details are
6 provides guidelines for the design

and selection of various types and sizes of
Included are details
special trackwork.
pertaining to switches, frogs, guard rails,
crossings (diamonds), and associated items.
Chapter
Most light rail transit systems require bridges

or similar structures. Aerial structures are not
uncommon. Chapter 7 provides a framework
for determining
the magnitude
of forces
generated
due
to differential
thermal
expansion
between
the rail (especially
stationary continuous welded rail) and the
The analysis
elaborates
on
structure.
structural
restrictions,
fastener
elastomer
displacement, fastening toe loads, friction and
11 presents elements pertinent to

traction power, including supply system and
substations; the catenary distribution system;
and the power return through the running rails.
The chapter also discusses corrosion control
measures to mitigate the effects of DC current
to adjacent services.
Chapter
An overall table of contents lists the eleven

chapter topics. Each chapter contains its own
table of contents, reference list, and list of
Pages are numbered by
figures and tables.
chapter (for example: 4-24 is page 24 in
Chapter Four).
Chapter
2 Light Rail Transit
Vehicles
Table of Contents
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2-1
2.2 VEHICLE
2-2
2-2
2-2
2-2
CHARACTERISTICS
2.2.1 Vehicle Design

2.2.1 1 UnidirectionalIBi-directional
2.2.1.2 Non-Articulated/Articulated
2.3 VEHICLE
CLEARANCE
2.3 1 Static Outline

2.3.2 Dynamic Outline
2.3.2.1 Car Length: Over Coupler Face and Over Anticlimber
2.3.2.2 Distance between Truck Centers
2.3.2.3 Distance between End Truck and Anticlimber
2.3.2 4 Vehicle Components Related to Dynamic Positions
2.3.2.5 Track Components Related to Dynamic Positions
2.3.2.6 Ensuring Adequate Vehicle Clearance
2.3.2.7 Pantograph Height Positions
2.4 VEHICLE-TRACK
GEOMETRY
2.4.1 Horizontal Curvature-Minimum

Turning Radius of Vehicle
2.4.2 Vertical Curvature-Minimum
Sag and Crest Curves
2.4.3 Combination Conditions of Horizontal and Vertical Curvature
2.4 4 Vertical Alignment-Maximum
Grades
2.45 Maximum Allowable Track Vertical Misalignment
2.4.6 Ride Comfort and Track Geometry
2.4.6.1 Track Superelevation
2.4.6.2 Lateral Acceleration on Track Curves
2 4.6 3 Transition Spirals on Track Curves
2.5 VEHICLE
25.1
STATIC AND DYNAMIC
FORCES
Static
251.1
2.5.1.2
251.3
2.5.1.4
Vertical
AWOIAWl Loads
AW21AW3iAW4 Loads
Wheel Loading Tolerance (Car Level)
Wheel Loading @ Maximum Stationary Superelevation,
Considering Car Tilt and Uniform AW3 Load
2.5.1.5 Unsprung Weight (Truck Frame, Wheels, Axle,
Bearings, and Portions of the Motor/Gear Units)
2.5.1.6 Truck Weight
2.5.1.6.1 Motorized Trucks
2.5.1.6.2 Non-Motorized Trucks
2.5.1.7 Load Leveling
2.5.2 Dynamic Horizontal/ Longitudinal
2 5.2.1 Maximum Acceleration
2.5.2.2 Maximum Deceleration (Wheels)
2.5.2.3 Maximum Deceleration (Track Brakes)
2.5.2.4 Tolerances
2.5.2 5 Maximum Train Size
2.5.2.6 Load Weight
2.5.2.7 Sanding
2-i
2-4
2-4
2-4
2-5
2-5
2-5
2-5
2-5
2-5
2-5
2-6
2-6
2-6
2-6
2-7
2-7
2-7
2-7
2-7
2-7
2-8
2-8
2-8
2-8
2-8
2-9
2-9
2-9
2-9
2-9
2-9
2-9
2-9
2-9
2-10
2-l 0
2-10
Z-10
2-l 0
Light
Rail
2.53
Track
Design
Handbook
2-l 0
2-l 0
2-l 0
2-l 0
2-10
2-l 1
2-l 1
2-l 1
2-l 1
Dynamic Vertical
2.5.3.1 Primary Suspension
2.5.3.1.1 Spring Rate
2.5.3.1.2 Damping Rate
2.5.3.2 Secondary Suspension
2.5.3.2 1 Damping Rate
2.5.3.2.2 Yaw Friction
2.5.3.3 Maximum Speed
2.5.3.4 Car Natural Frequency
2.6 VEHICLE
WHEEL GAUGE/TRACK
GAUGE/ WHEEL PROFILE
2.6.1 Track Gauge

2 6.2 Vehicle Wheel Gauge
2.6.3 Wheel Profiles-United
States, Canada, Europe
2.6 4 Wheel/Rail Profiles
2.6.4.1 Wheel Profile-Widths
and Flangeways
2.6.4.2 Wheel Profile-Flange
Configuration
2.6.4.3 Wheel/Rail Wear Interface
2.6.4.3.1 Hollow Worn Wheels
2.6.5 Profile Rail Grinding vs Wheel Wear
2.651 Wheel Profile Development
2.6.5.2 Wheel/Rail Interface Profiles and Potential Derailments
2.6.5.3 Special Trackwork and Hollow Worn Wheels
2.6.5.4 Truck Resistance with Hollow Worn Wheels
2.6.5.5 Truck Resistance-Alternate
Approaches
2.7 WHEEL CENTER LIMITING
2.8 VEHICLES
2-23
FLANGE CONDITIONS
AND STATIONS-ADA
2-l 1
2-11
2-l 1
2-l 1
2-12
2-18
2-l 8
2-l 9
2-l 9
2-l 9
2-20
2-20
2-21
2-22
2-22
2-23
2-24
REQUIREMENTS
2.8.1 Clearance and Tolerances
2-24
2.9 REFERENCES
List of Figures
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
2.6. I
2.6.2
2.6.3
2.6.4
2.6.5
2.6.6
2.6.7
2.6.8
2.6.9
Wheel Profiles (U.S.)

Wheel Profiles (U.S./North America)
European Wheel Profiles
AAR Wheel Profiles
Wheel-Rail Interface
Preliminary High Face Gauge Wear Measurements
New AAR-1B and Hollow Won Wheel
Three Rail Profiles Used in AAR Demonstration
Track Steering Moment and Warp Angle
from Demonstration
Figure 2.7.1 Resilient Wheel
Figure 2.8.1 Design Guidelines:
Track at Station Platform
2-13
2-14
2-15
2-l 5
2-17
2-20
2-20
2-21
2-21
2-25
2-26
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Contemporary
Light Rail Vehicle
Characteristics
2-ii
Matrix
2-3
CHAPTER
2-LIGHT
RAIL TRANSIT
VEHICLES
-
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Designers of the current generation of light rail
vehicles (LRV) have primarily concentrated
their efforts on achieving a comfortable ride
for passengers and complying with Americans
with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements
Wrth
respect to trucks (bogies), these efforts have
resulted in primary and secondary suspension
system designs that are significantly different
than those employed on previous generations
of electric streetcars,
including the once
radical design
first used on Presidents
Conference Committee (PCC) trolley cars in
As vehicle technology
the mid 1930s.
continues to evolve, so do propulsion and
suspension
system
designs.
Emerging
concepts,
such as independent
steerable
wheels, hub-mounted
motors, etc., quickly
lead to the conclusion that there are few hard
and fast rules about the vehicle/track interface
for light rail systems.
In spite of this lack of design consistency,

there are several key vehicle-to-rail interface
parameters
that the track designer
must
consider during design of light rail systems.
These include:
.
l
Vehicle Weight (both empty and with full
passenger load)
0 Clearance
Required
track-to-platform
location
tolerances to meet ADA requirements
Required clearance between cars on
adjacent
tracks
considering
car
dynamics
Required route clearances (wayside,
tunnel,
bridge)
considering
car
dynamics
l
Wheel Dimensions
Wheel diameter, which can be very
small in the case of low-floor vehicles
and is virtually always smaller than
that
used
on
freight
railroad
equipment
Wheel
profile,
which
must
be
compatible with the rail, particularly in
the case of special trackwork
- Wheel gauge to ensure compatibility
including
with
the
track
gauge
tolerances
Wheel back-to-back
gauge that is
compatible
with
flangeway
dimensions
and special trackwork
checkgauges
Longitudinal Track Forces
Maximum
acceleration
(traction
forces)
Deceleration
from disc and tread
brakes
Maximum possible deceleration from
electromagnetic
emergency
track
brakes
Lateral Track Forces
Maximum lateral forces resulting from
all speed and curvature combinations
Dynamic Rail Forces
Impact
of car and truck natural
frequencies
Impact of wheel flats or damaged
wheels
It is essential that the track designer and the

vehicle designer discuss their designs to
ensure full compatibility under all operating
conditions.
Light rail vehicles are found in a variety of
designs and dimensions.
Cars may be
unidirectional or bi-directional.
In almost all
cases, they are capable of being operated in
coupled trains.
In most cases, LRVs are larger and heavier
than their streetcar predecessors.
Particularly
on older existing
systems,
these larger
replacement
cars can challenge the track
designer to come up with suitable methods to
accommodate them.
Light rail vehicles vary in the following design
characteristics:
2-l
Light
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
relatively small, usually only a single urban

building lot. Transit companies typically found
that the expense of buying properties and
building loops was small compared to the
savings associated with not having to maintain
duplicate sets of control equipment in double
ended trolley cars.
Unidirectional versus bi-directional

Non-articulated versus articulated
High floor; partially low floor (70%); low
floor (100%)
Overall size (width, length, and height)
Truck and axle positions
Suspension characteristics
Performance
(acceleration,
speed, and
braking)
Wheel diameter
Wheel gauge
Current designs of high-capacity

light rail
vehicles have much larger minimum radius
limitations and the amount of real estate that
is required to construct a turning loop is much
greater.
Accordingly,
most contemporary
LRVs have control cabs in both ends and can
reverse direction anywhere that a suitable
crossover
track or pocket track can be
provided,
This arrangement is usually more
economical in terms of space required and
has become the norm for modern light rail
transit (LRT) systems.
Such arrangements
can be sited within the confines of a doubletrack right-of-way, and do not require the
acquisition
(and
subsequent
property
maintenance) needed for turning loops.
These characteristics must be considered in

the design of both the vehicle and the track
structure.
The results of an investigation
of the
characteristics of 17 North American LRVs
are summarized in Table 2.1. It is interesting
to note that vehicle criteria published by
vehicle
manufacturer(s)
rarely
contain
information on vehicle wheel gauge.
Track
and vehicle designers will have difficulty in the
design process without first establishing this
initial interface value and then determining the
acceptable gap between the track and wheel
gauges.
2.2 VEHICLE
CHARACTERISTICS
2.2.1 Vehicle
Design
2.2.1.1
2.2.1.2
Non-Articulated/Articulated
Non-articulated
(rigid) cars are single car
bodies carried on two four-wheel
trucks.
Articulated cars, on the other hand, will have
two or more body sections that are connected
by flexible joints.
There is a common
misconception
that
articulated cars can negotiate sharper curves
than a rigid body car. This is not true. They
are limited in length primarily due to the fact
that the lateral clearances required in curves
increase dramatically as the distance between
the trucks increases. If lateral clearances are
not an issue, rigid body cars are a practical
alternative that can be appreciably cheaper to
procure and maintain than articulated cars of
similar capacity.
In North America, modern
non-articulated
cars are used only in
Philadelphia, Buffalo, and Toronto.
Unidirectional/Bi-directional
Nearly all of the traditional streetcar systems

that survived
through
the 1960s used
unidirectional vehicles. That is, the cars were
built with a control station in the forward end,
doors on the right side, and a single trolley
pole at the rear At the end of the line, cars
negotiated a turning loop and ran to the
opposite terminal.
Because these vehicles
could negotiate curves with centerline radii as
small as 10.7 meters (35 feet), the amount of
real estate needed for a turning loop was
2-2
Light
Table 2.1 Contemporary
Vehicle
Manufacturer
Model
ABB Traction
City
Baltimore
Boston
(3 Vehicles)
and
Empty
Vehicle
Weight
(kg)
48 526
Light Rail Vehicle
Articulated/
NonArticulated
Artic.
Rail
Characteristics
Transit
Vehicles
Matrix
Wheel
Base
(mm)
2,286
Wheel
Diameter
New/Used
(mm)
771
7,010
7,137
7,351
11,024
1,855
1,905
1,900
1,880
660 new
660
71 l/660
6601610
Truck/Bogie
Centers
(mm)
9,144
Buffalo
Boeing Vertol
Kinki Sharyo
#7
Breda #8
Tokyo Car
30,390
38,460
39,000
32,233
Artic
Artic
Double
Single
Rigid
Dallas
Kinki Sharyo
49,900
Artic
9,449
2,083
711
Denver
Siemens
SD 100
Duewag
40,000
Attic.
7,720
1,800
7201660
Los Angeles
Kinki Sharyo
Blue Line
Siemens
Duewag
Green Line
Kawasaki
44,500
Artic
8,534
2,007
71 II660
Artic.
9,449
2,100
26,000
SE
Single
Rigid
Unit,
7,620
SE
1,900
660
Philadelphia
Suburban
Division
Kawasaki
27,000
DE
Single
Rigid
Unit,
8,400
DE
1,900
660 new
Pittsburgh
Siemens
U2-A
Duewag
40,000
Attic
8,950
2,100
7201670
Portland
(2 vehicles)
Bombardier
Siemens
Duewag
SC 600
Siemens
Duewag
U2
41,244
47,600
Artic.
Artic.
9,040
10,515
1,900
1,800
711/660
47,160
At-tic
7,723
1,800
7201660
32,600
Artic
7,720
1,800
7201660
Philadelphia
Division
Sacramento
San Diego
(2 vehicles)
San
Jose
City
Duewag
Type U2
Siemens
SD 100
UTDC
St. Louis
Siemens
San
Boeing
Breda
Francisco
Duewag
Duewag
Vertol
Artic.
Unit.
Artic.
new
7201660
44,724
Artic
8,611
1,905
711
40,993
Artic.
9,677
2,100
7111660
30,390
36,200
Artic.
Artic.
7,010
7,315
1,855
1,900
660
711
22,685
36,745
7,620
7,620
1,829
1,829
66016 10
6601600
7,720
1,800
7201660
7,720
1,800
7201660
Toronto
(2 vehicles)
UTDC
Hawker
Siddley
Calgary
Duewag
Type
U2
32,600
Single
Rigid
Artic.
Artic.
Edmonton
Duewag
Type
U2
31,600
Artic
Unit,
2-3
Track
Gauge
Wheel
Gauge
Delta A
1,435
1,421 5
A13.5
1,455
13427.2
A27.8
1,432
1,414 5
Al75
1,435
1,409 0
A26
1,435
1,413.g
A2l.l
1,435
1,412 9
821.1
1,581
1,578
A3
1,588
1,578
Al0
1,587.5
1,577.5
A10
1,435
1,421
Al4
1,435
1,414
A21
1,435
1,414
A21
1,435
7,416
A19
1,435
1,418
Al7
1,435
1,425.5
A9.5
1,495 0
1,492 5
A2.5
1,435
1,429
A6
1,435
1,418
Al7
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Articulated
LRVs developed
in order to
improve the ratio of passengers carried per
vehicle operator.
By attaching two or more
body sections together, the car capacity can
be increased while maintaining the capability
to negotiate sharp curves without excessive
lateral clearance excursions. Where two body
sections meet, a turntable
and bellows
arrangement connects the sections, allowing
free passage for passengers.
Each LRV
manufacturer
has devised its own specific
design for such articulation joints. In some
cases, particularly in Europe, multiple body
sections have been joined in double, triple,
and even quadruple arrangements
to form
multi-articulated cars.
which
the car
is intended.
While
manufacturers can, in theory, build cars to any
dimension, it is usually more economical to
choose vehicles that are already engineered
or in production.
Therefore, the facility
designer of a new system should establish a
clearance
envelope
that accommodates
vehicles
from several
manufacturers
to
maximize
opportunities
for
competitive
bidding.
More recently, European manufacturers have

created
a variety
of modular
designs,
particularly for low-floor cars. Typically, these
designs include separate modules for cab,
door, and body sections. They are joined in
both rigid and articulated
arrangements,
allowing a vehicle to be tailored to meet a
range of curve radius requirements.
Low-floor
LRV designs may incorporate stub axles,
independent
wheels,
small trucks, small
diameter wheels, hub-mounted motors, bodymounted motors, vertical drives, and a variety
of other unique technological solutions that
permit vehicles to incorporate very low floors
The clearance diagram must consider both

the vehicles static outline and its dynamic
outline. The static outline is the shape of the
car at rest. The dynamic outline includes the
allowable
movement
in the suspension
system, end overhang,
and mid-ordinate
overhang.
The manufacturer develops the
dynamic outline for each type of transit
vehicle. To establish clearances along the
right-of-way,
a vehicle dynamic clearance
envelope must also be developed. Using the
vehicle dynamic
outline along with the
associated
track
components,
track
tolerances, wear limits of the components,
and a clearance zone with a safety factor of
50 millimeters (1.968 inches), the dynamic
vehicle
clearance
envelope
can
be
established.
For additional information on
vehicle clearances, refer to Section 3.4 of this
handbook.
2.3 VEHICLE CLEARANCE
2.3.1 Static Outline
Clearance standards for various types of

railroad vehicles are well documented by the
use of graphics or plates. One standard is
the common Plate C.
Any car whose
dimensions fit within the limits established on
Plate C can travel virtually anywhere on the
North American railroad system.
Transit
systems
do not share
this standard.
Therefore,
vehicle
manufacturers
must
develop clearance
plates based on the
characteristics
of the existing system for
The static outline of an LRV is its dimensions

at rest, including elements such as side view
mirrors. The resulting diagram will show the
minimum overhang on tangents and curves.
The dynamic outline of the car is more
significant to the track designer.
2.3.2
Dynamic
Outline
The dynamic outline of an LRV describes the

maximum space that the vehicle will occupy
2-4
Light
2.3.2.4
as it moves over the track

The dynamic
outline or envelope includes overhang on
curves, lean due to the action of the vehicle
suspension and track superelevation,
track
wear, wheel/track
spacing, and abnormal
conditions that may result from failure of
suspension elements (e g. deflation of an air
spring).
2.3.2.1
Car Length:
Over Coupler
and Over Anticlimber
2.3.2.5
Distance
between
2.3.2.6
Distance between
Anticlimber
Related to
Track Components
Dynamic Positions
Related
to
Ensuring Adequate
Clearance
Vehicle
Where facility clearance restrictions exist, the

track designer should coordinate with the
vehicle and structural designers to ensure that
adequate car clearance is provided. Vehicle
dynamics
are governed
by the cars
and,
therefore,
suspension
system(s)
indirectly by numerous factors of track and
vehicle interaction.
For multiple-track
situations, multiple clearance envelopes must
be considered. Overlapping must be avoided.
The resulting
requirements
will dictate
minimum track centers and clearances for
tangent and curved track, including tolerances
and safety factors.
Truck Centers
2.3.2.7
The distance between adjacent truck pivot

points determines the overhang of a cars
midsection for given track curvature.
2.3.2.3
Vehicle Components
Dynamic Positions
Vehicles
Track
Surface-Maximum
CrossLevel Limits and Lateral Tolerance of
Rails
Rail Headwear and Side Gauge Face
Wear
Track Superelevation
Wheel Gauge to Track Gauge Lateral
Clearance
Truck/Wheel Set (Axle) Spacing
Face
Over Anticlimber-The
anticlimber is the
structural end of the car. As its name
implies, it is designed to reduce the
possibility of one car climbing over an
adjacent car during a collision. The length
of the vehicle over the anticlimber is used
to determine clearances.
2.3.2.2
Transit
Primary/Secondary Suspension
Systems
Maximum Lean/Sway
Maximum Lean due to Total Failure of
All Truck Components
Wheel Flange Wear
When considering the length of a light rail

vehicle, it is important to distinguish between
the actual length of the car body over the
anticlimbers and its length over the coupler
faces.
l
Over Coupler Face-The
coupler is the
connection between LRVs that operate
together.
It extends beyond the front of
the car structure.
The length over the
couplers becomes a consideration
for
determining
the requisite
length
of
facilities such as station platforms and
storage tracks.
l
Rail
Pantograph
Height Positions
Outside Height: Roof and Pan Lock-DownShould include all roof-mounted equipment.
Roof - The roof of an LRV is typically curved,
with the highest dimension
at the car
centerline.
However, the LRV pantograph
establishes the maximum car height.
End Truck and
This dimension
and the car body taper
determine the overhang of the car front for a
given track curvature.
2-5
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Pantograph
Operation - Light rail facility
designers are typically interested in the
absolute minimum clearance between top of
rail and an overhead obstruction, such as a
highway
bridge.
This dimension
must
accommodate not only the pantograph when
operating at some working height above lockdown, but also the depth of the overhead
contact
wire system.
The
minimum
pantograph working height above lock-down
includes
an allowance
for pantograph
bounce so that lock-down does not occur
accidentally.
Maximum pantograph height is
the concern of vehicle and overhead catenary
system (OCS) designers, unless the light rail
guideway must also accommodate
railroad
freight
traffic
and
attendant
overhead
clearances.
If railroad equipment must be
accommodated,
the clearance envelope will
be dictated by Association
of American
Railroads (AAR) plates, which do not include
clearance for the overhead catenary system.
Additional
clearances
may be required
between the underside of the contact wire
system and the roof of any railroad equipment
in order to meet electrical safety codes.
2.4 VEHICLE-TRACK
spacing,
truck spacing,
and suspension
elements all contribute to vehicle flexibility.
The track designer must take the vehicle
characteristics defined below into account in
developing
route designs.
The values
associated
with these characteristics
are
furnished by the manufacturer.
For vehicles
supplied for existing systems, the vehicle
manufacturer
must
meet
the minimum
geometrical requirements of the system.
2.4.1
Horizontal Curvature-Minimum
Turning Radius of Vehicle
The minimum turning radius is the smallest

horizontal radius that the LRV can negotiate.
The value may be different for a single versus
coupled LRVs or for a fully loaded LRV versus
an empty one.
2.4.2 Vertical Curvature-Minimum

and Crest Curves
Sag
The minimum
vertical curvature
is the
smallest vertical curve radius that the LRV
can negotiate. The maximum sag and crest
values are typically different, with the sag
value being more restrictive. Vehicle builders
describe vertical curvature in terms of either
radius of curve or as the maximum angle in
degrees through which the articulation joint
can bend. The trackway designer must relate
those values to the parabolic vertical curves
typically used in alignment design.
GEOMETRY
The most demanding

light rail transit
alignments
are those
running
through
established urban areas. Horizontal curves
must be designed to suit existing conditions,
which can result in curves below a 25meter
(82-foot) radius. Vertical curves are required
to conform to the existing roadway pavement
profiles, which may result in exceptionally
sharp crest and sag conditions.
2.4.3
LRVs
are
specifically
designed
to
accommodate
severe geometry by utilizing
flexible trucks, couplings, and mid-vehicle
articulation.
Articulation
joints,
truck
maximum
pivot positions, coupler-to-truck
alignments, vehicle lengths, wheel set (axle)
Combination
Conditions
of
Horizontal and Vertical Curvature
The car builder may or may not have a graph

that displays this limitation. If a route design
results in significant levels of both parameters
occurring simultaneously,
the design should
be reviewed with potential LRV suppliers to
establish mutually agreeable limits.
2-6
Light
2.4.4 Vertical
Grades
Alignment-Maximum
2.4.6.1
Vehicles
2.4.6.2
Lateral Acceleration
on Track
Curves
Ride comfort
is an important
and very
complex
issue.
Acceleration
is a good
measure of ride comfort and is a criterion for
ride comfort on track curves.
The rate of
change
of acceleration
(jerk) is another
important criterion.
Industry standards have
established that a lateral acceleration of 0.1 g
can be tolerated with comfort.
Chapter 3
elaborates on formulas used to establish the
spiral criteria considering lateral acceleration.
Track Vertical
Truck equalization
refers to the change in
wheel loading that occurs when one wheel
moves above or below the plane of the other
three wheels on a two-axle truck. If a wheel is
unloaded significantly, it may climb the rail
and derail. LRV truck equalization must be
compatible with the expected track vertical
surface misalignment
to prevent conditions
that can cause a derailment.
2.4.6 Ride Comfort
Transit
elevation of the track. Track designers often

limit actual superelevation
and permit an
unbalanced
condition where the forces on
vehicles and passengers
are not equal.
Unbalanced
superelevation
results in an
unbalanced amount of lateral acceleration that
the passenger feels. The standard limit is 76
mm (3 inches) of unbalanced superelevation
which is equal to about 0 1 g. Chapter 3
elaborates on the formulas used to establish
the amount of superelevation for both actual
and underbalanced conditions.
The maximum allowable route grade is limited

by the possibility that the LRV could stall or
the traction motors overheat.
This is the
steepest grade the LRV can negotiate.
A
short grade that the LRV enters at speed
should not be a problem up to about 6%.
Above that the operational
requirements
should be reviewed. Grades of up to 10% are
possible.
At grades between 6% and lo%,
wheel-to-rail
slippage
may occur in poor
conditions, such as when ice or wet leaves
are on the rail. This may result in wheel flats
during
braking
or
rail
burns
during
acceleration.
2.4.5 Maximum Allowable

Misalignment
Rail
2.4.6.3 Transition Spirals on Track Curves

A proper transition curve between the tangent
track and the circular portion of the track
curve is a recognized
requirement
for a
smooth, comfortable
ride on track curves.
The change from no curve to a given constant
curvature must be made gradually so that
lurching does not occur at the entrance and
exit of the curve.
The usual method is to
introduce curvature and superelevation in the
transition curve uniformly along the curve.
and Track Geometry
Track Superelevation
Passenger
safety and ride comfort
limit
vehicle speed on sections of curved track.
Experience has shown that safety and comfort
can be achieved if vehicle speed is limited
such that 75 to 115 mm (3 to 4.5 inches) of
superelevation
is required in the outer rail to
achieve equilibrium (a balanced condition) on
transit track. Equilibrium exists when loads on
the inner and outer rails are equal and the
centrifugal force on the car body and the
passengers
is in balance with the super-
Since the centrifugal

force is inversely
proportional to the radius of the curve and the
superelevation for a given speed, both radius
and superelevation
change at a linear rate.
Thus, lateral acceleration
increases at a
constant rate until the full curvature of the
circular portion of the curve is reached, where
2-7
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
2.5 VEHICLE
FORCES
the acceleration remains constant until the exit

spiral is reached.
As a guideline, the transit industry has
established 0.03 g per second as the desired
maximum rate for change of acceleration. As
stated previously, constant lateral acceleration
in the central part of a track curve is
comfortable
at 0.10 g.
Therefore,
if the
allowable
maximum
acceleration
in the
circular curve is 0.10 g and the rate of
attainment is 0.03 g per second the time the
train traverses the spiral must be no less than:
0 log
= 3.33 seconds
0.03glsec
STATIC AND DYNAMIC
2.5.1 Static Vertical
The following parameters establish the LRV

vertical wheel load on the rail head. The
vehicle manufacturer generally provides these
values.
2.5.1 .I AWOIAWI
Loads
AWO is the total car weight, in

revenue service condition, with no
on board. AWI is the car weight
seated passenger load, at 155
passenger.
The formulas presented in Chapter 3 are

based on the 0.03 g per second rate of
change of acceleration, with the provision to
increase to 0.04 g per second when realigning
existing tracks to fit built-in conditions.
2.5.1.2
AW2lAW3lAW4
a ready for
passengers
with a fully
pounds per
Loads
AW2 (Design Load) is seated load plus

standing passengers at 4 per square meter of
suitable standing space. AW3 (Crush Load)
is seated load plus standing passengers at 6
per square meter of suitable standing space.
AW4 (Structure Design) is seated load plus
standing passengers at 8 per square meter of
suitable standing space. Since the seating
and suitable standing space is a function of
the vehicle design, the loading should be
defined by the car builder.
The main objective is to design spirals that

are sufficiently
long enough
to provide
satisfactory ride comfort.
Considering the
average vehicle roll tendency and allowing for
variability in tracks and vehicles, the rate of
change of unbalanced
lateral acceleration
acting on the passenger should not exceed
0.03 g per second. In difficult situations, an
acceleration of 0.04 g per second may be
acceptable.
2.5.1.3
Passenger comfort on track curves is based

on the theory that the spiral must be long
enough so that excessive lateral force is not
required to accelerate the vehicle up to the
constant angular rotation of the circular curve.
The spiral curve must be long enough, relative
to the length of the vehicle, so that there is not
excessive twisting of the vehicle, since
twisting forces tend to produce derailments.
Wheel Loading
Level)
Tolerance
(Car
If exact wheel loadings must be known, the

variations in each wheel load due to design
and manufacturing
tolerances
must be
considered.
2-8
Light
2.5.1.4
Wheel Loading @ Maximum

Stationary Superelevation,
Considering
Car Tilt and Uniform
AW3 Load
2.5.1.7
Unsprung Weight (Truck Frame,

Wheels, Axle, Bearings, and
Portions of the Motor/Gear Units)
Vehicles
Load Leveling
2.5.2 Dynamic
Horizontal/
Longitudinal
The following
parameters
establish
the
maximum forces along the direction of the
rails.
Unsprung weight is a significant contributing

factor to dynamic track loading as these items
are not isolated from the track by the car
primary suspensions.
2.5.2.1
2.5.1.6
Transit
To meet ADA car threshold-to-platform

alignment
standards,
track and platform
designers must also consider the accuracy of
car leveling systems that compensate for
variable passenger loading. Load leveling can
be provided by the secondary air springs or
hydraulic actuators.
For ADA requirements
see Section 2.8 herein.
Worst-case wheel/rail force is expected when

a fully loaded car stops on a maximum
superelevated track structure Car tilt will also
add to the lateral and vertical forces on the
lower rail.
2.5.1.5
Rail
Maximum
Acceleration
The maximum car acceleration provided by

the car propulsion system is the resulting
force at the wheel tread to rail head interface.
The amount of adhesion is the measure of the
force generated between the rail and wheel
before slipping.
A typical 4.8 kilometer per
hour per second (3 miles per hour per second)
acceleration
rate is equivalent to a 15%
adhesion level, if all axles are motorized. For
a typical LRV with four of six axles motorized,
the adhesion rate is 22.5%.
Truck Weight
Truck weight and yaw inertia will affect rail

forces on curved track. Total truck weight will
also affect dynamic forces as only the car
body is isolated by the truck secondary
suspensions.
2.5.1.6.1 Motorized Trucks

Motorized trucks (typically at the ends of the
car) may have either one monomotor or two
motors that drive both axles, along with gear
units that connect the motors to the axles.
The motors may be either DC or AC design
depending on the vehicles control system
package.
Newer designs may have unique
wheel and drive support systems that do not
resemble traditional truck designs.
2.5.2.2
Maximum
Deceleration
(Wheels)
The maximum
car deceleration
rate is
established by the retarding force at the wheel
tread.
The deceleration force can be the
result of a combination of disc brakes, wheel
tread brakes, and traction motor electrical
brakes, either dynamic or regenerative.
2.5.1.6.2 Non-Motorized
Trucks
All trucks under a specific LRV will not have
the same mass or the same inertia. Nonmotorized trucks will not have motors and
gear units, but may have axle-mounted disc
brakes. They are typically located under the
articulation joints of LRVs. On some vehicles,
the wheels may be independently mounted
rather than configured as a conventional truck.
2.5.2.3
Maximum
Brakes)
Deceleration
(Track
is
generated
by
Deceleration
force
electromagnetic
brakes applied to the rail
head, in addition to that produced at the
wheel. This force is developed at the track
brake-to-rail head interface and can provide
2-9
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
an additional 4.8 kilometers per hour

second (3 mphps) of deceleration.
2.5.2.4
per
2.5.3
Dynamic
Determination of total track force is a complex

issue that depends on LRV design features.
Typically the vehicle total weight is increased
by a factor to include dynamic loading effects.
The characteristics
of the LRV suspension
be
defined
by
system
should
the
manufacturer,
who should also provide the
dynamic load factor to the track designer.
Tolerances
All acceleration and deceleration values also

have tolerances that are due to many factors.
The major factors for acceleration tolerance
are traction motor tolerances, actual wheel
diameter
size,
and
generation
and
interpretation of master controller commands
This tolerance may range from +5 to 7%.
2.5.3.1
2.5.3.1.1
Maximum
2.5.3.1.2
Load Weight
Rate
is the force per travel distance for

chevron primary springs.
This
may be non-linear for long travel
The
equivalent
vertical,
and lateral spring rates will be
Damping
Rate
Damping rate is the shock absorber action

that provides a force proportional to the
velocity of the spring movement.
It is
designed
to minimize
oscillation of the
springs/mass system.
If the LRV has a load weight function, the

acceleration and deceleration forces will be
increased at car loadings above AWO, to
some maximum loading value. These values
should be defined to establish maximum
longitudinal track force.
2.5.3.2
2.5.2.7
Suspension
Spring
Spring rate
the coil or
relationship
distances.
longitudinal,
different.
Train Size
Acceleration
and deceleration
forces are
applied per car. Therefore, the total rail force
per train will depend on the maximum train
size.
If more than one train can be on
common rails at one time, this should also be
considered.
2.5.2.6
Primary
Primary suspension provides support between

the truck frame and the axle journal bearings.
It is the first level of support for the bearings
above the wheel set.
All actual deceleration values are dependent

on friction coefficients as well as the above
issues. The expected tolerance for friction
and track brakes should be obtained from the
supplier
2.5.2.5
Vertical
Secondary
Suspension
Secondary suspension supports the car body

on the truck and controls the range of car
body movement with relation to the truck. The
suspension
and track alignment basically
establish the LRV ride quality. The secondary
springs can be either steel coils or air bags.
Sanding
Car sanders apply sand to the head of the rail

in front of the wheel to obtain a higher
adhesion coefficient.
Sanding in specific
locations has a fouling effect on track ballast
that should be considered.
2.5.3.2-l
Damping
Rate
Damping rate is optimized for ride quality.

With an air bag system, orifices in the air
2-l 0
Light
Rail
Transit
Vehicles
supply to the air bags can adjust the damping

rate.
2.6 VEHICLE WHEEL GAUGE/TRACK

GAUGE/ WHEEL PROFILE
2.5.3.2.2
2.6.1 Track Gauge
Yaw Friction
Yaw is the amount of rotation of the truck with

relation to the car body Some yaw is normal
on curved track.
The truck design and
materials used will establish the friction force
that restrains truck swivel. Yaw contributes to
lateral track forces,
which can produce
conditions where the wheel climbs over the
rail head.
The design of related friction
surfaces should be such that the friction factor
remains constant as service life increases.
2.5.3.3
Maximum
Railway
The
American
Engineering
Maintenance
of Way Association (AREMA)
standard track gauge for railways shown on
Portfolio Plan 793-52 is established at 1,435
millimeters (56 5 inches) New light rail transit
systems generally adopt railway gauge as
standard.
The use of AAR and AREMA
standards
facilitates procurement
of track
materials
and track maintenance.
For
additional information on track gauge refer to
Chapter 4
Speed
The operating
speed
limit for all track
considers passenger comfort and safety. This
criterion should be coordinated with the car
design.
Civil speed
limits are set by
determining
the maximum
rate of lateral
acceleration that passengers can comfortably
endure, This is usually in the range of 0.1 g,
which establishes the level of unbalanced
superelevation
on curves.
Speed limits on
curves are then established
based on the
actual and unbalanced superelevation.
2.6.2 Vehicle Wheel Gauge

AAR standard wheel gauge for railroad cars
per AREMA
Portfolio
Plan 793-52
is
established
at I,4145
millimeters
(55.7
inches). The inside gauge of flanges (wheel
back-to-back
distance)
considering
the
common 29.4-millimeter (1.2-inch) wide wheel
flange is 1,355.7 millimeters (53 4 inches).
Transit
standard
wheel
gauge
generally
conforms
to track gauge with a minimal
clearance, resulting in wheel gauge width of
1,429 millimeters (56.25 inches).
Vehicle
wheel gauge is a very important interface
issue that must be addressed
jointly by
vehicle and track designers.
2.5.3.4 Car Natural Frequency

The natural frequency
of cars should be
coordinated with the natural frequency of civil
structures
such as bridges
or elevated
guideways. Trucks and car bodies each have
different natural frequencies that should also
be considered.
Also, car loaded weight
affects the car bodys natural frequency.
natural
frequency
should
be
Therefore,
2.6.3 Wheel Profiles-United

Canada, Europe
States,
Wheel profile is one of the most critical vehicle

parameters to consider in track design, since
the wheel is the primary interface between the
vehicle and the track structure.
The wheel
profile must be compatible
with the rail
defined at car weight extremes, AWO to AW3.
2-11
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
shown on AREMA Drawing 793-52.

In 1991,
the AAR revised this standard wheel profile to
the current AAR-IB narrow flange profile.[*l
These two wheel profiles are shown in Figure
2.6.4.
section(s); the special trackwork components,

including switch points and frog flangeways or
moveable
point sections;
the guard
rail
positions
to
protect
special
trackwork
components;
and
the
guarded
track
restraining rail positions on shorter or sharp
radius track curves.
Many transit agencies have adopted a worn

wheel design, featuring wheel contours that
approximate
the template to which railway
wheels wear in service. These designs are
intended to:
l
Reduce wheel and rail wear
Once approved, any changes to the wheel

profile (especially tread and flange width)
must be evaluated by both vehicle and track
designers.
In more than one instance, the
wheel profile has been altered at the last
minute without informing the track designer,
resulting in unsatisfactory performance of both
the track and vehicle. Selected wheel profiles
are shown below [l]:
USA.
Figure 2.6.1
Figure 2.6.2
Europe
Figure 2.6.3
Baltimore
Los Angeles
Boston (2)
Pittsburgh
Dallas
Portland (2)
Denver
Sacramento
San Diego
San Francisco (2)
San Jose
Philadelphia
St. Louis
Toronto
Calgary
Edmonton
Koln
Zurich
Karlsruhe
Enhance stable performance

nominal range of speeds
Provide
reasonable
characteristics
under
over
contact
the
stress
Tests by the AAR at the Transportation

Test
Center in Pueblo, Colorado have shown that
the AAR-1 B wheel provides:
l
A lower lateral over vertical (LA/) ratio in a
233-meter (764-foot) radius curve than the
previous AAR I:20 profile
l
A lower rolling resistance

previous AAR I:20 profile.
Lower critical hunting
new AAR 1.20 profile
speeds
than
the
than the
New transit
agencies
must
review the
advantages
of adopting either the AAR-18
wheel profile or a similar worn wheel design
adapted to the local needs of the transit
system, considering
factors such as the
overall tread width, wheel diameter,
and
flange width and depth.
A cursory review of the selected profiles

(Figures 2.6.1 to 2.6.3) clearly indicates that
transit vehicle designers
virtually always
utilize unique wheel
profiles, unlike the
railroad industry, which has adopted standard
profiles
In 1928,
outdated
Reduce likelihood of derailment

adverse operating conditions
2.6.4 Wheel/Rail
Profiles
Wheel profile is a flexible design decision,

drawn from the different profile sections used
throughout
the transit industry.
The same
the AAR established the recently

AAR standard
wheel profile as
2-12
Light
NI
Rail
Transit
Vehicles
LOS ANGELES
BALTIMORE
BOSTON
5 9/c
PITTSBURGH
2.w
DALLAS
5-23/32'
i-
5/a-
u
3-i/16'
DENVER
SACRAMENTO
Figure 2.6. I Wheel Profiles
2-13
(U.S.)
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
TAPER
1' IN 20-7
b
z
SAN DIEGO
ST LOUIS
SAN FRANCISCO
TORONTO
4-21/64'
1' IN 32'
14
316 - R
!
2
SAN JOSE
Y
CALGARY
'
4.134 -
3.721
J/16 --
l-1/16"
TAPER
l-31/32'
R
I
SEPTA
EDMONTON
Figure 2.6.2 Wheel Profiles
2-14
(U.S./North
America)
Light
AAR
I 1-14
RAILROAD
Rail
WHEEL
Transit
Vehicles
(OBSOLETE)
KOLN
Figure 2.6.4 AAR Wheel Profiles
ZURICH
Figure 2.6.3 European
profiles and rail profile grinding has been

undertaken by and for the railroad industry.
The transit industry can also benefit from this
research.
However, recommendations
for
heavy haul railroads may not be entirely
applicable to the transit industry. A light rail
vehicle weighs (AWO) approximately 44,000
kilograms (97,000 pounds). A loaded freight
car weighs as much as 152,000 kilograms
(335,000
pounds).
This ,represents
a
significant difference in wheel loads of 5,500
kilograms
(12,100
pounds)
and 19,000
kilograms (41,900 pounds) for LRVs and
freight cars, respectively.
Obviously, rails
used in transit service will not be subjected to
wheel forces of the magnitude exerted by
freight cars. Therefore, theories of rail gauge
corner fatigue, high L/V ratios, and the threat
Wheel Profiles
flexibility is not provided in the selection of

standard rail profiles. Only a few standard rail
sections exist for use by the transit industry.
However, wheel and rail profiles must be
compatible, which means that the wheel
profile should conform to the rail head profile.
As with wheel
research and
profiles, the majority of the

development
on rail head
2-l 5
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
inches) were undoubtedly

undertaken
improve the wheel-to-rail contact points.
of rail rollover that pertain to freight railroads

may not be fully applicable on a transit
system.r31 The contact forces at the rail gauge
corner on curved tracks are usually twice as
large as those between the rail crown and
wheel tread.
to
The combinations of wheel and rail profiles

shown in Figure 2.6.5 illustrate the various
interface conditions generated between the
wheels and rails. The old AAR wheel profile
is obsolete for use on main line railroads.
However, some existing transit systems may
utilize this profile.
To improve wheel/rail
interface contact, alternate wheel shapes may
be considered. During the early design stage
of new transit systems, transit wheel profiles
should be considered that match or conform
to the rail section(s) to be used on the system.
In the process of wheel design, the design
engineer must consider the rail sections and
the rail cant to be selected.
For additional
information on rail sections, refer to Section
For additional
5.2.2 of this handbook.
information on rail cant selection and benefits,
refer to Section 4.2.4.
To reduce contact stresses at the gauge

corner and gauge side rail base fastening, it is
important
that the wheel/rail
profile be
compatible. The wheel profile is conformed to
the rail profile if the gap between the wheel
and rail profile is less than 0.5 millimeters
(0.02 inches) at the center of the rail (in
single-point contact) or at the gauge corner (in
two-point contact).
Figure 2.6.5 illustrates various transit rail
sections used on contemporary LRT systems
in conjunction with the obsolete AAR wheel
profile and the new AAR-IB wheel profile.
The obsolete AAR wheel profile is included to
show a non-conformal
two-point
contact
wheel/rail
relationship
that transfers
the
vertical load from the gauge corner toward the
centerline of the rail. This combination, shown
in Figure 2.6.5 A and C, reduces the wheel
radius at the contact location which is
detrimental
to steering
and introduces
accelerated gauge face wear. A secondary
distinct wheel/rail profile condition, shown in
Figure 2.65
E, is the AAR-IB
wheel
superimposed on the Ri59N girder groove rail.
Although the wheel is conformed to the rail
a pronounced
one-point
contact
head,
materializes.
Although excellent for steering,
the contact stresses at the gauge corner may
prove to be too high and detrimental to the
rail, leading to fatigue defects.
Recent
revisions to the rail head profile that alter the
head radius introduce a surface cant in the
head, and increase the gauge comer radius of
the Ri59 and Ri60 rail to 13 millimeters (0 5
Many transit properties have adopted the

combination
of transit wheel/rail
profiles
proposed by Prof. Herman Heumann r4],where
the wheel profile conforms to the rail head
profile. This design emphasizes single point
contact which improves the difference
in
radius between the two rail/wheel contact
points leading to improved wheel set (axle)
curving.
Improved wheel/rail contact at the
gauge corner provides improved steering and
less gauge face contact.
Figure 2.6.5 F
illustrates a recommended
transit wheel
profile taking advantage
of the following
design concepts.
l
The wheel profile is designed to conform
to selected rail sections (where the transit
system will not share track with freight
cars). Heritage or historical vehicles to be
used on the transit system for special
occasions must be considered.
2-l 6
Light
AAl?-I8
AAR-18
HEEL
Rail
Transit
Vehicles
WEEL
RAIL
1:20 CANT
RAIL
1:40 CANT
108 (4.250)
TRANST HEEL
AAR WHEEL
124 BC
1:20 CAN
Ri-60
NO CANT
NONCCNFORHAL
C
Figure 2.6.5 Wheel-Rail
l
additional wheel tread for occasional wide

track gauge locations in sharp curves to
specifically halt the vertical wear step in
the head of rail produced under these
operating conditions.
The
selected
wheel
width
is 108
millimeters (4.2 inches) to reduce wheel
weight and projection of wheel beyond the
Special
rail head on the field side.
trackwork switch mates, turnouts, and
crossing (diamond) frogs must be flange
bearing to conform to the wheel width.
The width of the wheel is 18 millimeters
(0.7 inches) wider than the normal 89millimeter
(35inch)
width.
Interface
This provides
2-l 7
Tee rail profile is 124 BC to provide a

preferred rail head profile with improved
radii and additional steel in the head area.
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Girder groove rail section

to provide a narrow
increased tram or girder
wheel gauge must be
1,421 millimeters).
Handbook
wheels
used
with
standard
railroad
flangeways
and
wheel
gauges
will
undoubtedly lead to improper wheel traverse
through special trackwork components.
(Ri59N) is used
flangeway
and
lip. (Note the
transit width or
Rail cant is 1.20 to improve wheel/rail

contact location in curved track.
2.6.4.1
Wheel Profile-Widths
Flangeways
2.6.4.2
Wheel Profile-Flange
Configuration
The wheel flange is an extremely important

wheel/rail
component
when
considering
design compatibility.
The width of the flange
should be selected based on the standard
girder groove or guard rail section to be used
in embedded track. The standard rail sections
currently
available
(Ri59N,
RiGON, etc.)
restrict the width of the wheel flange. If only
tee rail is to be used on the transit system, the
flange width can be more flexible. A wheel
flange with side slopes approximately
70
from vertical has been the focus of much
design discussion based on the W wheel
forces and friction levels, with rail head wear
leading to potential wheel climb.
The
proposed
wheel is based on Professor
Heumanns 70 flange design. The radii at the
outside edges of the wheel flange should be
relatively curved, in lieu of a squarer
configuration which, when worn, could lead to
sharp flange corners that perpetuate potential
wheel climb. The flange edge, or bottom, on a
majority of transit wheels is totally curved.
and
The wider clearance between AAR wheel

gauge and standard track gauge governs the
width of the wheel tread and affects the width
of the wheel tread supporting surface through
special trackwork.
The larger wheel-to-rail
clearance requires a wider flangeway opening
through frogs and the corresponding guard rail
flangeway.
The wider flangeways promote
increased lateral wheel positions resulting in
less wheel tread contact when the wheels are
furthest from the gauge face of a frog. This
condition promotes rapid deterioration of the
critical wing rail frog point due to improper
tread support transfers between the two
components. Wheels traversing the frog point
area in a facing point lose the wing rail-wheel
support surface resulting in premature transfer
of wheel load to the frog point. This early
transfer causes the load to bear on too narrow
a frog point, producing frog point vertical head
crushing.
Comparing standard American and European

wheel profiles (Figures 2.6.1, 2.6.2 and 2.6.3),
it is apparent that the European wheel design
with flat wheel flanges considers flange
bearing a standard practice. The majority of
transit agencies in North America have not
featured a flat wheel flange design, even
though a limited amount of flange bearing is
used on some systems.
Philadelphia,
Pittsburgh, and Calgary are the only North
American transit agencies using a pronounced
flat wheel flange design. The recommended
wheel design proposes a limited flat section
Placing the wheel flange further from the

gauge face of rail requires a wider wheel
tread. The wider wheel tread increases the
weight of the wheel, thereby increasing the
unsprung mass of the truck.
A narrower
wheel profile of 133 millimeters (5.25 inches)
with the standard AAR-1B flange profile is the
recommended
maximum width for transit
systems sharing track with freight cars, or for
special trackwork sections that do not employ
a flange-bearing
frog design.
This width
includes a 6-millimeter (0.25inch) radius at
the field side of the wheel tread. Narrower
2-18
Light
As a guideline for improved wheel-to-rail and

special trackwork
performance,
the wheel
flange profile should be 25 millimeters (1 inch)
high nominally and definitely not less than 22
millimeters (0.86 inch).
Wheel/Rail
Wear Interface
As stated previously, transit systems generally

rely on railroad research data for analyzing
issues
of
conditions
when
considering
mechanical and track maintenance,
vehicle
operation,
and safety.
Understandably,
intensive research by new transit systems is
not economically
practical.
However,
conditions on railroad trackage are often
different than conditions on transit trackage.
Conclusions
based on railroad research
should be used only as a basis for clarifying
resolving
transit-related
conditions
and
between vehicle and track.
The following
information
discusses AAR research and
development of the wheel/rail interface.L51
2.6.4.3.1
Hollow
Transit
Vehicles
Generally, the wheel/rail profiles have been

designed and maintained separately, with the
consequence that some practices may benefit
one
discipline
but
degrade
overall
One
such
example
is the
performance
practice of grinding gauge corner relief on the
high rail in curves and applying lubrication.
This practice was commonly
thought to
reduce rail wear and extend rail life. However,
investigations now indicate that this procedure
may actually accelerate rail wear in curves
and degrade railcar steering to the point that
wheel
flange
forces
are
substantially
Wheel/rail
conformance
and
increased.
maintaining
that conformance
on transit
system track is essential in restricting these
degradations.r51
on the flange specifically to be compatible with

flange-bearing special trackwork components.
2.6.4.3
Rail
2.6.5 Profile Rail Grinding
vs. Wheel Wear
Rail grinding procedures have received a

substantial amount of attention in the railroad
industry. The focus has been on grinding the
high rail in curves to provide gauge corner
relief. The theory was that avoiding overload
of the gauge corner on the high rail would
reduce internal rail defects. The other theory
was that this relief grinding exacerbates rail
and wheel wear, compared to more conformal
rail profiles, by reducing the railcar steering
forces and increasing the wheel flange forces.
Worn Wheels
AAR investigations of rail rollover derailments

that,
under
certain
have
ascertained
conditions, a combination
of hollow worn
wheels and heavy rail gauge corner grinding
can generate large gauge spreading forces.
The interfacing of the wheel/rail profiles can
contribute to:
l
Rail spalling and wear
l
Wheel shelling and wear
l
Damage to special trackwork
l
Rail rollover and flange climb derailments
l
Train resistance
To
provide
insight
into
the
relative
performance of various rail grinding practices,
long-term
rail grinding experiments
were
undertaken,
New rails were installed in
several curves and were being maintained
using three different rail grinding practices:
l
No grinding
. Mild high rail gauge corner relief
. Moderate high rail gauge corner relief
The wheel and rail profile system can be

considered a fundamental component of a rail
vehicles suspension system, providing proper
guidance along the track.
Transverse rail profiles and rail head heights

were periodically measured to compare the
relative wear rates in the three zones.
2-19
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
2.6.5.1 Wheel Profile Development

Figure 2.6.6 shows preliminary results of the
rail grinding experiment cited above. The high
rail gauge face wear rates are plotted for each
practice. Clearly, the wear rate increased with
the amount of gauge corner relief.
It was
established that new wheels with AAR I:20
profiles experienced
substantial wear when
first put into service and that most worn
wheels developed very similar profiles over
time. To minimize wear on new wheels, the
AAR developed a new standard wheel profile
(AAR-IB) that was based on an average
worn wheel shape (see Figure 2.6.4).
Figure 2.6.7
Worn Wheel
._._._..._.....
g so
s
g 40 ._.........
20
NOORlNO MILDGRINDMODERATE
Figure 2.6.6 Preliminary

Wear Measurements
AAR-1B
and
Hollow
Truck warp occurs when the truck is skewed

so much that its side frames rotate relative to
the bolster in the vertical plane and both
wheel sets develop large angles of attack
relative to the rails. The large angles of attack
from the wheel sets of a warped truck often
generate large gauge spreading forces.
100
80
New
GRIN0
High Face Gauge

2.6.5.2
Wheel/Rail Interface Profiles and

Potential Derailments
Wheel and rail profiles play major roles in
flange climb and rail rollover or wide gauge
derailments.
The MR
recently performed
tests to better understand
the factors that
influence the propensity of a wheel set to
climb the rail. These factors include lateral
and vertical wheel force ratios, wheel set
angle of attack, wheel/rail flange contact
angle, and friction.
The implementation
of the AAR-IB wheel
profile has reduced the wear of new wheels.
wheel
profile
However,
stricter
new
are
required
to
maintenance
practices
minimize
deterioration
of wheel
profile
performance from tread wear. For example,
Figure 2.6.7 shows the profile of a new AAR1B wheel hollow worn from revenue service.
Although the worn wheel tread appears to be
the
wheel
is not
excessively
hollow,
condemnable under current AAR limits.
The test demonstrations

were conducted on a
233-meter (7&I-foot) radius track curve for the
three different high rail profiles, as shown in
Figure 2.6.8:
.
Heavy gauge corner grinding
.
Light gauge corner grinding
l
No grinding
The ability of worn wheels to properly guide,

or steer, a railcar through curves is seriously
compromised
by excessive tread hollowing.
The AAR has recently demonstrated that in a
233-meter (7Wfoot)
radius track curve with
heavy high rail gauge, corner grinding and
wheel sets with hollow profile will actually
produce forces that inhibit truck turning and
cause trucks to warp.
2-20
Liaht
Rail
Transit
Vehicles
Figure 2.6.9
Truck Steering Moment
Warp Angle from Demonstration
Figure 2.6.8 Three Rail Profiles
AAR Demonstration
Used in
and
steering moment increased in the light and nogrind zones, the truck warp angle improved.
At the point of maximum truck warp in the
heavy grind zone, the test truck produced a
trackside lateral gauge spreading force of
151,000 Newtons (34,000 pounds)
Gauge
spreading forces of this magnitude have the
potential to cause wide gauge or rail rollover
derailments
in weak track under certain
conditions.r51
A pair of instrumented wheel sets, with the

hollow worn profiles shown in Figure 2.6.7,
were used in the trailing truck of a loo-ton
hopper car to measure the wheel/rail forces.
The primary measurements of interest were
truck steering moments, truck warp angle, and
wheel set lateral forces.
Truck steering
moments were measured to evaluate the
steering quality of a particular wheel/rail
profile combination.
In Figure 2.6.9 the
bottom
curve shows the truck steering
moment through the three test zones when
the running surfaces of the rails were dry and
the gauge face of the high rail was lubricated.
In the figure, a positive steering moment acts
to steer the truck into the curve, while a
negative steering moment acts to resist truck
steering.
The combination of hollow worn
wheel profiles and heavy rail gauge corner
grinding generated a large negative steering
The
moment in the heavy grind zone.
steering moment improved dramatically in the
mild and no-grind zones.
2.6.5.3
Special Trackwork
Worn Wheels
and Hollow
False flanges on hollow worn wheels cause

excessive damage to switches,
turnouts,
crossing frogs, and grade crossings compared
to properly tapered wheels.
Hollow worn
wheels increase noise and vibration due to
excessive impacting of the false flange on the
wing rails and wide special
trackwork
components.
European
switch point design does not
consider the raised switch point concept;
therefore,
the selection of a uniform or
graduated design is not a concern. However,
either raised switch point design, especially
level switch point design, can best improve
operations through the regular maintenance of
wheel truing, eliminating the false flange and
secondary batter caused by the false flange.
The standards for vehicle wheel maintenance
play an important part in the switch point
The large negative steering moment caused

the test truck to warp in the heavy grind zone,
as shown in the top curve of the figure. As the
2-21
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
when
switch
wear rates on both wheels and rails due to the

decrease in overturning,
creep, and climb
forces being exerted on the running rails.
For additional information

on wheel false
flange and special trackwork switch point
design with raised switch points, refer to
Section 6.53.
Normal trucks are configured as two parallel

sets of wheels and axles locked in a
rectangular frame. As this assembly travels
through curves, the attempt by the inside and
outside wheels to remain parallel results in
significant forces being exerted by the wheels
on the rails.
design and must be considered

contemplating wheel special trackwork
point interface.
2.6.5.4
Truck Resistance
Wheels
with Hollow
Worn
It was determined that trucks that warp in

curves, so that both wheel sets run in flange
contact with the high rail, have a higher rolling
resistance than trucks that steer properly in
curves. Also, trucks that exhibit a diagonal
wheel wear pattern-two
diagonally opposite
wheels are worn hollow while the other two
are not-might
have an increased rolling
resistance on tangent track because two
diagonally opposite wheels would run in or
near flange contact.
The wheels attempt to overturn the rails, climb

along the rails
the rails, and creep
simultaneously.
Rail systems designers have recognized that
if successful
steerable
trucks could be
developed,
rail and wheel wear could be
reduced.
A major problem in achieving a
successful steerable truck or axle has been
the difficulty in developing a system that not
only permits steerability in curves, but also
retains stability (i.e. does not hunt) when
traveling on tangent track.
Test results indicate that, at 80 km/h (48

mph), the rolling resistance of the test truck
increased in the curve from approximately
2600 to 7100 Newtons (600 to 1,600 pounds)
when the wheel profile was changed from new
to hollow worn.
The
self-steering
principle
has
been
successfully implemented in main line dieselelectric freight locomotives using mechanical
linkages that allow axle movement within the
truck frame.
Successful designs based on
rubber/steel
chevron
primary
suspension
systems have been achieved on commuter,
intercity, and high speed trains, notably in
Sweden.
Transit agencies generally include wheel

truing machines in their requirements
for
maintenance facilities.
Therefore, severely
hollow worn wheels should not be a problem if
conscientious
wheel
maintenance
is
practiced. Hollow worn wheels would also be
a severe detriment
to the surrounding
surfaces in embedded track.
2.655
The rubber/steel chevron system has also

been applied successfully to light rail vehicles
both in Europe and the United States.
Some
new design
European
vehicles,
featuring
100%
low-floor
designs,
are
effectively eliminating the conventional fourwheel truck, as we have known it. Instead
various
types
of
single
axles
and
independently
mounted wheels are being
utilized.
Truck Resistance-Alternate
Approaches
The advantages of radial or self-steering

trucks have been demonstrated in a variety of
main line railroad and transit applications.
These advantages usually appear as lower
2-22
Light
If a light rail system is proposed that will utilize

radial steering
or other
unconventional
designs for wheels and axles, the vehicle and
track
designers
should
cooperatively
determine the impacts of such designs on
wheels and rails.
2.7 WHEEL CENTER LIMITING

CONDITIONS
Rail
Transit
Vehicles
in the tire, and the distortion in the elastomer

at the high rail. The limiting flange provides
control of the lateral tire position. The figure
also illustrates the inner wheel, wherein the
restraining rail-to-wheel tire action actually
opens the gap at the limiting flange
Under
these conditions, the wheel tire is free to shift
to the limit of the elastomer distortion which is
equal to the lateral outside wheel shift beyond
the restraining rail flangeway width.
FLANGE
The standard for most LRV wheel designs

includes resilient wheels such as the Bochum
54, Bochum 84, SAB, and the Acousta-Flex
wheel designs.
Wheel
designers
must
consider
transit
systems design criteria for guarded track
wherein the guard or restraining rail will place
lateral restrictions on movement of the wheel
out of the normal direction.
Observation
of internal wheel wear at the
interface between the resilient wheel tire and
the center hub has indicated
substantial
lateral deflection in the elastomer components
as shown in Figure 2.7.1.
Some resilient
wheel designs include a limiting flange that
controls the amount of lateral deflection when
the outside wheel actually bears against the
outside rail gauge face. On certain resilient
wheel
designs
the
limiting
flange
is
unidirectional, controlling the lateral shift for a
typical outside wheel-to-rail force. The limiting
flange design does not consider the inner
wheel action, as normally there is no lateral
wheel restriction.
Notably, the resilient wheel designs for the

North American PCC cars were designed with
rigidity limits in both lateral directions.
Whether this was by design or accident is
unknown.
In addition, to accommodate
the proposed
heavy wheel flanging due to sharp curvature
and excessive vehicle mass, the tire and
wheel
center
component
material
and
hardness should be reevaluated
to provide
wear-resistant faces.
Wheel squeal in curves has continually been
studied
at
the
wheel/rail
interface.
Consideration must be given to wheel squeal
caused by the limiting flange action,
Most light rail track designs include guarded

track on relatively sharp curves by providing a
restraining rail adjacent to the inner rail. The
guarding or restraining rail is positioned to
contact the inside face of the inside wheel of
the vehicle in a curve. This action, in fact,
assists in steering the vehicle truck through
the track curve. For additional information on
guarded track, refer to Section 4.2.8.
The
restraining rail action results in a force on the
wheel
in the direction
opposite
to the
customary wheel-rail gauge face flanging.
2.8 VEHICLES AND STATIONS-ADA

REQUIREMENTS
ADA requires that public operators of light rail
transit systems make their transportation
services,
facilities
and
communication
systems
accessible
to
persons
with
disabilities. New vehicles and construction of
provide
needed
facilities
must
the
accessibility.
Figure 2.7.1 illustrates and documents

the
normal resilient wheel position, the lateral shift
2-23
Light
2.8.1
Rail
Track
Clearance
Design
Handbook
and Tolerances
Figure 2.8.1 outlines the general configuration
of the track-to-station
platform interface with
the desired installation
tolerances.
The
illustration references both embedded track
and direct fixation track designs that require
construction of a permanent track bed in lieu
of a ballasted section, which is subject to
settlement
and
possible
surface
lift
requirements.
To properly address
ADA requirements,
designers
will consider
all dimensional
tolerances of the platform/vehicle
interface,
such as:
l
Track-to-platform clearances
l
Vehicle-to-track clearances
l
Vehicle dimensional tolerances, new/old
l
Vehicle load leveling
2.9 REFERENCES
The tight horizontal and vertical clearance

requirements
between
the vehicle door
threshold and the platform edge impact the
construction of track.
In order to maintain
these tolerances, it may be necessary to
structurally connect the track and the platform
This may best be accomplished using direct
fixation track or embedded
track with a
structural slab connected
to the platform
structure.
Track design, station design, and vehicle
design must comply with the requirements of
the ADA (1990). As a guideline, new light rail
transit stations should be designed taking into
consideration
the ultimate ADA goal of
providing access for persons with disabilities.
these
requirements
include
Horizontally,
providing platform edges that are within 75
millimeters (3 inches) of the edge of the
vehicle floor with the door in the open position.
Vertically, the vehicle floor elevation should be
level with or slightly higher than the station
platform elevation.
2-24
[I]
Penn Machine Company.

LRV Wheel
Richard
E. Trail,
VP
Profiles.
Transportation Letter dated July 3, 1996.
21
Leary, John F. America Adopts Worn

Wheel Profiles. AAR Railway Gazette
International, July 1990.
[3]
Kalousek, Joe & Magel, Eric, Managing

Rail Resources,
AREA Volume 98,
Bulletin 760, May 1997.
[4]
Professor
Hermann
Centenary Anniversary.
[5]
Mace,
Stephen
E.,
Wheel/Rail
Interface,
Railroads
American
October 1995.
Heumann,
Improving
the
Association
of
Railway
Age,
Light
LIMITING
FLANGE -
Rail
Transit
Vehicles
NON-DISTORTED
ELASTOMER
TIRE
NORMAL WHEEL CONDITION

VEHICLE AXLE FORCE
VEHICLE
AXLE FORCE
.
WHEEL CENTER
CENTER
OUTSIDE
HIGH RUNNING
RAIL
INSIDE LOW RUNNING RAIL

WlTH RESTRAINING
RAIL
VEHICLE WHEELS IN CURVE POSITION

NOTES:
1.
LATERAL
SHIFTS
AND DISTORTION
2.
!MDE WHEEL GAUGE
3.
WHEEL CENTER
OF RUBBER
DUE TO DISTORTION
TO TIRE SHIFT
OF 6 millimeters
RESULTS
UNCONTROLLED
IN GUARDED
Wheel
inch)
(RESTRAINING
AT INSIDE RUNNING
Figure 2.7.1 Resilient
2-25
(l/4
RAIL.
IS CONSIDERED
RAIL)
NORMAL.
SITUATIONS.
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
GAUGE LINE
FINAL E3ca
VEHICLE we
(FROM GAUGE LINE
TO DOOR TRESiC!40) PLUS 75 (3 INCHES)
TRA
I I/
- ----^ _^ \
DIRECT FlXATlON TRACK

CONSTRUCTlGN ENTIRE
LENGTH OF PLATFORM
15 METERS (50 FT)
EACH END.-,
L+B
TRUNCATED DOMES
16 REFER TO NOTE 4
DESIGN TO CONSIDER
50 (2 INCH) OEPTH DRAINACE
DEPRESSJONTO RETARD
SEEPAGE TO RAIL AREA
DIRECT FIXATION TRACK SECTION AT STATION PLATFORM

RAIL TO PLATFORM GuIDELINES
FINAL DEYGN VEHICLE MDTH (FROM GAUGE LINE

TO DOOR TRESHOLD) PLUS 75 (3 INCHES)
GAUGE LINE
f
h:T;
;yRTA;LGAuGE L+;E,FT;;r$;
EMBEDDED TRACK SECTION AT STihN
PLATFORM
RAIL TO PLATFORM GUIDELINES
NDTES:
LONGITUDINAL PLATFORM TOLERANCES
DIMENSJONS A h B TO BE DETERMINEDUSING TRANSIT AGENCY MHlCLE

WlOTH AND HEIGHT DlMEN3ONS RESPECTIMLY
FOR THE ENTIRE LONGITUDINAL LENGTH OF PLATFORM. THE SURFACE
DEMATlON SHAlL HAM A TOCERANCEOF 3 (I/8 INCH) IN 6100 (20 FEET)
AND MUST BE CONSTRUCTED YIITHIN THE STATED CRITICAL MRilCAL
(TOP OF RAlL PLATFORM SURFACE) TRERATEO LIMITS
THE GAUGE LINE ALIGNMENT of THE CLOSEST RAIL TO THE PLATFORM SHALL
MAINTAIN A SPEUFIC HORIZONTAL RELATIONSHIP TO THE PLATFORM FACE
WlTHlN THE STATED HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE THROUGHOUT THE LENGTH
OF THE STATION PLATFORM
THE TOP OF RAIL ALIGNMENT SHALL MAJNTAIN A SPECIFIC MRnC&
RELATlONSHlP TO THE PLATFORM NRFACE WITHIN THE STATE0
MRTlCAL CLEARANCE THRCUGHCUT THE LENGTH OF THE
STATlON PLATFORM
PLATFORM EDGE OMRHANG SHALL BE OF SUFFICIENT LENGTH TO ALLOW
lNSTALLATlChi CONTRACTOR TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTSOF NOTE 1 AND
A PLATFORM MHICLE CLEARANCE OF 75 (3 INCHES) WITH MHlCLE IN
NORMAL STATIC POSITION
Figure 2.8.7 Design
Guidelines:
II
2-26
Track at Station Platform
Chapter
3-Light
Rail Transit
Track Geometry
Table of Contents
3-l
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 TRANSIT
TRACK HORIZONTAL
3.2 1 Minimum Tangent Length Between Curves

3 2.2 Vehicle Length Criteria
3.2.3 Speed Criteria, Vehicle and Passenger
3.2.4 Circular Curves
3.2 4.1 Compound Circular Curves
3.2.4.2 Reverse Circular Curves
3.2.5 Superelevation and Spiral Transition Curves
3.2.5.1 Superelevation
3.253 Spiral Transition Curves
3.253 1 Spiral Transition Curve Lengths
3.2.6 Speed, Curvature, and Superelevation:
Theory
and Basis of Criteria
3.2.6.1 Design Speed in Curves
3.2.6.2 Superelevation Theory
3.2.6.3 Actual Superelevation
3.2.6.4 Superelevation Unbalance
3.2.6.5 Determination of Curve Design Speed
3.2.6.5.1 Categories of Speeds in Curves
3.2.6.5.2 Overturning Speed
3.2.6.5.3 Safe Speed
3.2.6.5.4 Determination of Superelevation Unbalance
Values for Safe and Overturning Speeds
3.2.6.6 Easement Curves
3.2.6.6.1 Length of Easement Curves
3.3 VERTICAL
3-2
3-3
3-5
3-5
3-6
3-9
3-l 0
3-l 0
3-l 1
3-l 3
3-20
ALIGNMENT
ALIGNMENT
3.3.1 Vertical Tangents

3.3.2 Vehicle Length Criteria
3.3.3 Vertical Grades
3.3.4 Vertical Curves
3.3.4.1 Vertical Curve Lengths
3.3.5 Vertical Curves, Special Conditions
3.3.5.1 Reverse Vertical Curves
3.3.5.2 Combined Vertical and Horizontal Curvature
3.3.6 Station Platform Alignment Considerations
3.3.6.1 Horizontal Alignment of Station Platforms
3.3.6.2 Vertical Alignment of Station Platforms
3 3.7 Joint LRT-Railroad/Freight
Tracks
3.3 7.1 Horizontal Alignment
3-i
.
3-21
3-21
3-21
3-22
3-23
3-24
3-24
3-24
3-25
3-26
3-26
3-26
3-29
3-29
3-31
3-31
3-31
3-32
3-32
3-32
3-32
3-33
3-33
3-33
3-33
3-33
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
3-33
3-33
3-34
3-34
3-34
3-34
3-34
3-35
3-35
3.3.7.2 Tangent Alignment

3.3.7.3 Curved Alignment
3.3.7 4 Superelevation
3.3.7.5 Spiral Transitions
3.3 7.6 Vertical Alignment of Joint Use Tracks
3.3.7.6.1 General
3 3.7.6.2 Vertical Tangents
3.3.7.6.3 Vertical Grades
3.3.7.6.4 Vertical Curves
3.4 VEHICLE CLEARANCES
AND TRACK CENTERS
3.4 1 Clearance Envelope

3 4.1.1 Vehicle Dynamic Envelope
3.4.1.2 Track Construction and Maintenance Tolerances
3 4.1.3 Curvature and Superelevation Effects
3 4.1.3.1 Curvature Effects
3 4.1.3.2 Superelevation Effects
3.4.1.5 Vehicle Running Clearance
3.4.2 Structure Gauge
3.4.3 Station Platforms
3.4.4 Vertical Clearances
3.4.5 Track Centers and Fouling Points
3-35
3-36
3-36
3-37
3-37
3-38
3-39
3-39
3-40
3-40
3-41
3-41
3-41
3.5 REFERENCES
List of Figures
Figure 3.2.1 Horizontal
Figure 3.22
Supelevation
Transitions
Figure 3.2.4 Force Diagram
3-10
for Reverse Curves
Figure 3.2.3 LRT Vehicle on Superelevated
Figure 3.3.1
3-8
Curve and Spiral Nomenclature
3-22
Track
of LRT Vehicle on Superelevated
Track
3-30
Vertical Curve Nomencalture
Curve Effects
Figure 3.4.2 Dynamic Vehicle Outline

Vertical Clearances
3-25
on Vehicle Lateral
Superelevation
Clearance
3-38
Effect on
3-39
List of Tables
Table
3.2.1 Alignment
Table 3.2.2a
Table 3.2.2b
Design
Limiting
Factors
3-6
Desired Superelevation
and Minimum
Spiral Curve Length (Metric Units)
3-14
Desired Superelevation
and Minimum
Spiral Curve Length (English Units)
3-17
Table 3.2.3 Safe and Overturning
Speed E, Limits
3-ii
3-26
CHAPTER
3-LIGHT
RAIL TRANSIT
TRACK GEOMETRY
construction
is an existing or abandoned
freight railway line. 11 The LRT vehicle is often
required to operate at speeds of 65 to 90 kph
(40 to 55 mph) through alignments that were
originally designed for FRA Class 1 or 2
freight operations; i.e , less than 45 kph (30
mph)
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The most efficient track for operating any

Unfortunately,
railway is straight and flat.
most railway routes are neither straight nor
flat. Tangent sections of track need to be
connected in a way that steers the train safely,
ensuring that the passengers are comfortable
and the cars and track perform well together.
This dual goal is the subject of this chapter.
General guidelines for the development

of
horizontal
alignment
criteria
should
be
determined before formulating any specific
criteria.
This includes knowledge of the
vehicle configuration and a general idea of the
maximum operating speeds. An example of
the latter is shown from an excerpt from the
design criteria for one LRT system: [*I
The primary goals of geometric criteria for

light rail transit are to provide cost-effective,
efficient, and comfortable transportation, while
maintaining adequate factors of safety with
respect to overall operations, maintenance,
and vehicle stability.
In general, design
criteria guidelines
are developed
using
accepted
engineering
practices
and the
experience of comparable operating rail transit
systems.
Except for areas where the LRT

operates within or adjacent to surface
streets, the track alignment shall be
designed
to
accommodate
the
maximum design speed of 90 kph (55
Physical constraints
along
~M-0.
various
portions
of the system,
together with other design limitations,
may preclude achievement
of this
objective.
Where the LRT operates
within or adjacent to surface streets,
the maximum design speed for the
track alignment shall be limited to the
legal speed of the parallel street
traffic, but shall not exceed 57 kph (35
mph). In all areas, the civil design
speed shall be coordinated with the
normal operating speeds as provided
on the train performance simulation
program speed-distance profiles.
Light rail transit (LRT) geometry standards

and criteria differ from freight or commuter
railway standards, such as those described in
applicable sections of the American Railway
Maintenance-of-Way
Engineering
and
Association (AREMA) Manual, Chapter 5, in
Although the
several important aspects.
major principles of LRT geometry design are
similar or identical to that of freight/commuter
railways, the LRT must be able to safely travel
through restrictive alignments typical of urban
central business districts, including rights-ofway shared with automotive traffic. Light rail
vehicles are also typically designed to travel
at relatively
high operating
speeds
in
suburban and rural settings.
Where the LRT system includes atwhere

light rail
grade
portions
vehicles will operate in mixed traffic
with rubber-tired vehicles in surface
the applicable
geometric
streets,
design criteria for such streets shall
The LRT alignment

corridor
is often
predetermined
by various
physical
or
economic considerations inherent to design
for urban areas
One of the most common
new
LRT
right-of-way
corridors
for
3-l
Light
Rail
Track
Design
be met in the design

alignment
Handbook
performance
requirements.
This generally
results in the following effects on the LRT
horizontal alignment and track superelevation
designs:
.
Minimum main line horizontal curve radius
on new LRT systems is approximately 25
meters (82 feet), depending on physical
restrictions and vehicle design.
of the track
Where the LRT system includes areas

where light rail vehicles will operate in
joint usage with railroad freight traffic,
the applicable
minimum geometric
design criteria for each type of rail
system shall be considered and the
more restrictive shall govern the
design of the track alignment and
clearances.
Criteria for the design of LRT and freight

railroad joint usage tracks are described later
in this section.
In addition to the recommendations
presented
in the following sections, it should be noted
that combinations
of minimum horizontal
radius,
maximum
grade, and maximum
unbalanced superelevation are to be avoided
in the geometric design.
The following
geometric
guidelines
are
established to consider both the limitations of
horizontal,
vertical, and transitional
track
geometry for cost-effective designs and the
ride comfort
requirements
for the LRT
passenger.
3.2 TRANSIT TRACK

ALIGNMENT
Superelevation
unbalance ranges from
100 to 225 millimeters (4 to 9 inches),
depending
on vehicle
design
and
passenger comfort tolerance.[31 Vehicle
designs
that
can
handle
higher
superelevation unbalance can operate at
higher speeds through a given curve
radius
and
actual
superelevation
combination.
LRT
superelevation
unbalance
is normally limited to 75
millimeters (3.0 inches); however, there
are instances where 115 millimeters (4.5
inches) have been implemented.
LRT
spiral
transition
lengths
and
superelevation
runoff rates are generally
shorter
than
corresponding
freight/commuter
railway criteria.
In determining
horizontal
alignment,
four
levels of criteria may be considered.[41 These
levels are based on a review of existing
design criteria documents, particularly those
with a combination
of ballasted
and
embedded main line trackwork:
l
Main
Line
Desired
Minimum-This
criterion is based on an evaluation of
maximum
passenger
comfort,
initial
construction
cost,
and
maintenance
considerations on main line ballasted and
direct fixation track. It is used where no
physical
restrictions
or
significant
construction
cost
differences
are
encountered.
An optional
preferred
minimum may also be indicated to define
the most conservative
possible future
case; i e., maximum future operating
HORIZONTAL
The horizontal alignment of track consists of a

series of tangents joined to circular curves
and spiral transition curves.
In yards and
other non-revenue tracks, the requirement for
spiral transition curve is frequently deleted.
Track superelevation
in curves is used to
maximize vehicle operating speeds wherever
practicable.
An LRT alignment is often constrained by both
physical restrictions and minimum operating
3-2
LRT Track
speed for given

alignment corridor
conditions
within
the
a programmed
maintenance
schedule, but
extensive use of absolute minimum design
criteria can result in eventual revenue service
degradation and unacceptable
maintenance
costs.
Main Line Absolute

Minimum-Where
physical restrictions prevent the use of the
main line desired minimum criterion, a
main line absolute minimum criterion is
This criterion
is
often
specified.
determined
primarily
by the vehicle
design,
with
passenger
comfort
a
secondary consideration.
The recommended
horizontal
alignment
criteria herein are based on the LRT vehicle
design
and
performance
characteristics
described in Chapter 2.
Main Line Embedded Track-Where

the
LRT is operated on low-speed embedded
track, with or without shared automotive
physical
restrictions
traffic,
the
encountered
require a special set of
geometric
criteria that accommodates
existing
roadway
profiles,
street
intersections,
and narrow
horizontal
alignment corridors that are typical of
urban construction.
3.2.1 Minimum
Curves
and
Tangent
Length
Between
The discussion of minimum tangent track

length is related to circular curves (Section
3.2.4).
The complete criteria for minimum
tangent length will be developed here and
referenced from other applicable sections.
The development
of this criterion usually
considers
the requirements
of AREMA
Manual, Chapter 5, which specifies that the
minimum length of tangent between curves is
equal to the longest car that will traverse the
system.@]
This usually translates into a
desired minimum criterion of 30 meters (100
feet). Ride comfort criteria for transit systems
must be considered,
however,
and the
minimum length of tangent between curves is
also given as:
Track-This
criterion is generally less than main line
track, covering low-speed and low-volume
non-revenue
service.
The minimum
criterion is determined primarily by the
vehicle
design,
with
little
or no
consideration of passenger comfort.
Yard
Geometry
Non-Revenue
The yard and non-revenue track criteria may

not be valid for relatively high-volume tracks
such as yard main entrance leads.
This
criterion also must assume that work train
equipment will use the tracks.
Li = 0.57v
(LT = 3V)
where:
L, = minimum tangent length in meters
(feet)
V = operating speed in kph (mph)
It should be emphasized that the use of

absolute
minimum
geometric
criteria,
particularly
for horizontal alignment,
has
in terms
of
several
potential
impacts
increased annual maintenance,
noise, and
vehicle wheel wear, and shorter track
component
life.
Its use should
be
implemented with extreme caution.
One or
two
isolated
locations
of high track
maintenance may be tolerated and included in
This formula is based on vehicle travel of at

least 2 seconds on tangent track between two
curves. This same criterion also applies to
circular curves, as indicated below.
This
criteria has been used for various transit
designs in the U.S. since BART in the early
1960s.[61
The desired minimum
length
3-3
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
maximum vehicle coupler angle is exceeded,

one practical solution to this problem is to
waive the tangent track requirements between
curves if operating speeds are below 32 kph
(20 mph) and no track superelevation is used
on either curve. r4]
between curves is thus usually expressed as

an approximate car length or in accordance
with the formula above, whichever is larger.
Main line absolute minimum tangent length
depends on the vehicle and degree of
passenger ride quality degradation that can be
tolerated. One criterion is the maximum truck
center distance plus axle spacing; i.e., the
distance from the vehicle front axle to the rear
axle.
In other criteria, the truck center
distance alone is sometimes used.
When
spiral curves are used, the difference between
these two criteria is not significant.
For yards and in special trackwork, it is

usually not practicable to achieve the desired
minimum tangent lengths
AREMA Manual,
Chapter 5, provides a series of minimum
tangent distances based on long freight car
configurations and worst-case coupler angles.
The use of the AREMA table would be
conservative for an LRT vehicle, which has
much shorter truck centers and axle spacings
than a typical freight railroad car. As speeds
in yards are restricted and superelevation is
generally not used, very minimal tangent
lengths are required between curves.
It is
also noted in the AREMA Manual that turnouts
and sidings can also create unavoidable short
tangents between reverse curves.
An additional
consideration
for ballasted
trackwork is the minimum tangent length for
mechanized
lining equipment,
which
is
commonly based on multiples of IO-meter
(31-foot) chords.
Very short curve lengths
have been noted to cause significant
alignment throw errors by automatic track
lining machines during surfacing operations.
The IO-meter (31-foot) length can thus be
considered an absolute floor on the minimum
tangent distance for ballasted main line track
in lieu of other criteria.
Existing LRT criteria do not normally address

minimum tangent lengths at yard tracks, but
leave this issue to the discretion of the
trackwork
designer
and/or the individual
transit agency.
To permit the use of work
trains and similar rail mounted equipment, it is
prudent to utilize the AREMA minimum
tangent distances between reverse curves in
yard tracks.
The preceding discussion is based on reverse

curves. For curves in the same direction, it is
preferable to have a compound curve, with or
without a spiral transition curve, than to have
a short length of tangent between the curves
This condition, known as a broken back
curve, does not affect safety or operating
speeds, but does create substandard
ride
quality. As a guideline, curves in the same
direction should preferably have no tangent
between curves or, if required, the same
minimum tangent distance as that applicable
to reverse curves.
Having reviewed the various criteria for

tangents between reverse curves, it is now
possible
to summarize
typical guideline
criteria for light rail transit:
Main Line Preferred
Minimum (Optional)
The greater of either,
LT = 60 meters (200 feet) or
LT = 0.57v
where: LT = minimum
tangent length (meters)
V = maximum operating
speed (kph)
In embedded trackwork on city streets and in

other congested areas, it may not be feasible
to provide
minimum
tangent
distances
Unless
the
between
reverse
curves.
3-4
LRT Track
Main Line Desired

Minimum
3.2.2 Vehicle Length
The greater of either

LT = length of LRT vehicle
over couplers
(meters)
length
(meters)
V = maximum
operating
(kph)
The LRT
Note:
length over couplers
is often
rounded
meters
Criteria
Refer to Sections 1.3 and 2.2 of this handbook

for a discussion and data regarding vehicle
length. Criteria for vehicle length are set not
only by the vehicle capacity requirements, but
also by clearance
and track curvature
considerations
or LT
= 0 57V
where. LT = minimum
tangent
Geometry
speed
up to 30
vehicle
The type of vehicle, whether articulated or

low-floor, will also affect its overall length,
truck center spacing, axle spacing, and center
of gravity, all of which have an impact on the
track alignment.
(100 feet).
Main Line
Minimum:
Absolute
The greater
of either
LT = 9.5 meters
LT = (Vehicle
Distance)
Main Line
Embedded
(31 feet) or
Truck Center
3.2.3 Speed Criteria,

Passenger
+ (Axle Spacing)
Track
The speed criteria for curved track is

determined by carefully estimating passenger
comfort and preventing undue forces on the
trackwork, vehicle trucks/wheels, and vehicle
frames.
Vehicle stability on curved track is
also an important
consideration
in the
determination of LRT speed criteria.
where
LT = 0 meters,
vehicle coupler angle limits
are not exceeded,
speed is
less than 32 kph (20 mph),
and no track superelevation
is used
or LT = main line absolute
minimum
Yard and NonRevenue Track:
The lesser of either,

LT = 9.5 meters
(31 feet) or
LT = 0 meters
(0 feet) for
Rs290
meters
In general, the limiting factors of the major

alignment
design
components
can
be
classified as shown in Table 3.2.1.
(955 feet)
LT = 3.0 meters
(10 feet) for
As indicated
in previous
sections,
LRT
operating speeds are generally in the range of
65 to 90 kph (40 to 55 mph), except on
Separate geometric
embedded
trackwork.
recommended
for
these
criteria
are
Rs250 meters (818 feet)

LT = 6.1 meters (20 feet) for
R>220
meters
(716 feet)
LT = 7.6 meters
Rsl95
meters
LT = 9.1
Rsl75
(25 feet) for

(637 feet)
(30 feet)
meters
conditions.
Restricted operating speeds are
always possible along the alignment corridor,
but proposed design speeds below 60 kph (40
unacceptable
generally
create
mph)
for
meters (573 feet)

Where
absolutely
Note:
necessary,
Embedded
Vehicle and
the
Main
Track
Line
constraints to the train control

proposed operations.
criteria
may also be applied.
3-5
design
and
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Table
3.2.1 Alignment
Alignment Component
Minimum Length between Curves
Circular Curves (Minimum Radius)
Compound
and Reverse Circular Curves
Spiral Transition Curve Length
Superelevation
Runoff Rate
between
Vertical
Tangent
Curves
Vertical Curve/Grade
(Maximum Rate of Change)
Special Trackwork
Vertical
.
l
0
l
Station Platforms
l
l
Joint LRT/Freight
RR Usage
l
l
3.2.4 Circular
Factors
Major Limiting Factors(s)

.
Passenger comfort
l
Vehicle truck/wheel forces
l
Trackwork maintenance
l
Vehicle truck/wheel forces
l
Superelevation
Design Limiting
Passenger comfort
Vehicle frame forces
Passenger comfort
Passenger comfort
Vehicle stability
Passenger comfort
Passenger comfort
Passenger comfort
Passenger comfort
Vehicle clearances
ADA platform gap requirements
Compatibility
of LRT and freight
truck/wheels
vehicle
curvature is defined entirely in English units

and has no direct equivalent in metric units.
Curves
Intersections of horizontal alignment tangents

are connected by circular curves. The curves
may be simple curves or spiraled curves,
depending on the curve location, curve radius,
and required superelevation.
For conversion of existing alignment curve

data calculated in English units, particularly
those based on the degree of curvature, it is
most efficient to determine the radius in
English units, then convert to metric.
LRT alignment geometry differs from freight

railroad (AREMA) design in that the arc is
used to define circular curves and the
Also, curves for LRT
associated spirals.
designs are generally defined and specified by
their radius rather than degree of curvature.
This becomes an important distinction when
designing in metric units, as the degree of
As a guideline for LRT design, curves should

be specified by their radius.
Degree of
curvature,
where required for calculation
purposes, should be defined by the arc
definition of curvature as determined by the
following formula:
3-6
LRT Track
In some locations, such as aerial structures

and
tunnels,
maintenance
vehicle
and
equipment access must also be considered in
the selection of minimum horizontal curve
criteria.
D=
where,
D = degree of curvature,
in decimal
Geometry
degrees
R = radius of curvature, in meters (feet)
Circular curves for LRT design are, as noted

above, defined by curve radius and arc of
curve length. The geometric properties of the
circular curve are summarized
in Figure
3.2.1.
The desired minimum curve radius is set at

the threshold
limit for restraining
rail, as
determined from Chapter 4 herein.
In most
cases, this is around 150 meters (500 feet). A
secondary limit is considered for main line
track, where
rail guarding
can control
excessive maintenance
and wheel squeal.
Embedded track and yard track have far less
rigid criteria, as vehicle speeds on these
tracks are generally limited to 25 kph (16
The minimum curve radius is determined by

the physical characteristics
of the vehicle.
Although
steerable
trucks or stiff
truck
designs
have
an impact
on minimum
allowable track curve radius, the minimum
radius is more severely affected
by the
distance between vehicle truck centers and
truck axle spacing.
mph).
Embedded
main line track is normally
permitted
to be constructed
at absolute
minimum radii as a concession to the extreme
alignment
restrictions
in urban
areas.
However,
rail-mounted
maintenance
equipment,
particularly
work locomotives,
must be able to operate on these tracks The
use of absolute minimum radius curves should
be thus restricted to main line terminal loops
and yard turnaround or bypass tracks. ~1
For most modern LRV designs, whether highor low-floor, the most common
absolute
minimum radius appears to be 25 meters (82
feet). This is considerably larger than the ? ?to 12-meter (36- to 40-foot) track radius that
can be negotiated by a tram or PCC type
vehicle
The 25meter
track radius is still
sufficient,
however,
to
permit
at-grade
alignments in urban areas while maintaining
an adequate vehicle capacity.
In view of the design considerations indicated

above, guideline criteria for modern LRV
equipment are as follows for minimum curve
radii:
It is easier to maintain track on tangent

alignments than on curves, and there is a
curve
radius threshold
below which
it
becomes extremely expensive to maintain
track components.
In addition, the probability
Main Line Desired Minimum,

except Embedded Track:
Main Line Absolute Minimum,
Aerial Structures and
Tunnels:
Main Line Absolute Minimum,
of wheel squeal increases dramatically

on
smaller radius curves. The use of restraining
rail or girder guard rail as discussed in
Chapter 4 of this handbook can reduce the
severity of some of these track problems to
tolerable levels, but at a relatively high initial
cost.
Ballasted At-Grade:
Main Line Embedded
Desired Minimum:
3-7
Track,
150 meters
(500 feet)
150 meters
(500 feet)
90 meters
(300 feet)
35 meters
(115 feet)
LightRailTrackDesign
Handbook
MAN
TANGENT
NOTATIONS
cc
CENTER
OF CIRCULAR
CURVE
cs
POINT OF CHANGE
CURVE TO SPIRAL
DC
DEGREE OF CIRCULAR
ARC DEFINITION
ES
TOTAL EXTERNAL DISTANCE

SPIRALIZED CURVE
TANGENT
DISTANCE FROM TS OR ST
TO PC OR PT OF THE SHIFTED
CIRCULAR CURVE
FROM
POINT OF CHANGE FROM

CURVE TO TANGENT
RADIUS
SC
POINT OF CHPNGE FROM

TO CIRCULAR CURVE
SPIRAL
ST
POINT OF CHANGE
TO TANGENT
SPIRAL
S.T
SHORT
TS
TOTAL TANGENT DISTANCE

FROM TS OR ST TO PI
TS
P$MO~CHANGE
XS
TANGENT
DISTANCE FROM
TO SC OR ST TO CS
CURVE,
OF
Lc
TOTAL
CURVE
LENGTH
ARC
OF CIRCULAR
LS
TOTAL
LENGTH
OF SPIRAL
LT
LONG
TANGENT
OF SPIRAL
OFFSET
FROM THE MAIN TANGENT
TO THE PC OR PT OF THE SHIFTED
ClRCULAR CURVE
PC
POINT OF CHANGE FROM

TO CIRCULAR CURVE
PI
POINT OF INTERSECTION
MAlN TANGENTS
PI,
POINT OF INTERSECTION
OF
MA4N TANGENT
WITH TANGENT
THROUGH SC OR CS POINT
CURVE
PT
CIRCULAR
Ts
TANGENT
AC
CENTRAL
CIRCULAR
ANGLE OF THE
CURVE
CENTRAL
ANGLE
0s
Es
(R.p)
L,(,--.--
Lc
- 1) . p
co5 a
AC
DC
L,
- k
(1
x 100
2
.
A-
2R5
DC
x 100
OFFSET
8s
10
(---*-8s
3
82
216
3
0s
42
2
-Ls
8s
+-y----~-~-~-.~
-Ls
(---.-.0s
12
3
0s
336
TANGENT
AT SC
TS
OR CS
OF SPIRAL
OF SPIRAL
SPWL
X5
ton +
FROM
TOTAL CENTRAL ANGLE

AND CIRCULAR CURVES
y,(R*p)
OF SPIRAL
OF
-7
FROM
YS
5729.578
DC
TANGENT
CURVE
TANGENT
FORMULAS
OF CIRCULAR
CIRCULAR
-...85
9360
82
FORMUIAS
OS IN RADIANS
)
7
--... *s
1320
75600
4
6
8,
0s
5
0s
15840
Curve and Spiral Nomenclature
3-8
Ls -
2RB,
0s.
1 Ls
TF
L.T.
xs - - ys
ton 0s
ST.-
-%
sn 85
LRT Track
Main Line Embedded Track,

Absolute Minimum.
Yard and Non-Revenue
Track, Desired Minimum:
Yard and Non-Revenue
Tracks, Absolute Minimum
25 meters
(82 feet)
30 meters
(100 feet)
25 meters
(82 feet)
3.2.4.1 Compound
Circular Curves
The criterion for compound circular curves is
similar to that of the tangent-to-curve
transition
described
in
Section
3 2.5
Although generally less severe, they must still
address the dual objectives of passenger
comfort
and vehicle structural
design in
torsion
The minimum circular curve length is dictated

by ride comfort and is hence, unlike minimum
tangent length, not related to vehicle physical
characteristics.
The desired minimum circular
curve length is generally determined by the
following formula:
L = 0.57V
where:
A transition spiral should be used at each end

of a superelevated circular curve and between
compound circular curves. Where compound
curves are used, they should be connected by
a spiral transition
curve.
The desired
minimum main line spiral length is the greater
of the lengths as determined by the following:
(L = 3V)
L = minimum length
meters (feet)
of curve,
V = design speed through

in kph (mph)
Geometry
in
LS =0.38(E,2
the curve,
Ls =0.006 (E,2
-E,,)
-E,,)V
Ls =0.008 (Ea2 -E&V
For spiraled circular curves, the length of the

circular curve added to the sum of one-half
the length of both spirals is an acceptable
method of determining
compliance with the
above criteria in areas of restricted geometry.
The
absolute
minimum
length
of
a
superelevated
circular curve should be 15
meters (45 feet).
where
Curves that include no actual circular curve

segment (e.g., double:spiraled
curves) should
be permitted
only in areas of extremely
restricted geometry (such as embedded track
in an urban area), provided
no actual
superelevation (E,) is used and prior authority
approval is obtained. This type of alignment is
potentially difficult to maintain for ballasted
track.
(Ls =31(E,2
-Ea,))
(Ls =0.82(Eu2
-E,)V)
(Ls =l.10(Ea2
-%
Ls = minimum length of spiral, in

meters (feet)
E, = actual superelevation of the
first circular curve in
millimeters (inches)
E,= actual superelevation of the
second circular curve, in
E,, = superelevation unbalance of
the first circular curve, in
E,= unbalanced superelevation
of the second circular curve,
in millimeters (inches)
V = design speed through the
circular curves, in kph (mph)
The absolute
The design speed for a given horizontal curve

should be based on its radius, length of spiral
transition
and
actual
and
unbalance
superelevation through the curve as described
in the following sections.
minimum
spiral curve on main
line tracks, as well as the minimum criteria for

yard and non-revenue tracks, is as follows,
corresponding to LRV torsion limits:
L, = 2 6% - L,)
3-9
U-s = 31 (E, - 2))
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
3.2.4.2 Reverse Circular Curves

Where an extremely restrictive horizontal
geometry makes it impossible to provide
sufficient tangent length between reversed
supereievated curves, the curves may meet at
a point of reverse spiral. This tends to violate
ride quality and vehicle structure criteria. As a
guideline, the point of reverse spiral should be
set so that:
Ls, L
where
Figure 3.2.2 Supelevation

Reverse Curves
Transitions
for
increased ballast section width at the point of

the reverse spiral and possible increased
clearance requirements.
Such issues must be
investigated in detail before incorporation in
the design
= Ls2 L,
E,, = actual superelevation applied

to the first curve in millimeters
(inches)
Ea = actual superelevation of the
second circular curve, in
L Sl = the length of the spiral leaving
the first curve in meters (feet)
L s2 = length of the spiral entering
second curve in meters (feet)
In conclusion, the use of reversed spirals

should be restricted to low speed operation.
As a guideline, a reasonable criterion for the
use of reversed spirals is given below: r2]
On embedded tracks in city streets, if
alignment constraints make providing
a tangent between two superelevated
spiraled reversed curves impossible,
a tangent
shall not be required
provided that the operating speed is
limited so that the lateral acceleration
is held to a maximum of 0.10 g.
A minimum separation of 1.0 meter (3.3 feet)

between the spirals is acceptable in lieu of
meeting at a point of reversal.
It is entirely possible to have reverse spirals
and remain within acceptable ride comfort
criteria.
This is indeed the practice for
European interurban railway alignments and is
occasionally incorporated in North American
practice.161
However, the spiral lengths
required for reverse spirals to maintain ride
comfort are significantly longer than normally
considered in LRT design.
Refer
to Section
3.2.1
for
discussion on minimum tangent
between curves.
3.2.5 Superelevation
Curves
The superelevation transition between reversed

spirals is usually accomplished by sloping both
rails of the track throughout the entire transition
spiral as shown on Figure 3.2.2.
Note that
through the transition, both rails will be at an
elevation above the theoretical profile grade line.
This method of superelevation transition creates
additional design considerations,
including an
additional
distances
and Spiral Transition
The permissible
speed at which a railmounted vehicle negotiates a curve may be
increased by increasing the elevation of the
outside rail of the track, creating a banking
effect
called
superelevation.
This
superelevation
serves to counteract
the
centrifugal force acting radially outward on the
vehicle as it travels through the curve.pl
3-10
LRT Track
For a given curve radius, the permissible

operating
speed
can be increased
by
physically increasing the elevation
of the
outside rail of the curve, known as actual
superelevation;
or allowing
the operating
speed to exceed a lateral equilibrium force
condition,
known
as
superelevation
unbalance.
The latter is defined as the
superelevation
that would be required to
restore an operating vehicle to an equilibrium
steady state condition.
Geometry
Equilibrium superelevation
is the amount of
superelevation that would be required to make
the resultant force from the center of gravity of
the light rail vehicle perpendicular to the plane
of the two rails and halfway between them at a
given
speed.
If a curved
track
is
superelevated
to achieve equilibrium at a
given speed, a light rail vehicle passenger
would experience no centrifugal force through
the curve at that speed.
Equilibrium
superelevation is usually determined by either
of the following equations:
For vehicle
operation
in both
actual
superelevation and superelevation unbalance,
there must be a transition to either zero
superelevation
or a different superelevation
condition
The
logical
method
of
accomplishing
this transition on a circular
curve with actual superelevation
(and/or
superelevation unbalance) is to utilize a spiral
curve with a gradually increasing radius to
tangent track, or a different horizontal curve
radius
Eq=Ea+EU=ll
E, = 0.0067V2
where
Actual superelevation is generally applied (run

off) linearly throughout
the length of the
transition curve. As the rate of superelevation
run off is necessarily limited by passenger
comfort considerations,
the transition curve
length is determined by the length necessary
to run off either the actual superelevation
or
superelevation unbalance.
Eq=Ea+Eu396
D Eq=0.00069V2
1
E, = equilibrium superelevation, in
E, = actual track superelevation to
be constructed in millimeters
(inches)
E, = unbalance superelevation, in
curve in kph (mph)

R = radius of curve in meters (feet)
D = degree of curve in decimal
degrees
[Note previous comments
on the use of
degree of curvature with metric units.]
In practice, full equilibrium superelevation (E,)
is rarely installed in track. This would require
excessively long spiral transition curves.
It
could also produce passenger discomfort on a
train that is moving much slower than the
design speed or stopped in the middle of a
steeply superelevated curve. Therefore, only
a portion
of the calculated
equilibrium
superelevation
(E,) is commonly installed as
actual superelevation
(E,).
The difference
between
the
equilibrium
and
actual
superelevation
is called
superelevation
unbalance (E,). Most curves will be designed
Main
line
tracks
are
designed
with
superelevations
that permit desired design
speeds to be achieved without resorting to
excessively large curve radii. Note that due to
local constraints, the design speed may be
less than either the system maximum speed
or the maximum possible speed for a curve of
a given radius.
The design speed criteria
stated below are based on a maximum lateral
passenger acceleration of 0.10 g.
3-l 1
Light
Rail
Track
Design
with some combination

unbalanced superelevation.
Handbook
of
actual
and divide the total equally between actual

and unbalanced superelevation;
i.e., (E, =
EJ2) and (E, = EJ2). Where E, reaches its
maximum value (see below), the remaining
portion of the total equilibrium superelevation
(E,) is applied to the actual superelevation
and
Three strategies are generally employed to

apply the combination of actual superelevation
and superelevation unbalance:
1. No (or minimal) superelevation unbalance
is applied until actual superelevation (E,)
reaches the maximum allowable level.
Actual superelevation is thus equal to the
equilibrium
superelevation
for most
curves. Under ideal conditions, where all
vehicles operate at the same maximum
speed and do not stop (or slow down) on
curves, this strategy creates the least
amount of passenger and vehicle lateral
acceleration for a given transition curve
length. Under less than ideal operating
the
minimum
conditions,
however,
superelevation
unbalance
strategy
produces
unfavorable
ride
comfort
conditions.
2.
03
As a practical matter for construction, curves
with a large radius in comparison to the
desired operating
speed should not be
superelevated.
This can be accomplished by
not applying actual superelevation (E,) until
the calculated total equilibrium superelevation
(E,) is over a minimum value, usually 12 to 25
millimeters (0.05 to 1 .OO inches).
Desired values of actual superelevation (E,)
can be determined from the following formula:
E, =X35(+6.7
Maximum superelevation
unbalance
is
applied before any actual superelevation
is considered.
This option is used by
freight and suburban commuter railroads.
Where a wide variety of operating speeds
are anticipated
on the curved track,
particularly on joint LRT-freight trackage,
this strategy is usually the least disruptive
to passenger comfort.
ka
The desired relationship

can thus be defined as:
E,
=2.64[;)-0.66]
between
E, and E,
,25_E,
2
Use of the above equation will result in the
gradual introduction
of both actual and
unbalanced
superelevation
and
avoid
unnecessary lateral acceleration of light rail
vehicles and their passengers.
Calculated
values for actual superelevation
should be
rounded to the nearest 5 millimeters (0.25
inch). For a total superelevation (E, + E,) of
25 millimeters
(1 inch) or less, actual
superelevation (E,) is not usually applied. In
specific cases where physical constraints limit
the amount of actual superelevation (E,) that
can be introduced,
a maximum
of 40
millimeters (1.5 inches) of superelevation
unbalance
(E,) can be permitted
before
applying any actual superelevation (E,).
3. Actual
superelevation
and
W
superelevation unbalance (E,) are applied
equally or in some proportion. Because a
certain
amount
of
superelevation
unbalance, applied gradually, is generally
considered to be easily tolerated by both
vehicle and passenger
and tolerable
superelevation unbalance increases with
speed, this strategy
is preferred for
general usage.
One method used to apply the combination of
actual and unbalanced superelevation is to
find the total equilibrium superelevation (E,)
3-12
LRT Track
Geometrv
In areas of mixed traffic operation

with
roadway vehicles, the desired location for a
pavement crown is at the centerline of track.
Where this is not feasible,
a maximum
pavement crown of 2.0% (l/4 inch per foot)
across the rails may be maintained
in the
street pavement to promote drainage.
This
practice will normally introduce a constant
actual superelevation (E,) of approximately 25
millimeters (1 inch). If, at curves, the street
pavement is neither superelevated
nor the
this
crown-related
crown
removed,
superelevation may also dictate the maximum
allowable operating speed.
Actual superelevation
(E,) is usually set so
that trains will have a positive superelevation
unbalance
(E,) on curves where speed is
likely to vary. Negative E, is not tolerated well
by passengers.
Table 3.2.2 provides desired
values of actual superelevation recommended
Other
for LRT alignment
calculations.
combinations
of E, and E, should be used
only where physical restrictions make the use
of desired values prohibitive or impractical
Actual superelevation
(E,) should be attained
and removed linearly throughout the full length
of the spiral transition curve by raising the
outside rail while maintaining the inside rail at
One exception to this
the profile grade.
method
of superelevation
is sometimes
employed in tunnels with direct fixation tracks,
where superelevation
is achieved by rotating
the track section about the centerline. This is
undertaken
to reduce
vertical clearance
requirements.
On curved track, this 25 millimeters (1 inch)

or
negative,
could
be either
positive
depending
on which side of the roadway
crown line the track is located. In such cases,
in order to minimize the need to extensively
regrade street pavements, which could affect
curb reveal heights and other civil features,
the superelevation
unbalance
should be
maximized prior to the introduction
of any
additional actual superelevation.
Thus, a
normal pavement
crown would retain an
Maximum values of actual superelevation can

be as high as 200 to 250 millimeters (8 to 10
inches).
Superelevation unbalance values of
150
millimeters
(6
inches)
are
not
unreasonable
for LRT vehicle designs.P1
While these values are achievable by specific
light rail vehicle designs, it is much more
common
for actual superelevation
to be
limited to 150 millimeters (6 inches) and
unbalanced superelevation to 115 millimeters
(4.5 inches). This limit equates to the 0.1 g
limit that passengers can tolerate comfortably.
actual superelevation (E,) of 25 millimeters (1

until
a calculated
superelevation
inch)
unbalance (E,) of 75 millimeters (3 inches) is
reached. At this point, either a limit is placed
on the LRT design speed or the pavement
crown design is revised.
3.2.5.3 Spiral Transition Curves

Spiral transition curves are used to gradually
build into the superelevation of the track and
limit lateral acceleration during the horizontal
transition of the light rail vehicle as it enters
the curve.
As a guideline, the recommended

maximum
values
for
actual
and
superelevation
unbalance are as follows:
Superelevation Maximum Values:
E, = 100 mm (4 inches) desired, 150 mm (6
inches) absolute
E, = 75 mm (3 inches) desired, 115 mm (4.5
inches) absolute
3-l 3
Table 3.2.2a Desired Superelevation
and Minimum
Spiral Curve Length
(Metric Units)
CURVE RADIUS (meters)

VEL.(kph)
26
27
I1 55
1 60
1 65
1 70
1 75
1 20
[ 20
I 15
15
10
10
1 18
1 45
1 18
1 40
18
1 35
18
1 30
18
1 30
15
1 Ea
55
50
45
35
30
20
1 Ls
22
1 Ea 1 110
Ls
42
20
II00
40
16
1 go
36
18
1 75
18
1 65
18
1 55
1 18
1 50
30
R =
150
I125
26
1 110
22
95
20
85
Ls
58
1 48
1 42
38
Ea
Ir
Min.R=43m
145
CG
30
Ea
Min.
40
I1 50
15
I
1 25
25
-1
La
35
Ea
Min.R=
Ea
Ea
Ls
60
Ea
LS
18
1 25
1 90
1 96
1 100
1 110
1 120
1 130
1140
1 150
18
1 20
1 18
1 20
1 18
1 15
1 18
1 15
1 18
1 IO
1 18
1 IO
1 18
1 IO
1 18
1 5
1 18
1 5
1 18
65
1 Ea 1
Ls
Ea
Ea
18
5
1 180
18
5
200
220
240
00
18
0
18
1 0
260
18
0
18
lo
5
16
-4
1
18
18
18
18
1 18
1 18
1 18
1 18
1 18
1 18
1 18
1 18
18
18
18
60
24
1, 55
1 22
1 50
1 20
45
, III,v
1 45
I, IR
,v
1 40
I, IR
,v
1 35 1 35 1 30
I, IR
mu I, 111
.w I, 18
._
1 25
1, IR
._
1 25
I, IR._
1 20
I, IR,_
1 20
I, 18
,_
1 15
,1 '*10
1 15
,1 '*IU
1 15
1, I*IU
10
10
34
70
28
18
18
18
125
115
95
38
1 85
34
1 80
32
1 75
30
1 70
28
1 65
26
1 60
24
1 55
22
1 50
20
1 25
1 25
18
1 40
18
1 35
AA
77
105
40
1 45
AR
7
20
18
20
18
15
18
15
18
145
56
135
52
125
46
115
105
100
44
40
40
95
36
85
34
80
32
75
30
65
26
60
24
145
56
135
52
125
48
120
46
110
42
100
40
90
80
32
145
56
130
50
120
46
110
42
150
62
135
56
58m
Min.R=76m
Min.R=96m
Min.R=118m
36
-7q-x
1 35
Min.R=
170m
Min.R=199m
Min.R=
231 m
1 75
1 Ea I
Min.R=265m
1 80
!Ea I
Ls
Min.R=
302
85
Ea
Ls
Min.R=
341
90
Ea
Ls
Min.R=
382m
95
Ea
Ls
Min.R=425m
100
Ea
Min.R=471
3-14
1 30
35
30
25
25
IR
IR
18
18
IR
1 56 1 54
~~~~~
11~0
r145
74
70
1 48
1 42
1 38
1 34
I125
62
I115
56
II05
52
1 95
46
150
1 60
135
1 72
125
66
115
60
145
135
1 18 I
Ls
70
1 170
18
1 64
1 60
1 160
18
Ls
45
18
1 25
1 86
75
30
Ls
40
1 80
1 60
50
55
60
65
70
75
Ea
Ls
Ea
Ls
1 Ea
ILs
Ea
Ls
Ea
Ls
Ea
Ls
Ea
Ls
Ea
Ls
Ea
Ls
Ea
Ls
Ea
Ls
I
80
85
90
95
100
55 50
24 22
70 65
32 30
I85 I80
142 140
105 95
56 50
125 115
72 66
145 135
88 82
Min.R=
45 45
20 20
60 55
28 26
I75 I70
138 I34
90 85
48 46
105 100
60 58
125 115
76 70
1451135
94 I88
R=341 m
I
40
18
50
24
I65
132
80
42
95
54
110
68
125
82
145
100
35
18
50
24
I60
130
75
40
85
48
100
62
120
78
135
92
R=382m
R=425m
R=471m
35 35
18 18
45 40
20 18
I55 I55
I28 I28
I70
65
I38
34
80 75
46 44
95 90
58 56
110 105
72 68
130 120
90 82
145 135
106 98
I
30 30 25 25
18 18 18 18
40 35 35 35
18 18 18 18
I50 I45 I45 I40
126 122 122 I20
60 60 55 50
32 32 30 28
75 70 65 65
44 40 38 38
85 80 80 75
52 50 50 46
100 95 90 85
66 62 58 56
115 ?I0 105 100
80 76 72 70
130 125 120 115
94 92 88 84
,145 140 135 125
112 108 104 96
150 145
122 118
75
50
85
58
105 100
74
- 76
115 110
84
88
130 125
106 102
3-15
70
46
85
58
95
70
110
84
120
98
70
46
80
56
90
66
105
80
115
94
65
42
75
52
90
66
100
78
110
90
65
42
75
52
85
62
95
74
110
90
60
40
70
48
80
58
95
74
105
86
60
40
70
48
80
58
90
70
100
82
60
40
65
46
75
56
85
66
100
82
55
36
65
46
75
56
85
66
95
78
VEL.
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
kph)950
Ea 0
LS
Ea
Ls
Ea
LS
Ea
-ix
Ea
Ls
Ea
Ls
Ea
-iF
Ea
-ix
7%
--iii
Ea
LS
Ea
-ix
Ea
Ls
Ea
Ls
Ea
Ls
Ea
-6
Ea
Ls
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400

0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0.0
18
0
18
0
18
1450
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
.0
18
.0
18
.0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
I -- I -- 1 -olololo
18 i 18 1 18 1 18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0 IO IO IO IO IO IO IO IO IO IO IO IO lolo
1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18- 1 18.- 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18
18
0
18
20 1 20 1 15 1 15 1 15 1 15 1 IO 1 IO I IO
18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
0
18
35
24
40
28
30
20
35
24
30
20
35
24
30
20
35
24
25
18
30
22
25
18
30
22
25
18
30
22
lo
lo
1 18 1 18 IO
0
18
0
18
00,
18 0
18 1 18
1
35
24
45
32
0
18
00
18 0
I 10 I IO
I
,~1,~1,~1~1~1~1~1~1~1
40
26
45
32
0
18
0
18
20
18
25
18
20
18
25
18
15
18
20
15
18
15
IO
IO
18
18
15 I 15
;ij 1 iij 1 ;ij 1 ;i

25
18
3-16
20
18
20
18
15
18
IO
18
10
1 ii
15
18
IO
18
10
1 ii
15
18
5
18
I
I8- 1:-
18 1 i8
l-8
l-i
1-i
l-8
18
18
l-8
IO IO I IO
!i
5
5
5
5
5
5 0
1 ii 1 ii 1 ?i 1 18 1 18 1 l-8 1 l-8 1 18 1 l-8 1 18 16
15
18
0 I 0 I 0 I 0 lo
IO
18
IO
18
IO
18
IO
18
IO
18
5
18
5
18
5
18
5
18
0
0
Table 3.2.2b Desired Superelevation
and Minimum
I
VEL.
Spiral Curve Length
(English
Units)
CURVE RADIUS (feet)

82
90
100
110
120
130
150
175 200
225 250
275
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
900 100
0
(mph)
110 120
0
0
130 140
00
10
15
1 Ea
12.50
Ls
80
70
65
60
60
60
60
60
Ea
Min.
6.00
5.25
4.75
4.25
4.00
3.25
2.75
190
165
150
135
125
105
90
Ls
20
Ea
~2.25~2.00~1.75~1.50~1.25~1.00~0.75~1.50~0.50~0.50~0.25~0.25~
I
Min.
R = 159 ft.
60
60
60
60
60
Ea
Min.
60
10 I
I
1 70
5.5014.50
I
65
--I
4.00--I-
175 1140)
1251
R = 248 ft.
Ls
60
60
60
60
1 60
3.50--,----I 3.2512.7512.2512.00
-I
1101
1051
90
1 70
60
10 10 10 I 0 10 I
1
Min.
10 I
I
I
I
l-l
0
-
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
10
1 65
1 60
1 60
1 60
1 60
1 60
1 60
1 60
1 60
1 60
1 60
1 60
1 60
1 60
1 60
1.75
1.50~1.25~1.00
I
I
1.00
0.75
0.75
0.50
0.5010.50
I
0.25
0.25
0.25
60
I
5.25
5.00
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.75
2.25
2.00
2.00
1.75
1.50
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.75
0.50
0.50
190
165
160
125
110
95
90
70
65
65
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
5.25
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.25
3.00
2.75
2.50
2.25
2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.25
1.00
225
205
185
165
155
145
130
120
100
6.00
5.25
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.25
3.00
2.50
2.25
265
235
225
200
180
155
145
135
115
100
5.25
4.75
4.25
3.75
3.50
3.25
260
240
215
190
175
165
6.00
5.25
4.75
4.50
4.00
335
290
265
250
225
6.00
5.50
5.00
365
335
305
R = 635 fi.
Min.
R = 803 ft.
Ls
Min.
R = 991 ft.
LS
Ea
60
Ls
Ea
60
Ls
Ea
6.00
f-t.
Ea
~2~~~~~~~~i.50~1.~~~1.00~0.75~0.75(0.50)0.50)0.25~0.25~0.25~0.25~
25
Min.
R = 1199
ft.
Ls
Ea
Min. R = 1427
ft.
Min. R = 1675
ft.
Ls
Ea
Ls
3-17
Ls
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
Ls
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
EaO
Ls
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
CO
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
25
Ea
Ls
0.50
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
30
Ea
Ls
1.00
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
35
Ea
Ls
1.50
60
1.25
60
1.25
60
1.25
60
1.00
60
1.00
60
1.00
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
0
60
40
Ea
Ls
2.25
100
2.00
90
1.75
80
1.75
80
1.50
70
1.50
70
1.25
60
1.25
60
1.25
60
1.00
60
1.00
60
1.00
60
1.00
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
0.25
60
45
Ea
Ls
3.00
150
2.75
140
2.50
125
2.25
115
2.25
115
2.00
100
2.00
100
1.75
90
1.75
90
1.50
75
1.50
75
1.50
75
1.25
65
1.25
65
1.25
65
1.00
60
1.00
60
1.00
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
0.50
60
50
Ea
Ls
3.75
210
3.50
195
3.25
180
3.00
170
2.75
155
2.75
155
2.50
140
2.25
125
2.25
125
2.00
115
2.00
115
2.00
115
1.75
100
1.75
100
1.50
85
1.50
85
1.50
85
1.25
70
1.25
70
1.00
60
1.00
60
1.00
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
0.75
60
55
Ea
Ls
4.75
290
4.25
260
4.00
245
3.75
230
3.50
215
3.25
200
3.25
200
3.00
185
2.75
170
2.75
170
2.50
155
2.50
155
2.25
140
2.25
140
2.00
125
2.00
125
1.75
110
1.75 'I.50
110
95
1.50
95
1.50
95
1.25
80
1.25
80
1.00
65
1.00
65
60
Ea
Ls
5.75
380
5.25
350
5.00
335
4.75
315
4.50
300
4.00
265
4.00
265
3.50
235
3.50
235
3.25
215
3.25
215
3.00
200
3.00
200
2.75
185
2.75
185
2.50
170
2.25
150
2.25
150
2.00
135
2.00
135
1.75
120
1.50
100
1.50
100
1.50
100
1.25
85
65
Ea R = 1675fl.
Ls
6.00
430
5.50
395
5.25
380
5.00
360
4.50
325
4.50
325
4.25
305
4.00
290
3.75
270
3.75
270
3.50
255
3.25
235
3.25
235
3.00
215
3.00
215
2.75
200
2.50
180
2.25
165
2.25
165
2.00
145
2.00
145
1.75
130
1.75
130
l5EaO
20
3-18
VEL.
(mph)
5000
10
5200
5400
Ea
Ls
--
60
--
60
--
60
-_
60
Ea
Ls
0
60
0
60
0
60
iO0
0
60
--
1 60
--
60
--
60
--
60
010 1 60
0
60
0
60
0
60
010
I
65
1 Ea i 0.25
60160
0.25 1
0
60
1 60
60
60
1 60
1 0
1 0
I Ea I 1.25 I I.25 I 1.00 I 1.00 I 0.75 I 0.75 I 0.75 I 0.50

Ls
85
85
70
70
60
60
60
60
Ea
LS
60
60
80001 8500
35iEaI
OlOlOlO~OlOlOlO
1 Ls 1 60
60 1 60
40
5600
1.50
110
1.50
110
1.50
110
1.50
110
1.00
75
1.00
75
1.00
75
0.75
60
3-19
1 60
60
0.25
60
60
0
60
0
0
0
0.25
0.25
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Horizontal spiral curves are broadly defined

as curves with a constantly decreasing or
increasing radius proportional between either
a tangent and curve (simple spiral) or between
two curves (compound spiral).
As a guideline, for a car with 7-meter (23-foot)

truck centers, the minimum transition length
for a 75-mm (3-inch) superelevation
is 21
meters (69 feet).
There are many formulae that describe or

approximate the alignment that conforms to
the above definition. Various types of spirals
found in railway alignment design include
AREMA Ten Chord, PTUSEPTA,
Cubic,
Bartlett, Hickerson, clothoid, and ATEA. For
the spiral lengths and curvatures found in
LRT, all of the above spiral formulae will
generally
describe
the same
physical
alignment
laterally
to
within
several
millimeters.
The choice of spiral easement
curve type is thus not critical.
3.2.5.3.7
Spiral Transition
Curve Lengths
For LRT design, it is recommended that spiral

transition curves should be clothoid spirals as
depicted
in
Figure
3.2.1
and
as
mathematically
defined by Hickerson.
WI
Spirals should be used on all main line track
horizontal curves with radii less than 3,000
meters (10,000 feet) wherever practicable.
As a guideline, the recommended criteria for
the LRT transition spiral length, based on the
theoretical
development
in the previous
section, are presented herein.
It is important, however, to utilize only one of

the spiral types, and define it as succinctly as
possible.
Vague terms such as clothoid
spiral should be clarified as more than one
formula describes this type of spiral curve. A
spiral transition curve that is most commonly
used in transit work is the Hickerson spiral.
Its main advantage is that it is well-defined in
terms of data required for both alignment
design and field survey work.
It is recommended that the length of spiral be

at least 20 meters (60 feet). Where geometric
conditions are extremely restricted, such as in
unsuperelevated
embedded track in a CBD
area, the spiral length may be reduced to the
absolute minimum of 10 meters (31 feet). The
minimum length of spiral should be the greater
of the lengths determined from the following
formulae, rounded to the next even meter (or
5 feet).
Spiral curve length and superelevation runoff

are directly related to passenger comfort
At
this point, it is useful to review the basis of
both superelevation theory and runoff rate.
There are a number of good explanations of
the derivation of runoff theory; the references
at the end of this section contain extensive
background on the subject. r*-l
L, = 0.38 E,
L, = 0.006 VE,
L, = 0.008 VE,
where:
While
passenger
comfort
is a major
consideration, the designer must also limit the
rate of change in superelevation in a transition
curve to avoid overstressing the vehicle frame
through twisting. In order to accomplish this,
the superelevation differential between truck
centers should not exceed 25 mm (1 inch).
3-20
(L, = 31 E,)
(L, = 0.82 E,V)
(L, = 1.10 E,V)
E, = equilibrium superelevation in
L, = length of spiral in meters (feet)
E, = actual track superelevation to
be constructed in millimeters
(inches)
E, = unbalance superelevation in
curve, in kph (mph)
LRT Track
A spiral is preferred, but not required, for yard

and secondary tracks where design speeds
are less than 16 kph (10 mph). Curves on
yard lead and secondary tracks that have
design speeds greater than 16 kph (10 mph)
should have spiral transition
curves and
superelevation
300-meter
(1 OOO-foot) circular curve and
accelerate back to 1 IO kph (70 mph). The
same curve designed for a reduction to 70 kph
(45 mph) requires a length of about 1 2
kilometers
(0 75 miles).
Therefore,
it is
generally desirable to eliminate as many
speed
restrictions
as possible
and to
maximize the design speed of all curves that
must be designed with speed restrictions
Under
normal
conditions,
design
superelevation should be introduced and run
off uniformly throughout the length of a spiral
transition curve
In extraordinary cases, the
superelevation may be developed along the
tangent preceding the point of curvature (PC),
or run off in the tangent immediately beyond
the point of tangency (PT). The transition
length is then determined from the minimum
spiral length formulae presented herein. The
maximum amount of superelevation that is run
off in tangent track should be no more than 25
millimeters (1 inch).
3.2.6 Speed, Curvature, and

Superelevation:
Theory
Criteria
3.2.6.2
Superelevation
Theory
The design speed at which a light rail vehicle

can
negotiate
a curve
is increased
proportionally by increasing the elevation of
the outside rail of the track, thus creating a
banking effect called superelevation.
When rounding a curve, a vehicle is subject to
centrifugal force acting radially outward. The
forces acting on the vehicle are illustrated in
Figure 3.2.3. To counteract the effect of the
centrifugal force (F,), the outside rail of a
curve is raised by a distance e above the
inside rail. A state of equilibrium is reached in
which both wheels exert equal force on the
rails; i.e., where e is sufficient to bring the
resultant force (F,) to right angles with the
plane of the top of the rails.
and Basis of
This section summarizes the basis of design

for speed, curvature, and superelevation.
This material is based on information provided
by Nelson al, but has been condensed and
modified as necessary
for the specific
application to current LRT designs and to
include the use of metric units.
3.2.6.1
Geometry
AREMA
Manual,
Chapter
5, gives the
following equation to determine the distance
that the outside rail must be raised to reach a
state of equilibrium, where both wheels bear
equally on the rails.
Design Speed in Curves
e-Bv2
The background for recommended

standards
for
actual
superelevation,
allowable
superelevation unbalance, easement curves,
and the length of superelevation runoffs will
be reviewed in this section.
gr
where,
It takes more than 1 kilometer (0.62 miles) for

a light rail vehicle to decelerate from 110 kph
(70 mph) to 90 kph (55 mph), run through a
3-21
e = equilibrium superelevation in
meters (feet)
B = bearing distance of track in
meters (feet) usually 1.5 meters
(5 feet).
V = velocity in meters (feet) per
second
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
1,524'?
E=
60V2
E=
@[y)(
cENTRfffGAL%%E- >CEN~R
M--m.__
=-
??!i!$?y
y
60V2
OF GRAWTY
thus;
EzV
D
2
-orE=O
1430
0069gD
E=-
V2D
1430
or E = 0 OOO$D
and conversely;
These are the standard

equations
for
equilibrium superelevation
most commonly
used in track design.
Figure 3.2.3
Track
LRT Vehicle on Superelevated
3.2.6.3 Actual Superelevation

Most railway route design texts recommend
an absolute limit of 200 millimeters (8 inches)
of actual superelevation
for passenger
operations unless slow moving or freight
traffic is mixed with passenger traffic.
As
noted previously,
LRT superelevation
is
generally limited to 150 millimeters (6 inches)
or less.
g = force of gravity in meters per

second per second, or meters/set?
(feet per second per second, or
feeffser?)
r = radius in meters (feet)
To convert these terms to common usage, e
in meters (feet) is expressed
as E in
millimeters (inches), B is usually considered
to be 1524 millimeters (60 inches) on standard
gauge track.
V in meters per second (feet
per second) is changed to V in kph (mph). g
is equal to 9.8 meterslsec? (32.2 feetlseti),
and I- is replaced by 1746.379/D (5730/D) in
meters (feet), where D is equal to the
decimal degree of curvature.
The revised
formula is as follows.
All railroads administered

by the Federal
Railroad Administration (FRA) are limited- to
150 millimeters (6 inches) of superelevation,
primarily because the FRA mandates that all
track that is a part of the nations general
railroad system must be capable of handling
mixed traffic. Track that is not part of the
general railroad system, or is used exclusively
for rapid transit service in a metropolitan or
suburban area, generally does not fall with the
jurisdiction of the FRA. This includes the vast
majority of LRT systems.
3-22
LRT Track
Geometry
design speed calculations to avoid the effects

of persistent underspeed operation-including
passenger discomfort and excessive rail flow
on the low (inside) rail of the curve.
In view of the foregoing, railways that are not

administered
by the
FRA
may, when
appropriate,
use up to 200 millimeters (8
inches) of actual superelevation
on curved
track. This has been applied to at least two
North American transit systems. However, it
is more common to limit maximum actual
superelevation
to 150 millimeters (6 inches)
on LRT systems, as it becomes more difficult
to consistently maintain ride comfort levels at
higher actual superelevations.
Allowable superelevation
unbalance
varies
among transit facilities.
For instance, MTA
New York City Transit only allows 25
millimeters (1 inch), while the Delaware River
Port Authority (Lindenwold High Speed Line)
allows
115
millimeters
(4.5
inches).
Generally, it is recognized that 75 to 115
millimeters (3 to 4.5 inches) of superelevation
unbalance is acceptable for LRT operations,
depending upon the vehicle design.
Unbalance
The equations in the previous section are
expressed in terms of a single equilibrium
speed. Light rail vehicles often run at different
speeds on the same segment of track. The
variance from the so-called balanced speed
concept is termed superelevation unbalance.
It should also be noted that Amtrak, with the

approval of the FRA, raised its superelevation
unbalance limit from 75 millimeters (3 inches)
to 115 millimeters (4.5 inches) for intercity
passenger trains.
Superelevation unbalance may be defined as

the difference between actual superelevation
and that superelevation
required for true
equilibrium of the LRT vehicle traversing a
curve.
In Sweden, Norway, West Germany, and

France, intercity railways commonly employ
from 100 to 150 millimeters (4 to 6 inches) of
superelevation
unbalance, and occasionally
use even higher
unbalance
for specific
applications.
If we call the superelevation unbalance E, and

the actual applied superelevation
E,, the
formulae from the previous section may be
restated as:
v2 =
145 5(E, +Eu)

D
$
C
1430(E,
+ E, )
D
The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

(1985-86) states:
or
and;
E, = 0.0069 VD - E, [E, = 0 0007 VD - E,]
Limited
superelevation
intentionally
incorporated
unbalance
is
in most curve
Equipment
designed
with
large
center bearings, roll stabilizers and
outboard swing hangers can negotiate
curves comfortably at greater than 75
millimeters (3 inches) of unbalanced
superelevation
because there is less
body roll. .,. If the roll angle is less
than lo-30 experiments indicate that
cars can negotiate curves comfortably
at 115 millimeters (4.5 inches) of
unbalanced elevation.
The preceding comments
to LRT vehicles as well.
3-23
also generally apply
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
different than the LRT vehicles described

Chapter 2.
In other words, a curve without any actual

superelevation
(E,) can be safely and
comfortably negotiated at a velocity requiring
115 millimeters (4.5 inches) of superelevation.
A greater operating speed would result in an
uncomfortable ride. Hence, a speed requiring
no more than 115 millimeters (4.5 inches) of
additional superelevation for equilibrium than
is actually used is within a range for
comfortable speed. Actual superelevation for
maximum comfortable speed (E,) may be
expressed as:
E, = 0.0069 VD - 115 [E, = 0.0007VD
3.2.6.5.1
Categories
in
of Speeds in Curves
Speed in curves may be categorized

as
follows;
Overturning Speed: The speed at which
the vehicle will derail or overturn because
centrifugal force overcomes gravity.
Safe Speed: The speed limit above which
the vehicle becomes unstable and in great
danger of derailment upon the introduction
of any anomaly in the roadway.
- 4.51
Thus, if an LRT vehicle is of modern design, it

is appropriate to use up to 115 millimeters (4.5
inches) of superelevation
unbalance as a
parameter in the design of track curves.
Maximum Authorized Speed (MAS): The

speed at which the track shall be
designed
utilizing maximum allowable
actual superelevation and superelevation
unbalance.
It also should be noted, however, that a

greater superelevation unbalance creates an
increased impact on maintenance of vehicles
and track. Conversely, operation closer to
balance speed results in a more comfortable
ride and less impact on the vehicle and track.
and
Therefore,
given
equal
speeds
circumstances
it is preferable to maximize
actual
superelevation
and
minimize
superelevation
unbalance
to reduce the
effects
of centrifugal
force
upon
the
passengers, vehicles, track structures, and
roadbed.
Signal Speed: The speed for which the

signal speed control system is designed
Ideally, signal speed should be just a little
faster than the speed at which an
experienced
operator
would normally
operate the vehicle so that the automatic
overspeed braking system is not deployed
unnecessarily.
3.2.6.5
Determination
3.2.6.5.2
Overturning
Speed
When the horizontal centrifugal forces of

velocity and the effects of curvature overcome
the vertical forces of weight and gravity,
causing the resultant to rotate about the
center of gravity of the vehicle and pass
beyond the bearing point of the track,
derailment or overturning of the vehicle will
occur. This is diagrammed in Figure 3.2.4.
of Curve Design
Speed
The calculation of design speed in curves is

dependent
on the vehicle design
and
passenger
comfort.
In addition to the
preceding guidelines, curve design speed can
be determined from the following principles if
specific vehicle performance characteristics
are known. This analysis is also necessary if
the vehicle dimensions
are significantly
Overturning speed is dependent upon the

height of the center of gravity above the top of
the rail (h) and the amount that the center of
gravity moves laterally toward the high rail (x)
3-24
LRT Track
Overturning
Speed V =
Geometry
(145.5)(150 + 854)
5
= 170.9 kph (106 mph)

Obviously, overturning speed should be far in
excess of the curves maximum authorized
speed
Figure 3.2.4 Force Diagram

on Superelevated
Track
3.2.6.5.3 Safe Speed

It is generally agreed that a rail vehicle is in a
stable condition while rounding a curve if the
resultant horizontal and vertical forces fall
within the middle third of the distance between
the wheel contact points. This equates to the
middle 508 millimeters (20 inches) of the
1524-millimeter
(60-inch) bearing zone B
indicated in Figure 3.2.4.
of LRT Vehicle
The formula for computing superelevation

unbalance for Overturning
Speed E, is
derived from the theory of superelevation:
Overturning
where:
Safe speed is that arbitrary condition where

the vehicle force resultant projection stays
within the one-third point of the bearing
distance.
That speed is entirely dependent
upon the location of the center of gravity,
which is the height above the top of rail h and
the offset x of the center of gravity toward the
rail.
From
the
theory
of
outside
superelevation,
we derive the formula for
computing
superelevation
unbalance
for
maximum safe speed E,:
Speed E, = Be/h
B = rail bearing distance = 1524

millimeters (60 inches)
e = B/2-x
h = height of center of gravity = 1270
If x = 50 mm (2 in.), then e = (1524/2) - 50 =

712 millimeters (28 inches)
then:
Overturning Speed E, =
Safe Speed E, = Be/h

where:
(1524)(712)
1270
then
= 854 millimeters
(33.6 inches)
and
Overturning Speed V =
B = rail bearing distance = 1524

e = B/6 - x. If x = 50 mm (2 in.),
e = (1524/6) - 50 = 204 millimeters
(8 inches)
h = height of center of gravity =
1270 millimeters (50 inches)
then
d=F
SafeSpeed Eu =
For example, if E; is given as 150 millimeters

(6 inches) and the decimal degree of
curvature D is equal to 5.00, then
(1524)(204)
1270
= 245 millimeters
(9.6 inches)
3-25
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Using the example of a typical transit car with

a center of gravity shift/height
of 63.5
mm/l270 mm, an Eu of 229 millimeters (9
inches) for safe speed and an E, of 838
millimeters (33 inches) for overturning speed
are calculated. MAS and signal speed can
then be determined from the safe speed
results.
and
MaximumSafeSpeed
V =
f--v
Using the example given for overturning

speed, if E, is given as 150 millimeters (6
inches) and the decimal degree of curvature
D is equal to 5.00, then:
Maximum Safe Speed V =
3.2.6.6 Easement Curves

Superelevated circular curves usually require
easement curves to control the rate of lateral
acceleration
exerted upon the track, the
passengers,
and the vehicle.
Easement
curves are usually spirals with radii changing
from infinity to the radius of the circular curve.
Spiral curves also provide the ramp for
introducing superelevation into the outside rail
of the curve.
Superelevation
is normally
runoff entirely within the spiral curve.
(145.5)(150 + 245)
5
d
= 107kph (66.5 mph)
3.2.6.5.4
Determination
of Superelevation
Unbalance
Values for Safe and
Overtorning Speeds
Table 3.2.3 lists reasonable values for E, for
safe speed and overturning speed for various
equipment characteristics.
For reference, a
typical transit car has a typical center of
gravity shift (x) and height (h) of 63.5 mm and
1270 mm, respectively, and a freight train
diesel locomotive has a typical x and h
values of 75 mm and 1575 mm, respectively.
3.2.6.6.1 Length of Easement Curves

Safety and comfort will usually limit operating
speed and dictate the length of transition
spirals. As a general rule, any speed and
Table 3.2.3
Safe and Overturning Speed E, Limits
3-26
LRT Track
transition that provides a comfortable

ride
through a curve is well within the limits of
safety.
Geometrv
Converting to kilometers per hour (miles per

hour) the formula may be expressed as
L,(meters)
Determining easement curve length allows for

establishment of superelevation
runoff within
the allowable
rate of increase in lateral
acceleration
due
to
deficiency
cant
(superelevation
unbalance).
Also,
the
transition
must be long enough
to limit
possible racking of the vehicle frame and
torsional forces from being introduced to the
track structure by the moving vehicle.
= V (kph)gx
3.33
= 0.925V (kph)
[Ls(feet) = 4.89V (mph)]
Assuming that 115 millimeters (4.5 inches) is
the
maximum
allowable
superelevation
unbalance, a formula to determine the length
of the spiral necessary to ensure passenger
comfort can be stated as:
When an LRT vehicle operating on straight

(tangent) track reaches a circular path, the
vehicle axles must be set at a new angle,
depending upon the radius of the curve. This
movement is not done instantly but over a
measurable time interval, thus creating the
need for a transitional curve, the length of
which equals speed multiplied by time.
0.925
L, = -VEu
115
L, =
orLs = 0.008VEu
VE,orLs
=l.O9VEu
I
3.2.6.6.1.2
Length
based
upon
Superelevation.
AREMA Manual, Chapter 5,
gives the following formula for determining the
length of an easement spiral curve:
3.2.6.6.7.1
Length Based upon Passenger
Comfort and Superelevation
Unbalance.
It
is generally recognized
by FRA, AREMA,
Amtrak, OSHA, and many other applicable
authorities that the maximum acceptable rate
of acceleration
of cant
deficiency,
or
superelevation
unbalance,
for passenger
comfort is 0.10 g, where g is 9.8 meters per
L,(meters)
= 0.75E,(millimeters)
[L, (feet) = 62E, (inches)]

In this equation, Ls equals the length of the
spiral and E, equals actual superelevation.
The only criterion for establishing minimum
spiral length is actual superelevation with no
consideration for speed. For 150 millimeters
(6 inches) of elevation, this produces a spiral
113 meters (372 feet) long.
second per second (32.2 feet per second per

second).
The change in the rate of acceleration from
zero to 0.10 g should not exceed 0.03 g per
second. Thus the minimum time needed to
attain the maximum lateral acceleration will
be:
This formula
is based on the long-term
structural integrity of a 26-meter (85foot) long
intercity passenger car. Most LRT vehicles
can easily tolerate twice this rate of change.
Therefore, a normal value for the minimum
spiral length due to vehicle consideration is:
Max. Rate of Accel.
O.lOg
== 3.33 seconds
Max. Rate of Change
0.039
Therefore the time factor for determining the
length of the spiral required is 3.33 seconds
multiplied by the speed of the vehicle.
L, = 0.38 E,
3-27
[Ls = 31 E,]
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
The AREMA Manual criteria is somewhat

conservative for LRT design in this respect.
of the spiral is 57 meters (186 feet) with 150

(6 inches) of superelevation.
As indicated above, the AREMA Manual

determination of spiral length as a function of
the runoff of actual superelevation is based on
a 26-meter (85foot) length car with 19-meter
(62-foot) truck centers. This indicates that, for
a 1,435millimeter
(4 35foot)
gauge, the
minimum
ratio of superelevation
change
across truck centers is 1:744.
This is an
empirical value that accounts for track crosslevel tolerances, car suspension type,and
fatigue stresses on the vehicle sills. Also note
that the AREMA Manual formula is applicable
to both passenger and freight cars.
Therefore,
Light rail vehicles have a far greater range of

suspension travel than freight or intercity
passenger cars. The magnitude of the LRV
frame twist is relatively small compared to the
nominal LRV suspension movement.
The
maximum actual superelevation
runoff rate
and minimum ratio of superelevation change
across truck centers are thus not fixed values,
but are functions of the LRV truck center
distance.
L, can be derived from:
L, = 0.0046 Ve,
where:
[L, = 0.62 VE,]
L, = spiral length in meters (feet)

V = speed in kph (mph)
E, = actual superelevation in
Amtraks MW-1000 Manual also shows that,

for Class 5 track, the maximum rate of
superelevation runoff may not be more than
3372:l
(1 inch in 31 feet) and that the
maximum rate of change of elevation should
not exceed 1488:l (0.25 inch per 31 feet) for
160 kph (100 mph). With the maximum rate
of elevation as 372:l and maximum rate of
change of 1488: 1, the length of the spiral is 76
meters (248 feet) with 100 millimeters (4
inches) of superelevation.
Therefore again:
L, = 0.0046 Ve, IL, = 0.62 VE,]
If E, is increased to 150 millimeters (6
inches) and V remains at 162 kph (100 mph)
then:
Another
service
proven,
although
conservative,
establishing
approach
to
minimum criteria for spiral length can be
derived from Amtraks
Specification
for
Construction and Maintenance of Track, MW1000. Amtrak uses 75 to ? 15 millimeters (3 to
4.5 inches) of superelevation
unbalance on
curves, comparable to many LRT systems.
MW-1000, Part I, Paragraph 213.63 states
that for Class 3 Track, the maximum rate of
superelevation runoff may not be more than
188:l (2 inches in 31 feet). MW-1000, Part II,
Paragraph 59.2 also states that the rate of
change should not be more that 744:l (0.5
inch per 31 feet) at 80 kph (50 mph). With the
maximum rate of elevation as 744:l and
maximum rate of change of 188:1, the length
L, = (0.0046)(162)(150)
= 112 meters
[L, = (0.62)(100)(6) = 372 feet]
This shows that the AREMA formula is safe
and conservative for speeds up to 162 kph
(100 mph), but that other methods
for
determining
spiral length should be used
when shorter lengths are required for cases of
lower operating speed.
3.2.6.6.1.3
Comparison
of Spiral Lengths
Based
Upon
Actual
vs Unbalanced
Elevation.
From Section 3.2.6.6.1 .I, based
on superelevation unbalance, minimum spiral
curve length is determined by:
3-28
LRT Track
The percentage grade is defined as the rise or

fall in elevation, divided by the length. Thus a
change in elevation of 1 meter over a distance
of 100 meters would be defined as a 1%
L, = 0.008 V E, [L, = 1.09 VE,]

An example using the above equation where
V = 80 kph (50 mph) and E, = 115 millimeters
(4.5 inches) yields:
L, = (0.008)(80)(115)
= 74 meters
grade.
(242 feet)
The profile grade line in tangent track is

usually measured along the centerline of track
between the two running rails and in the plane
defined by the top of the two rails.
In
superelevated
track, the inside rail of the
From Section 3.2.6.6.1.2,

based on actual
superelevation
runoff, minimum spiral curve
length is determined by:
L, = 0 0046 V E,
curve normally remains at the profile grade

line and superelevation is achieved by raising
the outer rail above the inner rail.
One
exception
to this recommendation
is in
tunnels, where the superelevation
may be
rotated about the centerline of track in the
interest of improved vertical clearances.
[L, = 0.62 VE,]
An example using the formula above, where V

= 80 kph (50 mph) and E, = 150 millimeters
(6 inches) yields:
L, = (0.0046)(80)(150)
= 56 meters (186 feet)
The vehicles performance,

dimensions, and
tolerance to vertical bending stress dictate
criteria for vertical alignments.
The following
criteria are used for proposed systems using a
modern low-floor vehicle. It can be used as a
basis of consideration for general use.
If E, = 200 millimeters
(8 inches), the
minimum spiral length values would be very
close for the two cases above. In LRT design,
the vehicle can generally handle twice the
actual superelevation
runoff indicated in the
above example. Therefore, it can be said that
passenger comfort criteria will generally be
the main factor in determining minimum spiral
3.3.1 Vertical Tangents
length.
3.3 VERTICAL
Geometrv
The minimum length of constant profile grade

between vertical curves should be as follows:
Condition
Length
Main Line
30 meters (100 feet) or
0.57V, three times the
Desired Minimum
design
speed
in kph
whichever
is
@W-O,
greater
Main Line
12 meters (40 feet)
Absolute
Minimum
ALIGNMENT
The vertical alignment of an LRT alignment is

composed
of
constant
grade
tangent
segments connected at their intersection by
parabolic curves having a constant rate of
change in grade. The nomenclature used to
describe vertical alignments is illustrated in
Figure 3.3.1.
3-29
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
G2
/
PVT
\G2 .-
ELEV
PVC
DATUM
SAG
VERTICAL
CURVES
PVC
-r
ELEV
PVC
DATUM
1
CREST
PARABOLIC
e-
VERTICAL
( -)
LVC
- +
Gz-Gl
y+x2-
Y
ELEVA-
CURVE
VERTlCAL
CURVES
FORMULAS:
A (LVC);
r - ( -
+-GI
LVC
- RATE
+x2
X2
- XC,
* ELEV
PVC
Figure 3.3.1 VerticaI
3-30
Curve Nomencalture
OF CHANGE
IN GRADE
LRT Track
No minimum grade is specified at passenger

stations provided adequate track drainage can
be maintained.
In urban areas, the existing
street profile may govern the profile grade
within the station.
In this case, the profile
grade may exceed 2.0%, but should be
restricted to a maximum of 3.5%.
In embedded track in urban areas, where the

need to conform to existing street profiles
makes compliance with the above criteria
impracticable,
the above requirement
is
usually waived
Where a tangent between
vertical curves is shorter than 12 meters (40
feet), consideration should be given to using
reverse or compound vertical curves.
This
avoids abrupt changes in vertical acceleration
that could result in both passenger discomfort
and excessive vehicle suspension
system
wear.
3.3.2 Vehicle
Length
This topic is covered

handbook.
3.3.3 Vertical
Yard Tracks
Desired
Maximum
Yard Storage
00%
1 .O%
& Pocket Tracks
Desired
Maximum
Criteria
0.0%
0.2%
All tracks entering a yard should either be

level, sloped downward away from the main
line, or dished to prevent rail vehicles from
rolling out of the yard onto the main line. For
yard secondary tracks, a slight grade, usually
between 0.35% and l.OO%, is recommended
to achieve good track drainage
at the
subballast level.
in Section 2.4 of this
Grades
Maximum grades in track are controlled by

vehicle braking and tractive efforts. On main
line track, civil drainage provisions also
establish a minimum recommended
profile
In yards, shops, and at station
grade.
platforms, there is usually secondary or cross
drainage available. Thus, grades in the range
of 0.00% to 0.04% are acceptable.
Through storage tracks generally have a sag

in the middle of their profile to prevent rail
vehicles from rolling to either end.
It is
recommended that the profile grade of a stub
end storage track descend toward the stub
end and, if it is adjacent to a main line or
secondary track, it should be curved away
from that track at its stub end.
If it is
necessary for the profile grade of a storage
track to slope up toward the stub end, the
grade should not exceed 0.20%.
As a guideline, the following profile grade

limitations are recommended for general use
in LRT design:
Main Line Tracks
Maximum
Sustained
Grade,
Unlimited Length
Maximum Sustained Grade with Up
to 750 Meters (2500 feet) between
PVls of Vertical Curves
Maximum Short Sustained Grade
with No More than 150 Meters (500
Feet) between
PVls of Vertical
Curves
Minimum Grade for Drainage on
Direct Fixation Track
Geometrv
4.0%
6.0%
Tracks located within maintenance

other buildings are generally level.
shops and
7.0%
3.3.4 Vertical
Curves
All changes in grade are connected by vertical

Vertical curves are defined by
curves.
parabolic curves having a constant rate of
change in grade. Parabolic curves are, for all
0.2%
3-31
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
practical purposes,
equivalent
to circular
curves for LRT design, but parabolic curves
are easier to calculate and are thus preferable
for this purpose.
meters (820 feet) for crests and 350 meters

(1150 feet) for sags. This equivalent radius of
curvature can be calculated from the following
formula:
As a guideline, the following vertical curve

criteria are recommended for general use in
LRT designs:
LVC
Rv = O.Ol(Gz-GI)
where:
3.3.4.1
Vertical
Minimum vertical curve length and/or design

speed may be governed by the overhead
contact system (OCS) due to the maximum
permissible rate of separation or convergence
between the track grade and the contact wire
gradient. Coordination with the OCS designer
is
strongly
recommended
to
ensure
compliance with this limitation.
3.3.5 Vertical Curves,
Sag Curves:
3.3.5.1
where:
R, = minimum radius of curvature of a

vertical curve in meters (feet).
Curve Lengths
The length of vertical curves can be

determined as follows:
l
Desired Length:
LVC = 60A
(LVC =
200A)
l
Preferred Minimum Length: LVC = 30A
(LVC = 1 OOA)
l
Absolute Minimum Length:
Crest Curves.
LVC
Rv = O.Ol(Gz-GI) I
Special Conditions
Reverse Vertical
Curves
Reverse vertical curves are feasible, provided

each curve conforms to the requirements
stated in Section 3.3.4 and the restrictions
imposed by the LRT vehicle design.
LVC = length of vertical curve, in

meters (feet)
A= (G, - G,) algebraic difference
in gradients connected by the
vertical curve, in percent
G, = percent grade of approaching
tangent
G2 = percent grade of departing
tangent
V = design speed, in kph (mph)
3.3.5.2
Combined
Curvature
Vertical
and Horizontal
Where possible, areas of combined vertical

and horizontal curvature should be avoided.
Where areas of combined
vertical and
horizontal curvature cannot be avoided, the
geometry should not be more severe than a
25meter (82-foot) radius horizontal combined
with a 250-meter (820-foot) equivalent radius
vertical crest curve. Again, this criterion must
be conformed with the vehicle design.
Both sag and crest vertical curves should

have the maximum possible length, especially
if approach and departure tangents are long.
Vertical broken back curves and short
horizontal curves at sags and crests should
be avoided.
The minimum equivalent radius of curvature
for vertical curves located on main line
tangent track should not be less than 250
3-32
LRT Track
3.3.6 Station Platform

Considerations
Alignment
3.3.7 Joint LRT-Railroad/Freight
3.3.7.1 Horizontal Alignment

The horizontal
alignment
for joint LRTrailroad/freight
tracks consists of tangent,
circular curves, and spiral transitions based
on the preferred maximum LRV design speed
and the required FRA freight class of railroad
operation
Lead tracks and industrial spurs
generally do not require spiral transitions.
a horizontal curve cannot be

a vehicle length of the platform;
ADA platform gap requirements
impossible to achieve.
3.3.6.1
Horizontal Alignment of Station

Platforms
At station platforms, the horizontal alignment
should be tangent throughout the entire length
The tangent should be
of the platform.
extended beyond both ends of the platform as
follows:
Condition
Minimum Tangent
Curves adjacent to turnouts on tracks that

diverge from the main track should be
designed for the maximum allowable speeds
of the adjoining turnouts.
Yard track should be designed for a minimum
of 25 kph (15 mph). Lead track and industrial
sidetracks should be designed for a minimum
of 16 kph (10 mph).
Length
Desired Minimum
25 meters (75 feet)
Preferred
Minimum
Absolute Minimum
20 meters (60 feet)
Tracks
Railroad tracks to be relocated or in joint

usage areas are designed in conformance
with the requirements of the operating railroad
and
the
AREMA
Manual,
except
as
recommended
herein
As a guideline,
recommended criteria are as follows:
In addition to the stringent track installation

tolerances imposed by the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA), there are alignment
considerations that must be included in LRT
trackwork.
All LRT systems must provide
level boarding. This applies whether the LRT
vehicle uses a high- or low-floor system.
Consequently,
located within
otherwise, the
will be virtually
Geometrv
15 meters (45 feet)
3.3.7.2 Tangent Alignment

For joint LRT-railroad/freight
main tracks, the
desired tangent length between curves should
be 90 meters (300 feet), with an absolute
minimum of 30 meters (100 feet). For lead
tracks and industrial
spurs, a minimum
tangent distance of 15 meters (50 feet) should
be provided
between
curve points.
All
turnouts should be located on tangents.
3.3.6.2
Vertical Alignment of Station

Platforms
The profile at stations should be on a vertical
tangent that extends 12 meters (40 feet)
beyond each end of the platform.
Station Area Grades
Desired:
0.0%
Maximum:
2.0%
3.3.7.3 Curved Alignment

The maximum desired degree of curvature for
railroad main line tracks should be either 3 or
the maximum presently in use along the route,
but should not in any case exceed 9 30. The
No minimum grade is necessary at passenger

stations,
provided
that
adequate
track
drainage can be maintained.
3-33
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
maximum curvature for lead tracks and

industrial sidetracks should be 12.
In
extreme cases, revisions to existing industrial
sidetracks may be designed with sharper
curves that match the existing values.
Exceptions to the above criteria may be
permitted as authorized by both the transit
authority and the operating freight railroad.
The minimum length of circular curves for
main line tracks should be 30 meters
(100 feet).
3.3.7.4
require spirals. Spirals should be provided on

all curves where the superelevation required
for the design speed is 12 millimeters (0.5
inch) or more. The maximum E, for freight
traffic is 37 millimeters (1.5 inches). Note that
allowable LRT and railroad operating speeds
along a given track may differ due to the
difference
in the maximum
unbalance
superelevation
allowed for each mode and
specific operating requirements.
As a guideline, the minimum length of a spiral
in railroad track and joint use railroad and LRT
track should be determined from the following
formulae, rounded off to the next meter (or 5
feet), but preferably not less than 18 meters
(60 feet).
Superelevation
Superelevation should be provided on main

line and secondary line tracks only, based on
the following formula:
E,=mo(+
where:
ka=,.,,($l4]
L, = 0.75 E,
L,= 0.009 E, V
L,=O.O083E,V
V = curve design speed, in kph (mph)
R = radius of curve in meters (feet)
where:
L, = minimum length of spiral, in

meters (feet)
E, = unbalanced superelevation in
V = curve design speed in kph (mph)
3.3.7.6
Vertical
Tracks
Values of actual superelevation (E,) should be

rounded to the nearest 6 millimeters (0.25
inch). In cases where the calculated value is
less than 12 millimeters (0.5 inch), no actual
superelevation (E,) need be applied.
Under joint freight and LRT operating
conditions, E, should be obtained from the
above formula until the calculated value
reaches 75 millimeters (3 inches). E, can be
further increased to 100 millimeters (4 inches)
to achieve desired speed with the approval of
transit authority and the operating railroad.
3.3.7.5
(L, = 62 E,)
(L, = 1.22 E, V)
(L,= 1.13 E,V)
3.3.7.6.1
Alignment
of Joint
Use
General
The profile grade is defined as the elevation of

the top of the low rail. Vertical curves should
be defined by parabolic curves having a
constant rate of grade change.
3.3.7.6.2
Spiral Transitions
Vertical Tangents
The desired minimum

tangents is 90 meters
absolute minimum value
feet).
Turnouts should
tangent grades.
Spiral transition curves are generally used for

railroad/freight main line and secondary line
tracks only. Low-speed yard and secondary
tracks without superelevation generally do not
3-34
length of vertical
(300 feet) with an
of 60 meters (200
be located only on
LRT Track
3.3.7.6.3 Vertical Grades

On main line tracks, the preferred maximum
grade should be 1.0%. This value may only
be exceeded
in cases where the existing
longitudinal
grade is steeper than 1.0%.
Grades within horizontal curves are generally
compensated (reduced) at a rate of 0.04% per
horizontal degree of curvature.
Locations
where freight trains may frequently stop and
start are
degree
reduces
curvature
required
where:
compensated at a rate of 0.05% per

This compensation
of curvature.
the maximum
grade in areas of
to reflect the additional tractive effort
to pull the train.
LVC = length of vertical curve in

meters (feet)
A = (G2 - G,) = algebraic difference
in gradients connected by the
vertical curve, in percent.
G, = percent grade of approaching
tangent
G2 = percent grade of departing
tangent
If an existing railroad vertical curve is below

the desired length, a replacement
vertical
curve with a rate of change of grade not
exceeding that of the existing curve may be
acceptable.
For yard tracks and portions of industrial

sidetracks where cars are stored, the grades
should preferably be 0.20% or less, but should
not exceed 0.40%.
Running portions of
industrial sidetracks should have a maximum
grade of 2.5%, except that steeper grades
may be required to match existing tracks.
Grade compensation is usually not required in
railroad yard and industrial tracks.
3.4 VEHICLE CLEARANCES

CENTERS
AND TRACK
This
section
discusses
the
minimum
dimensions
that must be established
to
ensure minimum clearances between the light
rail vehicles and transit structures or other
obstructions and to establish a procedure for
determining minimum track center distances.
3.3.7.6.4 Vertical Curves

Vertical curves are usually provided at all
intersections
of vertical
tangent
grades,
except for where the total grade difference is
less than 0.5%.
.
The provision of adequate clearances for the

safe passage of vehicles is a fundamental
concern in the design of transit facilities.
Careful determination of clearance envelopes
and enforcement
of the resulting minimum
clearance
requirements
during design and
construction are essential to proper operations
and safety.
The lengths of vertical curves in railroad

trackage should provide a rate of change of
grade not exceeding 0.05% per station in sags
and 0.10% per station in summits (rounded off
to the next largest 30 meters, or 100 feet).
Situations where this proves impossible to
achieve may use shorter curves using the
following formulae:
Crests: LVC = 76A
Sags: LVC = 150A
Geometrv
The following discussion concentrates on the

establishment
of new vehicle
clearance
envelopes and minimum track centers.
On
existing
LRT systems,
this is normally
established in the initial design criteria or by
(LVC = 250A)
(LVC = 500A)
conditions
system
3-35
in the initial sections
of the transit
Light
3.4.1
Rail
Track
Clearance
Design
Handbook
above are combined;

for example,
the
trackwork
construction
and maintenance
tolerances are frequently included in the
calculation of the vehicle dynamic envelope. r2]
Regardless of how the individual factors are
defined, it is important that all of these items
are included in the determination of the overall
clearance envelope.
Envelope
The clearance envelope (CE) is defined as the

space occupied by the maximum vehicle
dynamic envelope (VDE), plus effects due to
curvature and superelevation,
construction
and maintenance
tolerances of the track
structure, construction tolerances of adjacent
wayside structures, and running clearances.
The relationship between the vehicle and
clearance envelope can thus be expressed as
follows: [141
3.4.1 .I Vehicle
Envelope
Determination
of the VDE begins with the
cross sectional outline of the static vehicle.
The dynamic outline of the vehicle is then
developed by making allowances for car body
movements that occur when the vehicle is
operating on level tangent track.
These
movements represent the extremes of car
body displacement that can occur for any
combination of rotational, lateral, and vertical
car body movements when the vehicle is
operating on level tangent track.
CE = VDE+l-T+C&S+RC
where:
Dynamic
CE = Clearance Envelope
VDE = Vehicle Dynamic Envelope
TT = Trackwork Construction and
Maintenance Tolerances
C&S = Vehicle Curve and
Superelevation Effects
RC = Vehicle Running Clearance
The clearance envelope represents the space

into which no physical part of the system,
other than the vehicle itself, must be placed,
constructed, or protrude.
The following items are typically included in

the development of the VDE: rs*61
1. Static vehicle outline
2. Dynamic motion (roll) of springs and
suspension/bolsters of vehicle trucks
3. Vehicle
suspension
side
play and
component wear
4. Vehicle wheel flange and radial tread
wear
5. Maximum truck yaw (fishtailing)
6. Maximum passenger loading
7. Suspension system failure
8. Wheel and track nominal gauge difference
9. Wheel back-to-back tolerance
10. Rail fastener
loosening
and gauge
widening during revenue service
11. Dynamic rail rotation
12. Rail cant deficiency
A second part of the clearance equation is

what is termed structure gauge, which is
basically the minimum distance between the
centerline of track and a specific point on the
structure.
Although
structure gauge and clearance
envelope elements are often combined, it is
not advisable
to construct
a clearance
envelope that includes wayside
structure
clearances and tolerances, as the required
horizontal or vertical clearances to different
structures may vary significantly.
The factors used to develop the clearance
envelope are discussed in further detail in the
following sections. It should be noted that in
some LRT designs, some of the factors listed
Some of these items, particularly Items 10 to

12, are relatively minor and are often
combined into a single value.
3-36
LRT Track
The development of the VDE is typically the

responsibility of the vehicle designer.
The
trackwork designer may have to estimate the
values of Items 10 to 12. It is imperative that
the vehicle designer
include maintenance
tolerances as well as the initial installation
tolerances in the determination
of the VDE.
Typical values for vehicle-based maintenance
factors include the following:
l
Geometry
based on the ballasted trackwork case. Both

options have been used in actual practice.
Trackwork-based
factors to be considered in
the development
of the clearance envelope,
with typical values, include the following:
l
Lateral Rail Wear:
13 millimeters (0.50
inch)
l
Lateral wheel wear: 7.5 millimeters (0.30

inch)
10.5
Nominal wheel-to-rail
sideplay:
millimeters (0.405 inch)
Vertical radial wheel wear: 25 millimeters
(1 inch)
Lateral Maintenance
Tolerance,
Direct
Fixation Track: 13 millimeters (0 50 inch)
Lateral Maintenance Tolerance, Ballasted
Track: 25 millimeters (1 .OO inch)
Vertical Maintenance
millimeters (0.50 inch)
Cross
Track:
Tolerance:
Level Variance,
Direct
13 millimeters (0.50 inch)
13
Fixation
The VDE is usually represented as a series of

exterior coordinate points with the reference
origin at the track centerline at the top of rail
elevation.
The static vehicle outline is
generally not used in track design except for
the establishment
of station platforms and
associated station trackwork design at these
locations.
Cross level variance creates a condition of

vehicle rotation
rather than lateral shift.
Effects on the clearance envelope are similar
to superelevation effects noted below.
3.4.1.2
3.4.1.3
Track Construction
and
Maintenance
Tolerances
and
maintenance
construction
Cross Level Variance, Ballasted

25 millimeters (1 .OO inch)
Track:
Curvature and Superelevation

Effects
In addition to the VDE and track maintenance
factors, track curvature and superelevation
have a significant effect on the determination
of the clearance envelope. These effects will
be covered separately.
Some authorities
consider
the effects
of curvature
and
superlevation
as part of the VDE, and
calculate separate VDE diagrams for each
combination of curvature and superelevation.
As a guideline, this handbook considers only
one VDE and determines
curvature
and
superelevation effects separately to establish
multiple clearance envelopes.
Track
tolerances
should
be included
in the
determination
of the clearance
envelope,
whether as part of the VDE or as a separate
clearance
item.
The track maintenance
tolerances are generally far greater than the
initial construction tolerances and thus take
precedence
for the purpose of determining
clearances.
It should also be noted that direct fixation and
ballasted
trackwork
have different
track
maintenance
tolerances.
It is possible to
determine separate clearance envelopes for
ballasted and direct fixation track, or to use
the more conservative
clearance envelope
3-37
light
Rail
3.4.1.3.1
Track
Curvature
Design
Handbook
Effects
In addition
to the dynamic
car body
movements
described
above,
car body
overhang on horizontal curves also increases
the lateral displacement of the VDE relative to
the track centerline.
For design purposes,
both mid-car inswing (mid-ordinate) and endof-car outswing (end overhang) of the vehicle
must be considered.
F TRUCK
The amount of mid-car inswing and end-of-car

outswing depends primarily on the vehicle
truck spacing, vehicle end overhang, and
track curve radius. The truck axle spacing
also has an effect on clearances, although it is
relatively small and frequently
ignored.161
Refer to Section 2.3.2 for vehicle dynamic
outline.
To determine the amount of vehicle inswing
and outswing for a given curve radius, one of
two formulas are generally used, depending
on whether the vehicle axle spacing is known.
Both methods are sufficiently accurate for
general clearance envelope determinations for
LRT vehicles.
where:
F Kucx
r
I
Figure 3.4.1
Horizontal
Vehicle Lateral Clearance
Curve
VLHICLE
WiUNE
Effects
on
A somewhat
more accurate calculation is
provided from UIC 505-5, Enclosure VI, which
is calculated by placing the four vehicle axles
on the track centerline. In this publication, the
vehicle inswing and outswing are determined
from:
lnswing = MO =
G2/2k+L2/2)-(p2/4)
Outswing = E, =
2R
(L2/2k
- L2/2)-
(p2/4)
2R
If truck axle spacing effects are ignored, the

effects of vehicle inswing and outswing are
determined
from the assumption
that the
vehicle truck centers.are located at the center
of track, as shown on Figure 3.4.1. In this
case, the vehicle inswing and outswing can be
found from:
lnswing = M, = R(l-cosa)
F cAR
where:
P = vehicle axle spacing
For single axle vehicles, such as those on

low-floor articulated vehicles, the value of P in
the UIC formulae is 0.
In determining the outswing of the vehicle, it
must be noted that some vehicles have
tapered ends, and that the clearance diagram
is based on the worst-case between the
vehicle end section and the full vehicle section
away from the vehicle end.
and a = sin
M, = mid-ordinate of vehicle chord

R = track curve radius
L2 = vehicle truck spacing
When calculating the CE for horizontal curves

with spirals, it is necessary to end the tangent
clearance envelope at some distance, usually
15 meters (50 feet), before the track tangentto-spiral (TS) point. The full curvature CE
should begin 7.5 meters (25 feet) before the
L
Outswing = R, - R R, = cos b
where: R = track curve radius
L = half of overall vehicle length
3-38
LRT Track
Geometry
track spiral-to-curve (SC) point and after the

curve-to-spiral (CS) point. Horizontal offsets
of the CE are calculated by linear interpolation
with
sufficient
accuracy
for clearance
purposes. For simple circular curves, the full
curvature CE begins 15 meters (50 feet)
before the point of curve (PC) and ends 15
meters (50 feet) beyond the point of tangency
(PT). These distances are for a 25 to 28meter (82- to 92-foot) long vehicle, very short
LRT vehicles would require shorter distances.
The CE through turnouts is calculated
on the centerline radius of the turnout.
based
It is of interest to note that the vehicle

designer
does not always
provide the
calculations
for the effects of horizontal
curvature clearance, and that this task is
frequently
left to the trackwork
or civil
alignment engineer.
Figure 3.4.2
Superelevation
Clearances
3.4.1.3.2
3.4.1.5
Superelevation
Effects
Superelevation
effects are limited to the
vehicle lean induced by a specific difference
in elevation between the two rails of the track,
and should be considered independently of
other effects on the CE. In determining the
effects of superelevation,
the shape of the
VDE is not altered, but is rotated about the
centerline of the top of the low rail of the track
for an amount equal to the actual track
superelevation.
Vehicle
Dynamic
Effect
Running
Vehicle
on
Outline
Vertical
Clearance
The clearance
envelope must include a
minimum allowance for running clearance
between the vehicle and adjacent obstructions
or vehicles. Running clearance is generally
measured
horizontally
(laterally)
to the
obstruction,
although
some
clearance
envelopes are developed with the running
clearance added around the entire perimeter
of the vehicle.
The most common general value assigned to
running clearances
is 50 millimeters
(2
inches).
Except at station platforms, which
are special cases in LRT design, the 50
millimeters (2 inches) represents a minimum
running clearance value.
This rotation is illustrated in Figure 3.4.2. For

any given coordinate
on the VDE, the
equations
indicated
in Figure 3.4.1 are
sufficiently accurate to convert the original
VDE coordinate
(xT,yT) into a revised
clearance coordinate (x2, y2) to account for
superelevation effects.
Some items are occasionally assigned a

higher minimum running clearance.
These
include structural members and adjacent
vehicles.
A typical assignment of running
clearance criteria includes the following data:
3-39
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Minimum running clearance to signals,

signs, platform doors, and other nonstructural members:
50 millimeters (2
inches)
Minimum
running
clearance
to
emergency
walkway
envelope:
Construction tolerances for wayside structures

include the construction
and maintenance
tolerances associated with structural elements
outside of the track. These can include walls,
catenary poles, and signal equipment.
A
minimum
construction
tolerance for large
structural elements is normally 50 millimeters
(2 inches), although soldier pile and lagging
type walls may have a much larger tolerance
requirement.
an
50
Minimum running clearance along an

aerial deck parapet,
walls, and all
structural members:
150 millimeters (6
inches)
A second item that must be considered in

construction tolerances is an allowance for
chorded construction of tunnel walls, large
precast
aerial
structure
sections,
and
walkways,
In lieu of exact construction
information, a general guideline of a l&meter
(50-foot) chord for curve radii greater than 750
meters (2,500 feet), and 7.5-meter (25-foot)
chords for smaller radius curves can be used
as a basis for design.
Minimum running clearance to adjacent

LRT vehicles: 150 millimeters (6 inches)
3.4.2 Structure
Gauge
The second part of the clearance equation is

what is termed structure gauge, which is
basically the minimum distance between the
centerline of track and a specific point on the
structure.
This is determined from the CE
above, plus structure tolerances and minimum
clearances to structures. Thus:
Finally, provisions for present or future

acoustical treatments are often required on
walls and other structures. Typical values for
this range from 50 to 75 millimeters (2 to 3
inches).
SG=CE+SC+ST+AA
where,
SG = structure gauge
CE = clearance envelope
SC = required clearance to wayside
structure
ST = wayside structure construction
tolerance
AA = acoustic allowance
3.4.3 Station
Platforms
Station platforms require special clearance

considerations,
especially since regulations
such as the American with Disabilities Act
cover the maximum permissible gap between
the vehicle floor and platform edge.
The required clearance to wayside structures

may be specified separately from the running
clearance described above. In other words,
the running clearance envelope is stated as a
constant value, usually 50 millimeters, and a
separate
required
clearance
criteria
is
specified for each type of wayside structure.
Values of 50 to 150 millimeters (2 to 6 inches)
are normally specified as minimum clearance
from structures in the clearance envelope.
It should
be noted that current ADA
regulations
require a maximum
vehicleplatform gap of 75 millimeters (3 inches) with
the static vehicle located at the centerline of
track.
For high platforms or high block
portions
of
station
platforms,
where
applicable, this is usually not in conformance
with other clearance criteria.
Therefore,
clearance at station platforms should be
3-40
LRT Track
considered
clearances
separate
TC = Tt + T, + 2(OWF + RC) + P
from all other structural

where:
This topic is also covered in the discussion of

vehicle/track installation tolerances in Chapter
2 herein.
3.4.4 Vertical
Clearances
Vertical clearances are normally set with a

100- to 150-millimeter (4- to 6-inch) allowance
from the clearance
envelope,
including
superelevation effects. Actual LRT operations
normally do not require this amount of vertical
clearance,
but an allowance
is usually
required to accommodate future maintenance,
particularly on ballasted trackwork.
3.4.5 Track Centers
and Fouling
TC = minimum track centers

Tt = half of vehicle CE toward curve
center
T, = half of vehicle CE away from
curve center
RC = running clearance
OWF = other wayside factors (see
structure gauge)
P = maximum allowable catenary
pole diameter
Where the LRT track is designed for joint

usage with freight railroads, the clearances
mandated by the operating freight railroad
generally predominates.
The AREMA Manual
contains useful information on general freight
railway clearances, but the individual railroads
also have specific clearance requirements
will
supersede
the
AREMA
that
recommendations.
Points
The minimum allowable spacing between

tracks and the location of fouling points are
determined
using the same principles as
those used for determining
clearances to
Referring
to
the previous
structures.
discussion on clearances,
minimum track
centers can be determined from the following
equation, if catenaty poles are not located
between tracks:
3.5 REFERENCES
TC = T,+T,+2(OWF)+RC
where:
Geometw
TC = minimum track centers

T, = half of vehicle CE toward
curve center
=
half
of vehicle CE away from
J-G3
curve center
RC = running clearance
OWF = other wayside factors (see
structure gauge)
Where catenary poles are located between

tracks, the minimum
track centers are
determined from:
PI
American
Railway
Engineering
and
Maintenance-of-Way
Association
Railway
(AREMA)
Manual
of
Engineering (Washington, DC: AREMA,
1997), Ch. 12.
PI
New Jersey Transit, Hudson-Bergen

Light Rail Project, Manual of Design
Criteria, Feb. 1996, Chapter 4.
[31
Engineering
Railway
American
Transit
Association,
Review
of
Systems, AREA Bulletin 732, Vol. 92,
Oct. 1991, pp. 283-302.
t41
Maryland Mass Transit Administration,

Baltimore
Central Light Rail Line,
Manual of Design Criteria, Jan. 1990.
PI AREMA Manual, Chapter 5.
3-41
Light
PI
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
PII F.E. Dean and D.R. Ahlbeck, Criteria
Parsons
Brinckerhoff-Tudor-Bechtel,
Basis
of
Geometries
Criteria,
submitted to the Metropolitan Atlanta
Transit
Authority
(Atlanta:
Rapid
MARTA, Aug. 1974), p. 3.
for High-Speed
Vehicles
(New
1974), 7 pp.
WI
VI
Speed
and
Harvey
S. Nelson,
Superelevation on an Interurban Electric
Railway,
presentation
at
APTA
Conference,
Philadelphia,
PA, June
1991.
Curving
of
York; ASME,
Rail
Aug.
Los
Angeles
County
Mass
Transportation
Administration,
Rail
Transit Design Criteria & Standards,
Vol. II, Rail Planning Guidebook (Los
Angeles. LACMTA, 6194).
1131 Thomas
F. Hickerson, Route Location

Design, 5 ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill,
1964), pp. 168-l 71, 374-375.
181 Raymond P. Owens and Patrick L.

Railroad
Passenger
Ride
Wd,
Safety, report for U.S. Department of
Transportation, FRA, Feb. 1988.
PI
UOI
1141 Jamaica-JFKIHoward
Beach
LRS,
Basic
Design
Criteria
Technical
Revisions, (New York: NYCTA, 2197).
American
Railway
Engineering
Association, Passenger Ride Comfort
on Curved Track, AREA Bulletin 516,
Vol. 55 (Washington, DC: AREA, 1954),
pp. 125214.
I151 Washington
Metropolitan Area Transit

Authority,
Rapid
Transit
System,
Manual
of
Design
Criteria
(Washington: WMATA, 1976 with rev.).
American
Association
of Railroads,
Length of Railway Transition Spiral
Analysis-Analysis
and Running Tests,
Engineering
Research
Division
(Washington,
DC: AAR, September
1963), pp. 91-129.
[161 Portand
Tri-Met, Westside
Corridor,
Manual of Design Criteria, June 1993,
Chapter 2.
3-42
Chapter
Track
Structure
Design
Table of Contents
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4-l
4.2 TRACK AND WHEEL GAUGES AND FLANGEWAYS
4-1
4.2 1 Vehicle Truck Factors

4.2.2 Standard Track and Wheel Gauges
4.2.2.1 Railroad Gauge Practice
4.2.2.2 Transit Gauge Practice
4.2.2.3 Gauge Issues for Joint LRT and Railroad and
Mixed Fleet Operations
4.2.2 4 Gauge Issues for Embedded Track
4.2.2.5 Non-Standard Track Gauges
4.2.3 Gauge Measurement Location
4.2.4 Rail Cant and Wheel Taper-Implications
for Track Gauge
4.2.4.1 Tapered Wheel Tread Rationale
4 2.4.2 Asymmetrical Rail Grinding
4.2.4.3 Variation of Rail Cant as a Tool for Enhancing
Truck Steering
4.25 Track Gauge Variation
4.2.6 Considerations for Determination of Appropriate Gauge
4.2.6.1 Gauge for Tangent Track
4.2.6.2 Gauge for Curved Track
4.2.7 Fiangeways
4.2.8 Guarded Curves and Restraining Rails
4.2.8.1 Curve Double Guarding
4.2.8.2 Restraining Rail Design
4.2.9 Gauge Determination Analysis
4.2.9.1 Nytram Plot-Truck-Axle-Wheel
Positioning on Track
4.2.9.2 Filkins-Wharton Flangeway Analysis
4.2.10 Gauge Implications of Track Construction and
Maintenance Tolerances
4.3 TRACK SUPPORT MODULUS
4.3.1 Modulus of Elasticity

4.3.2 Track Modulus of Various Track Types
4.3.2.1 Ballasted Track
4.3.2.2 Direct Fixation Track
4.3.2.3 Embedded Track
4.3.3 Transition Zone Modulus
4.3.3.1 Interface Between Track Types
4.3.3.2 Transition Zone Design Details
4 3.3.3 Transition Zone Improvements
4.3.3.3.1 Transition from Direct Fixation Track to
Ballasted Track
4-i
4-l
4-2
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-7
4-7
4-8
4-9
4-10
4-l 0
4-10
4-l 0
4-11
4-12
4-13
4-13
4-l 3
4-14
4-19
4-24
4-26
4-26
4-27
4-27
4-28
4-29
4-30
4-30
4-31
4-31
4-31
Light
Rail
Track
Design
4.3.3.3.2
4.3.3.3.3
4.4 BALLASTED
Handbook
Transition from Embedded Track to

Ballasted Track
Design Recommendation
TRACK
4.4.1 Ballasted Track Defined

4.4.2 Ballasted Track Criteria
4 4.2.1 Ballasted Track Rail Section and Track Gauge
4.4.2.2 Ballasted Track with Restraining Rail
4.4.2.3 Ballasted Track Fastening
4.4.3 Ballasted Track Structure Types
4.4 3.1 Ballasted Track Resilience
4.4.3.2 Timber Crosstie Ballasted Track
4.4.3.2.1 Timber Crosstie Fastening
4.4.3.2 2 Timber Crossties
4.4.3.3 Concrete Crosstie Ballasted Track
4.4.3.3 1 Concrete Crosstie Fastening
4.4.3 3.2 Concrete Crossties
4.4 4 Crosstie Spacing
4.4.4.1 Crosstie Spacing-Tangent/
Curved Track
4.4.5 Special Trackwork Switch Ties
4.451 Timber Switch Ties
4.4.5.2 Concrete Switch Ties
4.4.6 Ballast and Subballast
4.4.6.1 Ballast Depth
4.4.6.2 Ballast Width
4.4.6.3 Subballast Depth and Width
4.4.6.4 Subgrade
4.4.7 Ballasted Track Drainage
4.4.8 Stray Current Protection Requirements
4.4.9 Ballasted Special Trackwork
4.4.10 Noise and Vibration
4.4.11 Transit Signal Work
4.4.12 Traction Power
4.4.13 Grade Crossings
4.5 DIRECT FIXATION TRACK (BALLASTLESS
OPEN TRACK)
4.5.1 Direct Fixation Track Defined

4.5.2 Direct Fixation Track Criteria
4.5.2.1 Direct Fixation Track Rail Section and Track Gauge
4.5.2.2 Direct Fixation Track with Restraining Rail
4.5.2.3 Direct Fixation Track Fastener
4.5.2.4 Track Modulus
4.5.3 Direct Fixation Track Structure Types
4.5.3.1 Cementitious Grout Pads
453.1 .I Cementitious Grout Pad on Concrete Surface
4-ii
4-31
4-33
4-33
4-33
4-34
4-34
4-34
4-34
4-34
4-35
4-35
4-36
4-37
4-37
4-37
4-39
4-39
440
4-41
4-41
4-42
4-42
4-43
4-43
4-43
4-44
4-44
4-44
4-45
4-45
4-45
4-46
4-46
446
4-46
4-47
4-47
4-47
4-47
4-47
4-47
4-48
4-48
Track
4.5.3.1.2 Cementitious Grout Pad in Concrete Recess

4.5.3 1.3 Cementitious Grout Material
4 5.3.2 Reinforced Concrete Plinth
4.5.3.2.1 Concrete Plinth in Tangent Track
4.5.3.2.2 Concrete Plinth on Curved Track
4.5.3.2.3 Concrete Plinth in Guarded Track with
Restraining Rail or Safety Guard Rail
4.5.3.2.4 Concrete Plinth Lengths
4.5.3.2.5 Concrete Plinth Height
4.5.3.2.6 Direct Fixation Vertical Tolerances
4.5.3.2.7 Concrete Plinth Reinforcing Bar Design
4.5 3.3 Direct Fixation Fastener Details at the Rail
4.5.3.4 Direct Fixation Ballastless Concrete Tie Block Track
4.5.4 Direct Fixation Track Drainage
4.5.5 Stray Current Protection Requirements
4 5.6 Direct Fixation Special Trackwork
4.5.8 Transit Signal Work
4 5.9 Traction Power
4.6 EMBEDDED
Structure
4-49
4-49
4-50
4-50
4-51
4-51
4-52
4-54
4-54
4-54
4-56
4-57
4-59
4-60
4-60
4-60
4-61
4-61
4-61
TRACK DESIGN
4 6.1 Embedded Track Defined

4.6.2 Embedded Rail and Flangeway Standards
4.6.2.1 Embedded Details at the Rail Head
4.6.2.2 Wheel/Rail Embedment Interference
4.6.3 Embedded Track Types
4.6.3.1 Non-Resilient Embedded Track
4.6.3.2 Resilient Embedded Track
4.6.3.3 Super Resilient Embedded Track (Floating Slab)
4.6.3.4 A Special Resilient Rail Installation for Vibration
Sensitive Zones
4.6.4 Embedded Track Structure Types
4.6.4.1 Concrete Slab Track Structure
4.6.4.1 .I Rail Installation
4.6.4.1.2 Stray Current Protection Requirements
4.6.4.1.3 Rail Embedment Materials
4.6.4.1.4 Embedded Track Drainage
4.6.4.2 Ballasted Track Structure With Embedment
4.6.5 Embedded Special Trackwork
4.6 7 Transit Signal Work
4.6.8 Traction Power
4.6.9 Typical Embedded Concrete Slab Track Design Guideline
4.6.10 Turf Track: Another Type of Embedded Track
4-61
4-62
4-62
4-63
4-64
4-64
4-65
4-66
4-67
4-67
4-67
4-68
4-70
4-72
4-75
4-76
4-78
4-79
4-80
4-80
4-80
4-84
4-86
4.7 REFERENCES
4-iii
Design
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
List of Figures
Figure 4.2.1 Standard
Wheel Gauge-AAR
Figure 4.2.2 (Recommended)

Figure 4.2.3
Standard
Gauge Line Locations
(Railroad)
4-3
Wheel Gaug-Transit
System
4-7
on 115 RE Rail Head
Figure 4.2.4 Rail Cant Design and Wheel Contact

Figure 4.2.5 Nytram Plot-Modified
4-9
Transit Wheel
4-15
Figure 4.2.6 Nytram P/of-l428

25-Meter Curve
Transit Wheel Gauge, 1828 Ax/e Spacing,
Figure 4.2.7 Nytram Plot-1428

25-Meter Curve
Transit Wheel Gauge, 2300 Axle Spacing,

25-Meter Curve
AAR Wheel Gauge, 1828 Axle Spacing,

25-Meter Curve
Figure 4.2.10
*
AAR-IB
Figure 4.2.11
4-16
4-I 7
4-I 7
4-l 9
Nytram Plot-Rotated
Transit Wheel Gauge
Truck Position
Nytram Plots-Rotated
AAR Wheel Gauge
Figure 4.3.1
Filkins- Wharton
Track Transition
on Track,
4-20
Truck Position
Figure 4.2. I2 Filkins- Wharton Diagram

Widths
Figure 4.2.13
on Track,
4-21
for Determining
Flangeway
4-23
Plot to Establish
Flangeways
4-32
Single Track, Tangent
Figure 4.4.2 Ballasted
Double
Single Track, Curved Track (Timber
Double Track, Curved Track (Timber
Figure 4.5.2 Concrete

Figure 4.5.3
Figure 4.5.4
4-24
Slab
Figure 4.5.1 Cementitious
4-4
Track (Timber
Track, Tangent
Track (Timber
Plinth Design-Tangent
Plinth Lengths
Plinth Reinforcing
Crosstie)
4-36
438
4-38
Fixation
Track
4-48
Direct Fixation
Track
4-50
Superelevated
Direct
4-52
Concrete Plinth Design-Curved

Superelevated
Direct Fixation Track with Restraining Rail
Crosstie)
4-36
Crosstie)
Grout Pad Design-Direct
Concrete Plinth Design-Curved

Fixation Track
Crosstie)
Guarded
4-52
4-53
Bar Design
4-iv
4-55
Track
Structure
Figure 4.5.7
Rail Cant and Base of Rail Positioning
4-58
Figure 4.5.8
Encased
4-59
Concrete
Crosstie
LVT System
4-59
Figure 4.6.1
Embedded
Rail Head Details
Figure 4.6.2
Special Resilient Rail Installation

Sensitive Zones
Figure 4.6.3
Concrete
Figure 4.6.4
Two-Pour Concrete
Rail Troughs
4-63
for Vibration
4-67
Slab with Two Individual
Rail Troughs
4-68
Slab with Two Individual

4-68
Figure 4.6.5
Three-Pour
Concrete
Bathtub
Figure 4.6.6
Initial Rail Installations-Base
Figure 4.6.7
Rail Fastening
Figure 4.6.8
Insulating
Figure 4.6.9
Extruded
Installation
4-68
Material
4-69
Installations
4-70
Surface Barrier at Trough

Elastomer
Figure 4.6.10
Polyurethane
Figure 4.6.11
Direct Fixation
Figure 4.6.12
Cut Away Section
Figure 4.6.13
Ballasted
Figure 4.6.14
Special
Figure 4.6.15
Typical Embedded
Figure 4.6.16
Turf Track-Another
Trough
Trough
Edges
4-71
Components
4-72
Filler with Web Blocks
4-73
Fastener
with Internal
Embedded
Track Structure
Drain System
Track Drainage
Chase
with Embedment
Trackwork-Embedded
Bathtub
4-77
4-77
Design
Track Design
Type of Embedded
4-74
4-79
4-81
Track
4-85
List of Tables
Table 4.2.1 Track Construction
Table 4.4.1 Ballasted
Tolerances
Track Design
4-25
Parameters
4-v
4-41
Design
CHAPTER
ATRACK
STRUCTURE
DESIGN
diameter wheels, short stub single wheel
axles, and a wide variety of truck axle
spacings and truck centers-all
of which
affect the vehicles interface with the track
structure. In some cases, multiple variations
of these factors can occur on a single car. A
common situation involves smaller diameter
wheels and a shorter truck wheelbase on the
center truck of a partial low-floor light rail
vehicle. If these parameters are not carefully
considered
in track design, the vehicles
tracking pattern can be susceptible to hunting,
truck skewing in curves, and unpredictability
at special trackwork.
The track gauge-towheel
gauge
relationship
is especially
important
in controlling these operational
performance features.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The design standards for contemporary

light
rail transit (LRT) track structures, whether in
an aerial, at-grade, or tunnel environment,
differ considerably
from the principles for
either heavy rail transit or railroad service.
The varied guideway environments in which
an LRT system can be constructed result in
horizontal and vertical track geometry that
often affects light rail vehicle (LRV) design
and performance.
Consequently, the light rail
track designer must consider not only the
track geometry, but also the characteristics of
the LRV and how it responds to the guideway
geometry
This is particularly
true in
embedded track located in streets. Embedded
track construction constitutes the greatest
challenge to the light rail track designer.
In general, reducing the lateral clearance

between the wheel flange and rail head, either
through
increasing
the wheel gauge or
decreasing the track gauge, improves wheel
tracking of the rail by keeping the truck square
to the rails. This reduces hunting, skewing,
and flange attack and results in improved
performance through curved track and special
trackwork. Vehicle wheel gauge will generally
not vary within a given LRV fleet although
cases have occurred where the wheel gauge
and wheel contour of a new vehicle
procurement have not matched that of the
transit agencys existing fleet.
The track
designer should take steps to ensure that the
vehicle designer does not select wheel
parameters independent of track design.
4.2 TRACK AND WHEEL GAUGES AND

FLANGEWAYS
The determination of the correct dimensions

to be used for track and wheel gauges and for
the widths of the flangeways through special
trackwork and other guarded portions of the
track structure is the most critical activity to be
undertaken during track design.
If these
dimensions are not carefully selected to be
compatible with the rail vehicle(s) that will
unsatisfactory
operate
over the track,
performance and excessive wear of both the
track structure and the vehicle wheels will
occur.
If, as is common, there are several series of

vehicles in use on a rail transit line, each with
combination
of
truck
a
different
characteristics,
the track designers
must
consider the worst-case requirements of each
car series and optimize the track gauge
parameters accordingly.
4.2.1 Vehicle Truck Factors
New, state-of-the-art LRV designs, particularly

low-floor LRVs, incorporate many features
radically different from heavy rail metros and
These may include
smaller
railroads.
4-l
Light
Rail
Track
4.2.2 Standard
Design
Handbook
4.2.2.1 Railroad Gauge Practice

North American railroads set track and wheel
mounting gauges in accordance with criteria
established by the Mechanical Division of the
Association of American Railroads (AAR) and
the American
Railway
Engineering
and
Maintenance-of-Way
Association
(AREMA).
AAR standard wheel gauge is defined as 55
1 l/16 inches (equivalent to 1,414 millimeters)
and is measured
518 of an inch (15.9
millimeters) below the wheel tread surface.
The AREMA definition of track gauge is
measured at the same distance below the top
of rail. These gauge standards have been
incorporated in many contemporary LRT track
designs
to accommodate
possible
joint
railroad and LRT operations.
Track and Wheel Gauges
The majority of contemporary

rail transit
systems nominally utilize standard
track
gauge of 1435 mm (56-l/2 inches). This track
gauge stems from 18th century horse drawn
railways used by English collieries, where
track gauge was dictated by the common
wheel-to-wheel gauge of the wagons used to
This wagon gauge can be
haul the coal.
traced back to ancient times, where it was
used on Roman
chariots
because
it
approximately
matched the center-to-center
distance of a pair of war horses. This made it
easier for the horses to follow the wagon ruts
in the roads.
While many different track
gauges were adopted over the years, none
have proven to be either as popular or
practical as standard gauge.
If wheels using the current AAR-IB wheel

profile are mounted at standard AAR wheel
gauge, and the wheel and axle assembly is
centered between the rails at standard track
gauge, the horizontal clearance between the
wheel and the rail at the gauge line elevation
is 13/32 inch or 10.3 millimeters as shown in
Figure 4.2.1. This results in total freeplay
between
correctly
mounted
and unworn
wheelsets and exactly gauged rails of 13116
inch or almost 21 millimeters.
Track that is nominally

constructed
to
standard gauge can actually be tighter or
wider than 1435 mm depending on a variety of
circumstances.
The track gauge can be
adjusted along the route so as to optimize
Conditions that
vehicle-to-track
interaction.
can require gauge adjustments include track
curvature, the presence or lack of curve guard
rails, rail cant, and several vehicle design
Vehicle factors
include wheel
factors.
diameter; wheel tread taper and width; wheel
flange shape including both height and
thickness; the distance between axles; and
the wheel gauge or distance between wheels
mounted on a common axle.
It is important to recognize that railroad gauge

practices generally evolved in a different
transit
operations.
environment
than
Particularly in curved tracks, railroad criteria is
predicated on the use of equipment that
generally has much larger diameter wheels
than those used on transit vehicles.
In
addition, both the maximum wheelbase and
the number of axles that might be mounted on
a rigid truck frame are usually much greater.
Steam locomotives in particular could have
wheels over 1800 millimeters (6 feet) in
diameter, with up to five such sets of wheels
on a rigid frame. Even contemporary diesel
While nominal standard gauge is nearly

universal for both electric rail transit and
steam railroads, different requirements of
these modes resulted in appreciably different
details, such as where the track gauge is
measured, under what conditions it is varied,
and the amount of freeplay that is required
between the wheel flanges and the sides of
the rails
4-2
Track
Figure 4.2, f
(Railroad)
Standard
Structure
Design
The metric equivalents of the ATEA standard

track and wheel gauges were 1,435 and 1,428
millimeters (56-l/2 inches and 56-114 inches),
respectively,
and
were
measured
6
millimeters (l/4 inch) below tread height. In
addition, some transit systems tightened the
track gauge in tangent track, taking advantage
of a compound curve gauge corner radius that
was rolled into the head of some ATEA girder
rails ATEA standards are generally followed
by those North American light rail systems
that predate the renaissance of light rail transit
that began in the late 1970s.
European
tramways
developed
similar
standards
although it is important to note that, in general,
European street railways use wheel flanges
that are even smaller than those promulgated
by ATEA.
Wheel Gaug-AAR
locomotives can have wheels that are over 1

meter (3.2 feet) in diameter, with three wheel
and axle sets on trucks that can have an
overall wheelbase of nearly 4 meters (13 feet).
By contrast, contemporary rail transit vehicles
rarely have wheels over 711 mm (28 inches)
in diameter, never have more than two axles
per truck, and generally have maximum
wheelbase distances no longer than about
2200 millimeters (7 feet). (Refer to Table 2.1.)
The much larger truck features associated
with railroad equipment dictate wheel gaugeto-track gauge relationships that are far less
stringent than those required for transit
equipment.
Hence, railroad gauge and
flangeway
criteria should not be adopted
unless both transit and freight railroad
equipment will operate jointly on a common
track.
The transit type standards for wheel gauge

have several advantages:
With a tighter gauge relationship, truck
hunting-the
lateral oscillation of a truck
from one rail to the other as it seeks a
consistent rolling radius on all wheels-is
more easily controlled. Hunting typically
is a tangent track phenomenon
and is
more prevalent at higher vehicle speeds.
The threshold for vehicle hunting is
controlled by the stiffness of the primary
suspension.
Trucks cannot become as greatly skewed
to the track, thereby reducing flange bite
in curving.
Flangeways can be appreciably narrower;
a significant consideration for embedded
tracks areas with significant pedestrian
activity.
4.2.2.2 Transit Gauge Practice

Traditional
street railway/tramway
systems
developed guidelines for wheel gauge that
differ considerably
from those used by
railroads.
In the United States, the most
common
standards
for track and wheel
mounting gauges were those promulgated by
the American Electric Railway Engineering
Association
(later renamed the American
Transit Engineering Association or ATEA)
Generally tight wheel gauge-to-track

gauge
relationships can only be employed when the
transit operator does not have to share its
tracks with a railroad
Many contemporary
LRT systems fall into that category and, as a
result, feature a wide variety of vehicle wheel
4-3
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
employing standard
millimeters
(56-l/2
handbook provides
gauge standards of
currently operating
shares any portion of its route with a freight

railroad, or if future extensions either will or
might share freight railroad tracks, then
conformance with freight railroad gauge and
other freight geometry constraints will control
the track design.
As a guideline, Figure 4.2.2 illustrates a

of 1421
recommended
wheel gauge
millimeters (56 inches) for transit use with
standard track gauge. The free play between
one wheel and rail is 7 millimeters (0.3 inch).
When a new light rail system shares track with

a freight railroad, freight operations normally
occur only along ballasted track segments. It
is unusual for freight trains to share aerial
structure or embedded track segments of a
system.
Nevertheless,
the mixing of rail
freight and LRT operations on any portion of a
system will govern track and wheel gauge
design decisions for the entire system. Even
if the systems starter line does not include
joint operation areas, consideration should be
given to whether future extensions of the
system might share tracks with a freight
railroad.
gauges while all generally

track gauge of 1,435
inches). Table 2.1 in this
selected track and wheel
17 light rail transit systems
in North America.
Figure 4.2.2
(Recommended)
Wheel Gauge-Transit
System
The key issues to consider in accommodating

mixed operations are the setting of the backto-back wheel dimension, guard check gauge,
and guard face gauge criteria that result from
a particular wheel setting.
Track design
parameters that will be most affected by these
decisions include:
l
The practicality of using available girder
groove and guard rails that are rolled with
a specific flangeway width.
Standard
4.2.2.3
Gauge Issues for Joint LRT and

Railroad and Mixed Fleet
Operations
For a system with a mixed fleet, compromises
may be required to accommodate a variety of
truck and wheel parameters. This problem is
not new-early
20th century electric street
railway track designers frequently had to
adapt their systems to handle not only city
streetcars with short wheel base trucks and
relatively small diameter wheels, but also
interurban trolleys that typically had longer
wheel base trucks and larger diameter
wheels. Some trolley companies even offered
freight service and routinely handled steam
railroad engines and freight cars over portions
of their lines. Today, if the light rail system
The flangeway width and track gauge

required for effective restraining rail or
guard rail applications.
Details for guarding of frog
special trackwork locations.
points
in
Transit systems that do not share tracks with

a freight railroad may still have a track
connection at the maintenance facility yard for
delivery of freight cars loaded with track
materials or the systems new light rail
vehicles.
If the systems
maintenance
program contemplates movement of railroad
4-4
Track
roiling stock (such as hopper cars full of

ballast) over portions of the system, it may be
necessary to compromise the track design to
accommodate the railroad equipment.
This
does not mean wholesale adoption of railroad
standards.
Provided that the guard check
gauge at turnout frogs allows sufficient space
for AAR back-to-back wheel gauge, freight
cars can usually be moved over open track
portions of an LRT system at low speeds. It
may be necessary to prohibit any railroad
equipment whose wheels are not precisely
mounted, as AAR has tolerances for wheel
settings that are considerably
more liberal
than those applied to rail transit fleets.
Structure
Design
maintenance-of-way
equipment.
It is
imperative that specific notification be given
that the transit systems gauge standards
differ from AAR and AREMA standards so that
construction and maintenance equipment do
not damage the track.
4.2.2.4
Gauge issues for Embedded
Track
The appropriate
track gauge to use in
embedded track is highly dependent on the
rail section (either tee rail or girder groove rail)
and the vehicle wheel gauge. In this regard it
is very important to note that standard railroad
wheel contours (e.g. AAR-IB) and railroad
wheel mounting gauges are not compatible
with narrow flangeway girder rails presently
available from European mills if the track is
built to 1435millimeter
(56-112 inch) gauge.
The backs of the wheels will bind with the
tram or guarding lip of the girder rail causing
one flange to ride up out of the flangeway. If
narrow flangeway girder rails are selected,
such as Ri 59N or Ri 60N, it will be necessary
to adopt either a wide wheel gauge or an
equivalent narrow track gauge.
Embedded track areas that utilize narrow

flangeway
girder
rails typically
cannot
accommodate
movements of railroad rolling
stock through curves with radii less than about
100 meters, regardless of rail section. Other
restrictions on railroad equipment movements
involve the structural capacity of bridges
designed for LRT loads and clearances to
trackside obstructions such as catenary poles
and station platforms.
If railroad standard wheel gauge must be

employed on an LRV because some portion of
the route shares track with a freight railroad,
wheel clearance to the embedded girder rail
track can alternatively
be achieved
by
reducing the track gauge only in those areas
where the girder rail is installed.
This will
reduce the wheel-rail clearance at the gauge
line and may result
in unsatisfactory
interaction
with
railroad
equipment.
Embedded track is typically separated from
joint use track.
Railroad equipment
movements,
limited
to
occasional
maintenance work trains at low speed, may be
acceptable.
Another category of joint operations is where it

is proposed to extend an existing heavy rail
transit operation using light rail technology.
The existing system will already have track
gauge, wheel gauge, and wheel contour
standards in place that must be considered in
the design of the light rail tracks and vehicles
for the new system. If the truck parameters of
the existing rolling stock, such as truck
wheelbase or wheel diameter, are appreciably
different
from
typical
LRV
designs,
compromises will be necessary to achieve
compatible operations.
Even if neither railroad rolling stock nor mixed
transit car fleets are a consideration,
the
trackwork
designer
should consider
the
ramifications
that track and wheel gauge
might
variations
have
for
on-track
If routine joint operation with railroad freight

equipment along an embedded track area is
expected, use of narrow flangeway girder rails
4-5
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Toronto to 1,581 millimeters (62-l/4 inches)

on the Philadelphia City system to 1,588
millimeters (62-l/2 inches) on the Pittsburgh,
New Orleans, and Philadelphia
Suburban
systems.
Such gauges were typically
dictated by the municipal ordinances that
granted
the
streetcar
companies
their
franchise to operate within the city streets.
In such legislation it was typically specified
that the rails should be laid at a distance apart
that conformed
with local wagon gauge,
thereby providing horse drawn wagons and
carriages with a smoother running surface
than the primitive pavements of the era. The
only new start transit operation in North
America to adopt a non-standard gauge in
recent years was San Franciscos BART
heavy rail system at 1,676 millimeters (66
inches). This gauge was intended to provide
increased vehicle stability against crosswinds
for a proposed bridge crossing.
will not be possible. Wide flangeway girder

rails for freight railroad use are provided by
some European rolling mills, but presently
available designs of this type are so wide that
the tram does not provide any guarding action
for curves or special trackwork.
Freight
railroad girder rail flangeways
are also
generally wider than desirable for pedestrian
areas. Such was not the case with girder rails
made in North America until the mid-1980s;
however they can no longer be obtained
A
near match of the head and flangeway
contours of North American designs can be
achieved by milling the head of the lOW80
structural section available from European
mills; however this is an expensive solution
that
requires
careful
investigation
and
justification.
More latitude for joint operations in embedded
track can be achieved using tee rails rather
than girder
rails; however
a separate
and
flangeway
must
be
constructed
maintained in the pavement surface. Refer to
Section 5.2.2.3 of this handbook for additional
discussion concerning the possible application
of tee rails to embedded track.
Those systems that employ unusual gauges

typically rue the fact because it complicates
many facets of track design, construction, and
maintenance.
Contracting for services such
as track surfacing and rail grinding becomes
more difficult and expensive since contractors
do not have broad gauge equipment and
converting
and
subsequently
reverting
standard gauge equipment for a short-term
assignment is time consuming and expensive.
Vehicle procurement is also complicated since
off-the-shelf truck designs must be modified
and potential
savings from joint vehicle
procurements
cannot be realized.
Wide
gauges also preclude joint operation of a rail
transit line on a railroad route since dual
gauge special trackwork and train control
systems necessary to operate it are both
extremely
complex
and
expensive.
Accordingly,
non-standard
gauges are not
recommended
for new
start
projects.
Systems that presently have broad gauge
tracks most likely need to perpetuate that
4.2.2.5 Non-Standard
Track Gauges
In addition
to standard
1,435millimeter
(56-112 inch) track gauge, several other
gauges have been used on light rail transit
systems in North America and overseas.
Narrow
gauge systems,
typically
1,000
millimeters (39-l/3
inches), are relatively
common in Europe, particularly in older cities
where narrow streets restrict vehicle sizes.
There were once many narrow gauge street
railways in North America; however the only
known survivors are the Detroit street car and
the San Francisco cable car system. Broad
gauge trolley systems were more common
Four traditional trolley operations in North
America use broad gauges.
These range
from 1,496 millimeters (58-718 inches) in
4-6
Track
practice for future extensions

so as to
maintain internal compatibility in both track
and rolling stock design.
4.2.3
Gauge Measurement
Location
Track gauge is measured a specific distance

below top of rail because of the gauge corner
radii of the rail and the flange-to-tread
fillet
radius of the wheel.
The location where
gauge is measured frequently differs between
railroad and transit systems. The customary
gauge elevation point on North American
railroads is 15.9 millimeters (0.625 inches)
below top of rail. Track gauge on traditional
street railways systems was, and in some
instances still is, measured at either 6.4
millimeters (0.25 inches) or 9.5 millimeters
(0.375 inches) below top of rail.
Figure 4.2.3 Gauge Line Locations

RE Rail Head
on 175
Rail sections with compound gauge corner

radii, such as 115 RE section (Figure 4.2.3),
do not have a nominally vertical tangent
section for gauge measurement
at the 6.4(0.25-inch)
or 9.5-millimeter
(0.375inch)
height, hence the designation of a lower
Older rail sections that were
elevation.
prevalent when the ATEA promulgated
its
standards, such as ASCE and ARA rails, had
gauge corner radii that were smaller and thus
more conducive to gauge measurement closer
to top of rail. Except for the 100 ARA-B
section, such rail is no longer commonly rolled
in North America.
Since measurement
of
gauge within the curved portion of the rail
Structure
Design
head is difficult at best and misleading at

worst, it is recommended that gauge elevation
be defined consistent with railroad practice.
For a transit system that is being designed in
metric dimensions,
designation
of gauge
elevation at 15.9 millimeters (0.625 inches)
below top of rail is awkward.
As a guideline for metric transit track design, it
is recommended that track gauge be defined
at 15 millimeters (0.591 inches) below top of
rail. Wheel gauge will be measured at a
location to suit the height of wheel flange.
4.2.4
Rail Cant and Wheel TaperImplications

for Track Gauge
Rail cant is a significant factor in wheel-to-rail

interface. Cant describes the rotation of the
rail head toward the track centerline.
It is
intended to complement conical wheel treads
in promoting
self-steering
of wheelsets
through curves. The cant also moves the
vertical wheel loading away from the gauge
corner of the rail and toward the center of the
ball of the rail. Rails are generally installed at
I:40 cant in both tangent and curved track.
Zero cant is usually specified through special
trackwork so as to simplify the design and
fabrication of trackwork components.
Canted
special trackwork is now often specified for
high-speed operations over 140 krn/hr (90
mph).
4.2.4.1
Tapered
Wheel Tread Rationale
Railway wheel treads are typically tapered to

be shaped like a truncated cone. A cone that
is lying on a flat surface will not roll straight
forward but one that is supported on a single
edge-such
as a rail-can be made to follow
a straight path if its axis is held rigidly at right
angles (i.e., by an axle) to the direction of
travel. Railway design takes advantage of this
geometric
relationship
to facilitate
self-
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
steering of railway trucks through gentle

curves without requiring interaction between
the side of the rail head and the wheel
flanges.
standard transit wheel gauge and tapered at

1:20, theoretically
will begin flanging on
curves of radii less than 1350 meters (4,429
feet).
The usual conicity of the wheel tread is a ratio

of 1:20. This results in a wheel that has a
greater circumference close to the flange than
it has on the outer edge of the wheel tread. In
curved track, this differential
moderately
compensates for the fact that the outer rail of
a curve is longer than the inner rail over the
same central angle. The wheel flange on the
outer wheel of the axle shifts toward the outer
rail when negotiating a curve and hence rolls
on a greater circumference while the inner
wheel flange shifts away from that rail and
rolls on a smaller circumference.
Thus, the
outer wheel will travel forward a greater
distance than the wheel on the inner rail even
though they are both rigidly attached to a
common axle and hence have the same
angular velocity.
As a result, the axle
assembly steers itself around the curve just as
a cone rolls in a circle on a table top.
Wheel profiles that have either a cylindrical

tread surface or only a slight taper, such as
1:40, do not self-steer through curves; hence
flanging is the primary steering mechanism.
Conical wheels that are not re-trued regularly
also
lose their steering
characteristics
because
the
contact
patch
becomes
excessively wide as a significant portion of the
wheel tread matches the contour of the rail
head. Hollow worn wheels develop a false
flange on the outer portion of the tread and
can actually attempt to steer the wrong way as
the rolling radius on the tip of the false flange
can be equal or greater than on the flange to
tread fillet. The importance of a regular wheel
truing program cannot be overstated and track
designers should insist vehicle maintenance
manuals require wheel truing on a frequent
basis.
Note that rolling
radius
differential
is
maximized when the wheel and axle set is
free to shift laterally an appreciable amount.
An actual cone has a fixed slope ratio; hence
it can smoothly follow only one horizontal
radius. A wheel and axle set with tapered
wheels, on the other hand, can assume the
form of a cone with a variable side slope by
shifting the free play left and right between the
wheel flanges and the rails. Hence larger
values of track gauge-to-wheel gauge freeplay
can be beneficial in that regard.
Railroad wheelsets, mounted at AAR standard

wheel gauge and tapered at 1:20, theoretically
eliminate flanging on curves with radii over
580 meters (1900 feet). Below that radius,
contact between the wheel flange and the
gauge side of the rail provides a portion of the
steering action. Nevertheless, tapered wheels
still provide a significant degree of truck selfsteering that reduces flanging on curves with
radii as small as 100 meters (328 feet) For
sharper curves, flanging
is the primary
steering mechanism.
Transit wheels selfsteer only on relatively large radii curves, due
to the fact that the minimal 6 millimeters (0.2
inches) of freeplay between wheel gauge and
track gauge
allows
only very limited
differential rolling radii on a conical wheel
before the wheel begins flange contact with
the rail.
A transit wheelset, mounted at
4.2.4.2
Asymmetrical
Rail Grinding
Rail grinding to remove surface imperfections

has been performed for decades, but a recent
trend has been rail grinding designed to alter
the location of the rail contact patch.
By
grinding an asymmetrical profile on the rail
head, and having distinctly different contact
4-8
Track
patch locations on the high and low rails of a

given curve, the location of the contact patch
on the tapered wheel tread can be optimized,
thereby changing the rolling radius. In theory,
a special grinding pattern could be created for
each curve radius, thereby optimizing the
ability of a truck to steer through that curve.
424.3
Structure
Design
at 1.20 while the high rail remains at 1:40,

then the threshold radius for flanging drops to
about 750 meters (29.5 feet).
$ RAIL
j E CONTACT PATCH
I
i 11.89 (0.46W) FOR IO RADIUS
!
8 38 (03300') FOR 8' RADIUS
Variation of Rail Cant as a Tool for

Enhancing Truck Steering
POTENTIALLATERAL
WHEELSHIFT 4 (01575')
Rail cant variation can improve the rolling

radius differential
on standard
rail head
profiles in a manner similar to that achieved
by asymmetrical rail grinding. Aside from the
structural implications of loading the rail closer
to or further from its vertical axis, greater or
lesser amounts of cant can be beneficial by
altering the point on the tapered wheel tread
that contacts the rail. Rails installed with no
cant create a contact zone or wear strip that is
close to the gauge corner of the rail. In rails
installed with 1:40 or I:20 cant, the contact
patch progresses further from the gauge
corner of the rail. Note that the greater the rail
cant, the smaller the rolling radius of a tapered
wheel, which reduces the self-steering effect.
NO CANT
1:40
( RAIL
RAiL cANT-+fCONTACT
PATOl
! ; 6.32 (0.2490-) FOR IO- RADIUS
f ! 509 (OjW2") FOR 8' RADIUS
POTENTIALLATERAL
I / I
1:40 CANT
. ^^
contact
patch locations measured from the vertical
centerline of the rail. The lateral distance
between the contact patches for 1:40 and 1:20
cants is 6.32 millimeters (0.249 inch) for a rail
head radius of 245 millimeters (10 inches).
This results in a decrease in circumference at
the contact point of 2.0 millimeters (0.8
inches) for a wheel with a 1:20 taper and a
nominal diameter of 711 millimeters (28
inches).
While this may appear to be
insignificant, if the steeper cant is applied to
the inside rail, it will increase the amount of
curvature the wheelset can negotiate without
flanging by a significant
amount.
For
example, a trolley wheelset will flange at a
1,350-meter (4,429-foot) curve radius if both
rails are at 1:40 cant. If the low rail is canted
6 RAIL k C CONTACTPATCH
Figure 4.2.4 illustrates the theoretical
POTENTIALLATERAL
1:20 CANT
Figure 4.2.4
Contact
Rail Cant Design
and Wheel
Cant
differential,
in
effect,
mimics
asymmetrical rail profile grinding. However,
the application of I:20 low rail cant in curved
track can be considered even if asymmetrical
rail grinding is practiced.
The drawback of differential cant is that it
requires that curved track employ different
concrete ties than tangent track. Further, the
4-9
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
4.2.6.1 Gauge for Tangent Track

Light rail transit tracks that are constructed
with conventional tee rails can use standard
1,435millimeter
(56l/2-inch)
track gauge in
both tangent track and through moderate
radius curves without regard to whether
railroad (I,41 5millimeters or 55.7087 inches)
or transit design standards are used for wheel
gauge.
As noted in Section 4.2.2, transit
wheel gauge varies considerably
between
different
LRT operations
although
1,421
millimeters (55.9449 inches) is recommended.
curve ties would have right and left hand

orientations that would have to be carefully
monitored during track construction
In direct
fixation and timber tie ballasted track at least
two types of rail fasteners-l:40
cant and
I:20 cant-would
be required.
The benefits of differential cant, like those of
asymmetric
rail grinding, decline as the
wheels and rail wear. As wheel treads wear
toward a flat or hollow profile and rails wear to
conform with the wheel profile, self-steering
capabilities decline. Once the rail has worn,
the contact patch must be restored to its asdesigned location by asymmetric rail profile
grinding, as it is not practical to modify rail
cant after installation.
Operations
that use the tighter freeplay
standard generally have fewer problems with
truck hunting.
This can be achieved either
through
widening
the wheel
gauge
or
The former
narrowing the track gauge.
approach is generally recommended.
Nonstandard track gauge impacts several aspects
of trackwork
design
and
maintenance
including concrete crosstie design, as well as
maintenance operations (such as tamping and
grinding) undertaken by on-track vehicles.
4.2.5 Track Gauge Variation

On an ideal light rail system, there would be
no need for any variations of the track gauge,
thereby
producing
a completely
uniform
environment for the wheel-rail interface. This
is seldom practical, particularly on systems
that have tight radius curves or employ narrow
flangeway girder rails. When mixed track
gauges are employed, the designer should
consider rail grinding operations and the
adjustment capabilities of state-of-the-art rail
grinding machines as a means of maintaining
a reasonably consistent wheel-rail interface
pattern.
4.2.6 Considerations
for Determination
Appropriate
Gauge
4.2.6.2 Gauge for Curved Track

The threshold radius at which it may be
appropriate to alter the gauge in curved tracks
will vary based on a number of factors related
to the vehicles that operate over the track.
Track gauge on moderately curved track can
normally
be set at the standard
1,435
millimeters (56-112 inches) to accommodate
common wheel gauges. As curves become
sharper, more consideration should be given
to ensure that sufftcient freeplay is provided to
prevent wheelset binding. Factors involved in
this analysis are the radius of curve under
consideration and wheel diameter, shape of
the wheel flange, wheel gauge, and wheel set
(axle) spacing on the light rail vehicle truck.
Systems with mixed fleets and a variety of
wheel and axle configurations must consider
the ramifications associated with each and
of
Determination of appropriate track gauge is

the heart of this section. The sections that
follow detail some of the design conditions
that must be accounted for in gauge design.
A recommended analytical procedure for this
work is defined in Section 4.2 9 herein.
4-10
Track
develop a compromise
requirements.
among
the various
generally discouraged,
always be avoided.
Conventional
wisdom suggests that track
gauge must be widened in curved track;
however this axiom is largely based on
railroad
experience
with large diameter
wheels and long wheelbases.
By contrast,
transit vehicles with small diameter wheels,
short and narrow
flanges,
and short
wheelbase trucks will often require no track
gauge widening in moderately to sharply
curved track.
Transit equipment
may,
therefore, require track gauge widening on
any severely curved track segments.
For
trucks with wheel diameters less than 711
millimeters (28 inches) and axle spacings less
than 1980 millimeters
(6.5 feet), gauge
increase will rarely exceed 3 to 6 millimeters
(l/8 to l/4 inches) even if AAR wheel flanges
are used. Conversely, large diameter wheels,
large flanges, and long wheelbases
will
require gauge widening at appreciably greater
curve radii than for smaller trucks which may
be incompatible with satisfactory operation on
extremely sharp radius curves.
As an
example, light rail vehicles with axle spacings
of 1828 millimeters
(72 inches), wheel
diameters
around
650 millimeters
(25.5
inches) and wheel flange heights less than 20
millimeters
(0.8 inches) typically do not
require any gauge widening for curves with
radii greater than above 35 meters. They can
also negotiate extremely small radius curves
as low as 11 meters (36 feet). Vehicles with
larger trucks are typically limited to curve radii
of at least 25 meters (82 feet} and may require
gauge widening on curves with radii less than
60 meters (197 feet).
Structure
sharp curves
Design
cannot
Even small gauge increases are usually not

possible if railroad contour flanges are used in
combination with narrow flangeway girder rails
because the gauge widening exacerbates the
problem of back-to-back wheel binding.
The appropriate gauge to be used through
curved track must be determined through an
analytical process. One such method is the
development of Filkens-Wharton
Diagrams,
a graphical method developed about 100
years ago by Wm. Wharton, Jr. & Co., Inc. of
Philadelphia.
Details of this method are
described in Section 4.2.9.
Reduction rather than widening of track gauge
in curved track has been considered on
several systems in Europe and at one agency
in North America as a way to improve vehicletracking performance when passing through
reduced radius curves. It is thought that this
could also reduce wheel squeal by limiting
lateral wheel slip, which is believed to be a
main source of such noise.
This is an
interesting
concept
that requires further
research and development to generate actual
performance values. Designers should refer
to current professional journals and papers for
information on this topic that may have been
published subsequent
to printing of this
handbook.
4.27
Flangeways
Once track gauge and wheel gauge have

been selected, flangeway widths must be
designed that permit free passage of the
wheel flange at both special trackwork (e g.,
frog and frog guard rail flangeways) and on
restraining
rails in sharply curved track
sections that require track guarding.
As a guideline, it is recommended
that
systems that have numerous sharp curves
select vehicles with smaller trucks.
While
curves with radii less than 25 meters are not
recommended
and less than 50 meters are
4-11
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
restraining rail bears against the back side of

the inside wheel, guiding it toward the curves
center and reducing the lateral contact force
of the opposite outside wheels flange against
the high rail of the curve
This essentially
divides the lateral force between two contact
surfaces and greatly reduces the rate of
lateral wear on the high rail. It also reduces
the tendency of the truck to assume the shape
of a parallelogram, thereby reducing the angle
of attack between the wheel flange and the
rail. In all cases, the use of restraining rail in
a curve will reduce the tendency of the leading
outside wheel to climb the high rail, thereby
preventing possible derailments.
The following method of checking track gauge

with vehicle truck and wheel profile and
determining the minimum flangeway widths is
derived from a 1909 report by the Committee
on Way Matters of the American Electric
Railway Engineering Association (AEREA).
The primary
concern was to establish
Rangeway widths to suit the wheel flange on
various curves due to the extensive use of
girder rails on the street railways. The method
used was a series of wheel-axle-track
gauge
plots. Similar procedures utilizing computeraided drafting will be used in contemporary
design considering the various tight radius
curves and the various wheel gauges and
wheel profiles available.
The radius threshold for employing guarded

track varies between light rail transit agencies.
Some transit agencies guard any track curves
with radii less than 365 meters (1,200 feet),
while others do not guard track in curves with
radii larger than 91 meters (300 feet). Other
operations relate the need for guard rails to
vehicle speed and the amount of unbalanced
superelevation, hence considering the lateral
portion of the W ratio before deciding that the
expense of guarding is warranted.
A system
with short tramway type wheel flanges will
have a greater need for guarding than one
that uses railroad type wheels, since the
lateral wheel loading will be distributed over a
narrower contact band along the side of the
rail head thereby increasing contact stresses.
In theory, a system whose vehicles are
equipped with a self-steering
radial truck
design will not need guarded track.
In addition to track gauge, flangeway widths in

guarded curves must be considered.
Where
adjustable restraining rail is employed, this is
dealt with fairly easily.
However, girder
groove or girder guard rails cannot be readily
adjusted
and
will
require
special
consideration.
42.8
Guarded
Rails
Curves and Restraining
It is customary in light rail track design to

provide a continuous guard rail or restraining
rail through sharp radius curves.
The
restraining rail provides additional steering
action using the flange of the wheel that is
riding on the inside rail of the curve. By doing
so, the lateral over vertical (L/V) ratio at the
outer wheel can be reduced, which will both
reduce wheel and rail wear and deter possible
derailment.
Curve guarding does not usually terminate at

the point of tangency of a curve; it extends
some distance into the adjacent tangent track.
This distance depends on a number of factors
including the resistance to yaw of the vehicles
suspension
system.
The conservative
designer will extend the restraining rail a
distance equivalent to one truck center into
In a typical LRT installation, the restraining rail

is installed inside the gauge line of the curves
low rail to provide a uniform flangeway,
typically 35 to 50 millimeters (l-3/8
to 2
inches) wide.
The working face of the
4-12
Track
the tangent track, typically about 10 meters

(33 feet). When the curve is spiraled, the
need for guarding typically ends long before
the spiral-to-tangent location In such cases,
curve guarding can usually be terminated a
distance equivalent
to one truck center
beyond the point on the spiral where the
instantaneous
radius matches
the curve
guarding threshold.
As a guideline, a typical threshold

for
consideration of double guarded track is for
curves with radii of 30 to 38 meters (100 to
125 feet).
4.2.8.2
Restraining
Rail Design
Curve guarding on traditional street railway

systems was most frequently achieved using
a girder guard rail section similar to that
illustrated in Figure 52.1 of this Handbook,
particularly for track embedded in pavement.
For open track design, such as ballasted or
direct fixation track, a separate restraining rail
mounted
alongside
the running
rail is
commonly used. The restraining rail itself can
be a machined section of standard tee rail,
which can be mounted either vertically or
horizontally, or a specially rolled steel shape.
For additional information on curve guarding

and vehicle steering, refer to Section 429.1.
Curve Double
Design
and climb the low rail. The outer restraining

rail reduces this derailment potential.
The criteria for beginning curve guarding on

the entry end of the curve is typically the same
as for the exit end, accounting
for the
possibility of occasional reverse running train
As a guideline, the minimum
operation.
guarding should begin at the tangent-to-spiral
location of a spiraled curve so that the vehicle
trucks are straight prior to entering the
guarding threshold spiral curve.
4.2.8.1
Structure
For additional information on various types of

restraining rail designs, refer to Section 5.3 of
this Handbook.
Guarding
Some
transit
agencies
double
guard
extremely sharp curves, placing a guard or
restraining rail adjacent to the high rail as well
as the low rail.
These installations are
designed to counter the tendency of the
second axle on a truck to drift toward the
center of the curve, exacerbating the angle of
attack of the outside wheel on the leading
axle. In a double restraining rail installation,
the restraining rail alongside the inner fail
shifts the leading axle of the truck toward the
center of the curve. The outer restraining rail
then guides the trailing axle away from center,
helping to ensure that the truck is reasonably
square to the track, that both axles are in a
nearly radial orientation, and that the truck
rather
frame
is
rectilinear
than
parallelogrammed.
In superelevated,
sharp
radius track curves where the vehicle speed is
reduced, the vehicle truck may tend to hug
4.2.9
Gauge Determination
Analysis
Requisite
track
gauge
and flangeway
dimensions
in curved
track
must be
determined analytically for each combination
of vehicle truck factors.
To visualize the
positions that the wheel flanges assume with
the rail, a simple and effective graphical
technique was developed
known as the
Filkins-Wharton diagram.
A modified version of the Filkins-Wharton
diagram, referred to herein as the Nytram
Plot, has been developed for this Handbook
taking advantage of the power of computer
aided design and drafting as an analytical tool.
The Nytram Plot illustrations, beginning with
Figure 4.2.5, show horizontal sections of a
4-13
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Modified
133-millimeter
(5.2-inch) AAR-1 B* width
711
millimeters
(28
Wheel Diameter
inches)
Transit: 1428 millimeters
Wheel Gauge
(56.25 inches)
AAR:
1415 millimeters
(55.7087 inches)
Axle Spacings
inches)
inches)
Curve Radii
25 meters (82.0 feet)
* The AAR-1 B wheel profile has been used in
the example for convenience.
Transit profile
wheels with alternate
flanges
may be
considered.
Wheel Profile
selected wheel profile that have been derived

at the gauge line elevation, at the top of rail,
and, where appropriate, at a restraining rail
height 19 millimeters (0.75 inches) above the
top of rail. Figure 4.25 illustrates the method
of establishing the Nytram Plot.
The plot is derived by sectionalizing both the
side view of a wheel of specific diameter with
designated flange height and the wheel profile
in the flange area. Projecting points 0 to 9
from both sections as shown, a horizontal
section or footprint of the wheel can be
developed at various heights above or below
the top of rail elevation.
Using these wheel
sections, the actual vehicle truck axle and
wheel positions can be superimposed
on a
section of curved track to simulate the truck in
a radial and skewed position to determine the
attack angle and wheel clearances.
4.2.9.1
Figure 4.2.6 illustrates a vehicle truck with

transit wheel gauge, 1828-millimeter (72-inch)
axle spacing on a 25-meter (82-foot) radius
track curve positioned on the centerline of
track perpendicular to the radius line. The
vehicle wheel plots are taken from Figure
4.2.5. To establish the gauge lines of the
track a circle is drawn with a 1435 millimeter
(56.5inch) diameter centered at the midpoint
of the axle. The track gauge lines (inside and
outside) are drawn tangent to the diameter of
the circle. The clearance distances from the
wheels to the gauge line of the rails have
been derived using CADD software and
represent the closest point of the wheel plot to
the gauge face of the rail. Note that these
clearances differ (are less than) from the
calculated
wheel
gauge-to-track
gauge
differences of 10 and 3.5 millimeters (0.4 and
0.1 inches) for AAR and transit conditions,
respectively.
Nytram Plot-Truck-Axle-Wheel
Positioning
on Track
Filkins-Wharton diagrams produced manually

were forced to graphically shrink track gauge
and wheelbase in order to depict an entire
truck assembly on a reasonably sized drafting
sheet. CADD provides the track designer with
the ability to develop a full-sized picture of the
entire vehicle truck positioned on a curved
track. These can then either be plotted at
reduced scale or selected portions of the
diagram can be printed at full size.
To illustrate the methods involved, a series of
figures have been developed that illustrate the
fundamentals
of adapting track gauge to
and wheel
contour
and
wheel gauge
positioning of a truck on a segment of curved
track.
To understand the impacts of tight
curvature, and the ramifications of different
wheel gauge standards and axle spacings, the
figures include the following parameters:
4-14
Track
19 (3/4")
Structure
ABOVE
TOP OF RAIL
RESTRAINING
RAIL HEIGHT
711 (28 00')

WHEEL OIAMETER-
DESIGN NOTES:
1
TRACK AND WHEEL RELATED DIMENSIONS

PERTAIN TO RAILWAY WHEEL GAUGE FOR
TRANSIT AND RAILWAY JOINT USE TRACK
(56.50)
2 ALTERNATE WHEEL GAUGE FOR RANSIT

USE ONLY TRACK REDUCING THE TRACK
GAUGE TO WHEEL GAUGE CLEARANCE
IS AN ACCEPTABLE ALTERNATIVE.
3
REFER TO TABLE 2.1 FOR OTHER NA

TRANSlT SYSTEM STANDARDS
4. ALTERNATE WHEEL PROFILE IMPLEMENTING

FLAT WHEEL FLANGE FOR FLANGE BEARING
SPECIAL TRACKWORK IS AN ACCEPTABLE
ALTERNATIVE
SECTIONA
LlO
(0.39373')
CLEARANCE
5. WHEEL PROFILE SHOWN DERIVED FROM

AAR DWG AAR-13 NF3.
figure
4.2.5 Nytram
Plot--Modified
4-15
AAR-1B
Transit
Wheel
Design
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
hi1Nl~Ut.d CLEARANCE POINT

25m CURVE - 0.51 (00201)
150m CURVE - 3 56 (0 1402)
228~1 CURVE - 379 (0.1492)
WHEEL GAUGE
-------.-.-_
___ ___._.__
__._____-.-.-.----
MINIMUM CLEARANCE POINT

25m CURVE - 0.19 (0 0075)
150m CURVE - 347 (01366)
228m CURVE - 3.73 (0 1469)
Figure 4.2.6
Nytram
Plot-1428
Transit
Wheel Gauge, 1828 Axle Spacing,
Similar plots were undertaken with the same

truck parameters for track curves with 150and 228-meter (492- and 748-foot) radii. The
clearance results have been entered on this
figure The intersection angles between the
perpendicular truck and the tangent point to
the track arc have been calculated and are
shown
for the three curve
radii for
comparison.
To determine flangeway widths
and wheel attack angle, truck skewing must
be considered
as described later in this
section.
_._ -.--.-
SEE FIGURE 42.12

FOR FLANGEWAY
DETAILS BY
FILKINS-WHARTON
25-Meter
Curve
similar scenario to the above illustration was

undertaken
to establish
the
clearance
distances for the three specific track curve
radii.
4.2.8 illustrates a vehicle truck with
AAR wheel gauge, 1828 millimeter (72-inch)
axle spacing on a 25-meter (82-foot) radius
track curve positioned on the centerline of
track perpendicular to the radius line. The
vehicle wheel plots are taken from Figure
4.2.5.
A similar scenario to that in Figure
4.2.6 was undertaken
to establish
the
clearance distances at the wheels and the
intersection angle of the truck wheel to the
track arc for the three specific track curve
radii.
Figure

transit wheel gauge, 2300-millimeter
(90.55
inch) axle spacing on a 2%meter (82-foot)
radius track curve positioned on the center of
track perpendicular
to the radius line.
A
4-16
Track
MINIMUM CLEARANCE
25m CURVE - -0 34
150m CURVE - 3.38
228m CURVE r 3 66
POINT
(-O-0134-)
(0 1331)
(0 1441)
1
I
DIAMETER=
STANDARD TRACK
GAUGE
Structure
Design
WHEEL PLOT
FROM FIGURE 4.2 5
-7!-!
mi
2i
si
-1
C
-1428
(56 22)
WHEEL GAUGE
--.___
__
CENTERLINE OF iTRUCK
.-.-._.___._._.__.______
____._,-.-_-_-._.~.-.-.-
* I
_ ___ _ - c -.--
-.-
2"
'X
wiz
-+
DIRECTION OF
TRAVEL
25m CURVE -
20
t
2300 (90.55)
AXLE SPACING
MiNlMUM CLEARANCE
25m CURVE - -0 64
15th CURVE - 3 29
228m CURVE - 3 61
Figure 4.2.7 Nytram
Plot-1428
Transit Wheel Gauge,
r
uI
2300 Axle Spacing,
MINIMUM UEARANCE
POINT
25m CURVE - 7.02 (0.2764)
150m CURVE - 10.05 (0.3957)
228m CURVE - 10.28 (0.4047)~
BACK TO BACK
OF WHEELS
\.:
zi
ei
PSMeter
Curve
HIFFI
. --- PIOT
_FROM FIGURE 4.2.5
90

2% CURVE - 6.67 (0 2626)
150m CURM - 9.98 (0.3929)
228m CURVE - 10.23 (0.4028
4-17
SEE FIGURE 4 2 12
FOR FLANGEWAY
DETAILS BY
FILKINS-WHARTON
DIAGRAM
POINT
(-0 0252)
(0 1295)
(0 1421)
SEE FIGURE 4.2 12

FOR FLANGEWAY
DETAILS BY
25Meter
Curve
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
wide gauge at 1435 millimeters (56.5 inches)

and
1438 millimeters
(56.625
inches),
respectively.
Track gauge was widened
based on potential wheel binding with 2300millimeter (90.55-inch) axle spacing.
The
drawing indicates:
l
The sequence of maneuvers required to
position the traversing truck in the curving
position.

AAR wheel gauge, 2300-millimeter
(90.55
inch) axle spacing on a 25meter
(82-foot)
radius track curve positioned on the center of
track perpendicular to the radius line.
A
similar scenario to that in Figure 4.2.6 was
undertaken
to establish
the clearance
distances at the wheels and the intersection
angle of the truck wheel to the track arc for the
three specific track curve radii.
The above illustrations show the relationships

between the various wheel gauges, axles
centers, curve radii and the standard track
gauge.
Had the wheel to rail clearances
indicated binding or potential binding as in
Figure 4.2.7, the track gauge would have to
be widened.
The above
illustrations
depict
a truck
superimposed on a track curve perpendicular
to the radius line. To simulate the steering
action of the vehicle truck traversing through
the various track curves, a set of drawings
with the same truck parameters as above has
been developed.
The angle of attack of the lead wheel to

the outside running rail.
The measured inside flangeway width to
allow outside wheels to touch or barely
touch the outside running rail if a
restraining rail is considered.
The wheel positions once the truck has
completed the skew and second wheel
contact is made.
For comparison,
Figure 4.2.11 has been
developed using AAR wheel gauge with 1828and 2300-millimeter (72- and 90.55-inch) axle
spacings.
The drawings do not account for either
potential axle swivel that might be permitted
by a flexible primary suspension system at the
journal box or any possible twisting or racking
of the vehicle truck into a parallelogram
configuration.
These are conditions that may
be inherent in each agencys vehicle.
The simulation represents the steering action

of the truck wherein the lead outside wheel on
the truck encounters the curved outside rail
resulting in steering or deflecting of the lead
axle and the truck. Once the outside wheel
initially contacts the rail, the wheel action
causes the lead axle and the truck to rotate
about the contact point seeking a second
wheel flange to rail contact point if the curve
radius is short and/or the primary suspension
of the truck is relatively stiff. Trucks with
moderate self-steering
capability may not
encounter the second contact point.
This type of interface study should be

undertaken with the joint involvement of the
projects vehicle and track designers.
The
drawings do not consider restraining rail;
however, a measured inside rail flangeway
width has been stated on the drawings as a
reference. If restraining rail is required on a
system due to restricted sharp radius track
curves, then a similar scenario should be
undertaken
using the parameters
of the
vehicle truck and track system to establish the
Figure 4.2.10 illustrates two vehicle trucks

with transit wheel gauge, 1828-millimeter (72inch) and 2300-millimeter
(90.55-inch) axle
spacings on a 25-meter (82-foot) radius track
curve. The track gauge is both standard and
4-18
Track
Structure
Design

25m CURVE - 584 (02299)
150m CURVE - 987 (03886)
228m CURE
WHEEL GAUGE
-.-
- -
- -____ _ _
_._I_____.--
-.-.-
DIRECTION OF
ic
2300
AXLE SPACING

25m CURVE - 6 15 (0 2421)
15&n CURVE - 9 79 (0 3854)
228x
CURVE - 10.11 (03980)
flangeway. For extremely sharp radius curves

requiring double restraining rails, the same
procedures are required to establish both
flangeway widths.
Truck rotation about an
initial contact of the inside lead axle wheel on
the restraining rail face is possible if the
designer elects to provide clearance at the
outside lead axle wheel. From the illustrations
it is apparent that the AAR wheel gauge
requires a wider flangeway than the transit
wheel gauge due to basic clearances between
the wheel and the rail. Under these same
conditions, it may be necessary to increase
track gauge so as to provide either wheel
contact on both the restraining rail and the
outside running rail or to provide clearance
between the outside wheel and its running rail.
LSEE
FIGURE 4212
FOR FLANGEWAY
DETAILS BY
FILKINS-WHARTON
DIAGRAM
25-Meter
Curve
corner of the outside rail. This will divide the

lateral steering force between both wheels
and rails. In practice, this condition may not
be immediately obtained, however, rail wear
at either the outside running rail or inside
restraining rail will eventually balance the
curving action.
4.2.9.2
Filkins-Wharton
Analysis
Flangeway
Flangeway widths are a primary concern

when girder rail is to be used in the track
system.
Victor Angerer,
in a paper before the
Keystone Railway Club (1913), said that
...theoretically
for track laid to true ga[u]ge
every combinafion of radius of curve and
wheel base of truck, with a given wheel
f7ange, calls for a specific width of groove to
make fhe inside of the flange of fhe inside
wheel bear against the guard and keep fhe
flange of the outside wheel from grinding
As a guideline, it is recommended
that the
inside restraining rail flangeway width be set
to provide dual wheel contact so that the
inside back face of wheel makes contact with
the restraining rail face while the outside
wheel is simultaneously contacting the gauge
4-l 9
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
RESTRAINING FACE
25m CURM - 39.53 (1 5563)
15Om CURVE - 37.92 (1 4929)
22&n CURVE - 3778 (1 4874)
BACK TO BACK
1428 TRANSIT WHEEL GAUGE 1828 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURVE
-r
INITIAL POlNi OF CONTACT
RESTRAINING FACE
25m CURVE - 43 36 (1 7071:)
15Om CURM - 41.01 (1.6146 )
228m CURVE - 40.94 (1 6118)
1
Dl
SECOND POINT
OF CONTACT
BACK TO BACK
WHEEL GAUGE
-----____
__ ___ _.__-.-.-
ATTACK ANGLE
25m CURVE - 2.8889
150m CURVE - 0 7343
228m CURVE - 05852
1428 TRANSIT WHEEL GAUGE 2300 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURM
-.-.-.
DIRECTION OF
;N;T~AL POINT
OF CONTACT
TRUCK ROTATION SCENARIO

A LEAD AXLE ROTATED ABOUT CENTER OF TRUCK
(POINT -A) TO DETERMINE WHEEL CONTACT WITH
RUNNING RAIL
(INITIAL CONTACT POINT 61).
F. OTHER WHEEL CLEARANCES MAY BE DETERMINED

BY A SIMILAR METHOD
SECOND CONTACT POiNT WAS ESTABLISHED ON

INSIDE REAR AXLE ~-IEEL (POINT DI AGAINST
INSIDE RUNNING RAIL)
Figure 4.2.10
Nytram Plot-Rotated
CLEARANCES EXISTED BETWEEN ALL OTHER

WHEELS AND RAIL HEADS
E USING THIS ROTATED TRUCK POSITION AND

MiEEL NYTRAM PLOT. THE ATTACK ANGLE &
RESTRAINING RAIL CLEARANCES AS NOTED
WERE DETERMINED
8 HOLDING OUTSIDE VMEEL PowoN (POINT 61)

ENTIRE TRUCK ROTATED ABOUT LEAD AXLE
OuTSlDE WnEEL UNTIL CONTACT WAS MADE
AT A SECOND MiEEL LOCATION
c
G TOLERANCES HAVE NOT BEEN INCORPORATED
Truck Position
4-20
on Track, Transit Wheel Gauge
Track
SECOND POINT
OF CONTACT FOR 150m CURVi
FOR 228m CURVE
- -.-
Structure
Design
RESTRAINING FACE
2% CUR.? - 53 10 (2 0906)
15Om CURVE - 51 09 (20114)
228m CURVE - 50 69 (1 9957)
WHEEL GAUGE
_ _ _____.-.- -.-
_.___ _
______
-.--
DIRECTION OF
TRAVEL
228m CURVE - 08680
1415 AAR WHEEL GAUGE -
1828 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURVE
OF CONTACT
RESTRAINING FACE
2% CURVE - 53.74 (2 1156)
150m CURVE - 51 15 (20138-)
228m CURVE - 51 07 (2 0106-)
OF CONTACT FOR 150m CURVE

FOR 228m CURVE
WHEEL GAUGE
- -.-
- ___
i- -.-
__________.-.-----
- _ _ __
ATTACK ANGLE
25m CURVE - 31325
150m CURM - 09768
228m CURVE - 0.8144
1415 AAR WHEEL GAUGE 2300 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURVE
.-
DIRECTION OF
INITIAL POINT
OF CONTACT
TRUCK ROTATION SCENARIO

A LEAD AXLE ROTATED ABOUT CENTER 0; TRUCK
(POINT A) TO DETERMINE WHEEL CONTACT WITH
RUNNING RAIL (INITIAL CONTACT POINT 81)
B HOLDING OUTSIDE WHEEL POSlnON (POINT 81)
ENTIRE TRUCK ROTATED ABOUT LEAD AXLE
OUTSIDE WHEEL UNTIL CONTACT WAS MADE
AT A SECOND WHEEL LOCATION
C SECOND CONTACT POINT WAS ESTABUSHED ON
INSIDE REAR AXLE &EEL (POINT Dl & D2 AGAINST
INSIDE RUNNING RAIL)
Figure 4.2.11
Nytram Plots-Rotated
0. CLEARANCES EXISTED BETWEEN ALL OTHER

WHEELS AND RAIL HEADS
E USING THIS ROTATED TRUCK POSITION AND
WEEL NYTRAM PLOT, THE ATTACK ANGLE &
RESTRAINING RAIL CLEARANCES AS NOTED
WRE DETERMINED
F. OTHER WHEEL CLEARANCES MAY BE DETERMINED
BY A SIMILAR METHOD
G. TOLERANCES HAM
Truck Position
4-21
NOT BEEN INCORPORATED
on Track, AA R Wheel Gauge
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
against
the ga[u]ge-line
and
possibly
mounting it. It is manifestly impracticable to
provide guard rails with such a variety of
grooves or to change the grooves of the rolled
rail. The usual minimum of l-9/16 inch is wide
enough to pass the AREA standard t7anges on
a 6-foot wheel base down to about a 45foot
radius, and the maximum width of l-l l/l6
inches down to about a 35foot radius. On
curves of larger radius the excess width
should
be
compensated
for
by
a
corresponding widening of the ga[u]ge. If the
groove in the rolled rail is too narrow for given
conditions, it must be widened by planing on
the head side of the inside rail, to preserve the
full thickness of the guard, and on the guard
side of the outside rail to preserve the full
head. Unusual wheel bases such as 8 feet or
9 feet may require widening of the gage on
some curves.
This widening of gage is
necessary on/y to bring the guard into play
when the groove is too wide for some one
combination of wheel and flange.
In T-rail
curves the guard is formed of a rolled shaped
guard, or a flat steel bar, bolted to the rail. In
special work and curves in high T-rail track a
girder guardrail is often used.
This is
desirable, as it gives the solid guard in one
piece with the running rail. The idea that a
separate guard can be renewed when it is
worn out does not work out in practice, as it is
usually the case that when the guard is worn
the running rail is also worn to such an extent
that it will soon have to come out a/so.[l
This excerpt provides still timely guidance in
determining
flangeway
requirements,
particularly
for design of restraining
rail
systems and evaluating the possible use of
presently available girder rails.
service. Hence girder rails that were rolled for

streetcar
systems
had
much
smaller
flangeways than those for steam railroads
running on paved track in warehouse and
wharf districts. These smaller flangeways are
more conducive
in areas with pedestrian
traffic although it should be noted that AREMA
standards
for flangeways
through grade
crossings
comply
with American
with
Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements.
The Filkins-Wharton diagram analysis was a
simple and effective technique to establish the
flangeway openings required to suit wheel
flange profiles, track curve radii and axle
spacings. The following describes the FilkinsWharton diagram procedures.[l
Figure 42.12 represents an AAR-IB wheel
placed on 115 RE rail on a 25meter (82-foot)
radius curve. In the illustration, the wheel is
adjacent
to the rail gauge line.
The
wheelbase or distance between axles is 1828
millimeters (72 inches). In the illustration, A-B
is the horizontal cut plane passing through the
AAR-1 B wheel profile (W) resting on the 115
RE rail head (R).
C-D-E represents the plan view of the section
produced by plane A-B similar to the Nytram
plot at top of rail.
The line C-D-E is
perpendicular to the axle.
The length of rail head with a 25-meter
(82-foot) centerline radius adjacent to section
C-D-E is short enough to be considered a
straight line.
The line F-G represents a perpendicular line
to the radius line and forms an intersecting
angle of 2.0368 to the wheel axis C-D-E. All
four wheels will approximately
produce a
similar angle for line F-G using the
combination of curve radius and wheelbase.
The tight wheel-to-track gauge freeplay and

small wheel flange profiles that were common
on traditional street railways required smaller
flangeways than those needed for railroad
4-22
!!I,ii
r
Track
Design
radial to the track curve. Projecting the points

of the wheel in plan along the track arc to line
H-J produces the outline K-L-M.
ii
ii
ii
ii
Outline
K-L-M
represents
the
absolute
minimum groove section required to permit
the vehicle truck AAR-IB wheel profile and
stated wheelbase
to negotiate through the
iF
I,
iI
ii
jj
Structure
OF INSIDE RAIL
stated track curvature.

Additional
flangeway
clearances
will be
required to allow relatively free movement and
to compensate
for tolerances in the wheel
mountings,
wheel profiles and track gauge
tolerances, which results in a wider flangeway
width. Flangeway depth must consider wheel
tread wear and special trackwork
design
features as flange bearing flangeways.
ii
ii
ii
Figure
4.2.13
illustrates
the flangeway
requirements using outline K-L-M considering
both flangeways
using Ri 59N rail and
standard track gauge and AAR wheel gauge.
I
t
I
L,k-2.0368i
Comparing these results with the Nytram plots

and
CADD
system,
similar
flangeway
requirements
are established.
The Nytram
plot CADD method appears to be a more
comprehensive
method
of
establishing
flangeway widths and also provides the angle
of attack and potential clearances.
The above interface issues are basic in
establishing clearances.
Research in wheel
rail interface has introduced sophisticated rail
head grinding procedures
to improve the
tracking patterns of wheels as discussed in
Section 5.2 of this Handbook.
PARAMETERS:
. AAR-1EI MODIFIED NARROW FLANGE WHEEL
l
25 METER TRACK CURVE
l
1828 (72") Wi-IEEL BASE
l
711 (28") WHEEL DIAMETER
. 1415 (557087)
WHEEL GAUGE
Figure 4.2.12 Filkins- Wharton Diagram

Determining
Flangeway
Widths
for
Geometric construction is applied to project

the resulting flange profile on the plane H-J.
Plane H-J is perpendicular to the rail head and
4-23
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
PROJECTED WHEEL PROFILE (K-C-M)

FROM FIGURE 4210
133 (5 l/4')
NOMINAL
43 (1 69") MINIMUM FLANGEWAY WlDTH
MODIFIED
AAR-18 WHEEL
3
*'-FOk
l/8'
FLANGEWAY CLEARANCE TO COMPENSATE
TRA)CK & MEEL GAUGE TOLERANCES
MODIFIED
AAR-1E VMEEL
/
L-1435 (56.5')
TRACK GAUGE
RI-59N
TYPICAL WHEEL RAIL

INTERFERENCE I IXING
TRANSlT & RAllROAD STANDARDS
Figure 4.2.13
4.2.10
Filkins- Wharton
Plot to Establish
Flangeways
employed, then construction tolerances

may have to be less restrictive.
Gauge Implications
of Track
Construction
and Maintenance
Tolerances
l
The most precisely calculated standards for

track gauge and flangeways will be of no
value if the track is not constructed
and
maintained in a manner that ensures that the
intent
is achieved
in practice.
design
constructed
Obviously,
perfectly
and
maintained tracks are not possible, and the
cost of achieving such would probably exceed
the value of benefits that would ensue.
Accordingly, tolerances must be specified that
both protect the design objective as closely as
possible and are practical and achievable with
the materials and equipment available.
Tolerances fall into three categories:

l
Construction Tolerances:
These will be
Track
construction
the
strictest.
tolerances are most often specified with
the use of new materials in mind. If used
materials, such as relay grade rail, are
4-24
Maintenance
Tolerances:
These
represent the acceptable limits of wear for
track
systems
components.
After
components
are worn to this level,
performance
is considered
to be
sufficiently degraded such that wear is
likely to occur at an accelerated rate. At
that time,
maintenance
should
be
performed to restore the system to a
condition as close as possible to its new,
as-constructed state.
Safety Tolerances:
These represent the
levels beyond which the system is unsafe
for operation at a given speed. The FRA
Track Safety Standards are a well-known
example. If track systems are permitted
to degrade
to an unsafe condition,
performance will be unsatisfactory, wear
will be excessive,
and the cost of
restoration to a satisfactory state will be
high.
Track
The reduced differential distance between

track gauge and wheel gauge in transit
systems governs the gauge tolerances for
both. The practice is to have a plus tolerance
for track gauge and a minus tolerance for
wheel gauge.
Table
4.2.1
lists
recommended
track
construction tolerances for the three general
of track
construction.
Track
types
maintenance limits that define allowable wear
and surface conditions are not included, as
they should be developed with the needs of a
particular transit operating agency in mind.
Future updates of this Handbook
should
include guidance on the development
of
maintenance tolerances.
Table 4.2.1 Track Construction

Construction
Ballast
Line)
(Main
Direct
Fixation
Embedded
Ballast
(Yard)
Track and
Guard Rail
Gaugeo
Cross
Level w
Design
tolerance
limits is important
in both the
longitudinal
track surface
(vertical)
and
alignment (horizontal) planes.
Transit track construction tolerances are more

restrictive
than
conventional
railroad
standards
The tolerances apply to the
following track standards-track
gauge, guard
rail gauge, cross level and superelevation,
vertical track alignment and horizontal track
alignment.
The rate of change within the
Type of
Track
Structure
Horizontal
Alignment
DeviatiorW)
+3 +(0.1250")
-0 -(0.0000")
3 (0.125on)
6"
+3 (+O 1250")
-1 (-0.0625")
3 (0.1250")
6"' (0.25"'")
+3 (+0.1250")
-1 (-0.0625")
3 (0.1250")
6s
+4 (+0.3125")
-1 (-0.0625")
4 (0 3125")
Tolerances
Tolerances
Vertical
Alignment
DeviatiorWs)
(0 25""')
9 (0 3750")
Horizontal
Alignment
Variable(@
Tolerances
Vertical
Alignment
Variable@
6'2' (0 25"(2))
15 (0.3937")
15 (0.3937")
6"
(0 25"")
10 (0 3937")
10 (0.3937")
(0~,250"'3"4')
6 (0.2500")
6 (0.2500")
15 (0.5906")
15 (0.5906")
3""W
(0.25"")
Location
9 (0.3750")
NOTES:
(1) Deviation is the allowable construction discrepancy

designed track and the actual constructed track.
between the standard theoretical
(2) Deviation (horizontal) in station platform areas shall be: 0 millimeters (inches) toward
platform, 3 millimeters (0.125 inches) away from platform. Refer to Figure 2.8.1.
(3) Deviation (vertical) in station platform areas shall be: plus 0, minus 6 millimeters (0.2500
inches), or in conformity with latest American with Disabilities Act requirements. Refer to
Figure 2.8.1.
(4) Deviation at top of rail to adjacent embedment
inches) minus 0.
surface shall be plus 6 millimeters (0.2500
(5) Rate of change variations in gauge, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, cross level and
track surface shall be limited to 3 millimeters per 5 meters (0.1250 inches per 16 feet) of
track.
(6) Variable is the allowable construction discrepancy between the overall location of track and
the actual final location of the constructed track. (not to be confused with tolerances
pertaining to track standards). Tracks adjacent to fixed structures shall resort to deviation
limits.
4-25
Light
Rail
Track
Design
4.3 TRACK SUPPORT
Handbook
simply as the amount of deflection in these

springs from a given wheel load. The greater
the lower the modulus.
the deflection,
Conversely, a track with little deflection has a
high modulus, which is generally considered
important
for
ride
quality
and
good
serviceability.
Most of the deflection of the
track structure occurs in the ballast and
subgrade, with only small deflections at the
rail and tie. In order to minimize deflections,
the track designer must focus on a thick
section
of well-compacted
ballast
and
subballast
with a sound dry compacted
subgrade. This is crucial if total deflections for
ballasted track are to be kept under the 6millimeter
(0.2-inch)
limit suggested
by
AREMA.
MODULUS
Railway track acts as a structural element that

undergoes stress and strain as a vehicle
passes over the track. The rail, fastener, tie,
ballast, subballast, and subgrade are each a
component
of the track structure.
Each
undergoes some deflection as the wheel
The analysis of how the track
passes.
structure reacts to wheel loads has been
studied analytically since Professor Talbot
and his committee wrote the first definitive
work on this subject in 1918 for AREMA. This
Handbook provides sufficient information to
design track; for additional reference, the
designer is advised to study either the Talbot
Reports of 1920 or Dr. Hays Railroad
Engineering,
which both provide a more
detailed explanation. g51
In direct fixation track, the track modulus is

much higher because the rail fasteners are
made of neoprene and/or rubber which have a
controlled restricted deflection.
Track modulus is an important subject, with

complex mathematical calculations, to allow
for track analysis as a structure to determine
appropriate rail weights, tie size and spacing,
ballast depth, the need for subballast, and the
need for special subgrade preparation for
Similar
mathematical
ballasted
track.
calculations are undertaken for direct fixation
track.
When rails are embedded

directly into
concrete pavement, the modulus becomes
very high since there is almost no deflection
by rigid pavements.
The following explanation deals with ballasted
track modulus, which can be determined using
the following equation?]
The track modulus factor value (p) established

in this section is a requirement of track design
and one of the variables used in the
calculations
for ballasted track structural
design (Section 4.4.3) and direct fixation track
structure design (Section 4.5.3). In addition,
the track modulus is a parameter found in
many of the calculations used by noise and
vibration engineers when considering wheel
impacts, contact separation and velocities.
4.3.1 Modulus
P = -UY (1)
where: p
U
is the upward pressure per unit

on the ballast or sub-ballast
is a factor determining
the
track stiffness or modulus of
track
is the
vertical
deflection
measured at the base of rail
The modulus of track is defined as the vehicle

load per unit length of rail required to deflect
the rail one unit. An example follows.
of Elasticity[21
Ballasted track is often characterized as a

beam supported on a continuous series of
springs.
Track modulus can be defined
4-26
Track
Assume a wheel load of 9,090 kilograms

(20,000 pounds), converted to an 88,960-N
force, results in a track vertical deflection of
IO millimeters (0.394 inches)
The force
required to deflect the track 25.4 millimeters (1
inch) is:
P = 225,960
4.3.2
c-z
225,960
25.4
LP = 50,761 Ibs. 1
50,761
= 8,896N/mm
= 50,761
_I
PU
8,896
or= 1 I.7 N/mm/mm or N/mm*
Tie Spacing
760
- 30
= 1,692 Ibs./in./in. or psi
Track
In many cases for ballasted track, the

maximum rail deflection is not known, or the
maximum rail deflection is to be estimated
from a given track structure.
The latter
condition
is frequently
encountered
in
ballasted trackwork design.
The force required to deflect the track per unit;

i.e., 1 millimeter (1 inch), with track tie spacing
at 760 millimeters (30 inches) is:
50,761
Ballasted
Determination of track modulus for ballasted

track can be made by strictly following the
Talbot formula shown in Section 4.3.1
lb./in
lin
Track
The stiffness of rail, fastenings and supporting

structure determines the stiffness of track.
The types of track encountered on an LRT
system-ballasted,
direct
fixation
and
embedded-have
a wide range of stiffness
because the components
of each track
are
substructure
dramatically
different.
Ballast provides
the most flexible track
structure support, while embedded track is
usually the stiffest.
4.3.2.1
25.4
P= -
of Various
Design
Types
Expressed (in metric) for a deflection of 1

millimeter, force per unit deflection is thus:
Pu
Track Modulus
Structure
The track
modulus
can be estimated
considering the crosstie size, structure depth
of subballast and ballast, type of ballast rock
or stone, and the crosstie spacing.
As a
guideline, track modulus using 115 RE rail
section can be expected to be in the following
ranges:
l
S-17
N/mm2 (1500 - 2500 psi): 450
millimeters (17.7 inches) depth of subballast and limestone ballast, timber ties
spaced at 550 millimeters (22 inches)
The above calculated force required to deflect

one rail on one tie 1 millimeter with a tie
spacing of 760 millimeters is known as the
modulus of track elasticity.
The above analysis assumes that the rail
deflection is either known, or that maximum
rail deflection is the primary criteria for the
track design.
Developing
a high track
modulus without increasing the weight of rail
will dramatically reduce the bending moments
in the rail.
4-27
17-24
N/mm2 (2500 - 3500 psi): 550
millimeters (21.7 inches) depth of wellcompacted subballast and heavy stone
ballast,
timber ties spaced at 550
N/mm* (3500 - 5000 psi): 600

millimeters (23.6 inches) depth of well24-34
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
spring rates vary widely. Two popular spring

rate ranges are:
15,780 to 24,540
N/mm (90,000 to
140,000 lb./in)
and
compacted subballast and heavy granite

ballast, timber ties spaced
at 520
millimeters (20.5 inches)
Track modulus has been known to vary and
lose stiffness with a change in applied load;
that is, modulus under a 63,500-kilogram (70ton) car may have a lesser value when
measured under a 90,700-kilogram
(loo-ton)
car: A modulus of 13.8 to 17.3 N/mm* (20002500 psi) represents good timber tie ballasted
track. The value can, and most likely will, rise
to 34.6 to 55.3 N/mm* (5000-8000
psi) for
track with concrete cross ties spaced at
610 millimeters (24 inches).
4.3.2.2
Direct Fixation
42,060 to 56,080
320,000 lb./in)
portion
Track
of the direct
to
The following is an example on establishing

the modulus of track elasticity for direct
fixation track:
P
-=
P
S
where
p is the upward pressure
per unit length on the fastener
s is the fastener spacing

u is a factor determining
as the modulus
the track stiffness also known
of track
p is a predetermined
fixation
value based on the spring rate of
the direct fixation fastener
elastomer
as stated above
s is a set value based on the desired
Intermittent seating of the direct fixation

fastener to the concrete or at the layers of
vertical shims below the fastener
Intermittent
seat
(240,000
Fastener spacing, like the spacing of ties in

ballasted track, is a factor in the stiffness of
direct fixation track; a common spacing for
fasteners is 760 millimeters (30 inches). The
spring rate in direct fixation fasteners is often
adjusted to mitigate ground borne vibrations.
This adjustment
then affects the track
modulus.
As stated above, the track stiffness or the

amount of vertical deflection of the track
structure under vehicle load is the basis for
determining
the track support
modulus.
Unlike ballasted track, however, the track
component deflections and elastic properties
of direct fixation track are generally known. In
direct fixation track, the vertical deflection
occurs in the:
Bending of the rail
Elastomer
fastener
N/mm
fastener spacings
- 760 millimeter
P 17,530
-=-=
S
760
seating of the rail at the rail
100,000
Flexure of the direct fixation slab at the

supporting subbase materials for at-grade
installations.
direct fixation
(30 inch) spacing
23,1N/mm/mm
= 3,333 Ibs/in./in.
30
P 52.,580
-== 69.2Nlmmlmm
760
S
The track modulus of direct fixation track is

determined by establishing the nominal spring
rate of the elastomer component of the direct
fixation fastener.
Elastomer vertical static
300,000
30
4-28
= 10,000 Ibs/in/in
Track
Structure
Desian
The above calculated force required to deflect

one rail on one fastener 1 millimeter with a
fastener spacing of 760 millimeters is known
as the modulus of track elasticity.
structural support, or where only elastomeric

side pieces are used, the track modulus is
identical to the direct fixation track analysis
indicated in Section 4.3.2.2.
The track moduli calculated

above are
somewhat understated.
The dynamic spring
rate of most elastomeric direct fixation rail
fasteners are 10 to 50% higher than the static
spring rate. Dynamic spring rate can be most
easily visualized by considering
that the
elastomer has not fully recovered, or is in
various stages of resonance, when the next
wheel load is applied.
It is more difficult to determine the track

modulus
for most embedded
trackwork
designs for the following reasons:
l
The rail is continuously supported.
The
Talbot premise of beam supports on an
elastic foundation does not apply
l
The net effect of the dynamic spring rate is to

increase the effective spring rate and thus the
Most direct fixation rail
track modulus.
fasteners show an increase of 30% in spring
rate during dynamic qualification testing. The
static track moduli calculated above should be
multiplied by 1.30, unless rail fastener test
results indicate that another value is more
appropriate.
4.3.2.3
Embedded
Rail deflections can be extremely small.

The spring rate for the
material
is not known
determined.
rail support
or easily
Track modulus values have very little meaning

for designs where the rail is completely
encased in concrete. Rail deflections, if any,
are in the range of 0.025 millimeters (0.001
inches). The corresponding track modulus is
extremely large, and may even be dependent
on the deflection of the underlying track slab.
The slab deflection is also a minor value.
An embedded
track design with limited
resiliency, such as the rail trough liner design
used in Baltimore and Seattle, is known from
field measurements.
In Baltimore,
the
embedded rail trough features a 2.3-millimeter
(90-mil) thick polyethylene
lining at its
perimeter for stray current mitigation and
limited resiliency. Track measurements taken
under a 53.375-N (12,000-pound) wheel load
indicated that the rail deflected from 0.050 to
0.25 millimeters (0.002 in to 0.010 inches).
This corresponds to an average force per unit
deflection of approximately
356,000 N/mm
(2,000,OOO lb./in).
As the force per unit
deflection and track modulus are identical for
continuously
supported
track, the track
modulus is thus seen to be 356,000 N/mm2
(2,000,OOO psi). Similar track moduli would be
expected from a fully encased high grade
polyurethane fill.
Track
The track modulus for embedded track is very

dependent upon the design of the rail support
and underlying base slab.
For embedded
ballasted
tie track with
pavement overlay, the track modulus is in the
range of ballasted track, 10.4 to 31.1 N/mm2
(1,500 to 4,500 psi). See Section 4.3.2 1 for
If the
ballasted track modulus values.
pavement extends down into the ties, and
especially if the pavement is constructed
underneath
the ties, the track structure
behaves more like a slab. Ballasted track
equations are not valid for the latter case.
Some recent embedded track designs are
essentially direct fixation trackwork installed in
troughs formed in an underlying concrete slab.
Where the infill material provides little or no
4-29
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
where the transit vehicles operate at speeds

greater than typical yard operation,
the
ballasted track will invariably settle and the
stiffer track will incur structural damage. The
passengers
will experience
an abrupt
transition in the form of vertical acceleration,
similar to hitting a bump in the road with a car.
A more complex evaluation would be needed

for a design that uses rigid fastener plate
supports.
For concrete infill, the track
modulus would be extremely large. For an
elastomeric or asphalt infill, the track modulus
would be calculated from the rail deflection
between rigid supports using conventional
structural continuous beam formulas.
Track modulus can vary dramatically among

various
track
types.
Well-maintained
ballasted track, where timber or concrete
crossties are supported by a stipulated depth
of ballast and sub-ballast, can have a track
modulus as low as 17.2 N/mm* (2,500 psi) or
as high as 48.3 N/mm* (7,000 psi). Concrete
crosstie and timber crosstie track with elastic
rail fastenings tend toward the higher end of
the scale. Embedded or direct fixation track,
where a concrete base slab supports the rail,
typically have a higher modulus value and
greater stability as do non-ballasted open
deck bridge structures where the rail is
supported on rigid structural abutments and
spans.
Finally, a rail boot or similar continuous

elastomeric
pad under the rail may be
incorporated
in the embedded
trackwork
design.
Representative track moduli may be estimated
from values for data from one manufacturer
It uses a 50 Durometer elastomer with an 8millimeter (0.3-inch) thickness at the rail base.
The elastomer
is ridged for additional
resiliency.
The track modulus from this
design is approximately 1037 N/mm2 (150,000
psi). An additional elastomer layer is optional
with this design, increasing pad thickness to
The track
19 millimeters (0.75 inches).
modulus is decreased to 207 N/mm* (30,000
psi).L31 Note that the track modulus change is
not a linear function of elastomer thickness in
this case, but varies in accordance
with
elastomer pad shape.
Locations where the track modulus changes

abruptly are prone to vertical alignment
problems, particularly when the predominant
traffic moves from the stiffer to the more
A typical example is the
flexible track.
interface between an open deck bridge and
adjoining ballasted track. Railroads have long
been aware of track alignment problems in
these
areas
and
have attempted
to
compensate
by installing
transition
or
approach ties similar to those shown on
Various
AREMA
Plan
No. 913-52.
arrangements of long-tie installations are used
on different railroads, sometimes with an
incremental decrease in the crosstie spacing.
The objective of these designs is to gradually
stiffen the ballasted track structure over an
extended
distance, thereby reducing the
abrupt change in track stiffness at the bridge
abutment.
Transition tie arrangements have
Where the assumption of a linear elastomeric

pad deflection is reasonable, a rough estimate
of track modulus can be obtained by using a
rail deflection of 15% of the elastomer pad
thickness.r41
4.3.3 Transition
Zone Modulus
4.3.3.1 interface Between Track Types

The interface points between embedded and
ballasted track segments and between direct
fixation and ballasted track are typically
locations of sudden changes in track modulus.
If special design consideration is not given to
such areas, particularly in line segments
4-30
Track
Structure
Design
also been placed at the ends of concrete tie

installations
where
the track
modulus
differential between the concrete and timber
crossties often results in additional surface
maintenance requirements.
Similar conditions
repeatedly occur on transit track installations
between ballasted track and both embedded
and direct fixation track. Special transition
track design must be considered to maintain
an acceptable ride quality at these locations
without
incurring
excessive
maintenance
costs.
wheel load leaving the stiffer track section.

The rail shows a downward
deflection
approximately
1 meter (3 feet) from the
transition point or end of direct fixation or
embedded
concrete slab, with a resulting
upward force approximately 1 meter (3 feet)
into the direct fixation or embedded track
portion.
The rail sine wave disturbs the
ballasted track and attacks the direct fixation
or embedment track installations, leading to
deterioration
of components
and track
conditions.
4.3.3.2 Transition Zone Design Details

In North America, the current standard to
compensate for the track modulus differential
is to use a reinforced concrete transition slab
(also called an approach slab) to support the
ballasted track.
These transition
slabs
(Figure 4.3.1) extend from the end of the
abutment or the embedded
track slab, a
minimum of approximately 6 meters (20 feet)
into the ballasted section. The top of the slab
typically is located 300 millimeters (12 inches)
below the bottom of the ties immediately
adjacent
to the stiffer track, gradually
increasing to 350 millimeters (14 inches) at
the far end of the slab. This design replaces
compressible
subballast
materials with a
stiffer base, while also gradually decreasing
the thickness and compressibility
of the
ballast layer.
Center-to-center
distances
between track crossties are generally reduced
in the transition slab section to provide
additional stability and increase the track
modulus.
However, even a well-designed
transition zone will experience some track
surface
degradation
during
operation,
requiring periodic inspection and resurfacing
to avoid pumping track conditions.
4.3.3.3.1
4.3.3.3 Transition Zone improvements

The action of the rail at a transition zone
represents a sine curve produced by the
4-31
Transition
from
Track to Ballasted
Direct
Track
Fixation
The ballasted track side of the transition zone,

even
with
a transition
slab,
cannot
consistently produce a uniformly varying track
modulus due to the tendency of ballast to
compact, pulverize, and become fouled. Such
deterioration leads to settlement voids, hard
spots,
and pumping
track.
Regular
maintenance
of the ballast is needed to
protect the rails and maintain ride quality.
Fortunately, direct fixation fastener design
continues to evolve and a greater range of
fastener spring rates is now available. A direct
fixation track modulus of 23.1 MPa (3,333 lb/in
per inch of rail), which compares favorably
with standard concrete crosstie installation, is
now possible. Softer direct fixation fasteners
in the zone immediately
adjacent to the
ballasted track transition zone can alleviate
some of the transition problems that are not
addressed by conventional transition slabs.
4.3.3.3.2
Transition from Embedded

to Ballasted Track
Track
Embedded track design continues to evolve

and improve; however, the rail deflections that
would be required to match typical ballasted
track modulus values are difficult to achieve in
embedded
track.
The track sine wave
Light
Rail
Track
Design
PROYlDE CLEATS OR
COURSE SURFACE
TO LOCK IN BALLAST-,
GAUGE LINE OF RAIL

-65
(2 l/2") FLARE
45 (I 314-j
FLANGEWAY
I If
50 (2' MIN.) WHEEL

CLEARANCE DE:PRESSiON 1 / /
IN CONCRETE
II I
Handbook
rTD? OF EMBEDDED
I SECTION
BALLAST
115 RE RAIL
Top OF BALLAST
EMN WITH BOTTOM
OF EMBEDDED TROUGH
TYPICAL TRACK & SLAB INSTALLATION
DETAIL OF BALLASTED SECTION SUPERIMPOSED

ON END SECTION OF EMBEDDED TRACK
115 RE RAIL FLANGEWAY FLARE
OUTLINE OF TRANSInDN
BALLASTED / EMBEDDED TRACK

PLAN \nEW
BALLASTED TRACK INSTALLATION .,
e OF flRST TIE-+
TIE SPACING PER_,.
10 CONCRETE TIES SPACED AT 610 (24') CENTERS

I
406-
I ---
-305
(12)
(16-l'
EYBEDDED TRACK INSTALLATION

FIRST POUR CONCRETE
TOP OF SUBGRAD+
SUBBALLAST BASE PAD
TRANSITION SLAB il
6100 (20'-0')
==-@
TRANSITION BEMEN
BALLASTED TRACK
AND EMBEDDED TRACK INSTALLATIONS
Figure 4.3.1 Track Transition
4-32
Slab
I__..
Track
phenomenon in the rail places extremely high

bending forces in the contained rail within the
embedded track immediately adjacent to the
ballasted-to-embedded
track transition point.
The differential in track modulus between
embedded and ballasted track may be too
large to overcome by introducing a flexible rail
support in the area adjacent to the interface.
4.3.3.3.3
Design
section of the transition rail could also be

continuously varied to provide a stiffness
gradient suitable for the purpose.
The
transition rail of sufficient length (IO
meters (32 feet)) would straddle the
interface point.
Whatever design is developed, it should be
compatible with conventional
concrete or
timber crosstie fastenings,
direct fixation
fasteners, and installation within the selected
embedded track design.
Design Recommendation
The track designer

must eliminate
the
pronounced sine curve action in the rail at the
transition zone. Eliminating or reducing the
sine curve is more achievable in direct fixation
track
than
in embedded
track
using
conventional track components. The following
recommendation applies to both types of track
transition interfaces.
4.4 BALLASTED
TRACK
Ballasted track is the most prevalent track

type used in light rail transit. While ballasted
track
for light rail transit
resembles
conventional railroad track in appearance, its
design may have to contend with issues such
as
electrical
isolation
and
acoustic
attenuation.
In addition, it may be required to
accommodate
continuous welded rail on an
alignment that includes curves far sharper and
grades far steeper than would ever be
encountered on a freight railroad or even a
heavy rail transit route.
The sine curve may be reduced to a functional

level by stiffening the rail in the vertical axis.
A stiffer rail will act as a beam to bridge the
crucial transition point. The beam or stiffer rail
section should project a minimum of 5 meters
(16.4 feet) in each direction from the transition
interface point. Rail stiffening can be achieved
by several means; the following are suggested
procedures:
l
Attachment of a standard joint bar section
to the rail with standard track bolts, spring
washers and heavy duty nuts.
The
standard joint bar section would straddle
the interface point.
l
Structure
Proper design of the roadbed and ballast

elements of the track structure is a key issue.
It is essential in providing an adequate
foundation for the track so as to minimize
future maintenance requirements.
Roadbed
and ballast sections should be designed to
minimize the overall right-of-way width, while
providing a uniform, well-drained foundation
for the track structure.
The use of an inherently stiffer rail section

across the interface.
If the standard
running rail section is 115 RE, the use of
thick-web 115 TW, could provide the
required
bridging effect.
A special
transition
rail section could also be
machined from the European heavy blank
rail section 180/105.
The ends of the
transition rail section could be machined
to provide a pressure weld connection to
the adjacent running rail. The cross
4.4.1
Ballasted
Track Defined
Ballasted track can be described as a track

structure consisting of rail, tie plates or
fastenings,
crossties
and
the
ballastisubballast
bed supported
on a
4-33
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
prepared subgrade. The subgrade may be a

compacted embankment, an excavation or cut
section, or a bridge structure. Ballasted track
is generally the standard for light rail transit
routes that are constructed on an exclusive
right-of-way outside of a central business
district.
l
l
l
l
4.4.2.1
Ballasted track can be constructed to various

depending
on
specific
designs,
the
requirements
of
the
transit
system.
Depending on the portion of the system under
design, a satisfactory ballasted track design
could be anything from timber crossties with
conventional tie plates, cut spikes, and rail
anchors, to concrete crossties with elastic rail
fastenings
that
incorporate
insulating
components.
While the loadings typically are
limited to those of the light rail vehicles only,
heavier loading standards may be required.
Ballasted track may need to accommodate
freight railroad loadings where the track is to
be shared with a commercial railroad.
Light
rail structural loading is one-quarter to onethird of that imposed on freight railroad tracks.
Ballasted Track Rail Section

Track Gauge
and
Refer to Section 4.2 and Chapter 5 of this

Handbook for guidance on determining rail
section,
track
gauge,
and
flangeway
requirements.
4.4.2.2
Ballasted
Rail
Track with Restraining
Refer to Section 4.2.8 herein for determining

requirements, locations and limits for guarding
track with restraining rail. Specific details for
various types of restraining rail designs are
included in Chapter 5.
4.4.2.3
Ballasted
Track Fastening
Refer to Section
5.4 for requirements
concerning crosstie rail fastenings.
Prior to developing a ballasted track design,

several vehicle/track related issues must be
resolved, including: vehicle wheel gauge,
wheel profile, and truck design; the track
gauge and rail section; and the ability of the
vehicle to negotiate the track in a satisfactory
operational manner. These are addressed in
other chapters of this Handbook.
If the track
is to be located in an acoustically sensitive
area, the designer should also consider noise
and vibration
mitigation
measures
as
discussed in Section 4.4.10.
4.4.2 Ballasted
Track gauge
Guarding of curved track and restraining
rail features
Rail fastenings and tie plates
Type of track tie and corresponding track
structure to suit operations
4.4.3
Ballasted
Track Structure
Types
There are generally two standard designs for

track structures on ballasted track.
l
Timber crosstie track
l
Concrete crosstie track
Ballasted track design can result in a suitable
track structure using either timber or concrete
crossties.
The differential track support or
track modulus dictates the quality of the track,
the ride and future maintenance requirements.
Concrete crosstie ballasted track provides a
more reliable track gauge system and tighter
gauge construction tolerances. This results in
a smoother ride with less differential track
settlement.
Track Criteria
To develop
ballasted track design, the
following track components
and standards
must be specified:
l
Rail section
4-34
Track
Chapter
2 documents
the
types
and
magnitudes
of loads transferred
from the
vehicle wheel to the rail.
The rail must
support the vehicle and the resulting loads by
absorbing some of the impact and shock and
transferring some forces back into the vehicle
crosstie/concrete
track structure
stiffness.
Structure
Design
crosstie) and corresponding

resiliency or track support
Rail supported
on timber crossties and a
moderate ballast/subballast section, results in
a track modulus range of 14 to 17 N/mm*
(2,000 to 2,500 lb /inch per inch of rail).
via the wheels. The initial impact absorber on

the vehicle is the elastomer in the resilient
wheels (if used) followed by the primary
suspension springs and then the secondary
suspension
system.
The initial impact
absorber on the track is the rail, specifically
the rail head, followed by the fastening or
supporting system at the rail base and then
the remaining track structure. A resilient rail
seat pad is used to absorb some of the force
on concrete crossties
On timber crossties
the resiliency in the wood itself acts as the
absorber.
All components
absorb
and
distribute a portion of the load.
Resilient
rail base pads are placed on
concrete
crossties,
both to protect
the
concrete tie seat and to impede the impact
and vibration associated with wheel passage
from migrating from the rail to the crosstie.
They are a determining parameter
of track
modulus. A reduced pad height (6 millimeters
or 0.2 inches) and a very stiff elastomer or
polyethylene pad produce a stiff track support
resulting in an increased rail support modulus.
Rail supported on concrete crossties and an
ample ballasffsubballast
section results in a
track modulus range of 31 to 45 N/mm* (4,500
to 6,500 lb/inch per inch of rail).
Many transit systems have used both timber

and concrete crossties.
In some instances,
the main line track on new installations was
constructed
using concrete
crossties with
standard rail insulation.
Regardless of the
type of main line crossties, yard maintenance
facility tracks are generally built with timber
crossties either with or without
insulated
fasteners.
The track structures
design
(degree of resiliency) dictates the amount of
load distributed to the rail and track structure
and the magnitude of force returned to the
wheels and vehicle.
4.4.3.2 Timber Crosstie Ballasted Track

On many light rail transit systems constructed
in the early 198Os, timber crossties were
considered
to provide sufficient
electrical
isolation. Some projects, including those that
reconstructed existing trolley systems, did not
take extraordinary
measures to insulate the
track because other measures were either
taken or in-place to control traction power
stray current. Contemporary designs typically
incorporate
insulation
systems
within the
crosstie rail fastening to control stray currents
close to their source. Typically, non-insulated
rail fastenings
are employed
only in yard
4.4.3.1 Ballasted Track Resilience

Ballasted
track
design
allows
partially
controlled rail deflection in both the vertical
and horizontal directions.
This phenomenon
of rail action contributes to successful track
operation
by distributing
the load to the
surrounding track components and structure.
tracks, where the yard has its own traction

power substation
and stray currents are
unlikely to leave the site.
Non-insulated,
ballasted track may also be used in rights-ofway where there are no parallel utilities.
Specific track design decisions must be made

regarding the type of track structure (timber
4-35
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
4.4.3.2.1
Timber Crosstie Fastening
Conventional
tie plates, cut spikes and rail
anchors
were
sufficient
to establish
a
ballasted
track
installation
using timber
crossties for railroad and earlier contemporary
transit track. However, current track design
generally includes protection of the negative
return rail from stray electrical currents.
Timber crosstie ballasted track consists of the

rail placed on a tie plate or rail fastening
system positioned on the crosstie which is
supported
by a ballast
and subballast
trackbed as shown in Figures 4.4.1 and 4.4.2
for single- and double-track, respectively.
SUBJECT TO SlTE SPECIFICS AND REOUIREMENTS

FOR CATENARY POLES (REFER TO CHAPTER 3)
N BASE OF RAJL AND
SUBBALLAST
LBALLAST DEPTH
SUBBALLAST DEPTH
SUEGRADE
Figure 4.4.1
Ballasted
Single
Track, Tangent
Track (Timber
Crosstie)
2500 (98") NOM. SUBdCT TO SITE

SPECIFICS AND REOUIREMENTS FOR
CATENARY POLES BETWEEN TRACKS
(REFERTO CHAPTER3)
RAIL AND FASTENIN
TIMBEROR CONCRETECROSSTIE
ASE OF RAIL AND
LSUBBALLAST
LBALLAST
DEPTH
Double
Track, Tangent
4-36
Track (Timber
Crosstie)
Track
Although wood is an insulating material, the

use of the timber crosstie to protect against
stray current has proven insufficient over time.
Isolating the rail from the surrounding track
structure is an important design element that
must be quantified to determine the extent of
insulation.
7x9 inches)
for
fastening system.
Structure
mounting
an
Design
insulated
For additional information on timber crossties

refer to Chapter
5.
Determining
timber
crosstie spacing for transit track is discussed
in Section 4.4.4.
Timber crossties are generally insulated at the

base of the tie plate or fastening plate. To
insulate the fastening plate, a high-density
polyethylene
(HDP) pad (a minimum of 12
millimeters (0.5 inches) projecting on all sides
of the plate) is placed between the bottom of
the fastening plate and the top of the tie. To
protect the screw spike holding the fastening
plate
to the tie, a special
insulating
collar/thimble
is positioned
in the anchor
screw spike hole to isolate the screw spike
from the fastening plate. For additional design
information on timber crosstie fastenings, refer
to Chapter 5.
4.4.3.3 Concrete Crosstie Ballasted Track

Concrete crossties are gaining popularity in
light rail transit installations. They have been
shown to have lower life-cycle costs, provide
better ride quality, and incur lower track
surfacing maintenance costs.
The concrete crosstie is typically insulated at
the base of the running rail to protect the
negative return running rail from potential
stray currents.
Concrete crosstie ballasted
track consists of the rail placed in the rail seat
area and the tie supported by a ballast and
subballast trackbed as shown in Figures 4.4.3
and 4.4.4
for single- and double-track,
respectively.
4.4.3.2.2 Timber Cross&s

Timber crossties have been standard for light
rail transit installations for years and continue
to be the standard for older established transit
agencies.
Life-cycle cost comparison
of
timber ties and concrete
ties must be
performed using a uniform baseline, including
all fastenings and hardware needed for each
type of tie. The tie spacing for timber ties is
generally shorter than for concrete ties, which
contributes to this comparison.
Conventional
rail anchors projecting into the ballast section
will create a stray current leakage path,
another issue to be considered in the analysis.
Also, the material cost for timber crossties can
vary widely over a short period of time. That
said, many transit agencies continue to use
timber ties with satisfactory results.
4.4.3.3.1 Concrete Crosstie Fastening

The success of the concrete crosstie is partly
due to the introduction of elastic (spring clip)
fastenings
at the rail hold down location.
Fastening designs have evolved to meet new
requirements
for electrical isolation and to
incorporate an elastic fastening to replace the
spike, bolt and rail anchor.
The insulating barrier must be at the base of
the rail or mounting
surface to provide
electrical
isolation
of the rail from the
surrounding track components.
The insulating
barrier consists of a base rail pad and
insulators for the edges of the rail base. As
shown in Figure 5.4.1 of this handbook, the
rail is fully insulated from the mounting
surface.
Timber crossties for a transit system should

be hardwood (oak, maple, birch), with a cross
section of 175 x 230 millimeters (generally
4-37
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
,-SUPERELEVATION
'i TRACK
;
I
i
100
(4") ILLUSTRATED
.Tcnn
LJVU ,,\38)
BETkiN
-SUBBALLAST
t
I-
SUBGRADE
Figure 4.4.3
Ballasted
Single
NOM
SUBJECT TO SITE SPECIFICS AND REWREMENTS

FOR CATENARY POLESAT SUPERELEVATION
TRACK
BASE OF RkL !iND
SUBBALLAST DEPTH
BALLAST DEPTH
Track, Curved
SUPERELEVATION100 (4")
track (Timber Crosstie)
ILLUSTRATED
TIMBER CR CONCRETECROSSTIE
(CONCRETEILLUSTRATED)
SUBBALLAST DEPTH
/SUBBALLAST
Figure 4.4.4
LBALLAST
DEPTH
Ballasted
Double
Track, Curved
4-38
Track (Timber Crosstie)
Track
The concrete crosstie design includes the

specific type of elastic fastening system
(spring clip) with insulating rail seat pad and
rail base insulators. The elastic clip provides
sufficient toe load to the rail base to act as the
longitudinal
rail anchor,
eliminating
the
conventional rail anchors used with timber
crossties.
4.4.3.3.2
Concrete
Crosstie
Crossties
Spacing
Ballasted track structure design is dependent

on the vehicle wheel load, a predetermined
track modulus target or standard, the selected
rail section, the type and size of tie, and the
depths of ballast and subballast.
These are
combined to meet the criteria established by
AREMA
for both ballast
pressure
and
subgrade pressure.
Design Calculations:
Tie
Seat
where
Load
= p
P = axle
a. P [Timoshenk
o 19291
a = tie spacing
load
(variable)
= 107
kN (24
kips)
- twice
the
wheel
load
l/A
P=(-&1
Ballasted track designs can meet or exceed

the AREMA pressure requirements by altering
the variable parameters (track modulus, tie
spacing and ballast depth) as needed. As a
guideline the following sample calculations
are provided for design of ballasted track with
timber or concrete crossties.
Design
computations
based
Timoshenko,
Hay formulas
Design
guidelines assume the following typical light

rail transit installation data:
Rail Section
115 RE
Vehicle Load per
5,400
kilograms
Wheel
(12,000 pounds)
Track Modulus
- Timber Tie
17.2 N/mm* (2,500
Ibs/inch per inch of
rail)
- Concrete Tie
34.5 N/mm* (5,000
Ibs/inch per inch of
rail)
Desired Load
Transfer to
Ballast
~0.45 MPa (65 psi)
- Sub Grade
~0.14 MPa (20 psi)
Ballast Depth
255 millimeters (10
inches)
Subballast Depth
200 millimeters
(8
inches)
Tie Sizes
- Timber
180 x 230 x 2590
millimeters (7 x 9 x
102 inches)
- Concrete
190 x 250 x 2515
(7.5 x 10 x 99
inches)
The standard transit concrete crosstie is

generally 255 millimeters (10 inches) wide
and 2515 millimeters (99 inches) long at the
base of tie. The tie is tapered, with a 190millimeter (7.5-inch) height at the rail seat and
a 165-millimeter (6.5-inch) height at the center
of the tie. The ties are prestressed, precast
concrete produced in a factory with climate
controls for the curing process. For additional
information on concrete crossties refer to
Chapter 5.
4.4.4
Structure
Timber Tie: u = track modulus

= 17.2 N/mm* (2500
per inch of rail)
Concrete Tie:
on Talbot,
and other
E = modulus
4-39
lb/inch
u = track modulus
= 34.5 N/mm* (5000 lb/
inch per inch of rail)
of steel
= 206,800 N/mm*
(30 x 1 O6 psi)
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
4.4.4.1
I = modulus of inertia
= 27.4 x IO6 mm4 (65.9 in)
The above calculations

spacing and affect the
vertical track stiffness.
can also affect crosstie
Tie Bearing Area = tie width x tie length

Timber = 230 x 2590(9 x 102)
= 595700squaremm
The horizontal track alignment for a light rail

transit system can be far more severe than for
other railway systems, such as rapid transit,
commuter rail, or freight railroads. Ballasted
track is far more difficult to construct and
maintain in reduced tight radius curves.
Special consideration
should be given to
increasing lateral track stability by reducing
the crosstie spacing.
= 628750 square mm (990 sq.in)
Subballast
, .23
determine the crosstie

track modulus or the
Lateral track stability
spacing.
(918 sq. in.)
Concrete =250 x 2515 (IO x 99)
Ballast Load =
Crosstie Spacing-Tangent/
Curved Track
Tie Seat Load
[Hay, 9821
2/3Tie Bearing Area
Load at Tie Centerline
Seat Load
x Tie Width
Tie Bearing Area I
[Talbot 19191
Ballast Depth
Lateral track stability is provided by ballast

friction contact along the sides and bottom of
the tie and by the end area of tie. The end
area of the tie provides a calculated degree of
Increasing
the ballast
lateral stability.
shoulder
width beyond a 450-millimeter
(18-inch) limit provides no increase in stability.
Reducing crosstie spacing, thereby increasing
the number of ties, can increase lateral track
stability.
Timber crossties have proven to
provide greater lateral stability than concrete
ties based on the theory that the ballasts
sharp edges penetrate
the tie surfaces
increasing the friction and locking the tie in
position. On the other hand, the concrete ties
increased weight also provides increased
lateral stability.
Subgrade Load at the Tie Centerline is similar

to subballast load calculation except depth
includes ballast and subballast heights.
Using the above formulas,
Table
4.4.1
presents
the values
according
to the
parameters.
Tie spacing can be determined from this table.
Neither the AREMA recommended maximum
ballast pressure 0.45 MPa (65 psi) nor the
maximum subgrade pressure 0.14 MPa (20
psi) should be exceeded.
are
The
preceding
computations
representative of the calculations needed to
design the ballasted track structure.
The
parameters that alter the actual design are
predetermined
track modulus; type of tie
(timber or concrete); depth of ballast and
subballast; and tie spacing. The challenge for
the engineer is to combine these parameters
to achieve the best life-cycle costs and lowest
maintenance costs.
To improve the lateral stability of concrete

crossties,
some tie manufacturers
have
developed a serrated or scalloped side tie
surface
increasing
the ballasts
locking
capabilities.
Based on the above calculations, the track
designer
should
consider
reducing
the
spacing
by
75
conventional
crosstie
4-40
Table 4.4.1
Ballasted
Track Design Parameters
Tie-Ballast
Tie
Track
Modulus
Spacing
Tie Seat Load

(mm)
230 (9)
kN (kips)
(11 4)
Tie
Subballast
Load
255 (IO)
250 (lO)Tie
Load
Ballast
Subgade
Load
Ballast +
Subballast
455(18")
MPa
(Psi)
MPa
(Psi)
MPa
(Psi)
MPa
(psi)
0.127
185
n.a.
n a.
0 094
13.7
0096
76
221
n.a.
n a.
0113
164
0.115
9 1
17.2 N/mm2
(2500 lb./in/in)
510(20")
50.7
p=O 00093/mm
610 (24")
60.7 (13.6)
0152
685(27")
68.2
0.171
249
n.a.
na
0127
18.5
0.130
10.3
760(30")
75.6 (17 0)
0.189
276
n.a.
n a.
0.141
20.5
0.144
11.4
810 (32")
80.6 (18.1)
0.202
29.4
n.a.
n.a.
0.150
21.8
0.153
12.1
34.5Nlmm2
(5000 lb Win)
510 (20")
60.0 (13.5)
n.a
n.a.
0142
204
0.115
16.8
0.115
93
p=O.OOll
610 (24")
71 8(161)
n.a
n.a
0.170
243
0.138
200
0138
11.1
685(27")
80.6(181)
n a.
n a
0.191
27.3
0155
22.5
0155
12.5
760(30")
895(201)
na
n.a
0212
30.3
0172
250
0172
13.9
810 (32")
95.3 (21.4)
n.a.
n.a.
0.226
32.3
0.183
26.6
0.183
14.8
(0 0237lin)
/mm
(15.3)
(0.0282h)
Note:
MPa=Nlmm2
ties are expensive to design, fabricate and

install. They have not proven to be costeffective in light rail applications.
millimeters (3 inches) for track curves with

radii less than 300 meters (1000 feet).
To improve lateral stability, especially with
conventional
smooth concrete ties, a tie
anchor can be bolted to the tie. The tie
anchor is a blade penetrating below the tie
into the ballast bed providing additional lateral
Tie anchors can be attached to
stability.
alternate ties in the track curve.
4.4.5 Special Trackwork
Turnout
standards
vary among
transit
agencies.
Therefore various concrete tie
geometric layouts and designs would be
required to meet the requirements
of each
agency. Standardization and simplicity in tie
design is required to allow the transit industry
to develop a uniform economical standard
concrete switch tie set for various turnout
sizes.
Switch Ties
The current tendency of transit agencies is to

use standard timber hardwood ties for special
trackwork turnout, crossover and double
crossover arrangements for both main line
and maintenance facility and storage yard
installations. Transit agencies using concrete
crossties on main line and yard installations
also use timber special trackwork ties in both
locations.
The present standard for timber switch ties is

hardwood,
predominantly
oak.
Tropical
hardwood ties such as Bonzai, lecki and
Azobe have been introduced to the North
American
railway
industry
with mixed
success.
Concrete switch ties have been developed by

the railroad industry to reduce maintenance
on heavy haul freight lines. Concrete switch
The reader is cautioned about using tropical

woods.
Thorough research on the specific
wood selected, and the origin of the wood, is
4.4.5.1
4-41
Timber
Switch Ties
Light
Rail
recommended
undertaken.
Track
Design
before
Handbook
procurement
is
tie arrangement.
Tie spacings are increased
to allow for a wider than conventional tie crib
opening using a special trackwork concrete tie
approximately
250 millimeters (I 0 inches)
wide.
The standard timber switch tie is generally a

180- x 230-millimeter (7- x g-inch) section with
various
lengths
from 2,750
to 4,880
millimeters (9 to 16 feet).
The lengths of the concrete switch ties will

conform to the special trackwork layout, with a
possible specific length for each tie location in
lieu of groups of specific tie lengths.
The
design will include the requirements
for
mounting
special trackwork
fastenings
in
switches, frogs and guard rails. The designer
and/or tie manufacturer will choose between
embedded shoulders or single rail fasteners
through the remaining portions of the special
trackwork layout.
Extra long timber switch ties, up to 6,710

millimeters (22 feet) and longer may be
required to accommodate
special trackwork
locations, such as crossovers and double
crossovers where the track centers remain at
the standard
width of 3,810 to 4,420
millimeters (12.5 to 14.5 feet).
Similar to a main line timber crosstie
installation, an insulated switch plate design
may be required to protect against stray
current leakage.
Insulated switch and frog
plates are similar in design to main line timber
The concern for stray current
crossties.
control has occasionally
resulted in the
installation of special trackwork direct fixation
fasteners on timber switch ties. However, this
application is a relatively new design concept
for transit agencies and is proving to be
extremely expensive.
Similar to timber switch tie installations, an

insulated special trackwork fastening may be
required to control stray current on concrete
switch ties. Insulated switch, frog and guard
rail fastening
plates may be similar to
conventional
timber crosstie
installations.
Standard concrete tie insulated rail fastenings
are acceptable where individual rails are
installed on the switch timber.
For more information on special trackwork
timber and concrete switch ties refer to
Chapter 5 of this handbook.

Concrete switch tie standard designs for
special trackwork installations are evolving.
The railroad industry and transit, commuter
and heavy metro rail systems have been
experimenting
and standardizing
concrete
switch ties for special trackwork. The special
trackwork concrete ties used to date include
the larger size turnouts, No. 15 and 20, and
high-speed turnouts. Light rail transit systems
generally restrict turnout size to No. 8 or 10;
therefore a minimum of design layout has
occurred to accommodate these sizes.
4.4.6
Ballast and Subballast
Ballast is an integral material in the support of

the track structure. The quality of the ballast
material has a direct relationship to the overall
performance of the track structures.
The quality, size and type of ballast material
used can improve the performance of the
track substructure by providing an increased
strength to the track system.
Standard concrete switch tie designs and

layouts will be different from the timber switch
4-42
Track
Ballast
Depth
The variables to be considered in establishing

the track structure section are discussed
above and listed in Table 4.4.1. Additional
variables include the track gauge, depth of tie,
and superelevation of track curves. Figures
4.4.1 and 4 4.2 illustrate and quantify the
general desired design section for ballasted
track.
The depth of ballast from the bottom of the tie
to the top of the subballast can be determined
aforementioned
the
undertaking
by
calculations.
The depth of subballast below
the ballast to the top of the subgrade can be
determined from these calculations.
4.4.6.3
Subballast
Depth and Width
Subballast is the lower or base portion of the

ballast bed located between the base of the
ballast section and the top of the road bed
subgrade.
Subballast is generally a pit run
material with smaller, well-graded
crushed
stone. The subballast acts as a barrier filter
separating
the ballast section
from the
embankment road bed materials. It provides
both separation and support for the ballast.
For tangent track, the minimum depth of

ballast is generally
measured
from the
underside of the tie to the top of subballast at
For curved
the centerline of each rail.
superelevated
track, the depth of ballast is
measured below the low rail with respect for
the top of subballast at the centerline of track
The depth of the subballast below the ballast

can be determined
using the preceding
calculations.
The ballast and subballast are
integral parts of the track structure.
Track
design considers the thickness of both in the
AREMA
calculations
to
meet
recommendations
of 0.14 MPa (20 psi)
uniform pressure transmitted to the subgrade.
On tangent multiple track installations, the

minimum ballast depth is measured under the
rail nearest to the crown of the subballast
section as shown in Figure 4.4.3. On curved
multiple track installations it is measured on
each track under the inside rail closest to
radius point as shown in Figure 4.4.4.
4.4.6.2
Design
shoulder resists lateral track movement and

keeps the track from buckling when the rail is
in compression.
Continuous
welded rail
requires a 300-millimeter
(12-inch) ballast
shoulder measured from the end of the tie to
the top of ballast shoulder slope. The top
slope of the ballast shoulder should be parallel
to the top of the tie. The side slope of the
ballast shoulder should have a maximum
slope of 1:2. As mentioned in Section 4.4.4.1,
the ballast shoulder may be increased in
sharp radius curved track to provide additional
lateral stability. The subballast and subgrade
sections
must be increased
to provide
sufficient support width if the ballast shoulders
are increased.
Concrete
crosstie
installations
normally
require a higher quality ballast, a larger
gradation of ballast, and a more restrictive
selection of rock aggregate.
For additional
information
on ballast material
refer to
Chapter 5.
4.4.6.1
Structure
The width of the subballast

section is
determined by the width of the road bed
embankment
subgrade.
The subballast
should
extend
the full width
of the
embankment capping the top surface.
Ballast Width
The width of ballast section is determined by

the rail installation and tie length. The ballast
4-43
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
4.4.7
The subballast layer acts as a drainage layer

for the subgrade surface allowing water to
flow to the embankment shoulders.
Track Drainage
The success of any ballasted track design

depends directly on the efficiency of the
ballasted track to drain well and proper
maintenance of the drainage system
This
includes the exposed ballast and subballast
bed that cast off surface runoff and the
designed parallel drainage system, ditch and
culvert piping that carry the runoff.
The end slope of the subballast generally

conforms to the slope of the embankment.
To allow for an eventual ballast slope slough
and provide walking or flat area for track
maintenance,
the subballast
width should
project beyond the toe of the ballast slope a
minimum of 600 millimeters (24 inches).
Drainage of the embankment

or excavated
sections is of utmost importance.
Ballasted
track, by the nature of its design, is
susceptible to contamination from both track
traffic and the surrounding environment.
Dirt,
debris and fines are either dropped or blown
onto the trackway, contaminating the ballast
section. This contamination creates a nonporous or slow draining ballast bed, which can
lead to eventual deterioration and breakdown
of the track structure.
To support embankment
materials
under
special trackwork installations and at-grade
road crossings, a geotextile (filter fabric) may
be used at selected locations.
The track
designer should review supplier information
on geotextiles and consider the application of
0.54 kilogram/m2 (16 ounce/yd2) geotextiles
and double layers under special trackwork
locations. Geogrid and geoweb material may
be used to stabilize and strengthen
the
subgrade materials below turnouts and at
grade crossings.
These materials augment
the function of subballast.
4.4.6.4
Ballasted
Many conventional methods are practiced to

maintain ballasted track structure.
These
include
ballast
shoulder
cleaning
and
complete track undercutting
to keep the
ballast bed clean to ensure it drains well.
Subgrade
The subgrade is the finished embankment

surface of the roadbed below the sub-ballast,
which supports the loads transmitted through
the rails, ties, and ballast.
The designer
should analyze the subgrade to determine
whether it has both uniform stability and the
strength to carry the expected track loadings.
AREMA recommends
that, for most soils,
pressure on subgrade be lower than 0.14 MPa
(20 psi) to maintain subgrade
integrity.
Uniformity is important because differential
settlement, rather than total settlement, leads
to unsatisfactory track alignment. The use of
geotextiles or geogrids between the subgrade
and subballast can be advantageous
under
some conditions.
4.4.8 Stray Current

Requirements
Protection
Stray current corrosion protection is a subject

described more fully in Chapter 8 of this
handbook.
The track structure design
requires an electrical barrier to insulate the
rail. Ballasted track generally provides this
electrical barrier at the rail fastenings.
An
insulating resilient material with a specified
bulk resistivity provides the barrier at the base
of fastening plate on timber ties and at the rail
base on concrete ties.
For more information on electrical barriers at
fastenings refer to Chapter 5.
4-44
Track
4.4.9
Ballasted
Design
facilities to provide for special treatments

Cost-effective designs consider the type of
vehicle involved, the soft primary suspensions
that produce ideal levels of ground vibration
above 30 Hz, or the stiff primary suspensions
that produce levels that peak at 22 Hz. Noise
and vibration control is a system problem that
involves the track and the vehicle wheels and
trucks
Familiarization with the contents of
Chapter 9 herein, along with American Public
Transit Association (APTA) and/or Federal
Transit Administration (FTA) requirements for
wayside and groundborne
noise limits, is
essential to sound designs that limit noise and
vibration.
Special Trackwork
The ballasted special trackwork portion of any

transit system will require specific designs to
match the size of the components.
Ballasted special trackwork in contemporary
light rail transit systems generally consists of
turnouts paired to act as single crossovers for
track
alternate
main
line
operations.
and
alignment
Operating
requirements
restrictions may dictate the installation of a
double crossover consisting of four turnouts
and a crossing (diamond). Turnouts are used
at the ends of transitions from double track to
single track installations as well as at junction
points to alternate transit routes and accesses
to sidings
4.4.11
Transit
Signal Work
Although the design of the signal control

system will not greatly impact ballasted track
design, it can affect specific parts of the
design.
The prime example
of this
interrelationship is the need for the insulated
joints in the running rails to accommodate
train control requirements.
Such joints are
normally
required at the extremities
of
interlockings, each end of station platforms,
grade crossings, within individual turnouts and
crossovers,
and at other locations to be
determined by the train control requirements.
Turnouts in the maintenance

facility and
storage yard areas are generally positioned to
develop a ladder track arrangement
that
provides access to a group of parallel tracks
For additional
with specific track centers
information on ballasted special trackwork
design, refer to Chapter 6.
4.4.10
Structure
Noise and Vibration
The vehicle traveling over the track produces

noise and vibration. The impact of this noise
and vibration may become significant for
quiet
alignments
through
otherwise
neighborhoods.
Track
design
has a
significant effect on both noise and wheel
squeal, however, to be effective, the control
system must consider the wheel and the track
as a unit. Chapter 9 provides guidelines with
respect to trackwork design for low noise and
vibration and introduces various concepts in
noise and vibration control.
The light rail transit signaling system may

include track circuit signal systems within
Impedance
bond
ballasted track zones.
installation requirements must be coordinated
within the track structure design.
Insulated
joints at limits of track circuits are to be
opposite and within 1.2 meters (4 feet) of each
other to facilitate underground
ducting and
traction crossbonding.
work, refer to Chapter 10
Trackwork design can have a substantial

effect upon wayside noise and vibration and
should be considered early in the design of
4-45
on transit
signal
Light
Rail
Track
4.4.12
Traction
Design
Handbook
Runoff from the street must be directed away

from the track, and the track must be
designed with perforated pipe drains to keep
the trackbed dry. Additional stabilization of
the subgrade with geo-synthetic
materials
may be very cost-effective in reducing track
Failure to provide good
surfacing costs
drainage will result in pumping track and
broken pavements.
Power
Traction power requirements impact the track

design at two specific locations: the catenary
pole locations in relation to centerline of track
and the running rail, which is used as the
negative return for the traction power system.
The catenary poles impact the track centerline
distance when they are located between the
tracks. Clearance distances pertinent to the
transit vehicle as well as any other potential
users of the track (i e., freight or track
maintenance vehicles) must be considered by
the track and catenary designers. isolation of
the running rail used as the negative return
conduit is essential for both timber and
concrete crosstie ballasted track.
refer to Chapter 11.
on traction
The use of embedded

track at grade
crossings is proving to be a very reliable
crossing design. Embedded track provides a
virtually maintenance-free
installation with
proper insulating properties for the rail and a
relatively smooth road crossing surface for
automobiles.
Coordination with the street design is also
necessary to match the normally crowned
street cross section with the level grade
crossing.
power
4.4.13 Grade Crossings
Track designers must develop an acceptable

interface wherever streets cross the light rail
tracks at grade.
Grade crossings are
manufactured as prefabricated units of rubber,
concrete, or wood. These prefabricated units
are designed to resist leakage of DC current,
as well as signal current. They are designed
to be easily installed and replaced during
maintenance of the track. All grade crossings
must create a flangeway between the street
paving and the rail.
4.5 DIRECT FIXATION TRACK

(BALLASTLESS
OPEN TRACK)
4.5.1
Direct Fixation
Track Defined
Direct fixation track is a ballastless track

structure in which the rail is mounted on direct
fixation fasteners that are attached to a
concrete deck, slab, or invert. Direct fixation
track is the standard method of construction
for tracks on aerial structures and in tunnels.
It is also used for construction of at-grade
track under unusual circumstances, such as
when there is a short segment of at-grade
track between two direct fixation bridge decks.
Some grade crossings are created by using

flangeway timbers along the rails to form the
flangeway and paving the remainder of the
area with asphalt. Although this style is not as
durable as the prefabricated units, it may be
quite adequate in storage and maintenance
facilities.
Prior to designing direct fixation track, several

vehicle/track related issues must be resolved.
These issues relate to the vehicles wheel
gauge, wheel profile, and truck design; the
track gauge and rail section; and the
The most critical design element of all grade

crossings is adequate drainage for the track.
4-46
Track
compatibility
geometry.
important.
4.5.2
of the vehicle with the guideway

Acoustic
Direct Fixation
concerns
Design
4.5.2.4 Track Modulus

Direct fixation track is typically much stiffer
vertically than ballasted track.
This rigidity
must be attenuated
if transmission of noise
Careful
and vibration is to be avoided.
selection of an appropriate track modulus and
specification of direct fixation rail fasteners
with an appropriate spring rate must be made
in accordance with Section 4.3 and Chapter 9
of this handbook.
are also very
Track Criteria
To develop direct fixation track design, the

and standards
must be specified:
Rail Section
Track Gauge
Guarding
rail
Structure
4.5.3 Direct Fixation
Track Structure
Types
of curved track and restraining

Direct fixation track construction includes the
following designs
l
Encased Ties This is the original form for
direct fixation track, dating to the late 19th
century.
Timber crosstie track was
constructed in skeleton form and then the
bottoms of the crossties were encased in
concrete. Because the concrete held the
track rigidly to gauge, typically only every
fourth or fifth tie would be a full-length
crosstie. Intermediate ties would be short
tie blocks that support only a single rail.
Such designs incorporated
no specific
measures to control stray traction power
currents
or
groundborne
vibrations.
Except in very limited circumstances for
maintenance
of
existing
systems,
encased timber tie track is no longer
constructed.
The type of direct fixation track structure

to be used (booted tie or a direct fixation
rail fastener type)
If direct fixation rail fastener construction
is selected, the type of fastener and
supporting structure to be employedcementitious
grout
pad or concrete
reinforced plinth.
4.5.2.1
Direct Fixation Track Rail Section

and Track Gauge
Refer to Section 4.2 and Chapter 5 of this
Handbook for determination
of rail section,
track gauge and flangeway requirements.
4.5.2.2
Direct Fixation Track with

Restraining
Rail
Refer to Section 4.2.8 to determine
and
limits
requirements,
locations,
guarding track with restraining
the
for
rail.
4.5.2.3 Direct Fixation Track Fastener

Refer to Chapter 5, Section 5 4 to determine
the requirements for specifying direct fixation
fasteners.
4-47
Cemetitious Grout Pads:

This form of
direct
fixation
track
mounts
each
individual rail fastener on an individual
grout pad, thereby
guaranteeing
the
construction
tolerances
in the final
elevation of the concrete trackbed.
The
fasteners are held in place by anchor
bolts that are cored into the concrete
base.
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
Concrete Plinths:
This form of direct
fixation track forms rectilinear concrete
blocks or plinths that support several
direct fixation fasteners under a single rail.
The plinths can vary in length and
typically support between three and six
fasteners, although longer plinths support
up to twelve
fasteners.
Periodic
interruptions of the plinths allow cross
track drainage into a trough that is
typically
located
along
the
track
centerline.
4.5.3.1
Cementitious
Grout Pads
Cementitious grout pad track designs include:

l
Short cementitious grout pads of sufficient
width to allow for installation of the direct
fixation fastener that is formed and poured
directly to the concrete deck or invert. A
typical configuration is as shown at the left
rail in Figure 4.5.1.
l
Ballastless Booted Tie Blocks: This form

of direct fixation track is an updated
version of the encased tie design.
It
typically incorporates two block concrete
crossties that have an elastomeric boot
on the bottom of each tie that provides
electrical and acoustic isolation between
the ties and the encasing concrete.
As
with the earlier design, most ties would be
single blocks with no crosstie member
between the rails.
Short cementitious grout pads mounted

within a recessed opening in the concrete
deck or invert, as shown at the right rail in
Figure 4.51.
Grout pads typically support only a single

fastener, although current practice is to build
longer pads to support at least four fasteners.
The longer design provides improved integrity
of the pads and ease of maintenance if a
fastener is replaced or repositioned.
Cementitious
Grout Pad on
Concrete Surface
The short cementitious grout pad design acts
as a leveling course between the underside of
the direct fixation fastener and the concrete
deck or invert surface.
The anchor bolt
inserts are set in the deck slab to provide the
structural integrity of the fasteners.
4.5.3.1.1
Variations of the above designs can be found,

such as direct fixation rail fasteners bolted
directly to structural steel bridge members.
Such arrangements are generally in response
to a site-specific design issue and will not be
addressed in this handbook.
DIRECTFIXAnONFASTENER
WTH OR WTHCUT CANT
OlRECTFlXAiW F
WHORWITHCUTCAN
MtCHMI EaT INSERT
ANcnoR 8aT INSERT
Figure 4.5.1
Cementitious
Grout Pad Design-Direct

4-48
Fixation
Track
Track
4.5.3.1.2
This design requires core drilling of the

concrete invert to grout the anchor bolt in
place The drilling can be undertaken either
prior to or after grout pad installation. The bolt
assemblies are permanently anchored with an
epoxy grout material.
Structure
Cementitious
Grout
Concrete Recess
Design
Pad
in
Some transit systems have experienced grout

pad delamination, because cementitious grout
pads have a tendency to curl or pull away
from the parent concrete deck or invert during
curing and aging.
It is possible to achieve
better bonding with less likelihood of such
failures by forming the grout pad within
recesses in the concrete invert. The recessed
design provides additional deck or invert
bonding by locking the four sides of the pad.
The cementitious grout pad can be formed

and poured before the rail fastener is placed;
however it may be difficult to achieve an
absolutely level and true top surface for the
rail fastener.
If the grout pad is slightly too
high, grinding may be required. If it is too low,
it may be necessary to place metallic or
elastomeric shims beneath the rail fasteners.
The anchor bolt assembly drilling can be

undertaken either prior to or after grout pad
installation. Prior drilling is recommended as
it results in less disturbance to the bond of the
cast-in-place grout pad.
Alternatively
the assembled
rail and rail
fasteners can be suspended at proper grade
and alignment above the concrete invert and
the grout either pumped or =dry packed under
the rail fastener.
If this approach, known as
top down installation, is taken, it is essential
to ensure that the grout does not enter the
recesses on the bottom surface of the direct
fixation rail fastener which could compromise
the rail fastener spring rate. This can be
avoided by placing a minimum of one shim
beneath the direct fixation rail fastener before
grout placement. It is also necessary to lift the
rail and fasteners after the grout has cured to
locate and fill in any voids or honeycomb in
the top surface of the grout pad that are
caused by trapped air or improper grout
placement.
4.5.3.1.3
Cementitious
Grout Material
The selection of a cementitious grout material

must be undertaken carefully.
The use of
incompatible special epoxy grouts, bonding
agents and additives can result in pad
delamination
and cracking.
The material
should be compatible with the deck or invert
concrete and have similar thermal expansion
characteristics.
It must also be compatible
with the service environment of the trackway.
Large inaccuracies in the elevation of the
concrete invert and track superelevation can
result in both very thin and very thick grout
pads. Both can be troublesome but thin pads
are particularly
prone to early failure.
Cementitious grout pads that are less than 38
millimeters (1.5 inches) thick are generally
more susceptible to fracture.
Grout pads typically depend on the strength of

the bond between the concrete invert and the
grout for their stability.
Reinforcing steel
typically cannot be used because the pad is
so thin.
The concrete invert is typically
roughened before grout placement and epoxy
bonding agents can be used to enhance the
bond between the grout and the concrete.
As a guideline, although the cementitious

grout pad design has and is currently used on
some transit systems, it is not recommended
due to the designs history of pad failure.
Cementitious grout pads tend to delaminate
and break down, requiring high maintenance,
4-49
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
particularly in colder climates subjected to

freeze-thaw cycles.
Locations with minimal
clearance requiring a low-profile direct fixation
track structure may be the best application of
the cementitious grout pad system.
4.5.3.2
Reinforced
Concrete
4.5.3.2.1.1
Concrete
Plinth on Concrete
Surface. The concrete plinth width and height
Plinth
The recommended direct fixation track design

is the raised reinforced
concrete
plinth
system. The reinforced concrete plinths used
for direct fixation track include various designs
to suit
tangent
track,
curved
track,
superelevated track, and guarded track with
restraining rail. The designs affect the lengths
and shapes of the plinths and the reinforcing
bar configurations as follows.
4.5.3.2.1
Concrete
Plinth in Tangent
must be sufficient to accept the full length of

the fastener and anchor bolt assembly.
It
must also accommodate the reinforcing steel
that is required to confine the concrete mass
that supports the direct fixation rail fastener
and anchor bolt insert.
The concrete plinth is connected to the deck
or invert concrete surface with a series of
stirrups or dowels protruding from the deck or
invert.
Additional plinth reinforcing steel is
connected to and supported by these stirrups
or dowels.
Track
Concrete plinth in tangent track generally

consists of two designs:
l
Concrete plinths of sufficient width and
height for mounting of the direct fixation
fastener directly to the concrete deck or
invert, as shown at the left rail in Figure
The anchor bolt inserts may be installed by

the cast-in-place method or drilled and epoxy
grouted in place. Cast-in-place installation is
recommended as it results in less disturbance
to the plinth and eliminates any possible
4.5.2.
Concrete plinths of sufficient width and

height for installation of a direct fixation
fastener within a recessed opening in the
concrete deck or invert, as shown at the
right rail in Figure 4.5.2.
TRAC%GAUGE1435 (4-6
l/2)
C RAIL k FASTENER
di
i
i
i
-115
IKE RUNNINGRAIL
LATERAL AIJ&STWENT
PROMOEDAT 71% DIA.
ANOlOR BOLT LOCAlWi t 6 (l/47
RAIL H&O-DOW ASSEH6l.Y
DIRIC;;yoN
mnuu
FASTENER
SHIM 3 (l/6-)
Ilax
PLMiH CONCRETE
STRUCNRE SLAB
38 (I t/z) aumcf
- 3 soEs
#5 BARS 0 254 FCR 762 CTRS
ROUGMENTOP OF SLAB
PRIOR TO RACING PUNlH
CONC APPLY BONDINGAGENT
A-
Plinth Design -Tangent
4-50
DINENSON TO BE ESTABJSHED
USING COUPONENTHEIGHTS
AND TYPE CF GKUT PAB
lNSTALLATlONAT SURFACE
OR RECESSED
Direct Fixation
Track
WIN
Track
problems with drilling through reinforcing

steel. It also eliminates the extra work and
potential problems of dealing with the epoxy
grout materials used in the core drilling
method.
4.5.3.2.1.2
Concrete
Plinth
in
Concrete
The plinth height is established

by the
elevation of the low inside rail of the curved
track as shown in Figure 4.5.3. Applying the
profile grade elevation at the low rail of the
curve, the superelevation
is established by
rotating the top of rail plane about the gauge
corner of the low rail.
The addition of
superelevation
alters the cross slope and
thickness of the concrete plinths so that the
typical section is no longer symmetrical.
The recessed design obviously requires that a

trough be formed in the trackway invert, an
additional work activity and hence expense to
the contractor building the trackway.
The
extra cost associated with forming the trough
is not insignificant
and designers should
carefully weigh the costs and benefits of the
recessed
design before deciding
on a
preferred method.
The trough may also
compromise the structural integrity of the base
slab, particularly on aerial structures, so the
design must be coordinated with the structural
design team.
The embedment of the field side anchor bolt

insert of the low rail fastener establishes the
height of the plinths,
The reinforcing bar
requirements and configurations depend on
the plinth heights.
Plinth or second-pour concrete direct fixation
track can be mounted either directly to the
surface or the recessed opening in the
concrete
deck or invert.
The latter
arrangement
can
be
particularly
advantageous
in superelevated curved track
since it can substantially reduce the plinth
height at the high rail.
Some designers object to the placement of

the plinths directly on the concrete base
because it places the top of rail elevation
about 360 millimeters (14 inches) above the
invert. In the event of a derailment, where the
wheels do not end up on top of the plinths,
substantial damage to the underside of the rail
vehicle could result. The placement of the
plinths in a recess minimizes this concern.
Concrete
Design
construction contractor for setting the height of

the plinth formwork so that the required
superelevation is achieved. In addition, care
must be taken to ensure that the rotation of
the concrete plinth at the low rail leaves
sufficient room for the anchor insert assembly
Recess. Similar to the grout pad method, the

concrete plinth design has a variant wherein
the second pour concrete can be recessed
into a trough in the base concrete slab. The
recessed design allows a reduced plinth
height above the deck or inverts and provides
additional deck or invert bonding by locking in
the four sides of the plinth.
4.5.3.2.2
Structure
Plinth on Curved
4.5.3.2.3
Concrete Plinth in Guarded Track

with Restraining
Rail or Safety
Guard Rail
The use of either a restraining rail or a safety

guard rail in direct fixation track will require
that the concrete plinths be wider than normal.
Figure 4.5.4 illustrates a typical plinth for use
with restraining rail. A similar arrangement is
required for a safety guard rail system. This
concrete plinth arrangement
can be either
mounted
directly to the surface or the
recessed opening in the concrete deck or
invert.
Track
Concrete plinth design for curved track must

consider track superelevation.
The track
designer must provide guidance
to the
4-51
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
l- oi
SJPERfLEVAnONTAG TO BE
ECMED ON TOP OF PLINTH
(APPROXINATE
LOCATION)--\
TRACKCAL& 1435 ((-6

1
.- .--,DIA. AhCHPRBOLL
LOCATION-6 (1/4 )
1. XNL dl
I FASTENER
-II
I
,,2-j
,-SUPERELEVATION
RAILHOLO-DOWI ASSEMBLY
~~c;A~.4ncti
FASTENER
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OR INSERT
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.
152 (67 MN (T?P)
STRUCTURESt~f
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BARS0 330 (IS) FOR 666 (2f) CTRS
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SUB SnRRUPS
TYPICAL
PU - PRWlLE GRACi LINE
PRlCRTO PtAQNt FUNTH

KW&EIL #FLY BCNOING
Plinth Design-Curved
.~C_,..-...l.
A- LMlENSONTO BE ESTABLlSiED
U~NG COMPONENT
HEIGHTSAm
lWf OF FLINTHINSTALLAnON
AT SURFACECR RECESSED
Superelevated
..-.
_.
r$LG.dnn
BRAMETASSEMBLY
Direct Fixation
Track
lur
115 RE RUNNINGRAlL
6
TRACX
LAmAL AOJJSTNENT
7/
PMlH PimE PARULEL

TO TOPff RfiL PLANE
WEN FASTENER
COHSAJNS
CANT
RAJt HCUMJO~N ASXNBY

OLlLC~~XA~~ FASTENER
MM C%?
FASTENER
!iDMT
kfmw
5uu 3 w63
micx
EMEWE ANCHORINSERT
3 9DES
REINFCKINGEARS
2x) (9)
cm)
Figure 4.5.4
Concrete
EUBEGEOANMOR NSERK
RESKWNINCRflL ERACKET
Plinth Design-Curved
Superelevated
with Restraining Rail
4.5.3.2.4 Concrete Plinth Lengths

Concrete plinths can be formed in various
lengths.
Typical plinths of intermediate
lengths will accommodate three to six direct
fixation fasteners between drainage chases as
shown in Figure 4.5.5.
Guarded
Direct Fixation
Track
in curved track is curved or chorded, and the

locations of construction joints and expansion
joints in the invert. Concrete plinths in curved
track are generally constructed
in short
tangent segments for ease of formwork.
Concrete
plinth lengths are affected by
differential shrinkage of structure and plinth,
local climate conditions
and temperature
ranges.
Concrete plinth lengths are dependent

on
several track design factors:
whether the
track is tangent or curved, whether formwork
4-52
Track
685
Structure
127)
! FASTENERS
AT
I
i
PI
.- INTH GAP
TYPICALLAYOUTW-H
RESTRAlNlNGRAIL
OFFSETS
Ll34
04
o47 02
PLINTH INSTALLATION
BY CHORD METHOD
(25 & 150 METER RADII)
4-53
Plinth
i EDGE OF KEYWAY
I
FILLED BETWEEN
PLINTHS
BRACKET
AND
U69 RAIL REMOVED
FOR CLARITY
20 (0.7874)
Lengths
Design
Light
Rail
4.5.3.2.5
Track
Concrete
Design
Handbook
Plinth Height
longitudinal structure slippage, where zero toe

load is the fastener design and the rail and
structure are thermally independent.
The heights of the rail section and the direct

fixation fastener and the length of the anchor
bolt insert must be determined to establish the
height of the concrete
plinth.The
track
structure deck slab or invert slope should
generally slope at I:40 towards the centerline
of track. On curved track, the structure itself
may be superelevated
and parallel to the
eventual top of rail plane.
In addition, the
longitudinal
surface drainage gradient
is
critical to provide adequate drainage of the
trackbed.
4.5.3.2.7
Vertical
Reinforcing
Bar
Different contractors often construct the bridge

deck or trackway invert and the track. The
invert contractor is normally responsible for
the proper placement of the stirrup reinforcing
steel that projects from the base concrete.
This reinforcing
steel must be properly
installed and protected from damage after
The wheels of construction
installation.
equipment often damage stirrups. The use of
the recessed plinths may help mitigate this
problem.
The plinth heights should be kept to a

minimum
to enhance
structural
stability,
especially if the deck or invert is relatively
level and the track alignment requires 100 to
150 millimeters
(4 to 6 inches)
of
superelevation at the outside rail.
Direct Fixation
Plinth
The plinth reinforcement

begins with the
construction of the trackway invert. A series
of stirrups or dowels is placed longitudinally in
the concrete plinth, positioned to clear the
embedded anchor bolt inserts and the ends of
plinth openings or gaps. The stirrups should
protrude a minimum distance of 75 millimeters
(3 inches) from the deck or invert to allow both
the transverse reinforcing steel and the plinth
concrete to lock under the stirrups.
The
stirrup height must be designed to suit the
eventual
concrete
plinth
height
and
reinforcement design.
The key dimension to establishing the plinth

height is dimension A shown in Figure 4.5.3
from the top of rail plane to the intersection of
the deck or invert slopes at the track
centerline.
4.5.3.2.6
Concrete
Design
Tolerances
The height of the direct fixation fastener is

critical to vehicle ride quality and interaction
between rail and track structure. To achieve a
near-perfect track surface longitudinally, the
use of shims between the top of plinth and the
base of direct fixation fastener is often
implemented.
The maximum difference in
elevation between adjacent fasteners should
be less then I-112 millimeters (1116 inch), the
thinnest shim thickness.
Shims generally
range in thickness to 12 millimeters (I/2 inch)
to compensate for either inferior construction
or eventual structure settlement.
Fastener
shim thicknesses
above the 12-millimeter
range exist and special anchor bolt lengths
are then required. Fasteners installed out of
longitudinal
surface by more than I-112
millimeters
have been known to hinder
The plinth reinforcement that is installed by

the trackwork constructor consists of a series
of J hook bars and longitudinal bars. A
transverse collector bar is sometimes placed
at the ends of each concrete plinth for stray
current control as shown in Figure 4.5.6.
The design size of the concrete
plinth
determines the size and outline of the J
hooks and the length of the longitudinal bars.
Tangent track will require a constant height to
conform to the general height of the concrete
plinth
Curved
track alignments
with
superelevation will require various sizes and
4-54
Track
1520 (60)
255
0~)
760 (30)
Structure
,-DIRECT
760 (30)
FASTENER SPACING
255
, 250 , 255
(9 8) 1 (10)
(lo-,-l
380
380
Desian
FIXATlON FASTENERS
LATERAL REINFORCING J
BAR HOOPS
(15)
DECK OR INVERT REINFORCING

BAR STIRRUPS (SEE NOTE 2)
ONCRETE PLINTH
NGITUDINAL BARS
STIRRUP S?ACING 1
508 (20)
1
I
508 (20)
1
I
MLD LOCATION (TYP )

ON TRANSVERSE COLLECTOR
BARS (SEE NOTE 3)
508 (20)
3 FASTENERPLINTHLAYOUT
38 (1.5)
TRANSVERSE COLLECTOR BAR

AT EACH END OF PLINTH TO
BE WELDED TO THE FOUR
LONGITUDINAL BARS
(SEE NOTE 3)
ANCHOR BOLT
INSERT (TYP )
c RAIL
MIN
LLONGITUDINAL
RANSMRSE J HOOPS
0 BE WELDED TO INSIDE
ONGITUDINAL BAR
BARS
DECK STIRRUPS
SECTIONA
LONGITUDINAL BAR
DECK 0IR INVERT STIRRUPS
91
WELDS (TYP.)
1-38
(i 5) MN :
CONCRETE COVER
Ih
PLAN vlEW
PRE INSTALLED
DECK OR INVERT
STIRRUPS
TRANSVERSE
COLLECTOR
BAR
NOTES:
1 ON CURVES OF LESS THAN 240m RADIUS. MAXMUM PLINTH
LENGTH if FOUR FASTENERS
2
DECK OR INVERT REINFORCING BAR STIRRUPS PRE-INSTALLED
ELIMINATE WELDS AND ~RANSMRSE COLLECTOR BARS

IF EPOXY-COATED REINFORCING BARS ARE USED
Figure 4.5.6
Concrete
Plinth
shapes of reinforcing bar J hooks as shown

in Figure 4.5.6.
Design size of reinforcing
bars and stirrup locations must include the
requirements of providing 38 millimeters (1.5
inches) minimum of concrete cover from the
edge of bar to the face of the concrete and a
Reinforcing
Bar Design
20-millimeter
(0.75inch)
clearance
fastener anchor bolt inserts.
at the
The reinforcing
bar network
must be
continuous to control stray current corrosion
within the direct fixation track system. The
aerial deck, at-grade slab, or tunnel invert
4-55
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
reinforcing bar system must be continuous

and connected to a negative ground system.
A similar continuous
network
must be
established and connected to a negative
ground system through the deck or slab
reinforcing
system
to provide
similar
protection to the second pour concrete plinth
reinforcing bar system.
base concrete causing corrosion of the

stirrups. In tunnels that do not have adequate
means of leak control, the potential of surface
water penetrating the separation point may be
unavoidable, leading to reinforcing bar rusting
and corrosion.
Various sealants, such as
epoxies, have been used to attempt to seal
this joint but virtually every product available
will eventually dry out, harden and peel away.
The use of a sealant can actually exacerbate
a seepage
condition
by trapping water
beneath the plinth concrete. As a guideline,
sealants are discouraged
and the use of
epoxy-coated reinforcing steel for stirrups is
recommended.
The concrete plinth reinforcing bar system can

be made electrically
continuous
by the
following methods:
l
The deck or invert stirrups installed during
the initial construction must be connected
(welded) to the deck or invert reinforcing
bar network.
The concrete plinth reinforcing bar system
must be completely connected (welded) to
the protruding deck or invert stirrups.
4.5.3.3
Direct Fixation Fastener Details at

the Rail
Typically, the track system will have the rail
positioned with a cant of 1:40 toward the track
centerline.
Rail cant in direct fixation track
may be achieved by several methods:
l
The top surface of the concrete plinth or
grout pad can be sloped to match the
required cant. In such cases, the direct
fixation fail fastener itself would be flat,
with no built-in cant.
When the stirrups or dowels are not

connected (welded) to the deck or invert
reinforcing bar system, then the concrete
plinth reinforcing bar network must be
completely
connected
(welded)
and
connected to a negative ground system.
This requires connections between each
plinth at the concrete plinth openings or
gaps.
l
The use of epoxy-coated reinforcing bars

in the stirrups and the concrete plinth
reinforcing
bar network
provide the
current
corrosion
required
stray
Care
must
be
exercised
protection.
during construction to retain complete
protective epoxy coating coverage on the
stirrups and concrete plinth reinforcing bar
network.
Chipped or damaged epoxy
coating must be covered in an acceptable
protective paint compatible with the initial
epoxy coating material recommended by
the epoxy coating manufacturer.
The plinth concrete or grout pad can be

poured level (or parallel with the top of
rails in superelevated track) and the rail
fasteners can be manufactured with the
desired cant built into the rail seat of the
fastener.
Both methods can produce acceptable results.

Placing the cant in the rail seat of the fastener
simplifies the construction of plinth formwork
and better ensures that the desired cant will
actually
be achieved,
particularly
when
bottom-up construction is anticipated.
If topdown construction is used, rail cant can be
reliably achieved in the concrete if the jigs
used to support the assembled rails and rail
incorporate
adjustment
fasteners
cant
In some cases, surface water can penetrate

the joint between the plinth concrete and the
4-56
Track
capability.
If canted fasteners are used, it
may still be necessary
to procure
flat
fasteners for use in special trackwork areas.
Lateral adjustment
capability and fastener
anchor bolt locations are important elements
in the design and configuration
of direct
fixation rail fasteners.
The rail cant location
must
be
considered
when
positioning
embedded anchors.
Rail cant at the base of
rail or at the top of the concrete alters the
anchor positions
(refer to Figure 4.5.7).
Excessive shimming on a canted concrete
surface may tilt the rail head closer to the
center of track, which impacts track gauge.
For additional information on direct fixation
fasteners, see Chapter 5.
Structure
Desian
The individual tie blocks support the rail.

Microcellular elastomeric
pads support the
blocks. The pads and tie blocks are enclosed
in a rubber boot before installation.
The microcellular pad provides most of the
tracks elasticity.
A rail pad also provides
some cushioning of impact loads, although it
was found that improper rail pad design could
act in resonance
with
the
underlying
microcellular
pad to create excessive rail
corrugation.
When
properly
designed,
LVT can be
engineered to provide whatever track modulus
or spring rate is required by changing the
composition or thickness of the microcellular
pad. The most common application has a
spring rate in the range of 15,760 to 24,500
N/mm (90,000 to 140,000 lb/in) to provide
maximum environmental benefits.
4.5.3.4
Direct Fixation Ballastless

Concrete Tie Block Track [31
Conventional
construction
for direct fixation
track includes
the installation
of either
cementitious grout and concrete plinths with
elastomeric
rail fasteners
or
encased
monoblock ties in a concrete embedment as
shown in Figure 4.5.8. One alternative to the
fastener-on-plinth
system to provide a softer
track is the Low Vibration Track (LVT) shown
on Figure 4.5.9.
Versions of this type of
installation and its predecessors date back to
the mid-1960s.
It is marketed as a direct
equivalent to the elastomeric rail fastener.
LVT, and most encased tie systems, reduce

the need for reinforcing steel. LVT does not
require a reinforced invert, which often makes
this system more competitive with a plinth
type of installation.
The installation
of LVT-and
almost all
encased
tie systems-requires
top-down
construction, where the rail is suspended from
temporary
supports,
with ties and rail
fasteners
attached,
at the final profile
elevation.
The encasement concrete is then
poured into the tunnel invert around the track.
When the concrete is cured, the supports are
removed. An undesirable feature of LVT track
design is the rails lack of lateral adjustment
capability once the track is in place.
Although
not new technology,
the LVT is
relatively new to the transit industry. Earlier
versions of this type of dual-block concrete tie
trackwork incorporated
a steel angle gauge
bar between the concrete blocks. The LVT
design does not incorporate the gauge bars,
since the concrete encasement holds gauge.
4-57
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
$ RAIL SEAT MOUNTING

AT THE TOP OF PLINTH
$ RAIL SEAT MEASURED
AT BASE OF RAlL
4 RAIL
I
$ RAIL MEASURED
AT GAUGE LINE
B
751.80
(29.5484)
115 Ri RAiL HEAD
C TO (2 TRACK-
FASTENER
HEIGHT
VARIES
TOP OF CONCRETE
PLINTH
DTO~TRACK-
.
CHART
FOR CANT
1:40
OF&T
c HEAD - Q MOUNTING
0
is.05 (3/4')
25.40 (1')
31.75 (1 l/4')
.38tn
--. . " fl, l/73
_, - ,
44.45 (I 3/4')
50.80 (2')
57.15- \-(2 t/4-1
--,
a
kT5n
....
CHART
13
l/7'\
\.
.,
-
FOR CANT
152.35
171.40
177.75
184.10
19045
__. .196.80
203.15
209.M
71585
I)
1
I
I
..
}rso5(3/0
.-*I
,. ,
1t
,.
38.10
--.-.
I1
44.45 (1
50.80
57.15 (2
63.5'3 (2
.,
l/Z)
1-1
3/4')
(2')
l/4')
l/2")
-..-
\-----
I
1
755.61
755.61
755.61
755.61
75561
" ". "
755.61
(29.7484)
(29.7484-l
(29.748~ k')
(29.7481 1')
(3974sr
" - . - 1')
(29.7484')
7Wfil
. W.1.
m715Lq
\.....
.-
1
I,
755.61
7~5.61
__~__
(29.748r ,'I
09 74aI
,.-..
.-k-j
RAIL + :A~KNER
HEIGHT
152.35
171.40
177.75
31 75 f1 l/A\
,
I
(0.1500)
(0.1689')
(0.1748.)
(0.1811')
(0.1874-b
\---I
(0.1937')
,.-T
m 7imA"\ ,
(42063')
fO7176'1
CANT EST&IMED
AT
TOP Cf CONCRETE
AT
i
1
1
755.61
7.S6.09
._-.-756.24
756.40
756.56
756.72
765.89
757.04
757.20
(29.7484')
129.7673-J
_-. (29.7732')
(29.7795")
(297858')
(29.7921')
(29.7988.)
129.80477
i298uo.j
1:20
1 ?lzER
"".."
3.81
4.29
4.44
4.60
4.76
.--4.92
.I.
%na
524
540
CANT ;S$3LILIEO
18410
190.45
196.80
203.15
209.50
21585
&7
8.8
-.19
9.20
9.52
9.84
10.16
IO.48
10.79
..
1
,
CANT ~S$-~t-E~
Figure 4.5.7
CANT ESThHED
AT
TOP OF CONCRETE
AT
~;f-?t~NG
,
1
I
}
f
1
1
(0.3374')
(0.3499')
(0.3624')
(0.3749')
(0.3874.)
(0.3999')
(0.4124')
(0.4249')
"
:
75947 ma984
:
:
:
: -.~ - ,-~
759.42 (29.; 6984")
Rail Can? and Base of Rail Positioning
4-58
76259
(30.0232-j
Track
Structure
Design
c TIE & TRACK

I
I
IRON SHOULDER
MAXIMUM LEVEL OF
ENCASEMENT CONCRETE
150 (59)
FROM BOTTOM OF TIE
Figure 4.5.8 Encased

$
1435 (4--B
l/Z):
Concrete
Crosstie
TRACK
TRACK GAUGE
CONCRETE BLOCK
MICROCELLULAR
MAXIMUM LEVEL OF
ENCASEMENT CONCRETE
150 (5 9) FROM BOOT BASE
50 (2) MINIMUM
ENCASEMENT
CONCRETE UNDER BOOT J
Encased tie systems vary widely in cost, but

can usually be installed
quite rapidly,
compared to plinth type systems. LVT block
replacements are feasible on a small scale,
consisting of a slightly smaller block grouted
in the cavity of a removed tie block.
4.5.4
Direct Fixation
LVT System
Direct fixation track built on a bridge structure

will obviously not have to directly contend with
any subsurface
drainage issues.
Direct
fixation track constructed at-grade or in a
tunnel, on the other hand, must be properly
drained beneath the track slab.
Standard
underdrain details, similar to those used in
highway design, must be provided to keep
groundwater out of the under-track area. The
successful direct fixation track will include an
efficient surface drainage system. Experience
has shown that foresight in the design of
surface drainage for the direct fixation track
structure is required to avoid accumulation of
standing water or trapped water pockets.
Track Drainage
Drainage is as important to the success of a

direct fixation track installation as it is to any
other type of track structure.
This includes
both drainage of water from the top surface of
the track and the subsurface support system.
4-59
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
At the interface of ballasted track to direct

fixation track, the direct fixation track system
should include.
l
Protection for adjacent ballasted track
segments; the direct fixation track surface
runoff should be directed away from the
ballasted track.
4.5.6
Direct
fixation
special
trackwork
in
contemporary
light rail transit
systems
generally consists of turnouts grouped to act
as single crossovers
for alternate
track
operations.
Operating
requirements
may
dictate the installation of a double crossover
with four turnouts and a crossing (diamond).
Using double crossovers in tunnels and on
bridges may incur higher track costs, but may
be very economical in providing structural cost
savings.
Concrete plinths that do not butt up to the

ballast wall retainer or drainage diverting
wall
Lateral drainage chases between
the last plinth face and the ballast wall
retainer are essential.
The design positioning

of deck surface
drainage scuppers must consider the rotation
of the deck or invert due to superelevation.
4.55
Stray Current
Requirements
Special Trackwork
The direct fixation special trackwork portion of

any transit system
will require special
treatment
and a different concrete plinth
design than main line direct fixation track.
The supporting plinths or track slabs require
detailed layout, as well as coordination with
the signal and electric traction design of the
fasteners, switch rods, and gauge plates.
A transverse drainage chase or diverting

wall directing
surface
runoff to the
drainage system in lieu of runoff into the
ballasted track area.
Direct Fixation
Protection
4.5.7
Noise and Vibration
The vehicle traveling over the direct fixation

track produces noise and vibration.
The
impact of this noise and vibration generally
becomes significant on alignments through
sensitive areas, such as near hospitals. Track
design has a significant effect on both noise
and wheel squeal, and the designer must
consider the wheels, trucks, and the track as
one integrated system. Chapter 9 provides
guidelines with respect to trackwork design for
low noise and vibration and introduces various
concepts in noise and vibration control.
The track structure

design requires
an
electrical barrier at the rail. Direct fixation
track generally provides this electrical barrier
within the direct fixation fastener body. An
insulating resilient material with a specified
bulk resistivity forms the elastomeric
and
insulating portion of the fastener. The coating
of the rail with an epoxy insulating material
should be considered in areas of extensive
tunnel seepage or perpetual dampness.
The electrical barrier for the low vibration
encased tie direct fixation track system is
provided at the rail base. Similar to concrete
tie fastenings,
the electrical
barrier
is
established by an insulated resilient rail seat
pad and spring clip insulators.
Trackwork design can have a substantial

effect upon wayside noise and vibration.
Noise and vibration should be considered
early in facilities design to provide for special
treatments.
Cost-effective designs consider
the type of vehicle involved, the soft primary
suspensions
that produce ideal levels of
For more information on electrical barriers on

direct fixation fasteners, see Chapter 5.
4-60
Track
Transit
Signal Work
Although design of the signal control system

will not greatly impact direct fixation track
design, it can affect specific parts of the
design.
The
prime
example
of this
interrelationship
is the need for insulated
joints in the running rails to accommodate
train control requirements.
Such joints are
normally
required
at the extremities
of
interlockings, each end of station platforms,
within individual turnouts and crossovers, and
at other locations to be determined
by the
train control design.

refer to Chapter ? I.
4.6 EMBEDDED
4.59
Traction
on transit
on traction
power
TRACK DESIGN
Embedded track is perhaps the single most

distinguishing
characteristic-the
signature
track-of a light rail transit system in a central
business
district.
Deceptively
simple in
appearance,
it is arguably the most difficult
and expensive
type of transit track to
successfully design and construct. In addition
to typical structural design issues that affect
any track, embedded track design must also
address difficult questions with respect to
electrical isolation, acoustic attenuation,
and
urban design, all in an environment that does
not facilitate easy maintenance.
The correct
design may be different for just about every
transit system.
Even within a particular
system, it may be prudent to implement two or
more embedded track designs tailored to sitespecific circumstances.
The light rail transit signaling system may

include track circuit signal systems within the
direct fixation track zones. Impedance bond
installation requirements must be coordinated
with concrete plinth track structure design.
Insulated joints at the limits of the track
circuits must be opposite and within 1.2
meters (4 feet) of each other to facilitate
underground
ducting
and
traction
crossbonding.
Reinforcing
bars in the
concrete may prevent track circuits from
operating reliably.
work, refer to Chapter 10.
Design
fixation track centerline distance and aerial

structure
width when
they are located
between the tracks.
Clearance
distances
pertinent to the transit vehicle and any other
potential
users (i.e., track
maintenance
vehicles) are a design issue that must be
considered
by the track and
catenary
designers together.
Isolation of the running
rail, when used as a negative return conduit,
is essential and a specific resistivity in the
elastomer is a key design issue.
ground vibration above 30 Hz, or the stiff

primary suspensions that produce levels that
See Chapter 9 of this
peak at 22 Hz.
handbook.
4.5.8
Structure
signal
Power
4.6.1
Traction power requirements impact the track

design at two specific locations: the catenary
pole locations
in relation
to the track
centerline and the running rail, which is used
as the negative return for the traction power
system. The catenary poles impact the direct
Embedded
Track Defined
Embedded track can be described as a track

structure that is completely covered-except
for the top of the rails-within
pavement.
Flangeways can be provided either by using
grooved head girder rail or by forming a
flangeway
in the embedment
material.
4-61
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Embedded track is generally the standard for

light rail transit routes constructed
within
public streets, pedestrian/transit
malls, or any
area where rubber-tired traffic must operate.
On several transit systems, both highway
grade crossings and tracks constructed in
highway medians have used embedded track.
detailed if the track system is to be functional

and have minimal long-term maintenance
requirements.
Traditional
street railway/tramway
systems
used wheels with relatively narrow tread
surfaces and narrow wheel flanges. The chief
reason for this was to ensure minimal
projection of the wheel tread beyond the rail
head where it could contact the adjoining
pavement, damaging both the wheel and the
pavement.
Such wheels had tread widths as
narrow as 50 millimeters (2 inches) and
overall wheel widths of only 75 millimeters (3
inches)
Problems
with these wheels,
particularly in the vicinity of special trackwork,
resulted in most systems adopting wheels with
much wider treads.
Embedded
track can be constructed
to
various
designs,
depending
on
the
requirements of the system. Some embedded
track designs are very rigid while others are
quite resilient.
Prior to developing
an embedded
track
design, several vehicle/track related issues
must be resolved, including vehicle wheel
gauge, wheel profile, and truck design; the
track gauge and rail section; and ability of the
vehicle to negotiate the track in a satisfactory
manner.
4.6.2 Embedded
Standards
Wheels
with an overall width of 133
millimeters (5.25 inches) are common on new
start systems.
Increasing the wheel tread
width beyond the rail head introduces an
overhang
with potential
for interference
between the outer edge of the wheel and the
embedment
materials.
To avoid wheel or
pavement damage, either the rail head must
be raised above the surrounding embedment
material
or the pavement
immediately
adjacent to the rail must be depressed as
Rail and Flangeway
To develop embedded
track designs, the
and standards
must be specified:
l
Rail section to be used: girder groove
(guard) rail or tee rail
l
Track gauge in the embedded section
l
Flangeway width provided in girder rail or
formed section
l
Guarding of flangeways in curved track
and restraining rail
Other factors must be considered when

positioning the rail head with respect to the
pavement surface.
In resilient embedded
track design, a rail head vertical deflection
ranging from 1.5 to 4 millimeters (0.060 to
0.160 inches) must be considered.
In
embedded track, eventual vertical rail head
wear of 10 millimeters (0.39 inches) or more
must be accommodated.
In addition, the
wheel tread surface will wear and can result in
a 3-millimeter (0.12-inch) or greater false
flange height. Over the life of the installation,
the total required
vertical displacement
Refer to Section 4.2 and Chapter 5 to

determine
rail section, track gauge and
flangeway requirements.
4.6.2.1 Embedded Details at the Rail Head

The rail section and wheel profile used on a
transit system must be compatible.
Further,
the rail installation method must be carefully
4-62
Track
When
rail head wear
has eliminated
approximately
half of the projecting
6
millimeter (0.12-inch) vertical head clearance,
the original projecting dimension
can be
restored
by production
grinding
of the
embedment material.
RAILHEADASOK
SRRONMNGEMBEWENT
TOP OF RAIL POSITIONED

ABOVE EMBEDMENTSURFACE
4.6.2.2
Wheel/Rail Embedment
Interference
The width of a light rail vehicle wheel is a
major design issue. Each design option has
certain drawbacks such as:
l
Wide wheels increase the weight (mass)
on the unsprung portion of the truck and
project beyond the field side of the head
of most rail designs.
Wide wheels are
therefore susceptible to developing hollow
treads and false flanges and could require
more frequent wheel truing to maintain
acceptable
tracking
through
special
trackwork.
TRANSITWEEL MDT%
R*IL HEADABOK
TOPOF RAIL PO&IONED

AT EMBEDMENT
SURfACE
Embedded
Desian
policies must include a regular wheel truing

program.
IRANST WHEELMDTHS
Figure 4.6.1
Structure
Rail Head Details
between the rail head and the pavement

surface immediately adjacent to the rails could
exceed 15 millimeters (0.59 inches).
A 15millimeter
(0.59-inch) projection of the
rail above the pavement would be excessive
for an initial installation. Such a rail projection
could hinder snow plowing operations at
grade crossings and could be hazardous in
vehicle and pedestrian areas. A 6-millimeter
(0.24-inch) protrusion is recommended
for
initial installation, which should accommodate
resilient vertical deflection, some initial vertical
rail head wear, and a moderate amount of
false flange wheel wear.
Narrow wheels result in limited tread

support at open flangeways and increase
the possibility of wide gauge derailments.
This typically forces the adoption of either
flange-bearing
special trackwork or the
use of movable point frogs.
Medium wheels partially reconcile the
problems noted above, but introduce the
possibility of undesirable
wheel tread
protrusion beyond the field side of narrow
rail head designs.
They also provide
limited tread support in special trackwork
and may require flange-bearing
special
trackwork or movable point frogs.
As stated in Section 4.6.2.1, embedded track

design
must
consider
the surrounding
embedment
materials
exposure
to the
overhanging or protruding wheel treads.
False flanges should not be allowed to

progress, especially to the 3-millimeter (0.12
inch) height, and the track designer should
stress that the vehicle system maintenance
4-63
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
The following table summarizes head widths

of typical girder rail and tee rail sections.
These rail sections are illustrated in Figures
52.1, 5.2 2, and 52.3 of this handbook.
Rail Section
Head Width
NP4a
56 mm (2.205 in)
Ri 52N
56 mm (2.205 in)
Ri 53N
56 mm (2.205 in)
Ri 59N Girder
56 mm (2.205 in)
Ri 60N Girder
56 mm (2.205 in)
GGR-118 Girder *
56 mm (2.205 in)
128RE-7A Girder *
76.2 mm (3 in)
149RE-7A Girder
76.2 mm (3 in)
115 RE Tee Rail
positioned below 6 millimeters (0.25 inches) is

not recommended.
Trackside
appliances
such as electrical
connection boxes, clean out drainage boxes,
drainage
grates
and special
trackwork
housings must be depressed or recessed in
the vicinity of the rail head to provide for
various wheel tread rail wear and rail grinding
conditions. As a guideline, depressed notch
designs in the covers, sides and mounting
bolts of the track enclosures adjacent to the
rail head are recommended.
A depth of 15
millimeters (0.6 inches) provides adequate
clearance throughout
the life of the rail
installation.
69.1 mm (2.720 in)
* Rail sections that are not currently rolled.
4.6.3
If wheel tread width exceeds rail head width

on the selected embedded rail, interference
between the outer edge of the wheel and the
embedding pavement is inevitable as the rail
wears vertically. As a rule, wheel widths from
127 to 133 millimeters (5 to 5.25 inches) will
overhang the rail head. The ATEA sought to
avoid such problems by having no standard
wheel tread more than 75 millimeters (3
inches) wide and no standard plain girder rail
section head less than 63 millimeters (2.5
inches) wide.
Chapter
2 documents
the types
and
magnitudes
of loads transferred from the
vehicle wheel to the rail.
The rail must
support the vehicle and the resulting loads by
absorbing some of the impact and shock and
transferring some of the force back into the
vehicle via the wheels.
The initial impact
absorber on the vehicle is the elastomer in the
resilient wheel, followed by the primary
suspension
chevron
springs,
then
the
secondary suspension system air bags. The
initial impact absorber on the track is the rail,
specifically the rail head, followed by the
fastening or supporting system at the rail base
and then the remaining track structure. The
track structures degree of resiliency dictates
the amount of load distributed to the rail and
track structure and the magnitude of force
returned to the wheels and vehicle.
A railway wheel or transit wheel that

overhangs the rail head must be clear of the
surrounding embedment material as shown in
Figure 4.6.1.
Raising the rail head will
facilitate future rail grinding and delay the
need for undercutting
or grinding
the
surrounding embedment
material to provide
clearance for the wheel tread. Embedded
track top of rail tolerances must be realistic
when considering concrete slab placement
during track construction. A projection 6 to IO
millimeters (0.25 to 0.375 inches) above the
surface
is realistic.
Rail
surrounding
4.6.3.1
Embedded
Track Types
Non-Resilient
Embedded
Track
Rail supported on a hard base slab, embedded

in a solid material such as concrete with no
surrounding elastomeric materials, has a high
modulus of elasticity and will support the
4-64
Track
weight of the vehicle and absorb a moderate

amount of the wheel impact and shock.
A
majority of the impact loads will be transferred
back into the vehicle via the wheels.
Nonresilient
rail
can
be
considered
as
continuously supported
beam with a minor
amount of rail base surface transfer.
Structure
Design
lose some of its resiliency after roughly 5

This hardening
results in surface
years.
deterioration from wheel contact, but does not
progress to the point where it is detrimental to
surrounding
structures
or
otherwise
considered faulty by the general public. Like
all engineered structures, these installations
age and slowly deteriorate to the point where
replacement is required.
Non-resilient track has had mixed success.

Eventual
spalling
of
the
surrounding
embedment and surface failure are common
problems. This is especially evident in severe
climates where freeze/thaw cycles contribute
to track material deterioration.
Concrete
embedment
alone does not provide
rail
resiliency.
It creates a rigid track structure
that produces excessive unit stresses below
the
rail,
causing
potential
concrete
deterioration.
Such designs
are highly
dependent on the competency of the concrete
immediately adjacent to the rails. Field quality
control
during
concrete
placement
and
vibration are very important.
Rigid track was
usually successful under relatively lightweight
trams and streetcars, but has often failed
prematurely under the higher wheel loadings
of the current generation of light rail transit
vehicles.
Bituminous asphaltic embedment

materials
provide a minor degree of resiliency, but tend
to shrink and harden with age, leading to
excessive interface gaps between the rail and
asphalt
or roadway
concrete.
When
bituminous
asphalt
hardens,
it tends to
fracture and break down. The resulting water
intrusion will accelerate deterioration
of the
entire track structure.
As a guideline, although concrete embedment
and bituminous asphalt materials have been
used in track paving embedment, they are not
recommended.
An elastomeric rail boot or
other elastomeric components are available to
provide resiliency at the rail surface and
potential rail deflection
both vertically and
horizontally.
The size and mass of the base slab, typically

a concrete slab 400 to 600 millimeters (16 to
24 inches) thick, tends to dampen some
impacts generated by passing vehicles. This
results in reduced and usually minor transfers
of vibration to surrounding structures.
4.6.3.2
Resilient
Embedded
Track
Direct fixation transit track and conventional

ballasted track are both resilient designs with
a proven record of success. This success is
due, in no small measure, to their ability to
deflect under load, with those deflections
being within acceptable operating limits for
track gauge and surface. These rail designs
are able to distribute loads over a broad area,
thereby avoiding-except
for the rail-wheel
Several transit systems feature embedded rail

suspended in resilient polyurethane materials.
This rather simple form of embedment
completely encapsulates
the rail, holding it
resiliently in position to provide electrical
isolation and full bonding of the rail and trough
to
preclude
water
intrusion.
These
installations have been successful with no
visible defects.
Experience has shown that
polyurethane has a tendency to harden and
contact-point
loading of the track structure
which could cause track failure.
Resilient
track has been successful in ballasted track
and direct fixation track installations and has
had improved results in embedded
track
installations
Non-resilient embedded
track
4-65
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
designs typically fail in excessive loading

situations, such as a very sharp curve, where
the rigid nature of the embedment materials
prevents the rail from distributing loads over a
broad enough area thereby overstressing
portions of the structure.
A key goal in
embedded track design is to duplicate the rail
deflections and resiliency inherent in ballasted
and direct fixation track systems to provide an
economical long-term track structure.
batts, and resilient fasteners. The decision to

use floating slab design is based on sitespecific critical requirements and is often the
preferred method to dampen and control the
transfer of low frequency groundborne noise
and vibration in the embedded track.
Floating slab design consists of two concrete
slabs, with the initial base slab constructed on
the subgrade and a second slab that includes
the track structure, with resilient isolators
positioned between the two slabs. The base
slab is usually U-shaped, making the entire
structure somewhat similar to the bathtub
concept.
Rail supported on a resilient base, with a

moderate modulus of elasticity, embedded on
a solid track slab will support the weight of the
vehicle and absorb and distribute a greater
amount of the wheel impact and shock. Some
of the impact load will be transferred back into
the vehicle via the wheels.
Resilient rail
evenly distributes vehicle loads along the rail
to the surrounding
track structure.
The
frequency ranges developed by each light rail
vehicle will determine the parameters of the
resilient track structure
design
and its
components.
The resilient isolators between the base slab

and the track slab can take several forms.
Most
common,
particularly
in
older
installations, are large diameter elastomer
hockey pucks or donuts that are sized,
spaced, and formed to provide the desired
spring rate and acoustic attenuation.
Some
newer installations have substituted ballast
mat sheets and rockwool batts for the donuts.
In all cases, the secondary isolators must be
placed between the sides of the track slab and
the vertical walls of the base slab to limit
lateral track movement
and to provide
acoustic isolation. Those isolators can either
be individual elastomer blocks, continuous
elastomer sheeting, or ballast mats extending
up the base slab wall. As with any bathtub
design, the exposed joint between the track
slab and the base slab must be well-sealed to
limit water intrusion and accumulation
of
surface contaminants in the voids around the
base isolators, which will degrade
the
systems performance.
Drainage of the void
area beneath the base slab is critical. The
design should provide for periodic inspection
and flushing out of the void area
The guidance of a noise and vibration expert

is recommended to coordinate the design of
the resilient track structure with light fail
vehicles equipped with resilient wheels. Such
wheels attenuate vibration caused by wheelrail contact, reducing the vibrations entering
the carbody and affecting the ride quality.
They do not provide significant attenuation of
groundborne acoustic effects.
4.6.3.3
Super Resilient Embedded Track

(Floating Slab)
Groundborne
noise and vibration
are a
concern for embedded track sections adjacent
to or near noise and vibration sensitive
facilities, such as hospitals,
auditoriums,
recording
studios,
and symphony
halls.
Numerous
methods
for
controlling
groundborne
noise and vibration
exist,
including floating slabs, ballast mats, rockwool
Based on site-specific rail features, vibration

radiation, and the distance to surrounding
structures, the floating slab, ballast mat or
4-66
Track
rockwool batt design is best undertaken by a

noise and vibration expert experienced
in
dampening
and isolation.
For additional
information on noise and vibration, refer to
Section 4 6.6 and Chapter 9.
Desian
Other German companies in the elastomer

component and product line have similarly
been experimenting with encased rail designs.
4.6.4 Embedded
4.6.3.4
Structure
Track Structure
Types
There are generally two types of track

structures in embedded track design:
l
Concrete slab track structure
0 Conventional
ballasted
track
with
embedment
A Special Resilient Rail Installation

for Vibration Sensitive Zones
A relatively new track design concept to

dampen vibrations is emerging in Germany.
The continuous elastic embedded rail system
as shown in Figure
4.6.2 consists of
prefabricated sections of rail, rubber and steel
forms, preassembled
for track installation.
The assembled rail is supported under the
head with no rail base contact, providing
increased vertical deflection with controlled
lateral deflection based on the elastomer
tapered configuration.
The bolt tension and
compression
of the rubber control total
deflection.
The entire assembly is mounted
on a concrete base slab with an intermediate
grout material at the base of the assembly and
then embedded.
4.6.4.1
Concrete
Slab Track Structure
Concrete
slab embedded
track designs
consist of various styles that include:
l
Continuous single-pour concrete slab with
two rail pockets or troughs for the
installation of the rails (Figure 4.6.3).
Stray current protection is provided at the
rail or within the trough area.
l
The reduction in vibration emissions in the

critical low-frequency
range makes
the
continuous
elastic rail system a viable
alternative
to floating
slab designs
in
environmentally sensitive track zones.
Two-pour concrete slab with cold joint

between the two pours located at the base
of rail (Figure 4.6.4).
Stray current
protection is provided at the rail or within
the trough area.
Three-pour concrete slab with a bathtub
design providing stray current protection
below and beside the concrete track slab
(Figure 4.6.5).
The initial concrete slab width can be

designed to accommodate
both single-track
and double-track installations. As a guideline,
the preferred design for ease of installation is
two single-track concrete slab pours with an
expansion
or construction
joint at the
centerline of both tracks.
The required
accuracy of the track alignment and the
finished top of rail concrete surface should
Figure
4.62
Special
Resilient
Rail
Installation for Vibration Sensitive Zones
4-67
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
I-
STRAY
WITHIN
CURRENT
PROTECTION
THE TROUGH AREA
1ST POUR CONCRETE

SLAB WITH TWO lNDlVlDLJAL
RAIL TROUGHS
FOR SINGLE TRACK.
DOUBLE TRACK
SECTIONS ARE ALSO POSSIBLE.
Figure 4.6.3
Concrete
Slab with Two individual
Rail Troughs
STRAY CURRENT
PROTECTION
IN THE RAIL AREA
I jJ/
i
t ST POUR
Figure 4.6.4
FOLD
2ND POUR
SURFACE
CONCRETE
Two-Pour
STRAY CURRENT
THE BATHTUB
1ST POUR
SLAB
FOR
CONCRETE
CONCRETE
SECTIONS
SINGLE
Concrete
PROTECTlON
PERIMETER
JOINT
OR DOUBLE
jtl
TRACK
SECTIONS
Slab with Two individual
Rail Troughs
AT
AREA
TRACK
Figure 4.6.5 Three-Pour
SLAB
WITH BATHTUB
Concrete
control the staging and methods of embedded

track construction.
Bathtub
DEPRESSION
Installation
rail in position without

any mechanical
connections between the rail and the track
The installation design is a two-step
slab.
process.
First, the rail is either positioned
within the trough (Figure 4.6.6A) or on the
initial concrete base slab (Figure 4.6.6B)
using temporary jigs. Next sufficient trough or
base embedment
material
(concrete
or
is placed
to completely
polyurethane)
encapsulate the base of rail, thereby locking
the rail in its final position. The temporary jigs
4.6.4.1.1 Rail Installation

The methods of installation, positioning and
retention of the rail depends on the specific
design criteria selected.
Floating
rail installation
relies on the
embedment materials to secure and retain the
4-68
Track
Structure
Design
alignment during the embedment

pours can
be especially difficult in curved track.
The
contract specifications
should require the
contractor to submit a detailed quality control
plan for meeting the tolerances.
are then removed and a second application of

trough fill material generally encapsulates the
remaining rail to top of rail.
If girder rail is used, no special surface
finishing is required.
If tee rail is employed,
either ,a flangeway
can be formed on the
gauge side of the rail or the embedment
material
can
be deliberately
left low.
Regardless of rail section, the surface of the
embedment material must be left low on the
field side of the rail to provide for false flange
relief and future rail wear.
Rail fastening
installations
use mechanical
rail
base connections to secure the rail in position.

The installation may consist of the following
methods:
l
Core drilling and epoxy grouting
the
fastening anchor inserts or bolts to the
initial concrete dab as shown in Figure
4.6.7A.
Meeting construction
tolerances for floating
rail installations depends on the contractors
ability to rigidly hold the rails in proper
the
initial embedment
alignment
during
material pour.
Once set, the rail position
cannot be adjusted
to meet construction
tolerances
or future maintenance
needs.
Irregularities in the rail alignment due to either
rail manufacturing
tolerances
or thermal
effects
during
construction
can
cause
misalignments
that can only be fixed by
removal and replacement.
Maintaining the
Cast-in-place fastening anchor inserts into

the initial concrete slab as shown in
Figure 4.6.7B.
Such designs require limited horizontal and

vertical
alignment
adjustment
prior
to
embedment.
This is provided by the leveling
nuts and slotted holes in the rail base plate as
shown in Figure 4.6.7A . Slotted plate holes
may provide for horizontal adjustment
and
additional shims for vertical adjustment
as
shown in Figure 4.6.7B.
SECOND FILL
APPLICATION
Figure 4.6.6 Initial Rail Installations-Base
4-69
Material
SECOND FILL
APPLICATION
I. r...re
-?NCRETE
;ECTlONS
Light
Rail Track
Design
ANCHOR BOLTS
DRILLED AND
GROUTED 1N PLACE7
Handbook
The use of steel ties or gauge rods is a factor

in stray current control design.
Individual
trough isolation is impossible due to the steel
tie or rod extending beyond the trough or rail
area. Gauge rods can usually be insulated
within individual cross troughs; however the
installation is cumbersome and quality control
is difficult. Steel ties are even more difficult
due to their irregular cross section.
PLATE WlTH ANCHOR

BOLTS CAST IN PLACE7
CONCRETE SLAB
Figure 4.6.7
Rail Fastening
installations
The use of steel ties and gauge bars in

embedded track sections tends to produce a
surface crack in rigid pavements
directly
above or near the embedded tie or bar. To
control surface deterioration, a scored crack
control slot or indentation is recommended.
This may not be specifically necessary in
installations where the pavement
surface
consists of brick or other individual pavers.
Rail fastening embedded track designs must

consider the ability of the rail to distribute
lateral loads to the rail fasteners. If the rails
are rigidly secured at centers of 900 to 1000
millimeters (approximately 35 to 40 inches),
and the surrounding embedment materials are
more flexible, the track will have hard spots
that will cause the rail to wear abnormally.
Elastomer pads should be considered
to
dampen the hard spots. Direct fixation rail
fasteners may be used to secure the rail to the
base slab. The fasteners provide resiliency in
all directions as well as electrical isolation.
4.6.4.1.2
Protection
An effective mitigation barrier against stray

current corrosion is to protect both the rails
and
nearby
metallic
structures
from
electrolytic corrosion.
The track structure
requires an electrical barrier be provided at
the rail location as shown in Figure 4.6.8,
unless the bathtub design (Figure 4.6.5) can
confine currents within the overall track
Refer to Chapter 8 for additional
structure.
details on the theories of stray current.
Anchor plates may also be used. The benefits

of using anchor plates in embedded track are:
l
Rigid control of rail position during twopour initial installations
l
Stray
Current
Requirements
Anchor plates can be reused during future

rail changeout to control rail position
Track can be used in partially completed
installations
to either confirm
track
installation or maintain revenue service
Principal measures
to minimize
traction
current leakage are:
l
The use of continuous
welded
rail
providing superior traction power return
over conventional
electrically
bonded
jointed track.
Steel ties or gauge rods can be intermixed

with anchor plates in embedded track to assist
in controlling the rail and establishing the track
gauge.
Gauge bars spaced at 1,500
millimeters
(5 feet) on curves and 3,000
millimeters (10 feet) on tangents are common.
Steel ties in every fourth fastening position
may also be considered.
4-70
Insulating either individual rails or the

entire track structure from the earth.
Track
BARRIER SPANS BOTH SURFACES

TO PROMDE LARGER EQUAL
BONDING SURFACES FOR RETENSION
bNSULATlNG
Figure 4.6.8 Insulating

Trough Edges
Insulating
embedded
and any other track
from the earth.
Surface
Design
Ductwork that must be provided

embedment materials.
in the
Provision
for
rail
bond
jumpers
exothermically welded to the rail on either
side of a bolted joint or completely around
special trackwork
components
prior to
embedding the track.
Prior to installation of the embedded

track
structure,
a corrosion
survey should be
undertaken to establish the existing baseline
stray current levels.
Periodic monitoring
should be performed
after installation
of
embedded track to detect current leakage and
to control or improve insulation performance.
BARRIER
Barrier
Structure
at
switch machines
system appliances
Stray current protection design can include

one or more of the following concepts:
Coating of the rail surface (except the
head and gauge face) with an insulating
dielectric epoxy such as coal tar.
steel
Continuous
welding
of
the
reinforcement in the supporting base slab
to act as a stray current collector and
electrical
drains to carry intercepted
current
back to the traction
power
substation.
Embedding the rail and filling the entire

trough
with
an
insulating
dielectric
polyurethane
or other suitable insulating
material.
Cross bonding
of rails with cables
installed between the rails to maintain
equal potentials for all embedded rails.
Lining the rail trough with an insulating

dielectric
material,
which provides
a
barrier between the potentially conductive
trough fill material and the concrete track
slab.
Rail bond jumpers at mechanical

rail
connections, especially within the special
trackwork installations.
Key details concerning the above measures
that affect the track structure design are:
Type of insulation to be installed, whether
it is located at the rail face, along trough
edges, or around the entire periphery of
the track structure as in the bathtub
Lining the rail in an elastomeric

boot,
thereby totally encapsulating the surface
except for head and gauge face.
Insulating the anchor bolts or anchor
inserts that require insulation due to
penetration
beyond
the insulated
rail
trough zone into the base concrete track
This insulating design can be
slab.
concept.
Type of insulation to be installed at switch
mechanisms or track mechanisms
accomplished
by either
coating
the
penetrating
stud or anchor
insert to
provide a continuous seal at the base of
Provisions for cross bond cables between

rails on each track and occasionally
between rails on different tracks.
the concrete
location.
4-71
trough
or insulating
liner
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
insulation at the trough edge containing

the rail is critical in stray current corrosion
control, including the interface at the top
of embedment.
A wide band or insulating
barrier is required to retard surface
current leakage through water, dirt and
debris that may accumulate
on the
surface as shown in Figure 4 6.8.
the rail base not in contact with extruded

sections,
is an important
requirement.
Extruded sections are available in separate
parts that encase the entire rail as shown in
Figure
4.6.9
These designs require a
specific concrete base installation sequence
to provide complete support under the base of
rail.
As an insulating material, extruded
elastomer has proven to meet the required
bulk resistivity of IO ohm-cm that is needed
to be effective.
Additional information on corrosion control is

included in Chapter 8 of this handbook.
4.6.4.1.3
Rail Embedment
Materials
Rail embedment or trough fill materials range

from very elaborate and expensive to simple
and moderately priced, including elaborate
extruded elastomer
sections, cast-in-place
resilient polyurethane components,
concrete
fills of various compositions, and an asphaltic
bituminous mortar
FIRST
Figure 4.6.9
Components
Embedment designs for resilient track that

utilize the general
track structure,
as
described
above,
have incorporated
the
following materials to retain and allow for
designated
rail deflections
with varying
success.
4.6.4.1.3.1
Components.
Extruded
Elastomeric
4.6.4.1.3.2
POUR
Extruded
Resilient
Elastomer
Trough
Polyurethane.
Polyurethane
components can be used as
trough fillers.
Resilient polyurethane
has
proven to be an ideal rail base support
material that provides a minimum of rail
deflection. Altering the urethane compound to
adjust its durometer hardness can control the
actual amount of deflection.
Trough
Extruded elastomeric sections

or components are designed to fit the rail
contour. Generally these materials are only
placed above the base of rail and other
measures must be taken to prevent stray
current migration from the rail base. Using
extruded insulation requires the two-pour
method for base slab installation, including
installation of the rail prior to placing the
surrounding
extruded component
sections.
Finally the top pavement is then placed on the
gauge and field sides of the extrusion. Stray
current corrosion protection may be provided
by the material used to fabricate the extruded
sections.
Providing insulating protection to
the total rail surface, including any portion of
Elastomeric polyurethane is an effective stray

current protection barrier that binds well to
both cleaned rail surfaces and concrete trough
surfaces.
It is, however, expensive, both for
material
procurement
and
the
labor
associated with mixing and installation.
To
reduce the volume of polyurethane required,
premolded rail filler blocks shaped to fit the
web of the rails can be used as shown in
Figure 4.6.10. The embedment design must
consider rail base deflections.
Embedment
materials for the rail head and web areas
4-72
Track
MB FtLLER BLOCKS TO
REDUCE TROUGH FILL
MATERIAL OUANTITY
ZND POUR TROUGH FILLER

TO THE TOP Gf RAIL WlTH
FORMED FLANGEWAY
L IST POUR TRDUGti FILLER

ABOM THE BASE RAIL
Figure 4.6. IO Polyurethane

with Web Blocks
Trough
Filler
should both be resilient in nature to allow for

the rail movement.
Solid or non-resilient
encasement materials surrounding the rail will
negate the resilient characteristics
of the
polyurethane and lead to premature failure of
the non-resilient materials.
damage the elastomer pads, proper drainage

of the rail trough should improve performance,
provide assurance that the expected life cycle
realized,
and
increase
the
will
be
effectiveness of the pads as a stray current
deterrent
The embedded track design must
consider rail base deflections with matching
resilient rail web and head embedment
materials to atlow for rail movement. Solid or
embedment
materials
non-resilient
surrounding the rail will defeat the elastomer
pads resiliency and lead to premature failure
of the non-resilient materials.
4.6.4.1.3.4
Elastomeric
Fastenings
(Direct
Fixation Fasteners).
To duplicate successful
open direct fixation

track design
with
acceptable rail deflections, embedded track
designs have incorporated
direct fixation
concepts.
Bonded direct fixation fasteners
and component
plate and elastomer pad
fastenings may be considered
Successful
direct
fixation
fasteners
or
fastening designs are essential to embedded
track design. Direct fixation fastener design
features are discussed in Chapter 5 of this
Handbook.
As an insulating material, polyurethane has

proven to meet the required bulk resistivity of
10 ohm-cm.
Elastomer
Design
As an insulating
agent, either synthetic
elastomer compounds or natural rubber have
met required bulk resistivity of 10 ohm-cm.
Polyurethanes are a difficult and expensive

material for in-track construction.
Urethanes
are highly susceptible to chemical reaction
with moisture in the air, the fine sand additive
for bulk, and surface dampness
during
application.
Their chemical characteristics
make it essential that mixing, handling and
application
be undertaken
carefully
by
Polyurethanes
in the
qualified contractors.
liquid form seek a level surface, adding to the
difficulty of installation in embedded tracks
with an inclined profile grade line.
4.6.4.7.3.3
Structure
The embedment
design must consider rail
deflection at the fastener.
The surrounding
embedment materials must be resilient, with
extruded prefabricated sections that conform
to the rail fishing zone with clearance
apertures for the fastener and clip assembly
Solid or nonresilient embedment materials surrounding the
rail will defeat the direct fixation fasteners
resiliency and potentially lead to premature
failure of the non-resilient materials.
Pads for Rail Base.
Elastomer pads are a satisfactory rail base

support material that provide a minimum
amount of rail deflection depending on the
spring rate of the elastomer and its specific
durometer
hardness.
Natural
rubber
elastomer pads mixed with proper quantities
of carbon black and wax have exhibited
satisfactory
performance
and long life.
Although water seepage typically will not
4-73
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
tee rail sections and popular girder groove

Boots are also
and guard rail sections.
available
for dual tee rail and bolted
restraining rail assemblies.
APPETURE FOR SPRING CLIP

DIRECT FIXATION
FASTENER --\
EMBEDMENT
As an insulating material, the rail boots have

met the required bulk resistivity of 1012 ohmcm.
4.6.4.1.3.6
Concrete
and Bituminous
Asphalt
Trough
Fillers.
Concrete,
cementitious grout components are available
to use as trough fillers. The first-pour trough
filler encapsulating the rail base and providing
continuous support below the rail can be a
non-shrink
cementitious
grout.
The
cementitious grout with a reduced aggregate
size, less than 12 millimeters (0.5 inches) to
ensure the rail base cavity is entirely filled,
should be placed from one side of the rail to
be certain no voids are formed in the base
cementitious pour.
RUNOFF PIPE
Figure 4.6.11 Direct Fixation

In ternal Drain System
Fastener
with
Direct fixation fasteners with surrounding

flexible elastomers are subject to infiltration
seepage into the rail seat cavity. Although
water seepage may not seriously damage the
proper
drainage
elastomer
components,
should improve performance
and provide
electrical insulation
at the direct fixation
fastener for stray current control.
The
second-pour
trough
filler,
which
completes the cavity fill, can be a concrete
mix with a 20-millimeter (0.75inch) aggregate
size. Application of silicate fume ash to the
concrete
mix has proven
beneficial
in
controlling stray currents. To control eventual
concrete shrinkage cracks, polyethylene fibers
50 to 65 millimeters (2 to 2.5 inches) long can
be included in the second-pour surface trough
filler.
As an insulating
agent,
direct fixation
fasteners meet the required bulk resistivity of
10j2 ohm-cm.
4.6.4.1.3.5
Rail Boot for Embedded
Track.
Rail boot designs have proven to be a
satisfactory rail base support material that
provides minimal rail deflection depending on
the design. Natural rubber elastomers mixed
with proper quantities of carbon black and wax
performance.
exhibit
satisfactory
Configuration of the elastomeric rail boot with
voids and the elastomer spring rate allow for a
specific magnitude
of rail deflection
both
vertically and horizontally.
Both filler materials should have a minimum

concrete strength of 27.6 MPa (4,000 psi) at
28 days.
Bituminous asphaltic components have been
used as a trough filler material. Similar care
must be taken during placement to be certain
that voids are not generated at the rail
support.
Bituminous asphalt materials with
resistivity characteristics can be used as an
insulating barrier.
The rail boot installation design is subjected to

water seepage
entering both inside and
To improve
outside
the boot area.
performance, proper drainage of both areas of
the rail installation should be provided.
Rail
boot designs are currently available for both
4-74
Track
4.6.4.1.4
Embedded
Track Drainage
Structure
Design
pavement is crowned in the conventional

manner, the pavement cross slope results in
the track being out of cross level in tangents
and perhaps even negatively superelevated
curves
For additional
information
on
surfacing and cross level refer to Chapter 3.
in all but the driest climates, the success of

any embedded
track design will depend
directly on the efficiency of the embedded
tracks drainage systems. This includes not
only systems for intercepting surface runoff,
but also methods for draining water that seeps
into the rail cavity zone.
Experience has
shown that surface water will seep and
accumulate in the rail area, particularly around
the rail base and web. This moisture can
cause rail corrosion and deterioration of the
surrounding embedment material, eventually
leading to failure of the pavement and the rail
fastening system.
Whenever possible, the profile and cross

section of the road should be modified to
conform to the optimum track profile and cross
section. This often requires that the roadway
geometry be compromised to accommodate
rail elevations, curb and gutter elevations, and
sidewalk grades.
The surface runoff entering the flangeways
should be minimized and trackway road
surfaces should slope away from the rail
locations. Some transit system designs have
sloped the road surface within the track gauge
area toward the track centerline and the
dummy gauge zone to a line of drains
midway between the tracks.
The road
surfaces on the field side of the rails should
slope toward the curb line or the surrounding
roadway surfaces.
Drainage of the rail embedment

trough or
cavity is of the utmost importance.
Sealing
the interface between the rail and the
adjoining embedment
material is virtually
impossible.
Similarly, construction joints
between the rail trough and slab concrete or
surface sealants are susceptible to potential
water seepage.
Regardless of how well the
surface sealants are designed and installed,
seepage will eventually occur and possibly
lead to deterioration or disintegration of the fill
components,
particularly
in
climates
susceptible to freeze/thaw cycles. To prevent
this, the embedment trough or rail cavity zone
must be designed with a reliable permanent
drainage system as shown in Figure 4.6.11.
Inevitably, some runoff will get into the

flangeways.
This water must be drained
away.
Transverse lateral drainage chases
should always be provided at low points on
vertical curves, immediately
up-grade at
embedded special trackwork and at transitions
between embedded track and any open track
design. Additional drainage chases should be
provided periodically
along straight track
grade sections so that runoff, debris, sand, or
other material can be carried away and the
flangeway kept relatively clear.
Another penalty of poor drainage or no

drainage is that trapped or standing water can
result in unacceptable levels of stray current
leakage, particularly in areas where streets
are salted.
4.6.4.1.4.1
Surface Drainage.
Embedded
track
installations
complicate
pavement
surface drainage because the exposed rail
head and flangeways intercept and redirect
stormwater runoff. The road profile and cross
slopes direct the runoff toward the rail and
flangeways.
In addition, if the roadway
Drains in embedded track areas are typically

transverse
drains
or drainage
chases
perpendicular to the rails. They consist of a
grate-covered chamber that is connected to
the adjacent storm sewer system. The design
of the rail through the drainage chase opening
4-75
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
should consist of the exposed bare rail

supported on each side of the chase, wherein
the rail acts as a suspended beam.
The
bottom of the track flangeway must have an
opening wide enough to ensure that it will not
become clogged with leaves or other debris.
This is easily undertaken
with tee rail
construction.
If girder rail is employed, it is
common to machine a slot in the bottom of the
flangeway.
Such slots typically cannot be
much more than 25 to 30 millimeters (1 to
1.125 inches) wide. They also frequently get
clogged.
Where clogging is likely, an
improved design might be to cut away the
girder rail lip in the drainage chase area.
transverse drain can act as a dividing point

between
the different
designs used in
embedded
main line track and special
trackwork.
Embedded
track systems require internal drainage of the
rail cavity zone when
loose extruded
components
or non-adhering
trough
fill
materials are selected
Polyurethane
fill
material totally encapsulating
the rail and
bonded to the trough walls does not appear to
require internal drainage.
Drainage slots
perpendicular
to the rail base should be
provided for adequate drainage at the base of
the rail or the bottom of the rail trough zone.
Longitudinal drain pipes outside of the rail
trough and fastening
system should be
provided to collect and carry accumulated
water away from the rail cavity zone as shown
in Figure 4.6.12.
4.6.4.1.4.2
When the embedded track design includes

individual longitudinal troughs in the concrete
for each rail, the transverse track drainage
chases can also drain seepage from the inner
rail trough or rail cavity. The design exposes
the end faces of the concrete rail troughs on
each side of the drainage chase as shown in
Figure 4.6.12.
The exposed faces can be
utilized as rail trough or rail cavity drainage
systems. Frequent drainage chases, spaced
less than 150 meters (500 feet) apart, should
be considered and connected to the internal
longitudinal drainage pipe system to provide
adequate
drainage
and allow
periodic
maintenance flushing of the system.
4.6.4.2
Internal
Drainage.
Ballasted Track Structure

Embedment
With
Early 20th century embedded track designs

for urban trams included ballasted track with
timber
crossties
constructed
to railway
standards and subsequently embedded to the
top of rail. These standards still exist today
and are perpetuated
by the original transit
agencies, although contemporary embedded
track designs are being contemplated.
The transverse trough drains should act as

lateral drainage collectors for the embedded
longitudinal drain pipes.
The longitudinal
drain pipes, opened at the trough drains, can
also be used for periodic flushing of the
embedded pipes. This provides a continuous
and
maintainable
drainage
system.
Transverse trough drains should be placed
immediately
in
front
of
switchpoint
components
to protect embedded
special
trackwork installations.
Transverse drains in
these locations collect water that drains
toward the special trackwork
In addition, the
Embedded
track design using standard
ballasted track design requires use of a fill
material to the top of rail as shown in Figure
4.6.43.
In contemporary
track design, the
negative return running rail must be insulated
to control or confine stray current leakage.
Typical ballasted track elements used in
embedded track design include an insulating
barrier at the rail, tie plate and fastening to
isolate the rail from the timber or concrete
4-76
rCHANNEL
GRATES
BOLTED IN POSITION
HIGH DENSITY POLYETHELENE
PROVDES STRAY CURRENT PROTECTION
r
BOOT ENDS EXPOSED

AT DRAINAGE CHASE TO
ALLOW LONGITUDINAL
SEEPAGE DRAIN
NOTE:
DRAINAGE CHASE AT SPECIAL TRACKWORK
BOUNDARIES TO BE MODIFIED TO DRAIN
BATHTUB AREAS AND SPECIAL TRACKWORK
LONGITUDINAL
DRAIN PIPE FOR
DRAINING & FLUSH CLEANING
Figure 4.6.12
RAIL TROUGH
COMPONENTOPENINGS
Cut Away Section
Embedded
Track Drainage
Chase
POLYETHELENE
DMDING SHEET
NOTCHED AT FASTENING -A
EMBEDMENT CONCRETE
(OR OTHER MATERIAL)
INSULATING COVER
AT FASTENING p\
FLANGEWAY-
-.
.
0
F.
.
Q
.
.
a
.
.
lNSULATlNG COVER
-.
0
w
.
BALLAST BED
- BALLAST BED
RAILsEcn0tiATTIE
Figure 4.6.13
Ballasted
RAILSECnON
ATTHECRIB
Track Structure
4-77
with Embedment
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
crosstie and the surrounding

concrete or other fill material.
embedment
treatment and quite possibly a different design

concept from the main line embedded track
design.
The embedded ballasted track structure is a

proven standard that provides a long, durable
track life with minimal maintenance, other than
rail grinding and occasional road surface
repair for more serious deterioration.
This
longevity can be attributed to the built-in
drainage system provided by the ballast and
sub-ballast trackbeds. However, this drainage
system also experiences ballast abrasion and
settlement that degrades track performance.
Embedded ballasted tie track has a history of
inferior rail and road surface alignment. This
includes rails sinking below the top of the
embedment or road surface, fracturing of the
embedment
surface
especially
at the
designated
crosstie
spacings,
concrete
surface fractures, and bituminous concrete
surface
cracks
between
and
sagging
crossties.
In contemporary
light rail transit systems,
embedded
special
trackwork
generally
consists of turnouts grouped to act as single
crossovers
for alternate track operations.
Operating
requirements
may dictate the
installation of a double crossover with four
turnouts and a crossing (diamond).
An
extensive embedded
track transit system
could utilize complex
embedded
special
trackwork arrangements beyond simple single
and double crossovers.
For additional
information on embedded special trackwork
design, refer to Chapter 6.
The magnitude
of the components,
the
requirements for stray current protection, and
the need to secure the components dictate
special trackwork embedment design. Stray
current protection at the rail face, as well as
component
surfaces
with
irregular
configurations,
potential gauge bars and
gauge plates, may be difficult. To simplify the
installation, the bathtub design concept is
recommended
for
embedded
special
trackwork.
Embedded ballasted tie track installed with an

independent roadway surface such as brick,
pavers or Belgian Block with a sand mortar
were relatively successful.
The success of
the old systems, it is believed, was due
entirely to the flexibility of the brick and
blockstone
pavements
and their resultant
ability to adjust to vehicle loads and thermally
induced movements. The key to this was the
use of hot tar to seal the joints between the
pavers, thereby excluding most moisture. The
down side was extensive electrolytic corrosion
due to the base of rail being in contact with
ballast and the sand bedding of the pavers.
Their performance
in this regard might be
improved by an insulated bathtub design.
4.6.5
Embedded
The bathtub design allows for stray current

protection to be clear of the special trackwork
switches,
frogs and crossing
(diamond)
components.
This simplifies
trackwork
installation
and
improves
stray current
protection as shown in Figure 4.6.14.
Embedded special trackwork will also require
the use of special plates to support the
various track elements.
These must be
designed to develop uniform deflections.
Special Trackwork
The embedded special trackwork portion of

any transit
system will require special
4-78
Track
STRAY CURRENT PROTECTION AT

THE BATHTUB
PERIMETER AREA
ND POUR TROUGH FILLER TO THE TO
F RAIL w1Ti-l FORMED FLANGEWAY
ANCHOR
BOLTS
Structure
Design
IST POUR TROUGH FILLER

TO THE BASE OF RAlL
TYPICAL SPECIAL TRACKWORK COMPONENTS
MOUNTED ON LARGE PLATE FASTENINGS
DRILLED
I
2ND POUR CONCRETE
SPECIAL TRACKWORK
BASE WITHIN BATHTUB
Figure 4.6.74
4.6.6
CONCEPT
Special Trackwork-Embedded
Bathtub
Design
Noise and vibration

control
should be
considered
in the vehicle truck design,
particularly with respect to the use of resilient
wheels and the details of the primary
suspension system. The primary suspension
is located between the journal and the truck
suspension
frame.
The
primary
characteristics are dependent on the spring
elements, number of layers or total deflection,
and their angular formation. The elastomeric
spring of the suspension reduces noise by
acting as a vibration isolator. It also acts as a
barrier to the transmission of structure borne
noise.
Noise and Vibration
Vehicle wheel loads are transmitted from the

wheel/rail interface to the track structure.
Unlike ballasted or direct fixation track with
load distribution to the ties or fasteners,
embedded track uses a concrete slab and
continuous elastomeric system to distribute
the load throughout the surface of the rail
base. This design concept spreads the load
more evenly along the resilient rail installation.
Embedded track with a fully supported rail
base provides an improved track structure.
Resilient elastomers dampen the rail, reducing
The
rail vibration and rail-radiated noise.
resilient elastomer controls the degree of
vibration and deflection.
A softer elastomer
provides a lower spring rate in the elastomer
material, leading to reduced vibration in the
rail .
In selecting the suspension characteristics of

the extruded elastomer, elastomeric base pad,
or the rail boot elastomer used to support the
rail, vehicle parameters
such as normal
weight and crush loads must be considered.
Each light rail vehicle, with different truck
suspensions, wheel bases and weights, may
require a different track dynamic suspension
system. The advice of a noise and vibration
expert in this endeavor is recommended as
stated in Chapter 9 of this Handbook.
The spring rate is used in determining the

track modulus or track stiffness and the
amount of vertical deflection in the rail. The
elastomer, in conjunction with the vehicle
suspension system, affects the vehicle/rail
interface - specifically, track performance,
noise, and vibration in the immediate rail area.
4-79
Light
Rail Track
4.6.7 Transit
Design
Handbook
Signal Work
Transit signal requirements in embedded track

sections differ from the general design
standards for ballasted and direct fixation
track.
Embedded track within city streets or
transit malls may be exposed to mixed traffic
conditions and may share the right-of-way
with automobiles, trucks and buses.
Signal
equipment, such as switch machines or loops
for train-to-wayside
signals, may need to be
installed in this area. Space must be provided
to mount these devices as well as drainage
pipes and conduits for cables to control these
devices. Conduits for power and track circuits
may be needed.
Reinforcing bars in the
concrete may impact the reliable operations of
track circuits.
4.6.8 Traction
Power
Traction power requirements

in embedded
track sections differ from the standards for
ballasted
or direct fixation
track. The
immediate traction power impacts of catenary
pole location and isolation of the negative
return rail play a major part in embedded track
design. Embedded track areas in downtown
business sections, on city streets and in
transit malls generally
avoid positioning
catenary poles between the tracks. The issue
of catenary poles within central business
districts is so controversial
that, in many
designs, the contact wire and catenary system
was suspended from the sides of existing
buildings or on poles in sidewalk areas. The
total system and track design must consider
catenary pole locations that blend into the
existing
environment
without
severely
impacting the current roadways, sidewalks
and general publics perception of an area.
The tight track curvature
within central
business districts also impacts the design and
installation of the catenary system, because
many more poles are needed to ensure that
the contact
centerline.
wire
remains
near
the
track
The traction power return system definitely

impacts the design of the rail installation in
embedded track. Unlike ballasted and direct
fixation track standards, where the rail is
actually insulated from the ground at the base
of rail or within the fastening system, the
entire rail surface except top of rail and gauge
face must be insulated in embedded track
designs This requirement contributes to the
challenge of designing embedded rails that
provide an insulated, resilient and durable
track system using off-the-shelf materials.
Embedded ductwork within the track structure
provides access for power cables and cross
bonds to achieve equalization in the rails.
For additional information on stray current
control and traction power, refer to Chapters 8
and 11, respectively.
4.6.9 Typical Embedded Concrete

Track Design Guideline
Slab
The previous sections describe the various

embedded
track concepts,
designs, and
materials available to the track designer. The
track designer
must develop
a set of
installation
drawings
and
corresponding
specifications to allow for construction of the
embedded
track segments
of the transit
system. These must reflect an understanding
of the various track and vehicle parameters.
A typical embedded track design guideline
follows.
The design described herein is
arbitrary;
actual track design should be
developed by the track designer based on
site-specific requirements,
economics, and
aesthetics to match the environment.
The
goals of embedded
track design are to
produce a track system that provides long-
Track
term
interference
easy
track
minimum
and
in Figure 4.6.15.
selected
designer,
guideline
The
this
is
author,
as a
embedment
or may
the
the
track
The
in a pedestrian
The
The
survey,
track
and
position
of
slab
is established
by
the constructed
skeleton
method.
The concrete
the
horizontal
steel
base
ties
or
slab first pour

leveling
encases
beams
system
The rail boot
PLATE
removal
The
elastic
spring
clip
the rail hold down
a degree
of rail base flexure
for
to isolate
is shown,
simplifies
insulating
is needed
may be equally
f
TRACK GAUGE
SLOPE
SUBGRADE AND
SUB BALLAST
Figure 4.6.15
provides
or other
systems
l-l-+
testing
but any of
effective.
arrangement
and
provides
and
SLOPE
and cured,
vehicle
these
@J
for
of two rail troughs
(;, OF TRACK
is poured
use of a rail boot
the rail
base
using
slab
is available
joint that facilitates

concrete
replacement
of worn rail.
elastomeric
vertical
base
forming
mall.
concrete
be used
After
and operation
track
arrangement
for the following
reasons.
.
This embedded
track design
allows
for
with
other
shared
street
operation
vehicles
as anchor
at the base
of rail.
or replace.
design
Design
individual
tie plates,
as well
bolts. This creates a cold joint
of
structures,
to maintain
embedded
illustrated
to the neighboring
is relatively
The
with
performance,
Structure
Typical Embedded
4-81
Track Design
I-
NOTE:
THE ITEM NOs REFER
TO DESCRIPTIONIN
SECTION 4.6.9 EMBEDDED
TRACK DESIGN GUIDELINE.
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
The protective
covers over the rail
fastening
components
allow for their
reuse at the time of rail replacement. The
intent is to retain the steel ties and
individual plates in the base slab pour,
allowing for similar rail section positioning
and rapid replacement.
This facilitates a
quick
return
to
revenue
service
operations.
The
concrete
base
slab
and
secures
encases
the
embedded
track rail fastening
system.
The base slab has concrete

placed up to the base of rail or
resilient boot. This provides a
construction cold joint between
the first and second concrete
pours, just below the trough fill
material embedding
the rail.
The finished base slope in the
trough zone should be sloped
toward formed drainage slots.
The following notes are meant to augment the

detailed embedded track design shown in
Figure 4.6.15. The item numbers refer to the
component number in the figure.
Item 1
This
includes
the
wellcompacted subgrade and subballast system with an adequate
storm
drainage
system
connected to existing or new
street
storm
drains.
A
protective
barrier
sheeting,
Styrofoam barrier, or rockwool
batts at the top of sub-ballast
system may be considered for
vibration and noise attenuation.
Item 2 a
The reinforced concrete base

slab (first pour) should have a
minimum thickness of 300 to
350 millimeters
(12 to 14
inches), to act as a vibration
absorption barrier and provide
support to the track structure.
b
The base slab may be a singleor double-track configuration as

needed
for specific
street
configurations.
Concrete pours
may be single or double track,
depending on track centers.
The concrete base slab contains
an internal longitudinal track
drainage
runoff system with
provisions for deeper transverse
track drainage chases.
4-82
Item 3 a.
The embedded track drainage

system built within the concrete
base slab consists of transverse
track drainage chases and a
longitudinal drainage system at
the rail cavity zone.
b.
The transverse track drainage

chases are placed at 150- to
200-meter
(500- to 650-foot)
intervals
and
strategically
positioned
at vertical
curve
special
trackwork
sags,
approaches,
and the ends of
track
locations.
embedded
These control surface runoff and
internal rail cavity drainage.
C.
The transverse track drainage

chases act as lateral runoffs for
the embedded longitudinal rail
cavity drain pipe system.
d.
The concrete base slab contains

a longitudinal drain pipe and
periodic drain slots parallel and
adjacent to the rail to drain the
rail zone.
The longitudinal
drain pipe
should be positioned clear of the
rail fastening system.
Track
f.
Drainage
systems
that are
invisible once the construction is
completed
will almost never
receive
the
maintenance
attention required The ease of
maintenance
is critical to a
successful system.
Item 4 a.
The
rail fastening
system
consists
of steel ties and
individual
steel
plates
with
appropriate spring clips, welded
shoulders, protective insulators
for rubber boot, and a protective
housing for the spring clip area.
b.
The steel tie is embedded in the

initial concrete base slab with
the top of tie level with the top of
concrete pour. The steel plates
should similarly be embedded to
the top of concrete.
The steel
plates are secured to the initial
concrete base slab by anchor
bolts or studs.
C.
The concrete finish in the rail

base area between the steel tie
and plates is trowelled smooth.
Item 5 a.
The rail is encased in a resilient

elastomer
boot
or
liner,
positioned on the steel tie rail
seat area and the individual
mounting plates.
The rubber
booted rail is fastened to the ties
and plates by spring clips. The
clips have rubber protective rail
base
insulators
at
each
shoulder.
b.
Rail deflection
is provided
through the resilient rubber boot
liner and minor deflections of
the spring clips.
To allow for rail deflection and

movement at the spring clips, a
special
protective
cover
is
Structure
Des&n
installed providing a void in the

trough embedment material.
4-83
The insulating rubber boot must

be a continuously
bonded
system,
utilizing
connector
splices overlapping
the boot
configuration.
To promote
internal boot drainage of the
zone between the rubber boot
and rail surface, special drain
hoses are incorporated.
The
drain hoses are positioned in
the existing drain slots adjacent
to the rail trough. They project
into the center of the PVC
longitudinal
drain
pipe,
to
provide
the
required
stray
current protection.
e.
The resilient elastomer rail boot

must be continuous, providing a
void or holiday free insulation
system to retard stray electrical
current leakage.
Item 6 a
The surface slab (second pour)

is approximately 180 millimeters
(7 inches) high and is placed to
the top of rail Block outs for rail
troughs
are formed.
The
surface finish is determined by
specific transit requirements,
architectural treatment and the
type of roadway
traffic or
pedestrian mall.
b.
The top surface is finished with

slopes away from the rail cavity
toward the centerline of track
and the field side of rail. These
sloped portions within the track
gauge drain longitudinally along
the track to the transverse
drainage chases.
C.
The placement
slab completes
of the surface
the longitudinal
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
drainage slots from the rail

cavity to the longitudinal drain
pipe.
d.
The top concrete surface slab

embedded
PVC
requires
casings for traction power or
signal connections between the
rails or tracks. Provision should
be made for rail connection
boxes, drainage
boxes and
periodic
transverse
drainage
chases.
Item 7 a.
The running rail is insulated for

stray current control utilizing the
rail boot concept
The running
rails can be either tee rail or
girder groove rail.
b.
The running rail is continuously

welded rail (thermite welded or
flash butt) wherever practical.
Precurving of the rail may be
required to facilitate restricted
street alignments that result in
sharp track curvature. The weld
finish is flush with the parent rail
steel surface to allow for proper
boot fit.
c.
Various trackwork accessories

adjacent to the rail must be
individually designed to suit the
rail boot insulation in order to
minimize electrical stray current.
d.
The booted rail is checked for

insulation, clip application, and
the track position is confirmed
prior to application
of the
protective
housing
and the
installation of trough fill.
Item 8 a.
the
rail
and
fastenings
completing the surface roadway.
b.
The surface finish includes a

gauge side flangeway for tee rail
or entire capsulation to the top
of the girder rail lip. The field
side has a depression
of 6millimeter depression (0.2- inch)
throughout,
with
special
depressions
in
the
fixed
adjacent trackwork accessories.
This allows for rail grinding.
C.
The surface slopes beyond the

flangeway
and wheel tread
depressions slope away from
the rail head.
Track gauge
pavement slopes intersect at the
center of track.
Field side
pavement slopes away from the
rail area towards the curb lines.
These design concepts are representative of

the type of considerations required to design
embedded
track.
An alternate
set of
parameters
will require a similar design
process to coordinate
and interface the
various disciplines involved. The key design
features of any track installation include
adequate
drainage,
corrosion
control,
insulating
protection,
noise and vibration
abatement measures, and accommodation for
signal
and traction
power components.
Understandably, the track design and vehicle
must
be compatible
for the
design
development of a successful transit system.
4.6.10
Turf Track:
Embedded
Another
Track
Type of
Over the years, European light rail transit

systems have found a need to blend the
transit track and system into the landscape.
To fulfill this requirement,
a specific track
design similar to embedded track or partially
The rail trough

embedment
concrete
fill (third pour) is
placed only after confirmation
that rail installation is correct.
The embedment
encapsulates
4-84
Track
embedded track has evolved, recognized as

turf track II The turf track standard consists of
concrete plinths or beams running parallel
under the rail to support the track The rail is
installed on elastomer base pads. The rails
connected
to
retain
gauge
with
are
conventional gauge rod bolted to the web of
the rail. The base of rail is not connected to
the concrete plinth. The rail web area is filled
with a prefabricated filler block that adheres to
the rail. The top of the rail and the filler block
is sealed with a bituminous sealant.
The
vegetation
is a special blend of plants
expected to retain a stunted growth and
require minimal cutting. The filler blocks and
the bituminous
sealant provide the stray
current protection.
Figure 4.6.16 shows a
typical turf track installation.
A select turf is required to grow to a maximum

height of 30 to 40 millimeters (1.2 to 1 6
inches)
requiring
minimal
watering
and
maintenance
Landscape track has proven to
reduce noise by 6 to 8 dBA. Other types of
landscape track structure can be designed to
suit the needs of specific locations. To ease
the concerns of communities
and residents
along certain sections of the light rail system
about transit-related
impacts, turf track or
some specific track design may prove to be
very beneficial.
CONCRETE EDGING AND

TURF SURFACE LEVEL WITH
($ TRACK
TOP OF RAIL
I
-SECOND
POUR
1435 TRACK GAUGE
ORGANIC
FLL gL TuRF
/,-DOWEL
1
SAND
PINS
I\ :i
STEEL
LEVELLING
\COMPACiED
ROAD BED
LFIRST
POUR. . ~I-MJvv., .INUOUS
CONCRETE PLINTH SLAB
_ SIDE WITH PLINW
Figure 4.6.16
Design
main standards.
Landscape embedded track
was developed for selected purposes:
l
Reduce the visual effect of ballasted track
l
Reduce the noise from trams to the
utmost extent
l
Provide year-round greenery in the vicinity
of the track
Many European cities appear to be adopting

turf track or track landscaping as one of their
Structure
_f _
1
Turf Track-Another
4-85
BEAM
I IeF
-FIRST
PC-. .CONTINUUUS
CONCRETE
PLINTH SLAB
SIDE WTH TRACK

TIE CONNECTION
Type of Embedded
Track
Lioht
Rail
Track
Desion
Handbook
[4] AREA Manual of Railway

(1984) Chapter 22.
4.7 REFERENCES
[I]
Albert
S. Rickey,
Electric Railway
Handbook, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., 1924.
Engineering
Stresses
in Railroad
[5] A.N. Talbot,
Track,
Reports
of
the
Special
Committee
on Stresses
in Railroad
Track, Proceedings of the AREA, First
Progress Report, Vol. 19, 1918,
pp.
873-l 062,
ibid.,
Second
Progress
Report, Vol. 21, 1920, pp. 645814.
[2] William W. Hay, Railroad Engineering

Second Edition, A Wiley - Interscience
Publication ISBN O-471-36400-2.
[3] Wilson,
lhrig
& Associates,
Inc.,
Theoretical
Analysis
of Embedded
Track
Vibration
Radiation,
San
Francisco Municipal Railway, Technical
Memorandum to Iron Horse Engineering
co.. 7/l 7197.
4-86
Chapter
5-Track
Components
and Materials
Table of Contents
5-1
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 TEE RAIL AND GIRDER GROOVE RAIL
52.1
52.2
Introduction
Tee Rail
5.2.2.1 Rail Section - 115 RE or 124 BC
5.2.2.1 .l AREMA Rail Sections
5.2.2.1.2 124 BC Rail Section
5.2.2.2 Rail Strength-Standard/High-Strength
Tee Rail
5.2.2.2.1 Rail Metallurgyr31
5.2.2.3 Precurving of Tee Rail
5.2.2.4 Procurement of Rail
5.2.3 Girder Groove Rail, Rillenschiene, and Girder Guard Rail
5.2.3.1 Girder Rail Sections
5.2.3.2 Rail Strength - Girder Rail
5.2.3.3 Precurving of Girder Rail
5.2.3.4 Procurement of Girder Rail
5.2.4 Rail Wear
5.2.5 Wear-Resistant Rail
5.251 Riflex Welding
5.3 RESTRAINING
RAIL DESIGNS FOR GUARDED
TRACK
5.3.1 Girder Guard Rail for Embedded Track

5.3.2 Tee Rail for Guarded Ballasted and Direct Fixation Track
5.3.2.1 Vertically Mounted Restraining Rails
5.3.2.2 Horizontally Mounted Restraining Rails
5.3.2.3 Strap Guard Rail
5.3.2.4 UIC33 (U69) Restraining Rail
5.3.3 Restraining Rail Recommendations
5.3.4 Restraining Rail Thermal Expansion and Contraction
5.4 FASTENINGS
AND FASTENERS
5.4.1 Insulated Fastenings and Fasteners

5.4.1 .I Isolation at the Rail Base
5.4.1.2 Isolation at the Fastening or Fastener Base
5.4.2 Fastenings for Timber and Concrete Crossties
for Ballasted Track
5.4.3 Fasteners for Direct Fixation Track
5.4.3.1 Fastener Design Consideration
5.4.3.1.1 Vertical Static Stiffness
5.4.3.1.2 Ratio of Dynamic to Static Stiffness (Vertical)
5.4.3.1.3 Lateral Restraint
5.4.3.1.4 Lateral Stiffness at the Rail Head
5-i
5-I
5-l
5-2
5-2
5-2
5-3
5-3
5-5
5-5
5-6
5-6
5-6
5-6
5-9
5-l 0
5-10
5-11
5-11
5-12
5-12
5-13
5-l 3
5-14
5-14
5-l 5
5-l 5
5-16
5-16
5-16
5-l 7
5-l 7
5-18
5-18
5-20
5-20
5-20
5-20
5-20
Light
Rail Track
Design
5.5 CROSSTIES
Handbook
AND SWITCH TIES
5.5 1 Timber Crossties

5.52 Concrete Crossties
5.5.2.1 Concrete Crosstie Design
5.5.2.2 Concrete Crosstie Testing
5.5.3 Switch Ties-Timber
and Concrete
5.5.3.1 Timber Switch Ties
5.6 TRACK (RAIL) JOINTS
5.6.1 Welded Joints

5.6.1.1 Pressure Electric Flash Butt Weld
5.6.1.2 Thermite Weld
5.6.2 Insulated and Non-Insulated Joints
5.6.2.1 Non-glued Insulated Joints
5.6.2.2 Glued Bolted Insulated Joints
5.6.2.3 Bolted Joints
5.6.3 Compromise Joints
5.7 BALLAST
AND SUBBALLAST
5-24
5-24
5-24
5-25
5-25
5-25
5-25
5-26
5-26
5-26
5-26
5-27
5-30
5.7.1 Ballast Materials

5.7.1.1 Testing Ballast Materials
5.7.2 Subballast Materials
5-30
5.8 TRACK DERAILS

5.9 RAIL EXPANSION
5-21
5-21
5-22
5-22
5-23
5-23
5-23
5-23
5-31
JOINTS
5.10 END OF TRACK STOPS
5.10 1 Warning Signs

5.10.2 Fixed Non-energy Absorbing Devices
5.10.3 Fixed Energy Absorbing Devices
5.10.3.1 Non-resetting fixed devices
5.10.3.2 besetting Fixed Devices
5.10.4 Friction (or Sliding) End Stops
5-31
5-32
5-33
5-33
5-33
5-33
5-33
5-34
5.11 REFERENCES
List of Figures
Figure 5.2.1
Typical Rail Sections

ZlJ I-60)
Tee Rail (lJ69, 115 RE Strap Guard,
Figure 5.2.2 Typical Rail Section-Girder

Rail Sections
5-4
Groove and Guard
5-7
Figure 5.2.3
Typical Rail Sections-Girder
Figure 5.3.1
Typical Restraining
(Guard) Rail Arrangements
(U69 Restraining
Rail)
Figure 5.4.1 Isolation
Groove Rail Sections
5-8
5-14
5-18
at the Rail Base
5-ii
Track
at the Fastening
Figure 5.10. I Friction
Element
or Fastener
Components
and
5-18
Base
5-34
Buffer Stop
List of Tables
Table 5.1 Chemical Composition
Girder Rails
of the Steels used for European

5-9
Table 5.2 Relationship

of Brine11 and Rockwell
Tensile Strength
Table 5.3 Ballast
Table 5.4 Limiting
Hardness
to
S-10
5-28
Gradations
Values of Testing
Numbers
for Ballast Material
5iii
5-29
Materials
Track
CHAPTER
5-TRACK
COMPONENTS
ComDonents
and
Materials
AND MATERIALS
The rail section identification 115 RE refers to:

115 = mass (weight) 57.0 kilograms per
meter (114.7 pounds per yard).
l
RE = AREMA standard rail section.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The track components

that form the track
structure generally include rail, fastenings,
crossties, and ballast. This chapter includes
these and other sundry components
and
elaborates
on their various designs and
requirements.
Rail sections and steel composition continue

to evolve and be improved worldwide.
The
115 RE rail section is the primary section
used on contemporary light rail track systems
because it provides a recognized standard
section, as well as a guaranteed continuous
supply. The 115 RE rail easily supports light
rail vehicle loads and has sufficient end area
to act as a low-resistance
negative return
conductor in the traction power circuitry.
Many standard track components and other

track material (OTM) are usable for freight
railway, commuter railway, and heavy transit
(metro) systems. The information provided in
this chapter pertains to light rail transit
systems with overhead catenary or contact
wire distribution that use the running rail as a
negative return for the traction power system.
The standards for rail lengths have improved

from the customary
11 .&meter
(39-foot)
length to 23.8-, 24.4-, and 25-meter (78, 80
and 82-foot) lengths. European rail mills have
recently produced rail in 122-meter (400-foot)
lengths.
This is not a standard in North
American rail mills.
5.2 TEE RAIL AND GIRDER GROOVE RAIL

5.2.1 Introduction
Rail is the most important-and

most
expensive-element
of the track structure. It
is the point of contact with the vehicle wheel,
the structural beam supporting the vehicle
load, and one location where noise is
generated.
Hundreds of different rail sections
have been created since the first strip of iron
was placed on a timber beam. Each new rail
section has been developed to satisfy a
particular combination of wheel/rail loading.
Tee rails were developed for ballasted track.
When rails were placed in streets, girder rails
were developed
to provide the needed
flangeway.
Joints between rails have always been the

weak link in the track system. Welding of the
rolled rail lengths into continuous welded rail
(CWR) is customary to eliminate joints and to
improve the performance of rail in track. The
development
of thermite and flash butt
welding allows the track to be constructed in
CWR strings. CWR is the general standard for
all transit except for locations, such as very
sharp precurved track, where jointed rail may
be more practical to suit specific site
conditions
and
future
maintenance
procedures.
North American tee rail sections have evolved

over the years into the current American
Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way
Association
(AREMA) standards-l
15 RE,
132 RE, and 136 RE. Many other rail sections
are still in use today.
Precurving of rail is a requirement on light rail

systems at locations where the radii of curved
track exceeds the elastic limit of the rail.
The two prime maintenance issues associated
with rail are head wear in curves and rail
5-l
corrugation.
These issues are discussed
length in this section.
at
standard
rail
or
high-strength
rail
requirements.
The section has more than
adequate beam strength to support the wheel
on standard
crosstie and direct fixation
fastener spacing.
Girder rail is needed to support rail in streets

and to form a flangeway for the wheel. The
rail can then have pavement around the rail to
allow motor vehicles to share the road with
trains. Girder groove rail and girder guard rail
sections are no longer manufactured in North
America. The popular girder rail sections in
use
and
available
from
European
manufacturers
are the Ri 59N, Ri 60N, IC,
Ri52N, Ri53N, NP4a, and 35G sections.
Previous popular sections no longer available
include 128 RE--/A, 149 RE-7A and the GGR118. There is a limited selection of girder
groove rail and girder guard rail in todays
market.
Few girder rails have the minimal
transit flangeway widths, which complicates
the issue of railway wheel gauge and track
gauge.
For additional information on girder
rail and flangeways refer to Chapter 4 herein.
Wheel/rail
interface is one of the most
important issues in the design of the wheel
profile
and
the
railhead
section.
Contemporary
light rail transit
systems
provide the opportunity to customize design
and maintain an optimal wheel/rail interface
due to the single standard for wheels and rail
Although
rail wear
and
fatigue
are
considerations on transit systems, the primary
design concerns are:
optimizing vehicle
operation, controlling noise and vibration, and
improving ride quality.
A better
understanding
of and major
improvements to wheel and rail design and
interface issues are evolving. The optimized
wheel/rail interface (OWRI) system considers
both vehicle suspension characteristics and
track and rail standards.
Girder groove rail installed to improve track

performance
should
be welded
where
possible.
Girder groove
rail requires
precurving of rail for nominal radii curved track
alignments due to the section.
Modifications
in the rail head radius will
improve the current rail profile of AREMA
sections.
The current 115 RE rail section
includes a 254-millimeter
(1 O-inch) crown
head radius. To improve the wheel tread to
rail contact zone, a 203-millimeter
(8-inch)
head radius is recommended.
This will
reduce and control the contact band along the
rail to a well-defined 12- to 15-millimeter (l/2to 5/8-inch) width. Several transit agencies
have
incorporated
more
radical
improvements,
such as asymmetrical
rail
grindings for outside and inside rail in track
curves,
with
documented
operational
improvements in wheel/rail performance.
5.2.2 Tee Rail

The standard section for running rail on
contemporary light rail systems for the three
types of track structure are generally similar
unless specifically stated otherwise.
5.2.2.1
Rail Section
- 115 RE or 124 BC
5.2.2.1.1 AREMA Rail Sections

Selection of the running rail section must be
performed with consideration for economy,
strength,
and availability.
The current
selection in North America is limited and the
simplest solution is to select an off-the-shelf
115 RE rail section conforming to AREMA
Vehicle performance is based on the primary

and secondary suspension systems that allow
the vehicle to negotiate curves. The wheel
5-2
Track
and rail profiles control how well the vehicle

truck steers in curves and how much the truck
will hunt on tangent track. The concentrated
contact zone between the wheel and rail can
be positioned at the gauge corner on the high
outside rail of curves to improve steering. The
contact zone on the low rail is best located
toward the field side of the rail head. These
positions of the contact zones take advantage
of the wheel rolling radius differential and
improved axle steering in conical wheels.
5.2.2.1.2
Components
and
Materials
124 BC Rail Section
BC Rail, to improve the standard 115 RE rail

section and retain the OTM currently in
service opted to change the rail head portion
of the 115 RE rail section. BC Rail mated the
115 RE rail web and base section to the 136
JK rail head section to create the 124 BC
section.[l The 124 BC rail section provides
additional steel in the rail head wear area as
The 124 BC rail section improves on rail head
radius and provides additional rail life due to
increased steel in the rail head wear area. A
rail section of this size may be especially
effective if tee rail is to be used in embedded
track where replacement of worn rail is more
labor intensive.
Wheel and rail design that produces a

conformal contact zone, or wider wear pattern,
after a short period of service life exacerbates
poor vehicle tracking performance
through
curved track. It also introduces early wheel
hunting and leads to corrugation in the rail
head.
Conformal contact conditions
are
produced when the rail head radius is worn to
a flat condition and the wheel is worn to a
similar flat or hollow condition. This simulates
rail head configuration, producing a wear zone
across the head of the rail.
An
imbalanced
track/vehicle
system
contributes to excessive wear of both the
wheel and rail. A combination of wheel/rail
vehicle track incompatibilities
contribute to
high lateral over vertical
(L/V) ratios,
excessive flanging action, and gauge face
wear of more than 20 degrees on the high
rails of sharp curves. Corrective rail section
design, rail profile grinding, and an effective
wheel truing program along with flangemounted
lubricators
will
improve
rail
performance,
reduce
maintenance,
and
increase rail life. [*I
The current 115 RE rail section consists of a

crown radius of 254 millimeters (10 inches)
and gauge corner radii of 38.1 and 9.5
millimeters (1-X and 318 inches).
The rail
head width is 69.1 millimeters
(2-23/32
inches) and the rail height is 168.3 millimeters
(6-518 inches) as shown in Figure 5.2.1.
Railroads, including BC Rail, have been
searching for an improved rail section or
profile-one
with increased wear life and
performance.
Undesirable wear patterns such
as gauge corner lip formation and shelling on
the standard
136 RE rail section have
required early gauge corner and field corner
grinding.
Dr. J. Kalousek (JK) proposed a
203-millimeter
(8-inch) head radius for the
standard 136 JK rail section instead of the
standard 254-millimeter
(1 O-inch) radius to
improve the contact location as previously
described.
The transit industry and freight railroads will

continue to push for improvements
to the
current standard
rail sections
such as
standardization of the 124 BC section and a
compatible wheel profile. For details on the
wheel profile development refer to Chapter 2.
5.2.2.2
Rail Strength-StandardlHighStrength Tee Rail

Chemical composition guidelines for running
rail are standardized in the AREMA Manual,
5-3
I24 BC RNL '33isISlS

of II5 RE me t.4BASE
WH I36 J( HEM
9.53 R
(/a R)
f-31.74
(f/4
j-77194
(16 R
V-Y
.lrlllO.l
Y-Y NEUTRiQ.
!-----AXIS
; 80mm
:(3.15ol
h..
Elf
K: ALL tWKNSlOi4SARE
UIC-33
OR U69
RESTRAINING RAIL
2.1654
5.5118
UIC 608
(Zul-60)
115 RE RAIL AND

STRAP GUARD ASSY.
R
R)
A
6 RI
Track
Chapter 4, for both standard rail and highstrength rail. The use of alloy rail is not
recommended
to obtain the high-strength
standards
because
of the
additional
complexities of welding alloy rail. Current
standard and high-strength
rail hardness,
including
the head hardening
procedure,
obtain the following standards:
l
Standard Rail:
300 minimum Brinell
Hardness Number (BHN)
.
5.2.2.2.1
and
Materiais
high-hardness low-carbon bainitic steel offers

wear resistance superior to pearlitic steel
As a guideline for transit installations the
recommendation
is to install clean rail steel
with a hardness of:
l
300-320 BHN (standard rail) in tangent
tracks, except at station stops and severe
profile grades greater than 4%.
l
High Strength Rail: 341 to 388 BHN (may

be exceeded provided a fully pearlitic
microstructure is maintained.)
Rail Merallurg~J
The life of the rail can be extended

increasing the rails resistance to:
0 Wear
l
Surface fatigue-damage
.
Fatigue defects
Components
by
380-390 BHN in tangent tracks at station

stops, severe profile grades greater than
4% , curved track with radii less than 500
meters (1,640 feet), and all special
trackwork components
including switch
points, stock rails, guard rails, frog rails
and rails within the special trackwork
area.
These hardnesses may prove to be difficult to

obtain in European girder rail sections. As a
guideline, the girder groove rail should have a
hardness of 300 BHN and greater.
Rail steel hardness, cleanliness, and fracture

toughness can increase this resistance. The
effect of rail hardness in resisting gauge face
wear is a known fact. increased rail hardness
in combination
with minimized
sulfide
inclusions reduces the likelihood of surface
fatigue cracking.
This, in turn, reduces
development of subsequent defects such as
head checks, flaking, and shelly spots. Oxide
inclusion clean steel, combined with good
fracture toughness, reduces the likelihood of
deep-seated
shell formations.
Both shelly
spots and deep-seated
shells can initiate
transverse defects, which ultimately cause
broken rails.
5.2.2.3
Precurving
of Tee Rail
Where the track radius is sharp enough to

exceed the elastic limit of the rail, the rail must
These are the general
be precurved.
guidelines for precurving tee rail:
l
Standard Rail
Precurve rail horizontally for curve
radius below 120 meters (400 feet).
Precurve
rail vertically for curve
l
The current rail standards include increased

rail hardness
and improved
rail steel
cleanliness, with the pearlitic steels peaking at
390 BHN. Recent research has focused on
other structures
such as bainitic steels.
Although bainitic steels of the same hardness
as pearlitic steel are not as wear resistant,
High-Strength Rail
Precurve rail horizontally for curve
Precurve
rail vertically for curve
Precurved
rails are often in high wear
locations where the rail is replaced more
frequently.
These locations
often have
standard joints rather than CWR to facilitate
maintenance.
5-5
Light
5.2.2.4
Rail
Track
Procurement
Design
Handbook
of Rail
Procurement of rail should be in accordance

with AREMA Standard Specification Chapter
4, Part 2, Section 2.1, which includes specifics
pertaining to transit agency requirements.
A recent revision to the Ri59 and Ri60 girder

rails has been to change the radius of the rail
head gauge corner from IO to 13 millimeters
(0.39 to 0.51 inches) and introduce the head
configuration as a 1:40 cant position when the
rail base is level. This rail section has been
designated Ri59N or Ri59-13. RiGON rail also
has a 13-millimeter (0.51-inch) gauge corner
radius.
These modified rail head sections
match the 115 RE rail head section.
The
latest development
by an Austrian
rail
manufacturer is the rolling of the RiGON girder
groove rail with a 4-millimeter
(0.16-inch)
raised lip section to provide additional girder
guard lip protection.
There is no standard rail or girder rail section

for embedded track. The 115 RE rail section
has been used for embedded track, with the
bolted Pittsburgh strap-guard,
with formed
flangeways in either asphalt or concrete, or
with the forming of a flangeway in the street.
All of these have been used by various light
rail transit systems. The ideal rail section for
embedded track would be girder groove rail,
with girder guard rail for the curved sections
and more pronounced sharper radius curves.
5.2.3 Girder Groove Rail, Rillenschiene,

and Girder Guard Rail
The new Ri girder rail head profiles match the

115 RE tee rail section. Wheel compatibility
based on head radii and wheel contact zone is
possible if the wheel profile is designed to suit
both tee rail and girder rail sections.
The
wheel designer and the track designer must
consider
the
impacts
of
wheel/rail
performance resulting from standardized rail
For additional
information
on
sections.
wheel/rail conformance refer to Chapter 2.
The most commonly used running rail in

embedded track (if tee rail is not used) is
girder groove rail for tangent track and girder
guard rail for curved track. The selection of
girder groove rail currently available is limited
to the European standards:
Ri59N, RiGON
Ri52N, Ri53N, NP4a, and 35G as shown in
Figures 5.2.2 and 5.2.3. To use these narrow
flange girder rails, the wheel gauge and track
gauge must be compatible with a reduced
gauge clearance between wheel and rail to
allow for wheel passage.
The wheel flange
profile may also be specialized, conforming to
a transit wheel profile in lieu of the Association
of American Railway (AAR) AAR-IB wheel
profile. For additional information on wheel
profiles and girder rail, refer to Chapter 2.
5.2.3.1
59: mass (weight) 58.96 kilograms per

meter (118.6 pounds per yard)
N (or -13):
13-millimeter
(0.51-inch)
gauge corner radius
5.2.3.2
Rail Strength
- Girder Rail
The customary European steel manufacturing

practice is to roll standard rail sections in
accordance with current UIC-860 V standards.
The standard girder rails are produced with
relatively soft rail steel in the normal grade,
with a tensile strength (TS) of 685 Newtons
per square millimeter (N/mm) as shown in
Girder Rail Sections
Table 5.1.
Grooved rail is known as Rillenschiene

in
Germany.
Current popular German grooved
rail sections are Ri59N and RiGON. The rail
identification Ri59N refers to:
l
Ri: Rillenschiene for groove rail
5-6
European steel manufacturers also roll rail

sections in a wear-resistant grade with a
minimum TS of 885 N/mm. This grade of
180
.-.-.I.-.-.-.-.-.
NEUTRAL
AMS
.I0
116 (4 9/W)
40.75
RI 52-13 GIRDER GROOVE RAIL
56
:
i
75.25
,a
IM
(5 7/S)
-I
34
NP 4a GIRDER GROOVE RAIL
RI 53-13 GIRDER GROOVE RAIL
Track
standard steel is available in three classes: A,

B, and C, where:
l
C = Class is the wear-resistant
l
B = Class is the primary class for girder
rails, which provides a hardness
of
approximately 266 BHN
l
A = Class rail is a very soft steel
5.2.3.3
Precurving
of Girder
Rail
Horizontal bending of girder rail will require

vertical bending to obtain proper configuration
due to the asymmetrical shape of the rail.
These operations are best performed in roller
straighteners at the mill.
An alternative to the alloy steel is to use the

standard
European girder rail steel and
Grade with minimum
Materials
Like tee rail, girder rail must be precurved if

the curve radius is sharp enough to exceed
the elastic limit in the base or guarding face.
The guideline for precurving girder rails:
l
Horizontal: precurve girder rail for curve
radii below 200 meters (650 feet).
l
Vertical: precurve girder rail for vertical
curve radii below 300 meters (984 feet).
Recent investigations
with European steel
manufacturers have indicated that girder rail in
this class can be made available in alloy steel
girder rail.
Table 5.1
of the Steels used for European
Composition
and
provide wear resistance treatments consisting

of wear-resistant weld inserts at the gauge
corner, top of rail, and/or girder rail lip (see
Section 52.5).
A girder rail section to meet North American

BHN standards requires a tensile strength of
1,080 N/mm2 which equates to approximately
320 to 340 BHN according to Table 5.2.
Chemical
Components
Girder Rails
TS of
Wear-resistant
grade with
minimum T.S. of 885 N/mm2
I
C
Chrome - manganese special

grade steel with minimum TS
of 1080 N/mm2
(1) C = Carbon
Si = Silicon
Mn = Maganese
P = Phosphorus
S = Sulfur
Cr = Chromium
0.4510.65
0.65lO.80
= 0.4
1.70/2.10
=0.03
=0.03
= 0.8
0.80/i .30
=0.03
= 0.03
5-9
0.80/l .30
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Table 5.2
Relationship
of Brine11 and Rockwell
Hardness Numbers to Tensile Strength
Brine11
Indentation
Diameter
(mm)
2.50
2.60
2 70
2 80
2.90
3.00
310
3 20
3 30
340
3.50
3 60
3 70
3.80
3.90
4.00
4.10
4.20
5.2.3.4
Brine11 Hardness
Number
Tunasten
Standard
Car&de
Ball
Ball
601
555
514
477
444
416
415
388
388
363
363
341
341
321
321
302
302
285
285
269
269
255
255
241
241
229
229
217
217
207
207
Procurement
Rockwell
Hardness
Number
B Scale
100.0
98.2
964
94.6
Rockwell
Suoetficial
Hardness
Numbe;,
Superficial
Diamond
Penetrator
C Scale
57 3
547
52.1
49.5
47.1
445
41 8
39.1
36.6
34.3
32.1
29.9
27.6
254
22.8
20.5
15-N
Scale
89.0
87 8
86 5
85 3
840
82.8
81.4
80 0
78.6
77.3
76 1
75 0
73 7
72.5
70 9
69 7
30-N
Scale
75 1
72 7
70 3
68 2
65.8
63.5
61 1
58 7
564
54 3
522
50 3
48.3
46.2
43 9
41 9
45-N
Scale
63 5
60.6
47 6
545
51.5
48.4
45 3
42.0
39.1
36 4
33.8
31.2
285
26 0
22 8
20.1
Tensile
(Mpa)
Strength
(N/mm2)
2262
2055
1890
1738
1586
1462
1331
1220
1131
1055
1007
952
897
855
800
766
710
682
constant running of the wheels and is further

compounded
by the additional
forces
generated
by braking and traction during
deceleration
and acceleration,
respectively.
In curved track there is added surface wear,
where wheel slippage and load transfers
occur due to superelevation
and changing
direction of the vehicle truck. Gauge face rail
wear occurs due to the steering function of the
rail. Steering contact is at the outer rail of a
curve, which guides the outside wheel of the
lead axle The action commences when the
vehicle wheels negotiate the outside rail of the
curve to the point where the wheel flange
makes contact with the side of the rail head.
This contact is referred to and measured as
the angle of attack. r4]
of Girder Rail
Procurement of girder rail by North American

transit agencies requires a special contract
specification stating the specifics as to rail
section, strength, special treatments
and
potential precurving requirements in specific
lengths of rail. The use of European standard
UIC 860 V as a reference is acceptable, as
long as additional special provisions are
included.
As a guideline, the special provisions for
procurement of girder rail should include: the
ultimate tensile strength of the rail in particular
the Brine11 Hardness Number at the wearing
the compatibility
of welding,
surfaces,
precurving requirements,
specific length of
rails, and the method of corrosive protection
during shipping.
This attack on the outer rail is not caused by

the vehicles centrifugal force, but by the
constant change in the vehicles direction.
The outer rail constantly steers the outer
leading wheel inwards towards the curve
center.
5.2.4 Rail Wear
Rail has continually suffered from abrasive

wear due to the steel wheel running on and
against it. Surface head wear is due to the
5-10
Track
The wheel acts as a cutting edge, or grinding

stone, that actually machines the gauge
corner and face of the running rail. This is
caused by several factors, such as the
severity of the wheels angle of attack to the
rail, the stiffness of the vehicle truck which
retards the curving action, and the velocity of
the vehicle.
Components
and
Materials
the wear and abrasion (or machining)

and the formation of corrugation. r5]
of steel
The hardness of rail steel is proportional to its

toughness
or its ultimate tensile strength
(UTS). UTS is used to measure the quality of
the steel.
As stated earlier, rail producers in Europe are
not accustomed to supplying non-alloy special
groove rail and other rail sections in the range
of 1,100 UTS (320 to 340 HBN).
To
overcome this deficiency in the rail, a special
welding procedure has been used to provide a
wear-resistant surface to the rail. The special
welding known as Riflexf6] also features antisqueal characteristics.
Another
rail wear phenomenom
is the
formation
of metal flow.
The wheel/rail
interaction causes the rail and steel surfaces
to deform at the point of contact due to the
concentrated load. This contact pressure is
extreme to the point where the stress is
greater than the yield point of the rail steel,
which causes plastic deformation
of the
surrounding steel. This action leads to metal
flow accumulation on the surface edges of the
rail head. Metal flow collects at the gauge
corner of rail in tangent track, where the wheel
is seldom in contact with the rail gauge corner
or face. This also occurs on the field side of
the inside rail of curves, where the rail head
metal flow migrates toward the field side and
accumulates as a pronounced lip.
5.2.5.1 Riflex Welding

The Riflex welding procedure includes three
types of rail welding as follows:
l
Riflex--corrugation
reduction or elimination and head wear reduction
l
Eteka 5-rail gauge corner and face wear
reduction
l
Riflex AQ-anti-screech
weld material
developed to control noise
Corrugation
of rail is another rail wear
phenomenom
that impacts ride quality and
noise generation. Corrugation is discussed in
Chapter 9, Noise and Vibration Control.
The Riflex process includes four steps:

1. A groove is machine cut into the ball or
the gauge face of the rail.
2. Using submerged arc welding techniques,
an alloy is welded into the groove.
3. The rail is ground smooth.
4. The rail is roller straightened
and
ultrasonically inspected.
Riflex welding
can also be field applied with rail in place.
5.2.5 Wear-Resistant
Rail
Transit systems have historically suffered
from worn rails and the need for premature rail
replacement due to accumulative wear limits
of the rail head and/or gauge face. To combat
the wheel machining of the rail gauge face
and loss of metal, an abrasion-resistant
steel
is required.
Improvements
in the chemical
composition and treating process of rail steel
have led to the development of wear-resistant
types of steel.
Research has shown that
pearlitic steel with sufficient hardness retards
The three types of weld materials used in the

Riflex process have different hardnesses.
The Riflex anti-corrugating material is applied
in a very hard state-approximately
600
BHN-and
develops a final hardness of about
700 BHN. The Eteka 5 material is applied to
the rail in a fairly soft form, but develops a
hardness of 550 to 600 BHN very quickly.
5-11
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
The AQ anti-screech material is applied in a

soft state and develops a hardness of about
80 BHN. Although the AQ material is soft, it is
protected by and designed to wear at the
same rate as the surrounding rail. Additional
information on Riflex welding is included in
Chapter 9.
can improve
quality
installation time.
5.3.1
and
reduce
field
Girder Guard Rail for Embedded

Track
Many historic North American girder guard rail

sections were either 140ER7B or 152ER9B
and, more recently, 149 RE7A.
These
sections
were developed
specifically for
embedded street track to provide a substantial
restraining rail guard lip or tram on the rail to
act as the restraining guard face. In tangent
track a mating girder groove rail section of
similar height with a reduced girder rail lip was
available to complete the embedded track
installation.
Riflex welding applications have had mixed

success in North America.
The carbon
content of rail specified in North America has
resulted from adverse performance
in the
welding
procedure
and
long-term
performance.
The use of the Riflex process
requires a detailed specification
procedure
that matches the rail steel.
5.3 RESTRAINING RAIL DESIGNS FOR

GUARDED TRACK
These girder groove rail and girder guard rail

sections were developed to suit specific wheel
profile sections and transit wheel gauge
resulting in a reduced flangeway.
The last
section rolled in North America, the 149 RE7A, was a railroad girder guard rail with a
wider flangeway that was compatible to the
AAR wheel and wheel gauge.
Earlier
contemporary light rail systems adopted this
girder guard rail section as standard to suit the
AAR vehicle wheel gauge.
These sections
are no longer manufactured or rolled.
Guarded track in light rail transit design, as

described in Chapter 4, reduces curve wear
on sharp curves by restraining the wheels
away from the outer rail. The guard (or
restraining) rail is close to the inside rail of the
curve and contacts the back of the inside
wheel flange.
The design of guarded or
restraining rail differs, and over the years
various
designs
have
been
used.
Traditionally, curve guarding on street railway
systems was frequently achieved using a
girder guard rail section similar to the rail
sections illustrated in Figure 52.2. Ballasted
and direct fixation track requiring guarding
used a separate restraining rail mounted
adjacent to the running rail. Exceptions can
be found, depending on the requirements and
circumstances of a particular system.
To fill the availability void in girder groove and

girder guard rail, European girder groove rail
sections have been used. The most popular
European sections are Ri59, Ri60, and GGR118. These sections are all pure transit girder
rail sections with reduced flangeway widths as
shown on Figure 52.2. The GGR-118 girder
groove rail section is no longer available.
Other girder groove rail sections rolled in
Europe that can be considered for transit use
in North America are the IC, Ri52N, Ri53N,
NP4a, and G35. European girder rails are not
compatible with freight operations.
Recently
the Ri60 girder groove rail was modified to
The following sections discuss the various

designs for guarded track or restraining rail.
Sharp curves with restraining rail are very
complicated to fabricate and construct in the
field. Prefabricating curves on a shop floor
5-12
Track
increase the girder lip height to introduce a

section conforming
to girder guard rail
requirements.
Materials
The restraining rail can be fabricated from one

of several steel shapes and may or may not
be physically attached to the running rail. In
versions that are physically bolted to the
running rail, the restraining rail/running rail
assembly must be designed as a unit so that
curvature is consistent and bolt holes in both
rails are aligned.
5.3.2.1
Vertically Mounted Restraining

Rails
The most common type of restraining rail is a
vertically mounted tee rail as shown in Figure
5.3.1.
The restraining rail is fabricated by
planing away a portion of the base of a
standard tee rail, which is then bolted to the
running rail at intervals of 600 to 900
millimeters
(24 to 36 inches).
Cast or
machined steel spacer blocks are placed
between the running rail and the restraining
rail to provide the desired flangeway.
Some
designs fabricate the spacer blocks in two
pieces and insert shims between them to
adjust the flangeway width so that the
flangeway can be restored to the design
dimension as the guard rail face wears.
Although this design feature appears sound,
few transit systems actually take advantage of
this maintenance feature.
Alternate design methods have been used in

embedded track to overcome the flangeway
width issue.
These designs included the
Pittsburgh strap guard with 115 RE rail, the
use of conventional tee rail restraining rail,
and the use of 115 RE rail with a formed
flangeway with no restraining rail protection.
Unfortunately, none of these design concepts
provides the ultimate rail section, and they
have proven to be adequate at best.
As a guideline, a transit wheel profile and
transit wheel gauge of 1421 millimeters (55.94
inches) are recommended and the modified Ri
59N girder groove rail section with a hardened
girder tram lip can be used in sharp radius
curved track.
This combination of transitrelated standards
provides
an adequate
guarded track system. A wider wheel gauge
of 1429 millimeters (56.25 inches) would allow
the use of RiGON girder groove rail with the
proper truck wheel set (axle spacing).
Ballasted and direct fixation track

curves have used various designs
the required restraint. Guarding
provided by mounting a separate
and
rail parallel and concentric to the inside

running rail, with the horizontal distance
between the two rails set at the required
flangeway dimension.
The dilemma confronting the North American

light rail track designers is the lack of a
suitable girder guard rail section with the
increased flangeway width required to provide
guarded track in embedded
sharp radius
curved track sections. The European girder
groove rail sections are adaptable if a transit
wheel gauge is selected for the wheel set.
The AAR wheel gauge of 1414 millimeters
(55.6875 inches) is not compatible with these
girder rail sections.
5.3.2 Tee Rail for Guarded Ballasted

Direct Fixation Track
Components
The restraining rail and the running rail webs

must be drilled to insert connecting bolts. The
bolt hole spacing must be detailed on the
shop drawings because the restraining rail is
on a slightly larger horizontal radius than the
running rail to which it is attached. In addition,
the bolt hole spacing will be different on each
rail. While this differential is minor between
any pair of bolt holes, it will become significant
when accumulated over the full length of a
rail.
and
with sharp
to provide
is typically
restraining
5-I 3
Light
Rail Track
CfflWTioNAL
Design
Handbook
crosstie or rail fastener should be coordinated

to ensure that the bolt assembly will not
interfere with insertion of the elastic rail clip.
The bolt must be able to be tightened without
requiring removal of the rail clip.
MRTICAL RfSTTWNlNG RAILS
STRAP GUARD REJR*ININC RAlL
The combined running rail/restraining

rail
assembly will usually be installed on a
common extended rail fastener or tie plate
unlike those used under single running rails.
Restraining rail installed on concrete crossties
will require a special restraining rail crosstie
with a wider shoulder mounting.
HORIZCNTAL RESTRAJNINGRPJL
Vertically mounted restraining rails have been

used in all the types of track structures. When
employed in embedded track, it is necessary
to seal the flangeway to keep out moisture
and debris.
A restraining rail assembly in
embedded track will have multiple paths for
seepage.
Even with sealants, it is critical to
provide sub-drainage to keep the track dry.
U69 RESTRAININGRAlL
Figure 5.3. I Typicai

Rail Arrangements
Restraining
(Guard)
For curves with radii less than 100 meters

(328 feet), combined running and restraining
rails are typically precurved and fabricated
For ease of
together on a shop floor.
shipment, these precurved
segments are
usually 12 meters (39 feet) long or less. For
curves with radii greater than 100 meters as
well as through curve spirals, where the
running rail can usually be field sprung (bent)
to the desired curve, shop curving of both
running and restraining rails is typically not
performed.
To eliminate the need to drill
countless holes in the field conditions, only
the restraining rail is drilled. The restraining
rail is often the same rail section as the
running rail. In cases where the restraining
rail is elevated above the head of the running
rail, the restraining rail is fabricated from the
next larger rail section (e.g., 115 RE running
rail would be paired with a 132 RE restraining
rail). In other designs, the same rail section is
used, but a riser shim is welded to the rail
fastening plate beneath the restraining rail to
elevate it.
5.3.2.2
Horizontally
Rails
Mounted
Restraining
Transit systems have used horizontal designs

where the restraining rail is mounted with the
rails Y axis oriented horizontally, as shown on
Figure 53.1. This is a relatively old design
that is currently used only in older transit
installations.
As
a guideline,
horizontally
mounted
restraining rail is not recommended
for light
rail transit use although some traditional
streetcar systems used it at one time.
Horizontally mounted restraining rail cannot
be used in embedded track areas.
5.3.2.3
Strap Guard Rail
A relatively recent restraining rail design uses

a special rolled section, known as the
Pittsburgh strap guard, with 115 RE rail as
shown in Figure 53.1.
The strap guard
section can be bolted directly to the web area
If elastic rail fastenings are used, the spacing

between the restraining rail bolts and the
5-14
Track
of the running rail. The strap guard section

was developed for the Pittsburgh light rail
transit system in the early 1980s based on
similar sections that were roiled for ASCE
rails in the early 20ti century. This section, as
presently designed, accommodates only small
streetcar-sized wheel flanges. Where it was
used with railroad wheel flanges, it was
necessary to insert shims between the web of
the running rail and the strap guard to obtain a
wider flangeway.
North
The independent mounting is provided by a

mounting bracket that allows the restraining
rail to be mounted adjacent to the running rail,
providing the required flangeway width. The
mounting
bracket design can either be
separate from the running rail fastening plate,
direct fixation fastener, or an integral part of
the fastening plate.
5.3.3 Restraining
Rail Recommendations
As a guideline the following mountings are

recommended:
Concrete Crosstie Track-a separate U69
mounting is provided by two additional
anchor bolt inserts that are cast in the
concrete crosstie during tie production.
The installation should be insulated and
the bracket designed to clear the running
rail fastening.
As a guideline, the strap guard rail assembly

should be used only as a last resort for either
girder rail or girder guard rail light rail transit
installations.
(U69) Restraining
Materials
The major advantage of using the U69 section

as a restraining
rail is the capability of
independent mounting from the running rail as
shown in Figure 53.1.
To improve on its
function as a restraining rail, the U69 section
features a raised design
The restraining rail
face is positioned 20 millimeters (0.7887
inches) above the top of the running rail, to
allow additional contact with the flat vertical
face of the back of wheel.
The main disadvantage of the strap guard is

that a large number of holes must be drilled in
both the strap guard and the running rail and a
large number of threaded fastenings must be
maintained.
UK33
and
used for frog guardrails on several

American light rail transit systems.
One advantage of the strap guard rail is that it

does not require special rail fasteners or
crossties. The only requirement is a specially
designed rail clip that can bear on the lower
flange of the guard on the gauge side of the
assembly. The field-side rail holddown device
can be the same as that used in single rail
installations, which facilitates adding strap
guards
to an existing
curve
that is
experiencing rail wear.
5.3.2.4
Components
Rail
Direct Fixation Track-a

separate U69
mounting is provided by two additional
anchor bolt inserts cast in the direct
fixation concrete
plinth during plinth
installation.
The installation should be
insulated and the bracket designed to
clear
the
direct
fixation
fastener
components.
A new restraining rail design for use in North

American light rail transit system is the
popular UIC33 section from Europe. The UIC
33 section is also referred to as the U69 or
RL-160
section.
For
standardization,
hereinafter the section will be referred to as
the U69 restraining rail section.
The U69
section in Europe has primarily been used as
a guardrail
for special
trackwork
frog
locations.
The U69 section has also been
Timber
Crosstie
Track-joint
U69
mounting with the running rail fastening
plate. A welded assembly or cast steel
5-l 5
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
12-meter (30- and 39-foot)-long segments and

provide expansion gaps at bolted restraining
rail joints.
If the adjoining running rail is
continuously
welded,
connections
any
between the restraining rail and the running
rails should allow for some longitudinal
movement between the two rails. This can be
accomplished by drilling oversized bolt holes.
fastening plate can be used. The single

unit fastening
plate with a bracket
provides improved holding by using the
weight of the vehicle to retain the plate
bracket position. The installation should
be insulated, and the bracket designed to
clear the running rail fastenings.
The U69 restraining rail assembly provides for
flangeway width adjustment by adding shims
directly behind the U69 restraining rail. This
adjustment
can be undertaken
without
disturbing the running rail installation.
5.4 FASTENINGS
The fastening is the device that holds the rail

in place on either a tie plate, direct fixation
fastener, or concrete crosstie.
While the
original spike was used to provide lateral
support, new elastic fasteners also restrain
longitudinal forces in CWR.
The U69 restraining rail can be provided in 15

and 18-meter (49- and 59-foot) lengths.
Special four bolt joint bar assemblies are used
to join these lengths.
To allow for minor
thermal expansion in the U69 section, it is
recommended that slotted holes be made in
the joint bars.
Track designers are continuously striving to

improve rail fastenings and fasteners. Current
popular fastenings include:
l
Conventional
rolled tie plates with cut
spikes, used on timber ties (no insulation).
On aerial structure installations where thermal

must
be
expansion
of the structure
accommodated,
the U69 restraining
rail
mounting bolt holes at each mounting bracket
should be slotted to allow the structure to
move longitudinally.
On sharp radius curved track installations, the

precurving of the U69 section is preferred in
lieu of springing (bending) the U69 restraining
rail into position. Design and shop drawing
layout of the curved track to conform to the
various installations is required.
Rolled formed shoulder tie plates with

elastic rail fastenings and cut or screw
plate holddown spikes, used on timber
ties (with or without insulation).
Plates with rigid crane rail clips, used in
embedded and direct fixation track.
Insulated
elastomer
direct
fixation
fasteners used on direct fixation track and
occasionally in embedded track.
5.4.1 Insulated
5.3.4 Restraining Rail Thermal
and Contraction
AND FASTENERS
Fastenings
and Fasteners
Expansion
The light rail vehicle draws power from the
overhead catenary wire and returns it through
the running rails to the power substation. The
use of the running rails as an electrical
conductor is one of the main differences
between freight railroads and light rail transit
systems. The negative return current must be
controlled at the rail to retard or reduce stray
Restraining rails undergo thermal adjustment

as do running rails. They should not be
continuously
welded because it would be
virtually impossible to install them at the same
zero thermal stress temperature
as the
adjacent running rails.
It is customary,
therefore, to fabricate restraining rail in 9- and
5-16
Track
current leakage, which causes corrosion of

transit track structures, utilities, and nearby
structures. For additional information on stray
current protection refer to Chapter 8.
ComDonents
and Materials
Eusnc FASTENING
The rail fasteners and fastenings are used to

insulate the rail from the ground
Ballasted
track often relies on timber ties to insulate
rails from the ground.
Although wood is
considered a non-conducting
material, the
timber crosstie
does not provide
total
insulation for the negative return running rail.
Additional insulation may be provided to
further isolate the rail and/or fastening plate
from the timber crossties where stray current
corrosion is an issue.
l- MOUNTING
SURFACE
at the Rail Base
fastening pad and insulating thimble-collars

for the anchoring screws or bolts, as shown in
Figure 5.4.2.
5.4.2 Fastenings for Timber and Concrete

Crossties for Ballasted Track
On concrete and steel ties, elastic clip

fastenings are used. The clips are insulated
from the rail by plastic insulators and the rail is
placed on an insulating pad. Insulated track
fastenings or fasteners are needed to attach
rails in ballasted, direct fixation and embedded
track.
However, track fastenings may be
omitted in embedded track designs where the
rails are supported by embedment materials.
The current standard for light rail transit

ballasted track is to use either timber or
concrete crossties. For additional information
on ballasted track refer to Chapter 4.
Traditionally,
track constructed with timber
crossties, CWR, and cut spikes also included
rail anchors
to restrain
the rail from
movement. This style of track installation has
been economically
replaced with elastic
spring clips to hold the rail to the tie plate.
The elastic clip now provides the longitudinal
restraint as well as holding the rail down.
These clips eliminate
rail anchors that
protrude into the ballast and are virtually
impossible to insulate to provide stray current
protection.
5.4.1.1 Isolation at the Rail Base

To provide electrical isolation of the rail from
the surrounding
track components,
the
insulating barrier must be installed at the base
of the rail or mounting surface. The insulating
barrier consists of a rail base pad and
insulators for the edges of the rail base. The
rail base may be fully insulated from the
mounting surface, as shown in Figure 5.4.1.
The trend in design of main line LRT track

appears to be toward the use of concrete
crossties. Concrete crossties provide superior
gauge, line, and surface retention over timber
crossties and the simple fastening method of
elastic clips holds the rails and electrically
isolates them from the ground as shown in
Figure 5.4.1.
Main line transit track with
5.4.1.2
Isolation at the Fastening or

Fastener Base
To provide electrical isolation of the fastening
from the surrounding track components, the
insulating barrier must be installed at the base
of fastening
or mounting surface.
The
insulating barrier consists of an insulated base
5-17
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
For additional information on direct fixation

track design, refer to Chapter 4.
Although rails can be attached to concrete
decks as shown in Figure 54.1, the common
practice in direct fixation track is to use a
bonded (or unbonded) direct fixation (DF)
fastener plate as shown in Figure 5.4.2.
ENLARGEDJEW
The terms fastening

and direct fixation
fastener
refer
to two
distinct
track
components.
Fastenings are the individual
components,
or series
of components,
mounted separately to hold the rail tight in
place, such as on a concrete crosstie with no
plate. Direct fixation fasteners consist of a
vulcanized/bonded
steel plate and elastomer
pad or a steel plate mounted on an unbonded
elastomer pad. The direct fixation fastener
plate often provides lateral rail adjustment in
the anchor bolt area.
FASTENING PAD
MOUNTING SURFACE

Fastener Base
at the Fastening
or
timber crossties must consider the insulation

method shown in Figure 5.4.2 with screw
spikes used to secure
the tie plate.
Economically, concrete and timber crossties
with insulated tie plates are approximately
equal in cost for large-volume procurements.
This may change depending on the availability
of timber.
All modern heavy rail transit systems, starting

with Toronto in 1964 and BART in 1968, have
used resilient DF fasteners in subway track
and aerial track.
DF fasteners have been
redesigned and improved to the point where
there are numerous styles from which to
choose.
Special trackwork installations on timber and

concrete switch ties must consider
the
insulating method shown in Figure 54.2. This
is similar to main line timber crosstie
installations,
which
use larger
special
trackwork fastening plates at the switch and
frog areas. Insulated plates, screwed to the
timber or concrete crosstie insert with an
elastic spring clip for rail support, have a
proven service record.
5.4.3 Fasteners
Direct fixation
on:
l
Concrete
l
Concrete
l
Concrete
for Direct Fixation
One of the earliest DF fastener designs is the

Toronto
Commissions
(TX)
Transit
unbonded fastener with a natural rubber pad.
Later designs included vulcanize
bonded
fasteners with rolled steel top and bottom
plates. More recently, fasteners with either
rolled steel, cast top plates, or cast bases are
being used. Fasteners with a soft elastomer
material are available to provide an extra
measure of groundborne noise reduction.
Track
track is most often constructed
DF fastener designs have used various

fastenings including bolted rail connections,
rigid clips and spring wedges, and elastic
spring clips with variable toe loads.
The
elastomer pad has been manufactured with
slab track at-grade

invert in tunnels
deck on aerial structures
5-I 8
Track
synthetic
elastomers,
natural
rubber
elastomers,
and polyurethane
materials.
These materials have been formulated
to
provide both high- and low-spring rates for the
track. Fasteners are held to the invert with
anchor bolts consisting of embedded studs
with spring washers and nuts or female
anchor inserts with spring washers and bolts.
Some of the earlier designs were inadequate
because of problems in design, material,
installation, or overloading,
Components
and
Materials
the base plate to the concrete invert or

crosstie, without passing through the top
plate.
This approach
eliminates
lateral
bending moments, which would otherwise be
applied to the anchor bolts due to lateral rail
forces
5.4.3.1
Fastener
Design Consideration
The principal design parameters for direct

fixation fasteners
are discussed
in the
following paragraphs:
Resilient DF fasteners have long been used

by U.S. transit systems.
These fasteners
provide a moderate
degree of vibration
isolation,
require less maintenance,
and
produce better rail alignment than ballasted
track.
The typical static stiffness of DF
fasteners used by various U.S. systems is on
the order of 20 to 50 MN/m (112,000 to
280,000
pounds per inch), with spacing
ranging from about 760 to 900 millimeters (2.5
to 3 feet). Recent concerns over the control of
rail corrugation
and the desirability
of
approximating
the stiffness of ballast and
crosstie track have modified the design of DF
fasteners such that the stiffness is on the
order of 19 MN/m (106,000 pounds per inch).
These
fasteners
incorporate
elastomer
bonded between a cast iron or steel top plate
and stamped steel base.
A snubber is
installed between the top and bottom plates,
beneath the rail seat, to limit lateral motion of
the top plate. Lateral rail head stiffness is on
the order of 5 MN/m (30,000 pounds per inch).
Fasteners have been supplied with vertical
stiffness on the order of 20 MN/m, but with
very low lateral stiffness on the order of 1.75
MN/m (9,800 pounds per inch), due to lack of
a snubber or other lateral restraint.
These
differences
in
lateral
stiffness
reflect
differences in design philosophy.
5.4.3.1.1
Vertical Static Stiffness
Vertical static stiffness is often called spring

rate, and represents the slope of the load
versus deflection over a prescribed range of
5,000 to 55,000 N (1,000 to 12,000 pounds).
Current light rail track designs include a static
stiffness of about 18 to 21 MN/m (100,000 to
120,000 pounds per inch), which, with a 760millimeter (30-inch) fastener spacing, gives a
rail support modulus of about 26 MN/m* (3,700
pounds per square inch). One feature of low
stiffness fasteners is that they distribute rail
static deflection over a larger number of
fasteners,
making the rail appear more
uniformly
supported.
Low rail support
stiffness reduces the pinned-pinned
mode
resonance frequency
due to discrete rail
supports, as well as the rail-on-fastener
vertical resonance frequency. Static stiffness
in the 18 to 21 NM/m range provides
reasonable control of track deflection in the
vertical direction without unduly compromising
lateral stiffness.
5.4.3.1.2
Ratio
of Dynamic
Stiffness (Vertical)
to
Static
The ratio of vertical dynamic to static stiffness

is a very important quantity that describes the
quality of the elastomer.
A low ratio is
desirable to maintain a high degree of
vibration isolation. A desirable upper limit on
the ratio is 1.4, which is easily obtained with
Fastener
designs that control structureradiated noise often feature an anchoring
system with anchor bolts that directly attach
5-19
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
fasteners manufactured with a natural rubber

elastomer or a rubber derivative. Ratios of 1.3
are not uncommon
with natural rubber
elastomer
in shear designs. As a rule,
elastomers capable of meeting the limit of 1.4
must be of high quality and generally exhibit
low creep.
of overcoming this potential conflict is to move

most of the elastomer to the ends of the
fastener, away from the rail center, thus
maximizing
reaction
the
moment
to
overturning forces. A snubber should not be
installed at the center of the fastener.
If a
snubber is required, it should be located
towards the lateral ends of the fastener to
minimize rotation of the rail by forcing the rail
to rotate about a point located towards the
field side of the rail in response to gauge face
forces.
5.4.3.1.3 Lateral Restraint

Lateral restraint is the ability of the fastener to
horizontally restrain the rail.
High lateral
restraint is often incompatible with vibration
isolation design requirements.
Therefore,
fasteners that provide adequate stiffness to
guarantee
both an adequate
degree of
horizontal position control as well as vibration
are desirable.
Snubbers
are
isolation
protruding
portions
of metal plate that
penetrate the adjoining plate to act as a limit
flange in controlling lateral displacement.
The
guiding design principle is to provide a three
degree-of-freedom
isolator. Hard snubbers
are undesirable in fasteners, because they
limit vibration isolation only in the vertical
direction.
5.5 CROSSTIES
AND SWITCH TIES
Ballasted track requires crossties to support

the rail. Chapter 4 discusses crossties in the
design of ballasted track. Crossties are used
mainly for ballasted track, although they are
occasionally
used in both direct fixation
encased track, where a crosstie or sections
thereof are encased in a concrete track
structure, and in embedded track, where the
crosstie is embedded with the track structure
Crossties are generally made of three specific
materials:
timber, concrete or steel. There
has been some experimenting with composite
crossties consisting of epoxy composites and
plastics.
These composite ties have seen
little service and are not discussed further
herein.
5.4.3.1.4 Lateral Stiffness at the Rail Head

Lateral stiffness is measured at the rail head
and includes the effect of fastener top-plate
rotation. Light rail track design must maintain
rail head position within tight tolerances on
both curves and tangent track.
This is
potentially in conflict with the requirement for
horizontal vibration isolation.
The lateral
deflection of the top plate of typical sandwich
fasteners is limited by the snubbers and to a
lesser extent by the elastomer in shear. If the
snubber is located beneath the rail, a low
fastener with low vertical stiffness will have
low rotational stiffness and thus poor rail head
control. This conflict has been overcome by
one European design, which incorporates
elastomer
in shear with a large lateral
dimension to resist overturning. Another way
The development
of pre-stressed
precast
concrete at reasonable prices has led to the
current
concrete
crosstie design, which
features encased rail shoulders and sundry
inserts for the application
of trackwork
components.
The concrete crosstie designs
have been refined to suit light rail transit use.
A recent innovation is the design of the
serrated side (scalloped) concrete crossties
that improve lateral stability.
Light rail transit systems use both timber and
concrete
crossties.
The
predominant
5-20
Track
standard appears to be concrete crossties for

the main line track, with timber ties for
maintenance facility and yard tracks. Special
trackwork installations for both main line and
yard track use timber ties, although concrete
ties have been considered
and recently
implemented on a transit system.
55.1
Components
and
Materials
inches) long. Transit systems with a wider

track gauge require a longer timber crosstie.
Timber crossties are generally required to
conform with the current specifications of the
AREMA Manual, Chapter 30 (formerly 3) Ties
and Wood Preservation.
As a guideline, timber crossties for light rail

transit use should be hardwood-preferably
oak-and generally 180 x 230 millimeters (7x9
inch) wide x 2.6 meters (8 feet, 6 inches) long.
Tie length may vary depending on the track
gauge selected.
The 7-inch tie depth is
referred to as a 7-inch grade crosstie. (The
metric system has not been used to classify
tie sizes).
Timber Crossties
The timber currently

used in crossties
includes selected hardwoods,
with tropical
species also being considered.
The reduced
availability of this timber has driven up the
cost of ties, as has the environmental aspects
of treating the wood. For new light rail transit
systems constructed in early 198Os, timber
ties (wood is a non-conductor)
provided
sufficient electrical isolation.
Today, many
believe that additional insulation is required in
locations where stray current corrosion is an
issue.
Recent timber tie fastening designs
include a tie plate that adds a layer of
insulation between the bottom of the tie plate
and the top of the tie.
When using timber crossties conforming to

AREMA recommendations,
the type of wood,
tie
size,
anti-splitting
device,
wood
preservative treatment, and machining should
be specified in the procurement contract.
55.2
Concrete
Crossties
Concrete
crossties
are becoming
more
common in light rail transit designs as life
cycle costing makes them competitive with
timber crossties. The most common concrete
crosstie is the monoblock tie with embedded
cast steel shoulders and pre-tensioned wires.
The rail fastening system consists of an
elastic clip with insulating rail seat pad and
clip insulators, as shown in Figure 5.4.1.
The requirement for an insulated tie plate to

be mounted on the timber tie dictates the
general width of the tie. Standard tie plate
widths range from l&O to 190 millimeters (7
to7-% inches), with an insulated tie pad
protruding a minimum of 12 millimeters (l/2
inch) on all sides of the tie plate results in a
minimum width of 204 millimeters (8 inches).
A 230-millimeter
(g-inch) wide timber tie
provides sufficient surface to support the total
insulator pad with no overhang beyond the
edge of tie. Skewed tie plates at special
trackwork
locations
must
consider
the
overhang issue in relation to degree of the
skew angle.
In addition to the conventional crosstie that

holds the two running rails, a special crosstie
is needed to hold the restraining rail in
guarded track at sharp curves. The size of
the two ties is similar.
The configuration of
the restraining
rail crosstie provides
a
relatively level surface between the rails to
support the specific design of the restraining
rail assembly.
The length of crosstie relates to the standard

track gauge of 1435 millimeters (56-X inches)
and is generally 2590 millimeters (8 feet 6
5-21
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
The standard size of light rail transit concrete

crossties is generally 255 millimeters (10
inches) wide and 2515 millimeters (99 inches)
long at the base of tie. The tie is tapered to a
190-millimeter (7.5-inch) height at the rail seat
and a 165-millimeter (6.5-inch) height at the
center of the tie. The height at the center of
the tie will increase to suit the restraining rail
design. The length of concrete crossties may
vary between transit systems; however, 2515
millimeters (8 feet 3 inches) appears to be the
most common
length for standard
track
gauge.
the determined calculated load limits. The

tests should be conducted in accordance with
the procedures
outlined in the AREMA
Manual, Chapter 30.
5.5.3 Switch Ties-Timber
and Concrete
Special trackwork switch ties for light rail

transit
system
installations
have
been
primarily
timber based on conventional
railroad standards
Concrete switch ties have been developed by
the railroad industry to meet heavy haul freight
maintenance
requirements.
History has
shown that high engineering
design and
fabrication costs contributed to the limited use
of concrete switch tie sets, with timber being
more economical.
The concrete crosstie design for light rail

transit track is based on the light rail vehicle
weight,
anticipated
loads
and
vehicle
operating velocity.
It is generally a smaller
version of the concrete railroad crosstie with
less reinforcement
and a reduced cross
section sufficient to meet the positive and
negative rail seat and tie center bending test
requirements.
Specifications
for concrete
crossties in light rail transit track differ from
standard railroad track crosstie specifications
due to the different vehicle loads and resultant
forces on the crossties. The concrete railroad
crosstie is a sturdier tie in conformance with
the specifications of AREMA Manual, Chapter
30.
The transit industrys minimal use of concrete

switch ties has been primarily on commuter
railroad lines utilizing large-size turnouts and
high-speed turnouts.
Various turnout standards exist among light
rail transit
agencies;
therefore
various
concrete tie geometric layouts and designs
would be required to meet all requirements.
Standardization and simplicity in tie design is
required to provide the light rail transit industry
with a uniform standard concrete switch tie set
for the various turnout sizes.
5.5.2.1 Concrete Crosstie Design

The design of concrete crossties for light rail
transit track is based on performance
specifications that consider:
l
Tie spacing
l
Tie size
l
Wheel loads
0 Impact factor
5.5.3.1 Timber Switch Ties

Timber hardwood switch ties is the standard
for light rail transit special trackwork turnouts
and crossovers.
In locations where stray
current corrosion is an issue, added insulation
is needed.
5.5.2.2 Concrete Crosstie Testing

Prior to acceptance of the concrete crosstie
design, the manufactured crosstie should be
tested for compliance with specifications and
Similar to main line timber crossties, the

requirement for an insulated switch tie plate to
be mounted on the tie dictates the general
width of the tie. A 230-millimeter (g-inch) wide
5-22
Track
timber switch tie provides adequate surface to

support the entire insulator pad with no
overhang beyond the edge of the tie. Special
trackwork plates or fastenings are subjected
to skewing of the plates to provide a
perpendicular
mounting
at the rail base.
Otherwise, special provisions within the plate
design must allow the plate to mount parallel
to, and entirely on, the tie surface. Skewed
plates or insulation should not project beyond
the edge of tie.
Timber switch ties should be supplied
accordance with current recommendations,
the AREMA Manual, Chapter 30.
Cumponen
ts and Materials
required, such as the closure curve zone

between the heel of switch and toe of frog, will
require an alternate rail mounting method.
The
standard
conventional
embedded
shoulder
and elastic clip, with proper
insulation, may be used at locations on the
switch tie where clearance allows the four
rails to be mounted individually.
The height
differentials between switch, frog and guard
rail plates and the standard conventional rail
installation must be considered in the design.
Generally the single rail locations have a builtup concrete base to match the plated top of
rail height.
in
of
As a guideline, timber switch ties for light rail

transit use should be hardwood-preferably
oak-and
generally 180 x 230 millimeters (7 x
9 inches) wide and of a suitable length for the
turnout installation.
The switch tie sets
generally conform to AREMA Standard Plan
No. 912.
Standards for concrete switch ties should be

developed for various turnout and crossover
arrangements
in light rail transit track.
Standardization will allow for more economical
engineering and manufacturing and increased
use of concrete switch ties, which are more
compatible with concrete main line crossties.
When using timber switch ties conforming to

AREMA Manual recommendations,
the type of
wood, tie size, anti-splitting
device, wood
preservative treatment, and machining should
be specified in the procurement contract.
As a guideline, concrete switch ties for light

rail transit use should be approximately 255
millimeters (10 inches) wide at the top of tie,
285 millimeters (11.25 inches) wide at the
base of the tie, and 240 millimeters (9.5
inches) high throughout.
The length should
be sufficient to suit the turnout geometry and
provide sufficient shoulder
length.
The
fastenings and switch, frog, guardrail, and
turnout plates should be insulated to retard
stray current leakage.
The concrete switch
ties should comply with the appropriate
specifications for concrete ties, as outlined in
AREMA Manual, Chapter 30.

Current concrete switch tie designs have
generally been a joint effort between the
transit
authorities
and the concrete
tie
manufacturers
through
various
technical
committees.
The turnout design provides the
geometric layout establishing the tie spacing
and the corresponding
tie lengths.
The
spacing for concrete ties must deviate from
AREMA standards for timber switch ties due
to the increased width of the concrete switch
tie. Threaded anchor inserts in the tie are a
requirement for standard switch plates, frog
plates and guard rail plates. Areas of the
turnout layout where single rail installation is
5.6 TRACK (RAIL) JOINTS

Rail joints are the weakest component in the
track structure, and are unavoidable on any
track structure. To connect the short lengths
of rolled rail, a rail joint is required. There are
various types of rail joints grouped as follows:
5-23
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
1. Welded Joints
Pressure electric flash butt weld
- Thermite (kit) weld
2. Insulated joints
Standard non glued bolted insulated
joint
+ 4-Hole
+ 6-Hole
Glued Bolted Insulated joint
+ 4-Hole
+ g-Hole
3. Bolted Joints
Standard (Non Glued) Bolted Joint
+ 4-Hole
+ 6-Hole
Glued Bolted Joint
+ 4-Hole
+ 6-Hole
length to facilitate transport

site.
of the rail to the
Electric flash butt welding is defined as a

forged weld where an electrical charge is
passed between the rails until the steel is
plastic. The rails are then forced together to
the point at which the steel refuses further
plastic deformation.
5.6.1.2 Thermite Weld

Thermite welds are produced with molten
steel, cast from a crucible, and poured into the
gap between two rails. The molten steel is
produced
with a chemical
exothermic
reaction between aluminum and iron oxides.
Additives
in the mix create the other
components
needed to make the steel.
Thermite welding requires preheating the rail
ends in order to create a good bond between
the old and new steel. It is important that the
resultant steel plug has the same hardness as
the parent rail steel.
Manufacturers
can
produce welds with different hardnesses to
ensure compatibility.
5.6.1 Welded Joints

Welded rail joints forming continuous welded
rail out of many short lengths of the rail has
been standard in the railroad industry for over
40 years. Elimination of bolted rail joints has
improved the track structure and reduced the
excessive maintenance required at bolted rail
joints.
Rail welding in North America is
generally accomplished
using either the
pressure electric flash butt weld or the
thermite weld method.. CWR strings allow the
DC current to be carried efficiently through the
rails.
CWR rail strings are generally joined or

welded together by the thermite weld process.
Portable flash butt welding is an alternative to
the thermite weld process.
A flash butt
welding head is transported to the installation
site to join the CWR strings.
Either weld
method is acceptable.
5.6.1.1 Pressure Electric Flash Butt Weld

Most rail strings are welded together by the
pressure welding process (flash butt welding)
in a welding plant operation.
The rolled rail
sticks are welded continuously
in various
predetermined rail lengths capable of being
transported to the track laying location by
special rail trains. CWR lengths are nominally
439 meters (1440 feet). Rail strings used in
light rail transit construction are often half this
Welding rail eliminates bolted joints and most

of the
associated
joint
maintenance.
However, CWR creates other issues, such as
structural interaction on bridges which must
be addressed
by the designer (refer to
Chapter 7).
5-24
Track
5.62
Insulated
and Non-Insulated
ComDonents
and
Materials
washers and heavy square nuts. While joint

bar standards vary, there are two general
standards: the 4-hole joint bar and the 6-hole
joint bar.
Joints
Although bolted rail joints are the weakest

points in the track structure, some bolted
joints are required. These include insulated
rail joints that provide the necessary signal
sections for track operations to detect vehicle
locations, tripping signal circuits, clearance
points, and other specific detection networks.
An insulated joint separates the ends of the
rails to break the signal continuity by use of an
insulated end post.
At one time, various railroads had different rail

drilling spacing for the bolt holes; however,
over the years, rail drilling spacing was
standardized, as documented in the AREMA
Manual. The hole spacing recommended in
AREMA should be followed for jointed rails.
5.6.3
Both non-glued and epoxy glued rail joints

have become standard for various conditions.
Compromise
Joints
Standard glued insulated joints are similar to

non-glued joints, except the joint bars are
shaped to fit the rail fishing to allow the bars to
be glued to the web of the rail. The glued
joints provide a longitudinal connection at the
rail ends to withstand a rail joint pull-apart in
CWR. The glued insulated joints carry the
CWR forces through the adjoining insulated
bars, and do not rely on the shear forces on
the joint bolts.
Compromise joint bars are required to join two

dissimilar rail sections. The compromise joint
bars are machined or forged to the shape
necessary to join the two dissimilar rails. The
shape allows both rails to align at the top of
rail and the gauge face of both rails.
Compromise joint bars, due to design shape,
are right- and left-hand installations.
The
hand designation is defined by the location of
the larger rail as seen from the center of the
track.
To overcome the use of bolted
compromise joints in main line track, welding
of the two dissimilar sections is considered
when the sections are almost identical.
Thermite weld kits are manufactured for this
situation. A recent design in tee rail-to-girder
rail joints is the use of a compromise rail
block, in which the rail sections of each rail
are machined at each end of a block of steel
and a common top of rail and gauge line is
developed in the machining process.
The
compromise block is then welded into the
track providing a boltless connection.
5.6.2.3
5.7 BALLAST
5.6.2.1
Non-glued
Insulated
Joints
Standard bolted insulated joints (non-glued)

consist of two coated insulated joint bars,
thimbles and end post bolted similar to a
regular track joint. Standard bolted insulation
joints are recommended for use only in bolted
jointed track, to provide electrical circuit
isolation.
5.6.2.2
Glued Bolted Insulated
Joints
Bolted Joints
In light rail transit systems, jointed track is

used only for very sharp curves with
restraining rail, maintenance yard facilities, or
Rail joints
secondary non-revenue
track.
consist of two joint bars on each side of the
rail and a series of track bolts with spring lock
AND SUBBALLAST
Ballast, the material used to support the ties

and rail, is an important component in the
track structure.
It is the integral part of the
track structure in the roadbed and the quality
5-25
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
of the ballast material has a direct relationship

to the track support system.
Light rail transit vehicles often exceed 45,500
kilograms (100,000 pounds) placing increased
importance on the track structure, particularly
Superior
the ballast quality and quantity.
ballast materials improve the track structure
performance and are an economical method
of increasing the track strength and the
modulus of elasticity
Ballast size or gradation is important to match

the type of crosstie to be used. The gradation
of the ballast determines the sieve size to be
used in the process of ballast grading.
The importance of the quality and type of

ballast material, along with standard test
methods for evaluating the ballast material,
cannot be overstated.
Table 5.3 lists the recommended

gradations
for light rail transit use with concrete and
timber crossties.
The quality of the ballast will be determined by

the choice of rock and the eventual testing of
the
rock,
followed
by observing
the
The
performance
in the track structure.
physical and chemical properties of the ballast
rock or stone can be determined by many
material tests and performance evaluations.
However, the true test of ballast performance
is to observe it in the real-life track structure.
57.1
No. 5 ballast has been used for yard

applications with timber crossties to provide
an easier walking surface.
The smaller
gradation may lead to earlier fouling of the
ballast and eventual lack of drainage.
No. 5
ballast is only recommended
when the yard
area is honeycombed
with an underlying
drainage
system and substantial
surface
drainage channels. Yard personnel, walking
within the yard area to service vehicles, will
most probably be provided with a paved
surface walkway.
Ballast Materials
Ballast should be a hard, dense mineral

aggregate with a specific configuration
of
many fractured faces, angular structure with
sharp edges, and with the minimum of
elongation.
57.1 .I Testing Ballast Materials

Ballast material should be tested for quality
through a series of tests undertaken by a
certified testing laboratory. The tests should
include:
1. ASTM C88: Soundness of Aggregates by
use of Sodium Sulfate (NaSOJ.
The
sodium
sulfate
soundness
test
is
conducted with the test sample saturated
with a solution of sodium sulfate.
This
test will appraise the soundness of the
aggregate.
Materials that do not meet
applicable test limits can be expected to
As a guideline, ballast material for light rail

transit use shall be as follows:
l
With Concrete Crossties
- Granite: a plutonic rock with an even
texture consisting of feldspar and
quartz.
- Traprock:
a dark-colored fine grain
non-granitic hypabyssal or extrusive
rock.
l
Granite
Traprock
Quartzite: granoblastic metamorphic
rock consisting of quartz and formed
by recrystallization of sandstone or
chert by metamorphism.
Carbonate:
sedimentary
rock
consisting
of carbonate
materials
such as limestone and dolomite.
With Timber Crossties
5-26
Track
Table 5.3
Nominal
Size Square
76 (3)
64 (2%)
and
Materials
Ballast Gradations
Percent
Size No
ComDonents
38 (1%)
51 (2)
Passing
25 (1)
19 (?A)
13 (x)
10(3/8)
Opening
Concrete
Crossties
O-IO
O-5
-1")
100
95-100
35-70
o-15
o-5
4A
51-19 (2" -T)
100
90-100
60-90
IO-35
O-IO
o-3
38-19
100
90-100
20-55
o-15
o-5
24
w-19(2%"-%")
5%25(2"
Timber
100
2560
90-100
Crossties
(iv-v)
deteriorate rapidly from weathering

freezing and thawing.
1.
Aggregates. The test for friable materials

identifies materials that are soft and
poorly bonded and results in separate
particles being detached from the mass.
The test can identify materials that will
deteriorate rapidly.
Clay in the ballast
material is determined by the same test
Excessive clay can restrict
method.
drainage and will promote the growth of
vegetation in the ballast section.
and
ASTM Cl 17: Tesf Method for Material

Finer than 75 micro-inch (No. 200 Sieve)
in Aggregates by Washing (including Dust
and Fracture). The concentration of fine
material below the 200 sieve in the ballast
material is determined by this ASTM test.
Excessive fines are produced in some
types
of crushing
and
processing
bperations and could restrict drainage and
foul the ballast section.
4.
Specific Gravity and

2. ASTM C127:
Specific
gravity
and
Absorption.
absorption are measured by this test
method.
Specific gravity in the Imperial
(English) measurement system relates to
weight and in the metric system to
A higher specific
gravity
density.
indicates a heavier material.
A stable
ballast material should possess
the
density properties shown in Table 5.4 to
provide suitable weight and mass to
provide support and alignment to the track
structure. Absorption measures the ability
of the material
to absorb
water.
Excessive absorption can result in rapid
deterioration
during wetting and drying
and freezing and thawing cycles.
3.
No
ASTM C142:
and
Lumps
Test Method for Clay

Friable
Particles
in
5-27
Test Method
for
ASTM C535:
Resistance to Degradation of LargeSize Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion
and Impact in the Los Angeles
Machine. The Los Angeles abrasion
test is a factor in determining the wear
characteristics
of ballast material.
The larger ballast gradations should
be tested in accordance with ASTM
C535, while ASTM C 131 is the wear
test for smaller gradations. Excessive
abrasion of an aggregate will result in
reduction of particle size, fouling,
decreased
drainage,
and loss of
supporting strength of the ballast
section. The Los Angeles abrasion
test can, however, produce laboratory
test results that are not indicative of
the field performance
of ballast
materials.
LightRailTrackDesign
Handbook
Table 5.4
Limiting
Values of Testing
for Ballast Material

Ballast Material
Property
Granite
Traprock
Quartzite
Limestone
Dolomitic
Limestone
Percent Material
Passing No. 200 Sieve
(maximum)
1 .O%
1 .O%
1.O%
1.O%
Bulk Specific Gravity

(minimum)
Absorption Percent
(maximum)
2.60
2.60
2.60
1.0
1.0
Clay Lumps and

Friable Particles
(maximum)
0.5%
Degradation
(maximum)
Soundness (Sodium
Sulfate) 5 Cycles
(maximum)
Flat and/or Elongated
Particles (maximum)
I.
Steel
Furnace
Slag
1.O%
ASTM
Test
1 0%
Blast
Furnace
Slag
1 .O%
2.60
2.65
2.30
2.90
Cl27
1.0
2.0
2.0
5.0
2.0
Cl27
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
Cl42
35%
25%
30%
30%
30%
40%
30%
c535
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
C88
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
D4791
ASTM D4791:
Test Method for F/at and
Elongated Particles. The test for flat and
elongated
particles uses one of three
dimension
ratios.
Track stability is
enhanced by eliminating flat or elongated
particles that exceed 5% of ballast weight.
Flat or elongated particles are defined as
particles that have a width to thickness or
length to width ratio greater than 3.
resulting in a higher crushing degradation load

on the ballast particles.
The selection of
material for ballasted concrete crosstie track
is more restrictive and must be limited to
granites and traprock.
The selection of
materials for ballast for timber crosstie track
can include
all the materials
listed in
Table 5.4.
Other
test procedures
exist for testing
potential
ballast materials,
such as the
Petrographic
Analysis and the Ballast Box
Test
performed
at
the
University
of
Massachusetts
campus.
The services of a
qualified
certified
specialist
and testing
laboratory in the field of geological materials is
recommended
to further refine the material
selection process and verify the suitability of a
quarry for potentially supplying ballast.
Table 5.4 lists the recommended

limiting
values for the ballast material tests. The
ballast guidelines for timber and concrete
crosstie
applications
are
based
on
experiences with concrete crosstie ballasted
track.
The
concrete
crosstie
load
characteristics
are quite different from the
timber crosstie loadings on ballasted track.
The concrete crosstie is heavier and less
flexible in absorbing
impact loads, thus
transmitting
a greater load to the ballast
5-28
Cl17
Track
5.7.2 Subballast Materials
Subballast material can be classified as

crushed stone natural or crushed gravel and
these
sands
or
a
mixture
of
materials.Subballast
should be a granular
base material placed over the top of the entire
embankment or roadbed.
It is graded and
compacted
to prevent penetration
of the
ballast. Subballast material that is impervious
should divert most of the water falling on the
track to the side ditches to prevent saturation
of the subgrade. Subballast material that is
impervious requires a layer of sand to be
placed between
the subballast
and the
subgrade to release the capillary water or
seepage of water below the subballast.
A
layer of non-woven geotextile will accomplish
this as well.
Materials
The prevailing
track
grade of the
connecting track is descending toward the
main line. The secondary track is used
for the storage of unattended
(parked)
vehicles.
The secondary track is a storage track for
track maintenance vehicles only.
The connecting
industrial siding
track.
track is a railroad
or at-grade
crossing
Derails are located so as to derail equipment

in the direction away from the main track.
Derails are available in various designs:
sliding block derail, hinged block derail, and
switch point derail.
Derails are generally
designed to derail the vehicle in a single
direction either to the right or left side of the
track.
5.8 TRACK DERAILS
Track derails are operating protective devices

designed
to stop
(derail)
unauthorized
vehicles from entering a specific track zone.
Generally the track zone is the operating
segment of the main line. The protection is
placed at all strategic track locations where
secondary
non-main
line operating
side
tracks,such
as pocket tracks, storage or
maintenance tracks, and, in some instances,
yard lead entry tracks connect to the main
line. Derails are occasionally used to prevent
vehicle or equipment movement onto portions
of track where vehicles, work crews, or
equipment are utilizing the designated track
space.
at
and
Derails are placed at the clearance point

(centers to be determined)
of all railroad
industrial tracks that connect to either an LRT
joint use track or to a railroad main track.
Derails are also used at other track locations
where they would be likely to prevent or
minimize injury to passengers and personnel
and/or damage to equipment.
The subballast layer must be of sufficient

shear strength to support and transfer the load
from the ballast to the subgrade.
Derails should be considered

connections to the main line where:
Components
The sliding and hinged block derails consist of

essentially two parts: the steel housing and
the derailing guide block. The sliding derail is
generally operated with a connecting switch
stand. The hinged derail is operated manually
by lifting the derailing block out of the way or
off the rail head.
The switch point derail is exactly as
described, a complete switch point (or two
points) placed in the track to derail when the
switch point is open.
As a guideline, the type of derail to be used
depends upon the site-specific conditions and
type of protection to be provided. Main line
track
5-29
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
expansion joint is fixed and connected to a

rigid no-movement portion of rail. The other
end consists of the expandable moveable rail
which is allowed to slide in and out of a
The expansion joint
designed guideway.
simulates a switch point and stock rail type of
installation with the expansion rail being the
curved stock rail.
track exposed to the intrusion of heavily

loaded cars, multiple car trains, physical track
conditions that permit the intruding cars to
gain momentum in advance of the derail, and
tight curvature on the siding track lead to the
occasional failure of block derails. The switch
point derail provides the greatest assurance
that all wheels of the vehicle will be derailed.
5.9 RAIL EXPANSION
Expansion joints in the track system present

problems, from both a track maintenance and
an environmental
perspective.
Due to the
discontinuous running rail surface and the
special trackwork sliding rail joint component,
extra maintenance is required to maintain the
joint and adjacent rails and to monitor the
position of the loose rail end to ensure that
sufficient
space is available
for further
The
specific
design
of the
expansion.
expansion
joint within the discontinuous
running rail surface introduces
additional
noise and vibration.
JOINTS
Continuously welded rail in long strings does

not expand or contract with changes in
temperature, unless there is a break in the
rail. This type of installation introduces high
thermal stress in the rail as the temperature
changes.
In certain structures, the interaction between
the CWR and the structure makes it desirable
to limit rail stresses from thermal forces. This
can be accomplished by allowing the rail to
move freely within defined zones.
A
combination of low-restraint track fasteners
and rail expansion
joints
allows
this
movement to take place safely. The use of
low-restraint fasteners at structural expansion
joints allows the structure to breathe without
overstressing the rails. The rails must also be
anchored between expansion zones with highrestraint fasteners,
in order to transfer
acceleration
and braking forces into the
structure.
As a guideline, rail expansion joints in

ballasted track or direct fixation track are only
recommended
for long bridges or aerial
structures. They are also needed at the fixed
span approach to a movable bridge.
Exceptions to this guideline include embedded
track on an aerial structure, wherein the rail is
an integral part of the deck structure and the
design does not allow the structure to move
independently from the rail. In this situation,
an embedded
expansion rail joint at the
expansion end of the structure is a definite
requirement.
For this reason, the use of
embedded track on an aerial structure is not
recommended and should be avoided in the
initial planning phase when considering the
types of transit operation modes.
In high-restraint areas, a conventional direct

fixation fastener is utilized, and the structure is
designed to accept the thermal stress loads
generated by movement of the structure. The
expansion or contraction of low-restraint rail
emanates from the high-restraint zone and is
bounded on the other end by a rail expansion
joint.
5.10 END OF TRACK STOPS
Rail expansion joints are designed to allow for

a specific length of thermal rail expansion and
One end of the
contraction to occur.
As important as the tangent and curved track

is throughout the transit system, the end of
5-30
Track
track cannot be overlooked.

There is a
requirement to protect the passengers and
pedestrians (on and off the vehicles), the
operators,
the vehicles,
the track and
surrounding
structures.
Bumping
posts,
stops, and retarders are used to prevent an
accidental overrun vehicle derailment at the
end of track.
The capabilities of the track
stops are limited to halting the vehicle entirely
with minimal damage to the vehicle and
stopping the vehicle with the minimum of
impact to the passengers on board.
The end stop is the point of impact, the
location where kinetic energy has to be
dissipated. The kinetic energy is determined
considering the mass or weight of the vehicle
or vehicles (train) and the velocity of the
vehicle or train. The kinetic energy (KE) can
be calculated using the following formula:
Components
and
Materials
third parties, and surrounding

structures.
Each agencys
requirements
are studied
individually and are site specific
Assuming
the 0.39 deceleration
rate is
selected, the next decision is to determine the
type of end stop capable of providing this
deceleration rate.
To absorb 1,998 kJ of kinetic energy at a
deceleration
rate of 0.3 g, the distance
traveled after initial impact would have to be
3.39 meters (11.12 feet) calculated in the
following manner
2
Distance = Vat+%
2
V= velocity of train in m/set
t= time to stop in seconds
d= deceleration
rate(-x l 9.81 m/set*)
x = deceleration negative
MxV*
KE=-
4.47
t=L
d*
200,OOOkgx (4.47)*
0.3 x 9.81 mlsec
= 1 52 seconds
2
From Above Distance
= 1,998,09OJ or 1,998kJ
dot2
=V l t+ 2
where : M = mass of the vehicle or train
44.47*,.52)+
= 200 Tonnes (1 Tonne = 1000 kg)

V =velocity
of vehicle or train
4.47 meter/seccnd
rate (selected)
(-o.~y4*w2
= 3.39 meters (ll.l*feet)
(10 MPH)
The standards for end stops consist of the

following:
0 Warning Signs
l
Fixed Non-Energy Absorbing Devices
l
Fixed Energy Absorbing Devices
l
Friction Energy Absorbing Devices
To safely absorb this amount of energy with

little damage to the vehicle (train) or injury to
passengers
or the operator requires an
elaborate end stop with extensive capacity.
To absorb this amount of energy without
causing
severe
injury to operator
or
passengers, an acceptable deceleration rate
must be selected. The transit agency should
select the rate of deceleration; a rate of 0.3 g
is an acceptable
deceleration.
The
establishment
of a deceleration
rate will
consider the likelihood of injury to passengers
and operators and damage to the vehicles,
5.10.1 Warning
Signs
Ideal
conditions,
alert
operators,
no
mechanical vehicle or signal failures, and a
well-illuminated
warning
sign should be
adequate for the train operator to bring the
vehicle or train to a safe controlled stop.
5-31
Light
Rail Track
Design
510.2
Fixed Non-energy
Devices
Handbook
withstand the forces at impact.

As noted
above, the displacement distance of the stop
at impact governs the magnitude of g forcethe longer the distance the lower the g force
The anchoring stability of the end stop to the
substrata governs the amount of energy that
can be absorbed by the stroke of the shock
absorber.
Absorbing
Most fixed non-energy absorbing end stops

(bumping posts) do no more than delineate
the end of track. The end stops appear sturdy
since they are bolted to the rail, however, they
have little ability to absorb anything but a very
minimal amount of kinetic energy.
impact
often results in breaking of the rail, potential
derailment, and damage to the vehicle.
5.10.4
(or Sliding)
End Stops
Friction type end stops absorb the kinetic

energy of stopping a vehicle or train by sliding
along the end of track (see Figure 5.10.1).
This sliding action converts the energy to
friction heat at the rail surface. The friction
end stops consist of two types:
l
Units that are clamped to the rail
l
Units that are mounted on skids that slide
with the weight of vehicle upon them,
dissipating
the energy
between
the
wooden skids and the concrete base of
track structure.
A positive fixed non-energy stop will halt

heavy vehicles or trains exists at the expense
of vehicle damage and personnel injury.
These stops consist of a solid concrete and
steel barriers generally located at end of
tracks in the older railroad stations.
5.10.3 Fixed Energy Absorbing
Friction
Devices
Fixed energy absorbing devices can be either

non-resetting or resetting.
Friction end stops have the highest energy

absorption of all regularly installed structures.
Friction stops can be designed to cover a wide
range of energy absorption situations from
single vehicle to multi-vehicle trains of various
mass. The combination
of resetting shock
absorbers and friction end stops can allow a
friction end stop to accept light impacts
without negotiating the friction end stop while
providing
the higher
friction end stop
protection for ultimate situations.
5.10.3.1 Non-resetting
fixed devices
Non-resetting fixed devices (bumping posts)
include sand traps, ballast mounds and timber
tie stops. These devices dissipate the kinetic
energy upon vehicle impact. Sand traps and
ballast mounds are effective in stopping large
loads or trains; however, derailment of the
initial vehicle is inevitable. Under severe cold
weather conditions the sand and ballast can
freeze, reducing the cushioning effect and
possibly causing additional vehicle damage.
The barrier would have to be rebuilt after
experiencing an impact.
Transit conditions have potential use for the

various end of track stops, as follows:
l
Main Line End of Track (Ballasted-Direct
Fixation):
friction/sliding end stop with
resetting shock absorber, if track sliding
distance available.
5.10.3.2 Resetting Fixed Devices

Resetting fixed devices are self-resetting and
contain an energy-absorbing
feature, such as
a hydraulic, elastomeric, or spring shock
absorber.
Resetting stops are limited in
amount of energy the shock absorber can
dissipate and the stop structures capability to
5-32
Track
Components
and
Materials
6A
GUIDE
CLAW
MOUNTING
SECTKH A
GUIDE CLAW
GAUGE 1435
(4-8
FRICTION
ELEMENT
DEVICE
scam
FRICTION
l/2)
FRONT MEW
Figure 510.1
Friction
Element
5-33
Buffer Stop i8J
B
ELEMENT
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Manual
Main Line End of Track (Embedded):

Same as above, if conditions warrant, or a
resetting track stop anchored to the
substrata.
Main Line End of Track (Aerial-Direct
Fixation):
friction/sliding end stop with
resetting shock absorber; track distance
must be provided.
Yard Tracks (Maintenance Tracks): fixed
non-energy absorbing devices, bumping
posts anchored to the track
Storage Tracks: resetting
anchored to the track.
PI
The Rail Wheel Interface:

Refining
profiles to transit applications,
Joe
Kalousek & Eric Mogel, Railway Track
& Structures - Sept 1997.
[31
Managing
Rail
Resources,
Joe
Kalousek
& Eric Magel, American
Railway
Engineering
Association,
Volume 98 Bulletin 760, May 1997.
[41
Performance of High Strength Rails in

Track-Curico/Marich/Nisich,
Rail
Research Papers, Vol. 1 - BHP Steel.
Fl
Development
of Improved Rail and
Wheel
Materials
- Marich,
BHP
Melbourne Research, Vol. 1.
PI
Riflex comes to America,

Railroads, July 1985.
[71
AREA Manual, Chapter 1, Roadway

and Ballast, Part 2 Ballast, 1996.
PI
H. J. Skelton,
fixed devices
Maintenance
Shop Tracks:
Fixed
Resetting
Energy
Absorbing
Device
anchored to the structure floor.
(Nonmovable).
Modem
5.11 REFERENCES
Ill
Reducing
Rail
costs
Through
Innovative Methods, Norm Harper BC
Rail Railway Track and Structures July
1993.
5-34
Illustration.
Chapter
(i-special
Trackwork
Table of Contents
6-1
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 DEFINITION
OF SPECIAL TRACKWORK
6.2.1 Basic Special Trackwork

6.3 LOCATION
OF TURNOUTS
Principles
AND CROSSOVERS
6.3.1 Horizontal Track Geometry Restrictions

6.3.1 .I Adjacent Horizontal Track Geometry in the Vicinity
of a Switch
6.3.1.2 Turnouts on Curves
6.3.1.3 Track Crossings on Curves
6.3.1 4 Superelevation in Special Trackwork
6.3.2 Vertical Track Geometry Restrictions
6.3.3 Track Design Restrictions on Location of Special Trackwork
6.3.4 Interdisciplinary Restrictions on Location of
Special Trackwork
6.3.4.1 Overhead Contact System Interface
6.3.4.2 Train Control/Signaling Interface
6.3.5 Miscellaneous Restrictions on Location of
Special Trackwork
6.351
Construction Restrictions
6.3.5.2 Clearance Restrictions
6.353
High Volume of Diverging Movements
6.3.5.4 Track Stiffness
6.3.5.5 Noise and Vibration Issues
6.4 TURNOUT
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
6.45
6.4.6
6.4.7
6-1
6-2
6-7
6-9
6-9
6-9
6-l 0
6-l 0
6-10
6-l 1
6-l 1
6-l 1
6-12
6-12
6-12
6-12
6-12
6-13
6-l 3
6-13
SIZE SELECTION
Diverging Speed Criteria

Turnout Size Selection Guidelines
Sharp Frog Angle/Tight Radius Turnouts
Equilateral Turnouts
Curved Frog
Slip Switches and Lapped Turnouts
Track Crossings
6.5 SWITCH DESIGN
6.51 Conventional Tee Rail Split Switches

6.5.2 Tangential Geometry Switches
6.5.3 Uniform and Graduated Risers
6.5.4 Switches for Embedded Track
654.1
North American Tongue Switch Designs
6.5.4.2 European Tongue Switch Designs
6.5.4.3 Switch Tongue Operation and Control
6-i
6-l 9
6-19
6-20
6-20
6-21
6-21
6-21
6-22
6-22
6-22
6-24
6-25
6-26
6-28
6-28
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
6.5.4.4 Embedded Switch Drainage

6.545
Design Guidelines for Embedded Switches
6.55 Fully Guarded Tee Rail Switch Designs
6.5.6 Switch Point Detail
6.6 FROGS
6.6.1 Frog Design
6.6.2 Frog Design Modifications
6.6.3 Flange-Bearing Frogs
6.6.3.1 Flangeway Depth
6.6.3.2 Flangeway Ramping
6.6.3.3 Flange-Bearing Frog Construction
6.6.3.4 Speed Considerations at Flange-Bearing
6.6.3.5 Wheel Flange Interface
6.6.4 Spring and Movable Point Frogs
6.6.5 Lift Over (Jump) Frogs
6.6.6 Frog Running Surface Hardness
Frogs
6-29
6-29
6-30
6-31
6-32
6-32
6-33
6-34
6-34
6-34
6-35
6-35
6-35
6-36
6-36
6-36
6.7 FROG GUARD RAILS
6-36
6.8 WHEEL TREAD CLEARANCE
6-39
6.9 SWITCH TIES
6-39
6.10 RESTRAINING
RAIL FOR GUARDED
6.11 PRECURVINGISHOP
6-40
TRACK
CURVING OF RAIL
6.11 .l Shop Curving Rail Horizontally

6.11.2 Shop Curving Rail Vertically for Special Trackwork
6.12 PROPRIETARY SPECIAL TRACKWORK
LIMITED SOURCES OF SUPPLY
6-40
6-40
6-40
DESIGNS AND
6-44
6.13 SHOP ASSEMBLY
6-44
6.14 REFERENCES
6-U
List of Figures
Figure 6.2.1 Turnout
63
Layout
Figure 6.2.2 Single Crossover

Figure 6.2.3 Double Crossover
Figure 6.2.4 Single-Track
Track-Two
6-6
Turnouts
Track-Four
and Double-Track
Turnouts
Crossings
and Crossing
6-6
6-7
6-8
Figure 6.2.5 Single Slip Switch

Figure 6.2.6 Double Switch Lap Turnout-Three
Frogs
6-8
Figure 6.2.7 Full Grand Union
6-8
Figure 6.2.8 Half Grand Union
6-9
6-ii
Special
Figure
6.4.1 Turnout
Figure
6.4.2 Number 6 Turnout-Ballasted

13 Curved Switch Points
Timber

19-6 Curved Switch Points
Timber
Figure
Figure
and Crossover
6.4.5
Figure
6.5.1 2~1-60 Rail Section
Figure 6.5.2
Ties with
6-16
Ties with
6-l 7

19-6 Curved Switch Points
Figure
6-15
Data and Arrangement
Timber Ties with

6-18
Typical Curved Frog Turnout
Tongue Switch
7A Rail
for Switch
6-23
6-24
Point
and Mate-Non-embedded
149 RE
6-26
Figure 6.5.3 ATEA 75 Radius Solid Manganese
Tongue
Switch
6-27
Tongue
Switch
6-28
Fabricated
Steel Double
Figure 6.5.5 Embedded Tee Rail Switch-Equilateral

Steel Cover Plates, Epoxy Filler
Figure 6.5.6 Fully Guarded
Figure
House
Turnout,
6-29
Top Switch
6-30
6.5.7 Fully Guarded Turnout-l

15 RE Rail Switch
House Top and Double Point Guarding
with
6-31
Figure 6.5.8 Switch Point and Stock Rail Details
6-32
Figure 6.6.1 Monoblock
6-33
Frog Details
Figure 6.6.2 Plan View at Frog Area with 45-mm
Flangeway
6-33
Figure 6.6.3 Section
at 15-mm Frog Point
6-34
at 15mm
6-34
Frog Point, Flange Bearing
637
Figure 6.6.5 Lift Over Frog Design

Figure 6.9.1 No. 8 Turnout-Ballasted
5944 Curved Switch
Figure 6.9.2 No. 10 Turnout-Ballasted
5944 Curved Switch
Concrete
Ties with
6-42
Concrete
Ties with
6-43
6-iii
Trackwork
CHAPTER
6-SPECIAL
TRACKWORK
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Light rail systems that are located in urban

streets, particularly those that are located in
Central Business Districts with narrow rightsof-way, often have sharp curves.
This
constraint often requires light rail special
trackwork to be designed for a specific
location, with unique parts.
Light rail vehicles, like all steel flange wheeled

railway equipment, need to be able to transfer
from one track to another or to cross other
tracks. The fabricated track systems needed
to support and steer the car at these locations
are collectively called special trackwork. It is
presumed that most readers of this chapter
are generally familiar with the layout and use
of common special trackwork terms. Readers
who are new to the topic can find a brief
primer on basic concepts and terminology in
Section 6.2.1.
6.2 DEFINITION OF SPECIAL

TRACKWORK
Special trackwork is customarily defined as

all rails, track structures and fittings, other
than plain unguarded track, that is neither
curved nor fabricated before laying. ~1Hence,
any track can be considered special trackwork
that is built in whole or part using rails that are
machined, bent, or otherwise modified from
their as-rolled condition.
This includes any
additional track components that may take the
place of rails in supporting and guiding the
wheels, as well as miscellaneous components
that may be attached to the rails to fulfill the
functions
required.
The term is often
contracted and called simply specialwork.
Readers with a background in railway track

design will note pronounced
differences
between requirements for special trackwork
for light rail transit (LRT) systems and those
for other types of railways.
In general,
designers can expect to find that special
trackwork design requirements on a light rail
system will be more numerous and more
complex than those encountered
on other
types of railways.
In addition, sources of
supply will be more limited than they may be
used to.
In general, the following items are customarily

included in special trackwork:
l
Turnouts
and
crossovers,
including
switches, frogs, guard rails, stock rails
and
closure
rails;
rail
fastening
assemblies
unique to turnouts;
and
miscellaneous
components
associated
with turnouts, including switch rods and
gauge plates. Crossover tracks, double
crossovers, and single and double slip
switches are included in this category.
Most turnouts that are available for tangent

track
are
standardized
for
simplified
manufacture and installation, both of original
equipment
and replacements
for worn
components.
These turnouts are intended for
installation in tangent track, without any
vertical curvature. One of the most common
design deficiencies
is the placement
of
turnouts within horizontal or vertical curves.
Construction and maintenance of curved track
is difficult and expensive.
Superimposed
special trackwork only exacerbates
those
problems.
It is recommended
that
standardized
trackwork
be used on flat
tangent track whenever possible.
6-1
Track crossings that permit one track to

cross another at grade. Such crossings
can be designed as a rigid block or can
include movable center points.
By
Light
Rail
definition,
crossing.
l
Track
Design
slip switches
Handbook
include
movable rails that flex back and forth and

intercept the wheel flanges to direct them
to the appropriate track. In its usual form,
a switch point rail consists of a plain rail
that has been machined and bent into an
elongated wedge shape that is sharp on
one end. This pointed end is known as
the point of switch. The opposite end is
known as the heel of switch. Switches
come in various lengths and can be either
straight or curved. In general, the longer
the switch point rail, the more gradual the
angle of divergence from the main track
and the faster the rail vehicle can travel
through it. The switch point rails, together
with the stock rails (described below) and
associated fastenings and mechanisms,
are collectively called the switch.
a track
Restraining rail, either bolted to a parallel

running rail or supported independent of
the running rail.
Shop curved rail of any type, including
rails that are precurved in the horizontal
plane, the vertical orientation, or both.
Turnouts, crossovers, and track crossings will

be addressed
directly
in this chapter.
Information
on restraining
rail and shop
curved rail can be found in Chapters 4 and 5.
6.2.1 Basic Special Trackwork
Principles
The most common form of special trackwork

is the turnout, which permits two tracks to
merge with each other. A simplified layout of
a turnout is illustrated in Figure 6.2.1. The
turnout itself consists of several fundamental
elements:
l
The switch point rails (often called either
the switch points or the point rails) are the
The stock rails are the rails which the

switch point rails lay against when in the
closed position.
The stock rails are
otherwise
ordinary
rails
that
are
machined, drilled and bent as required to
suit the design of the switch point rails.
POINT OF SWlTCH
THEORETICAL POINT OF FROG

I
CURVED SWlTCH
POINT RAIL
THEORETICAL LEAD DISTANCE
-7
\
/-
HEEL OF SIMIC)-CLOSURE
RAILS
STRAIGHT S
POINT RAIL
______-____-____
SMTCH THROWN
MECHANISMCURVED STOCK RAI
RUNNING RAILS
INTERMEDIATE RAILS
Figure 6.2.1 Turnout
6-2
Layout
LS
Special
The frog is an assembly placed where

one rail of a track must cross a rail of
Openings called flangeways
another.
must be provided through the top surface
of the frog so that the flanges on the
vehicle wheel can pass through.
The
intersection of the gauge lines of the two
intersecting
rails is known as the
theoretical point of frog. The theoretical
point of frog would be a razor sharp tip
that would quickly wear and fracture in
service. Therefore, the intersecting rails
are cut back a short distance to a location
known as the actual point of frog, where
the metal will have enough rigidity to
withstand the effects of service wear. The
end of the frog closest to the switch rails
is known as the toe of frog; the opposite
end is known as the heel of frog.
Typically, both rails passing through a frog
are straight, although it is possible for one
or both rails to be curved. Straight frogs
are commonly designated by a number
that indicates the ratio of divergence of
one rail to the other. In a Number IO frog,
the two rails will diverge at a ratio of one
unit laterally for every ten units of frog
length.
In a Number
8 frog, the
divergence ratio will be one to eight, etc.
The higher the frog number, the more
acute the angle of divergence and the
faster the rail vehicle will be able to travel
through it.
Trackwork
straight or main track closure rail is known

as the turnout lead distance.
Additional components that are common on a
turnout include:
.
Guard Rails are supplemental
rails,
placed inboard of the main running rails
that support the railcar wheels.
They
define a narrow flangeway to steer and
control the path of the flanged wheel.
Guard rails are positioned opposite the
frogs so as to ensure that the wheel
flange does not strike the point of frog or
take the wrong flangeway.
l
Heel Blocks are splicing units placed at

the heel of the switch that provide a
location for the switch to pivot as well as
a fixed
connection
between
the
intersecting rails.
A switch operating device.
Switch rails
can move from one orientation to another
by either a hand-operated switch stand or
a mechanically or electro-mechanically
operated switch machine. In both cases,
the switch machines are positioned at the
beginning of the turnout opposite the tips
of the switch rails.
Various arrangements of individual turnouts

create
various
track
layouts,
thereby
permitting
alternative
train
operation
scenarios:
A single crossover (Figure 6.22) consists
of two turnouts positioned in two tracks
that allow the vehicle to go from one track
to another. The two tracks are usually,
but not always, parallel, and the turnouts
are usually identical.
The closure rails are the straight or curved

rails that are positioned in between the
The length and
switch and the frog.
radius of the closure rails are dictated by
the angles of the switch and the frog.
Combinations of short switches with large
angles and similar frogs will result in a
sharp radius curve through the closure rail
areas that will limit vehicle speed. The
distance between the point of switch and
the point of the frog measured along the
A double
crossover
(Figure
6.2.3)
consists of two crossovers of opposite
hand orientation superimposed upon each
other.
In addition to the four turnouts
involved, a track crossing (see below) is
needed between the two main tracks. A
double crossover is used only when it is
6-3
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
then the four frogs will be identical.

If
angle is not 90, then the crossing will
elongated along one diagonal axis called
long diagonal and the end frogs will
different from the center frogs.
necessary to be able to switch from one

track to another in either direction and
there is insufficient space to install two
independent single crossovers of opposite
hand orientation.
Another common type of special trackwork is
the track crossing.
As the name implies, this
specialwork permits two tracks to cross each
Track crossings are often called
other.
crossing diamonds or simply diamoncfs, due to
the plan view shape that they have when
looking diagonally across the tracks (see
Figure 6.2.4).
The intersecting
angle
between the two tracks can be 90 or less, but
crossings under approximately 15 are rarely
encountered.
In its simplest form, a track
crossing is simply four frogs arranged in a
square or parallelogram. The tracks through a
crossing can be either straight or curved.
Straight tracks are preferred since it makes
the unit symmetrical,
thereby simplifying
design, fabrication and maintenance.
If the
crossing angle between straight tracks is 90,
If the angle of the intersecting tracks is less

than that in a Number 6 frog (9 31 38) it is
usually necessary to use a movable point
crossing.
Movable
point
crossings
incorporate movable rails in the two frogs
closest to the center of the crossing.
Depending on the position of these movable
rails, a flangeway will be provided for one
track or the other, but not both simultaneously.
Movable point frogs are needed on flat-angle
crossings since it is otherwise impossible to
ensure that the wheel flange will follow the
correct flangeway path through the center
frogs of the crossing diamond. The movable
rails in a movable point crossing are called
knuckle rails and are usually operated by the
same type of equipment
used to move
switches.
TURNOUT B
TURNOUT A
Figure 6.2.2 Single Crossover-Two
TURNOUT C
Turnouts
CROSSING (DIAMOND) E
TURNOUT B
TURNOUT D
Figure 6.2.3 Double
the
be
the
be
TURNOUT A
Crossover-Four
6-4
Turnouts
and Crossing
Special
SINGLE TRACK
CROSSING(DIAMOND)
Figure
62.4
Single-Track
Trackwork
DOUBLE TRACK
CROSSING (DIAMONDS)
and Double-Track
If it is necessary to be able to switch from one

track to another at a flat-angle crossing and
space constraints
make it impossible to
provide separate turnouts outside of the limits
of the diamond, a slip swifch can be installed.
A slip switch superimposes two switches and
curved closure rails on top of an elongated
track crossing as shown in Figure 6.2.5. A
double slip switch provides that same routing
capability along both sides of a track crossing
as shown in phantom line on the figure.
Crossings
have been used on some modern light rail

systems when space was extremely limited.
Lap turnouts can be used to achieve a more
compact track layout in constrained locations.
In a lap turnout, as seen in Figure 6.2.6, the
switch rails for a second turnout will be placed
between the switch and the frog of the initial
turnout. This introduces a third frog where a
closure rail of the first turnout crosses a
closure rail of the second.
Lap turnouts, movable point crossings, slip
switches, and double slip switches are all very
costly to design, fabricate,
install, and
maintain, A more economical track system is
achieved when the special trackwork consists
only of turnouts and simple track crossings.
Combinations of turnouts and track crossings

are used to produce
route junctions.
Junctions can range from very simple to very
complex as seen in Figures 6.2.6 to 6.2.8.
The most complex junctions can occur in the
central business districts of urban areas when
two double-track routes cross one another.
Figure 6.2.7 illustrates a Grand Union, an
extremely complex arrangement that permits
a vehicle entering a junction from any
direction to exit it on any of the other three
legs.
A junction that resembles
a T
intersection would require a half grand union
(see Figure 6.2.8) to provide the same routing
flexibility. Such complex junction layouts were
common on traditional streetcar systems and
6.3 LOCATION OF TURNOUTS

CROSSOVERS
AND
The ideal location for turnouts, crossings and

crossovers is in flat and straight sections of
track. If special trackwork is installed in track
with horizontal curves, superelevation,
or
6-5
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
SINGLE SLIP
MOVABLE CENTER
POINTS
_____.__e
-.-----
._.-.-.-.-.-.-,
____.____________ -----0----_______
__.___.-___
______________------__.-.-.-_-.-.-_
--.-.-.-.-.
END SWITCH
POINTS
__.____ ___-.----------
(PHANTOM INCLUDED)
Figure 6.2.5 Single Slip Switch
TURNOUT A
Figure 6.2.6 Double
Switch Lap Turnout-Three
Figure 6.2.7 Full Grand Union
Frogs
_.__-.---
Special
Trackwork
Figure 6.2.8 Half Grand Union
located in advance of the switch, the turnout

should be positioned with the point of switch
beyond the limits of the restraining rail.
vertical curves, the ability of the trackwork to

perform
in a satisfactory
manner
is
compromised.
Trackwork designers should
work closely with their counterparts who are
defining transit operations requirements and
setting route geometry, so that turnouts and
crossovers are not placed in difficult locations
and the overall requirements
for special
trackwork are minimized.
Horizontal curves that are located beyond the

heel of the frog should generally be positioned
beyond the last long tie of the switch set.
Horizontal curves can be placed on the long
timbers within 0.5 meters (20 inches) of the
heel joint of the frog. However, special switch
tie or track concrete layout will be required. If
the curve is guarded, and the restraining rail is
on the frog side of the alignment, the curve
should be located so that the restraining rail
terminates prior to the heel joint of the frog. If
this is not possible, the restraining rail should
be run into the frog and be continuous with the
frog wing rail to provide continuous guarding
action.
6.3.1 Horizontal Track Geometry

Restrictions
6.3.1 .I Adjacent Horizontal Track

Geometry in the Vicinity of a
Switch
Switch point rails direct vehicle wheelsets in
an abrupt change of direction, making it highly
desirable that wheels be rolling smoothly as
they approach the switch. To best ensure that
wheel flanges can be smoothly intercepted by
switch point rails, tangent track should be
placed immediately in front of the switch. The
absolute minimum length of tangent track in
advance of the point of the switch should be
no less than 3 meters (10 feet) and much
greater distances -10 to 15 meters (33 to 50
feet)-are
desirable.
If a guarded curve is
6.3.1.2 Turnouts on Curves

Turnouts can be constructed within curved
track
in difficult
alignment
conditions.
Railroad operating
personnel
will state,
however, that turnouts on curves provide a
poor quality
ride.
Track maintenance
personnel contend that the curved turnouts
consume a disproportionate
amount of their
maintenance
budgets.
Therefore, turnouts
6-7
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
and crossovers should only be located in

horizontally tangent track, except under the
most unusual and constrained
conditions.
This will ensure that the track geometry
through the special trackwork unit will be as
uniform as possible, thereby improving wheel
tracking and extending the life of both the
special trackwork unit and the vehicle that
operates over it.
the main track is located on a curve. The

correct amount of superelevation for one hand
of the turnout will be incorrect for the other
and
an
excessive
underbalance
or
overbalance
could result.
A particularly
dangerous situation occurs with a turnout to
the outside of the curve, where a severe
negative superelevation
situation could be
created on the diverging track. In ballasted
track, normal deterioration of the track surface
could quickly result in the diverging track
becoming operationally unsafe.
A turnout on a curve must be custom

designed. The design objective should be to
provide an alignment that is as smooth and
uniform as possible.
Designers should note
that
this turnout
geometry
will differ
appreciably
from ordinary turnouts located
along tangent track.
Parameters such as
turnout lead distance and closure rail offsets
will be distinctly different from those of a
standard lateral turnout with the same frog
number.
Several good books exist on the
subject, including Allens Railroad Curves &
Earthwork.
When a superelevated
curve is required
beyond
the
frog
of a turnout,
the
superelevation should begin beyond the last
long tie of the switch set in a ballasted track
turnout.
In a direct fixation track turnout,
superelevation
can physically begin earlier,
although typically not within 500 millimeters
(20 inches) of the heel joint of the frog.
6.3.2 Vertical
Track Geometry
Restrictions
Turnouts,
crossovers and track crossings
should be located on tangent profile grades
whenever possible.
This is because the
critical portions of a turnout-the
switch and
the frog-are
too rigid to conform to a vertical
curve, which will cause the switch points to
bind. The area between the switch and the
frog can theoretically be curved vertically, but
this practice is discouraged since ordinary
construction tolerances make it difficult to
confine the curvature to the closure rail area.
Vertical track curvature outside of the turnout
area should also be restricted; the absolute
minimum distance from the switch and frog
will depend on the type of track structure. In
the case of ballasted track, for example, it is
not practical
to introduce
any vertical
curvature until after the last long tie of the
switch set.
6.3.1.3 Track Crossings on Curves

Either one or both tracks of a crossing
(diamond) may be located in horizontally
curved track if required by the selected
alignment.
This is often a requirement at a
route junction. At such locations, it is typically
allowable to have one or both sides of the
track crossing on a curved alignment.
In
general, however, curved crossings should be
avoided because they are typically one-of-akind units and hence very expensive
to
procure, maintain, and ultimately replace. In
addition, the crossing must be flat, without
superelevation.
This has a detrimental impact
on the operation of trains over curved track.
6.3.1.4
Superelevation
in Special
Trackwork
Superelevation should not be used within any
turnout, crossover, or track crossing, even if
6-8
Special
In difficult alignment
conditions,
vertical
curvature at or near a turnout location may be
necessary.
If it is not possible to avoid a
vertical curve within a turnout, every effort
should be made to avoid non-standard track
components,
such as switch point rails or
frogs, that must be shop-fabricated
with a
vertical curve. Generally, special designs can
be avoided if the middle ordinate of the
vertical curve in the length of any switch point
rail or frog is less than 1 millimeter (0.040
inches).
Trackwork
required, the track designer should either

detail the tie layout or require the track
fabricator to provide a submittal of the
proposed layout In the latter case, the track
designers should be certain ahead of time that
a workable tie layout is possible.
It is
absolutely essential that switch ties supporting
switches are perpendicular
to the straight
track. This is a problem when switches are
placed immediately beyond a frog on the
curved side of a turnout.
Special trackwork in embedded track can be
particularly
complicated
and should
be
minimized.
Route intersections within street
intersections can be phenomenally
complex
and require intricate plans and pre-delivery
assembly on the factory floor. When special
trackwork must be located in embedded track,
it should be positioned so that pedestrians are
not exposed to switch point rails and switch
operating mechanisms and frogs are not
positioned in pedestrian paths.
Reliable
signal
systems
and
switch
operating
mechanisms for embedded track turnouts are
also difficult to procure and maintain as noted
in Sections 6.3.4.1 and 6.5.4.3.
6.3.3 Track Design Restrictions on

Location of Special Trackwork
While special trackwork can be required in
ballasted, direct fixation, and embedded track
sections, turnouts are most economical to
procure, construct and maintain in ballasted
track.
Alignment design should minimize
special trackwork
requirements
in direct
fixation and embedded track environments,
because these elements are expensive to
procure, construct and maintain. Exceptions
can be made, for example, when route
geometry forces a particularly complex special
trackwork layout with multiple turnouts and
track crossings. It is often particularly difficult
to design a satisfactory switch tie layout under
such complex layouts and even more difficult
to renew
defective
switch
ties during
subsequent
maintenance
cycles.
In such
special circumstances,
the use of direct
fixation special trackwork
track may be
preferable to a ballasted configuration.
6.3.4 Interdisciplinary
Restrictions
on
Special trackwork should be located so as to
minimize requirements for special Overhead
Contact System (OCS) and train control/
signaling system structures and devices.
6.3.4.1 Overhead Contact System Interface

The installation of catenaty is complicated by
the presence of turnouts and crossovers.
Additional wires, pull off poles, and insulating
sections are needed to provide a smooth ride
for the pantograph.
Electrically isolating the
opposite bound main tracks is particularly
difficult at double crossovers if the adjacent
tracks are close together.
These conditions
Yard trackage, which is usually ballasted,

often requires that successive turnouts be
constructed close to each other. The track
designer should verify that turnouts are
sufficiently spaced to permit standard switch
ties to be installed and to permit maintenance
personnel to renew individual switch ties.
When special switch tie arrangements
are
6-9
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
should be discussed
with the catenary
designer to ensure that the catenary can be
economically constructed.
special trackwork
unit, including guarded
This will ensure that one
curved track.
contractor
will be responsible
for the
uniformity of the horizontal and vertical track
alignment through the special trackwork unit.
6.3.4.2 Train Control/Signaling

Interface
Switch machines that comply with North
American signal system standards are difficult
to obtain for fully guarded open track turnouts
and are not available for tongue switch
The principal
embedded
track turnouts.
problem is that proper switch locking is
required for automatic routing at design track
speed. Many rail transit systems require train
operators to stop, verify switch position, and
then proceed at any turnout that is not
equipped with a locking switch device. This
causes delays and, for this reason alone,
designers are strongly encouraged to avoid
these types of turnouts. In addition, the track
circuits that are needed to determine track
occupancy are more difficult to install and
maintain
in embedded
track since the
embedment material will restrict access to key
areas where unintended shunts can cause
signals to drop. Accordingly, embedded track
switches should be avoided to the maximum
degree possible.
6.3.5.2 Clearance Restrictions

Special trackwork should be located with
adequate
clearances
from
trackside
obstructions.
For example,
unless the
vehicles are equipped with automatic bridge
plates for pedestrian access, tangent track is
required alongside platforms to meet the tight
tolerances
required
by Americans
with
Disabilities Act (ADA). If a station platform is
located ahead of a point of switch, the
minimum tangent distance between the end of
the platform and the point of switch should be
equal to the truck center length of the LRV
plus the car body end overhang.
Refer to
Chapter 3 for additional guidance on special
trackwork clearances.
6.3.5.3
High Volume of Diverging

Movements
Track designers should be very cautious
whenever the route geometry results in a
preponderance
of the traffic passing through
the curved side of a turnout.
High traffic
volumes through the curved side of a switch
will result in accelerated wear of the switch
point and the adjoining stock rail. Whenever
possible, turnouts at junctions should be
oriented to guide the branch with the more
frequent or heavier traffic over the straight part
of the switch..
If the traffic is (or will
eventually
approximately
equal,
be)
consideration
should
be given to an
equilateral turnout design as discussed in
Section 6.4.4. This will reduce maintenance
of the switch points.
Insulated rail joints in special trackwork can

be especially complicated, particularly if they
must be located in guarded track or in and
around crossing diamonds.
The trackwork
designer should coordinate with the signal
designers to verify that a workable insulated
joint layout is possible.
In many cases, a
workable track plan cannot be properly
signaled and the route geometry must be
redesigned.
6.3.5 Miscellaneous
Restrictions on
6.3.5.1 Construction
Restrictions
The construction
limits of any trackwork
contracts should not be located within any
Turnouts at the end of a double-track segment

should be oriented to guide the facing point
6-10
Special
movement
over the straight side of the
turnout.
If this results in an unsatisfactory
operating speed for the trailing movement, the
designer should consider using either a
equilateral turnout design or a turnout with a
flatter divergence angle and curve than might
ordinarily be provided. Ordinarily, facing point
diverging movements
should be limited to
situations where the single-track section is
temporary and the double-track section is to
be extended.
6.3.5.4
hospitals, concert halls, and other sensitive

noise and vibration receptors.
If special
trackwork must be located in such areas,
investigation of possible noise and vibration
mitigation measures should be undertaken.
Such investigations
should
include
the
ramifications
of repositioning
the special
trackwork away from the area of concern.
6.4 TURNOUT
Track Stiffness
Noise and Vibration
SIZE SELECTION
Track designers have a wide array of standard

turnout geometric configurations
to choose
from when considering route alignment. While
not all transit systems can use the same menu
of turnouts and crossovers, the designer can
usually achieve an acceptable route alignment
without resorting to special designs.
Using
standard, off-the-shelf,
and service-proven
materials will reduce the probability that future
maintenance will be complicated by the need
to purchase expensive one-of-a-kind products.
This also avoids the situation where essential
replacement parts may not be available when
needed.
Figures
6.4.1 to 6.4.4 show
standard turnouts and crossovers. Situations
will arise when a non-standard turnout design
is needed. In such cases, justification should
be documented.
This validation
should
include: the reasons why a particular turnout
size is required; what alternatives
were
investigated;
why standard
options were
unacceptable; and the ramifications of using a
smaller turnout, including its affect on vehicle
operations,
signaling systems,
and OCS
systems. Consideratibn should also be given
to procurement of a spare assembly along
with the original unit, so as to save the design
and tooling costs that would be incurred to
purchase the unit at a later date.
This
provides an immediate replacement part if one
is needed.
Ballasted turnouts, crossovers, and crossing

diamonds have a considerably higher track
modulus than ordinary ballasted track due to
their mass and the frequent interconnections
between rails. Nevertheless, they are still
more resilient than either direct fixation or
embedded track layouts.
Because of this
differential, ballasted track turnouts located
close to interfaces with stiffer track structures
will ride poorly and require more frequent
surfacing, particularly if vehicle speeds are
relatively high. To avoid these circumstances,
main tracks where vehicles operate at speeds
greater than 100 kph (62 mph) should not
have specialwork
units located within 75
meters (233 feet) of a transition between
ballasted track and a more rigid track
structure. As a guideline, this distance can be
reduced in areas where modest operating
speeds are contemplated. A minimum travel
time of 3 to 5 seconds between the special
trackwork unit and a more rigid structure is
recommended.
Design exceptions will require
stiffening of the ballasted track or retrofitting of
the adjoining track to be more resilient.
6.3.5.5
Trackwork
Issues
Even well-designed special trackwork can be

a source of noise and vibration.
As such,
special trackwork installations are undesirable
in the vicinity of residential buildings, schools,
6-l 1
GEOMETRIC
SCHEMATIC - SINGLE OR DOUBLE CROSSOVER

w TO Y1
CROSSOVER DATA TABLE BALLASTED OR DIRECT FIXATION TRACK
-----
fUUL lAYOUT DIAGRAM

ICKY.% . r-0
NO. 6 BALLASTED
TURNOm
BILL OF MATERIAL
BILL OF
MATERIAL
TIMBER SWTCH TIES 180 x 230 UB-,
I.
4.
5
6.
7.
1.
9.
Light
Rail
Track
6.4.1 Diverging
Design
Handbook
half of the desired speed in miles per hour).

Handbook users should keep in mind that
operating speed objectives vary among light
rail operations, as well as from one portion of
an LRT system to another.
Speed Criteria
Turnout size (by either frog number or radius)

should be selected to provide the highest
diverging movement speed possible that is
consistent with adjoining track geometry.
A
high speed turnout is not needed if the
adjoining track geometry restricts operating
Similarly, a sharp turnout should
speed.
generally not be used in a track segment that
has no restrictions on operating speed. Limits
on operating speeds through the curved side
of turnouts are typically based on the turnout
geometry
and the maximum
unbalanced
superelevation criteria adopted for the system.
In many cases, the closure rail zone will
impose a greater restriction on operating
speed than the switch, particularly if tangential
switch geometry is not used.
There are
typically no operating speed restrictions on
the straight through side of a turnout.
High speed on one system may be low speed

Accordingly,
the
on
another.
recommendations
that follow should be
modified to suit on site-specific requirements.
l
Route junctions between primary tracks
should use No. 15 turnouts.
A larger
number turnout should be employed if the
route geometry in proximity to the turnout
does not restrict higher speed operations.
When sufficient space is not available for
a No. 15 turnout, or if there are nearby
speed restrictions-such
as station stops
or roadway crossings-a
sharper turnout,
such as a No. IO, may be considered.
l
While larger number/radius

turnouts
will
generally have higher initial costs, they will
incur less wear and tear and can be more
There are
economical
in the long run.
reasonable limits to this rule of course-it
makes little sense, for example, to install a
Number 20 turnout that will never be traversed
at more than 40 km/hr (25 mph). In general,
trackwork designers will find that Number 8,
10 and possibly Number 15 turnouts will
typically be the most economical choices for
main line track on virtually any light rail
system.
6.4.2 Turnout
Size Selection
Guidelines
The following criteria recommend

various
turnout sizes for various track applications.
The typical conditions and operating speed
objectives are based on a rule of thumb which
states that the frog number should be about
one-third of the desired diverging movement
operating speed in kilometers per hour (one-
6-16
Connections between primary main line

tracks and slower speed yard and
secondary tracks, including center pocket
tracks, should typically use No. 10
turnouts. When design space for a No. 10
turnout is not available, a No. 8 turnout
may be sufficient.
Seldom-used crossover tracks that are
provided for emergency and maintenance
use only should use No. 8 turnouts.
When sufficient design space for a No. 8
turnout is not available, a No. 6 turnout
may be considered.
Turnouts within maintenance facilities and
storage yards should use either No. 8 or
No. 6 turnouts. Main line connections to
the maintenance facility and storage yard
should use Number 10 turnouts
Turnouts that are located in embedded
track are often in odd geometric layouts
and thus must be sized in accordance
with the use and function of the turnout.
Alternatives to the use of an embedded
turnout should always be investigated
Special
6.4.3 Sharp Frog Angle/Tight

Turnouts
Radius
cracking the whip, is a distressingly

common operating
practice on many
systems where the LRV operator may
docilely enter the turnout at the posted
speed limit but then accelerate. The result
is that the rear truck enters the curve and
travels through the turnout at a much
higher speed than intended. High rail and
wheel wear will result and derailments of
rear trucks and trucks on rear cars of
multiple car trains are not uncommon.
Many light rail systems, particularly older

street railway operations, use turnouts that are
sharper than those suggested above. Frogs
as low as number 5 and 4 are not uncommon.
Many difficult alignment conditions may be
resolved using turnouts that are curved
through both the switch and the frog. Some
transit agencies have curved frog turnouts
with radii as sharp as 15 meters. In virtually
all cases, these sharp turnouts were required
due to unique site conditions
and the
particular requirements of the system. While
such sharp turnouts are not recommended for
general application, there is nothing inherently
wrong with their use provided that they meet
the requirements of the transit operation and
the transit agency understands and accepts
the limitations that sharp turnouts impose.
Some of the restrictions imposed by sharp
turnouts are:
l
Vehicle fleet must be designed to be able
to negotiate them.
This may reduce the
number of candidate light rail vehicles that
can be considered for the system.
l
Trackwork
Operations will be slower.

Operating
personnel must be made aware of the
speed restrictions that the sharp turnouts
impose and systems must be in place to
limit speeds to the allowable limit. This
can be a significant problem on a system,
or portion of a system, where vehicle
speed is entirely under the operators
control. Most vehicle storage yard tracks,
which are the most likely location for
sharp turnouts,
do not have signal
systems that provide speed control. This
makes it highly probable that sharp
turnouts will be negotiated at higher-thandesign speeds, leading to excessive wear,
more frequent
maintenance,
and an
increased risk of derailments. A common
problem
in this regard,
known
as
Maintenance
expenses will be higher.
Even if vehicle speed is controlled, either
through the signal system or by strict
enforcement
of operating rules, sharp
turnouts will incur more wear than flatter
turnouts.
If the associated maintenance
expense is preferable to the additional
first cost of a right-of-way that would
permit the use of flatter turnouts, then
sharp turnouts may be a prudent choice.
If, on the other hand, a life-cycle cost
analysis shows that procuring additional
right-of-way that allows flatter turnouts will
reduce the overall expense, then that
course should be pursued.
6.4.4 Equilateral
Turnouts
Equilateral turnouts split the frog angle in half

between both sides of the turnout, thereby
producing two lateral diverging routes. Both
sides of the turnout are curved. Equilateral
turnouts are occasionally suggested for the
end of double-track locations and for locations
where a turnout must be installed on a curve.
The track designer should consider the
following characteristics.
l
A perfectly symmetrical equilateral turnout
will evenly divide not only the frog angle
but also the switch angle. The division of
the switch angle will require a custom set
of stock rails, each with half the normal
stock rail bend.
This is the preferred
arrangement when both hands are used in
6-l 7
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
The use of an equilateral turnout on a curve

usually does not provide satisfactory
ride
quality and is, therefore, not recommended.
the facing point direction, such as the

diverging turnout at a route junction.
An alternative to customized stock rails is
to configure the switch in an ordinary
lateral
turnout,
thereby
giving
one
movement the straight route through the
switch and the other movement the lateral
route.
The frog does not need to be
oriented symmetrically and the optimum
alignment for each route may be achieved
by rotating it by an amount equal to the
This switch and frog
switch angle.
would
be
a preferred
orientation
arrangement for an end of double-track
location where extension of the double
track is not expected to occur in the near
future.
6.4.5 Curved Frog

A straight frog is standard for most turnouts,
for both
normal
and diverging
train
movements.
This creates a broken back
curve alignment for the diverging movement
that can provide a disagreeable ride quality,
particularly in lower numbered (sharp radius)
turnouts. If a system will have a large number
of lower numbered turnouts, such as for yard
tracks, and there are approximately
equal
quantities of right-hand and left-hand turnouts,
it may be beneficial to consider curved frogs
that allow a uniform turnout curve. A superior
yard layout may be possible using curved frog
turnouts, as shown in Figure 6.4.5, without
incurring excessive costs.
If the switch angle is to be split equally,

curved switch points will need to be
specially designed and fabricated since
each point must not only have a concave
curve on its gauge face, but also a
concave vertical surface on its back face.
Such points are not off-the-shelf items
and the transit system will have to procure
spare points for future replacement.
Straight switch points on the other hand,
such as the AREMA 5029-millimeter
(16.5foot)
design, can be obtained offthe-shelf although they still must be
matched to custom stock rails.
If the
switch is oriented as in an ordinary lateral
turnout, standard switch point rails can be
used.
6.4.6 Slip Switches
and Lapped
Turnouts
Slip switches and lapped turnouts are often

suggested as a means of concentrating
a
large number of train movements
into a
constrained site. Such components are very
expensive to procure and maintain and are
seldom justifiable in a life-cycle cost analysis.
They should only be considered in cases
where
extremely
restrictive
rights-of-way
leave no other design options.
6.4.7 Track Crossings
The lead distance of the equilateral

turnout
need not have any direct
correlation to the customary lead for a
lateral turnout.
The closure curves
between the switch and frog can be
configured
to any geometry
that is
suitable to meet the speed objectives of
the turnout.
Whenever
possible,
track
crossings
(diamonds) should have angles that do not
require movable point design. Movable point
crossings have high initial costs and require
more frequent maintenance and, therefore,
should be used only as a last resort.
To
provide for the use of rigid crossings only, the
route geometry engineer will be required to
configure the tracks so that crossing tracks
6-18
Special
intersect at an angle at least equal to that of a

No. 6 frog (93138).
Some systems have
successfully
used crossings
with flatter
angles, but they are not recommended
because
of the increased
potential
of
derailment
at the unguarded
center frog
points. If a flat-angle movable point crossing
appears to be required at a location such as a
route junction, a detailed investigation
of
alternatives
should be conducted
before
trackwork final design commences.
These
alternatives
could include spreading track
centers to permit one track to cross the other
at a sharper angle or substituting a crossover
track in advance of the junction for the
crossing diamond.
Simulations
may be
required to determine
if the operational
scenarios resulting from an alternative track
plan are acceptable.
The maintenance
requirements of the baseline movable point
crossing should be included in the analysis,
including the operational restrictions that may
be enforced during such maintenance.
6.5 SWITCH DESIGN

The switch area is the most critical portion of
any turnout.
Most turnout maintenance is
switch related, requiring both trackwork and
signal maintenance.
Most derailments occur
at and are caused by unmaintained
or
neglected switches. As such, they are one of
the most important locations to examine for
the interaction between the wheel and the rail.
As a guideline, the following sections will
discuss the various types of switch designs
that can be used on light rail systems, and will
provide guidelines to follow in selecting what
design to implement.
6.5.1 Conventional
Trackwork
Tee Rail Split Switches
Most rail transit systems in North America use

switch point rails that are identical or similar to
designs used by North American
freight
railroads.
Such switches, known as split
switches,
generally
conform
to designs
promulgated
by the American
Railway
Engineering
&
Maintenance-of-Way
Association (AREMA).
Split switches are
produced by planing and bending a piece of
standard tee rail to a knife edge point on one
end.
The sharpened point then lays up
against a section of standard rail and diverts
the flanged wheel from one track to another.
Split switches are relatively inexpensive to
produce and provide satisfactory
service
under most operating scenarios.
Split switch point rails can be either straight or
curved.
Straight switch point rails can be
used universally within a turnout, but are
almost always an inferior choice for a
diverging route. As a guideline, curved switch
point rails are recommended
for all transit
designs to provide a much smoother transition
through a turnout.
6.5.2 Tangential
Geometry
Switches
Conventional North American curved switch

points still require the wheels to make a
somewhat abrupt change of direction near the
point of switch. The actual angle at the point
rail will vary depending on the length from the
switch point to the heel of switch, but it
typically ranges between 1 and 3 degrees.
Depending on the speed of the transit vehicle,
this change in direction can produce an
uncomfortable ride. In addition, a switch point
used for diverging movement will frequently
incur a much greater amount of wear due to
the
abrasive
impact
associated
with
redirecting the vehicle wheels.
6-19
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Figure 6.4.5
Typical
Curved Frog Turnout
6-20
Special
To improve switch performance and service

life, European track designers developed
tangential
geometry
switches.
In a
tangential geometry switch, the switch point
that deflects the diverging movement is not
only curved but also oriented so that the curve
is tangential to the main track The wheel is
not required to make an abrupt change of
direction;
instead it encounters
a flatter
circular curve that gradually redirects the
wheel.
The lead distance for a tangential
geometry turnout is typically much longer than
for an ordinary turnout with the same frog
number
the diverging side of a turnout. A few North

American manufacturers are now producing
proprietary tangential geometry switch point
rail designs. These may be appropriate for
some applications on a light rail transit system
but are not generally warranted.
6.5.3 Uniform
and Graduated
Risers
Split
switch
designs,
whether
using
conventional AREMA geometry or tangential
alignment, typically elevate the top of the
switch point rail approximately 6 millimeters
(l/4 inch) above the top of the stock rail. This
prevents false flanges on worn wheels from
contacting the top of the stock rail and
possibly lifting the wheel off the top of the
switch rail. To achieve this elevation, special
riser switch plates are incorporated beneath
the switch rails. This additional elevation can
be eliminated once the switch rail has
diverged sufficiently from the stock rail such
that false flanges on wheels are no longer a
concern. The two design details that achieve
this transition are called uniform risers and
graduated risers.
European tangential geometry switch point

rails are usually manufactured
from special
rolled rail sections that are not symmetrical
about their vertical axes. These asymmetrical
switch point rail sections are also usually
shorter in height than switch stock rails,
thereby permitting the switch slide plate to
anchor the stock rail to resist rollover. The
difference in rail configuration
and height
usually requires a shop-forged
connection
between the asymmetrical switch point rail
and the common tee rail used in the turnout
closure curve. The Zu I-60 section (Figure
6.5.1) is a typical asymmetrical
point rail
section. Nearly all tangential design switches
also employ a floating.heel design.
.
Figure 6.5.1 201-60 Rail Section
Trackwork
A uniform riser switch maintains the additional

6 millimeters of height through the heel block
of the switch and then ramps it out over a
distance of 4 to 5 switch ties beyond the heel.
At each of these ties, a special rail fastening
plate must be installed
that provides
progressively less riser elevation until the
base of the closure rails beyond the switch are
in the same plane as the stock rails. Such
turnout plates must be specially fabricated
and each will fit in only one location within the
turnout.
A graduated
riser switch maintains
the
additional elevation only as long as absolutely
necessary and then ramps it out prior to the
heel block of the switch. Two vertical bends
are required in the switch rail-one
concave
for Switch
Point
Tangential
geometry
turnouts
should be
considered whenever high speeds or a large
number of movements must be made through
6-21
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
impractical.
The switch point throw, the
distance the switch point rail needs to move
from one orientation to another, results in an
unacceptably
large void in the pavement
surface. This void is dangerous to roadway
vehicles and pedestrians. Voids also tend to
collect debris and dirt, which impair switch
operations.
To deal with these difficulties,
trackwork designers long ago developed what
are known as tongue switches.
and the next convex-so

that the 6 millimeters
of riser elevation is eliminated in increments of
2 or 3 millimeters.
Special plates are not
required beyond the switch heel block; most
timber tie ballasted track turnouts
with
graduated risers use hook-twin tie plates in
that area.
As a guideline, uniform risers will usually
provide the best and most economical service
for turnouts in main track or where insulation
is required.
Uniformity
of maintenance
suggests that switches in yard and secondary
tracks on the same transit system should also
use uniform risers. Graduated risers should
only be considered for use in maintenance
and storage yard tracks-areas
where special
plates for stray current isolation are typically
not required.
A tongue switch consists of a housing that

incorporates the three rails that converge at
any switch
The switch tongue is usually
located in a roughly triangular opening in the
center of the housing . The switch tongue is
typically grooved on its top surface and either
This
pivots or flexes on its heel end.
movement directs the wheel flange to either
the straight track or the diverging track.
European
switch point design does not
consider the raised switch point concept.
Therefore, the selection of either uniform or
graduated risers is not a concern. However,
both raised switch point and level switch point
design perform best during operation with the
regular maintenance of wheel truing. This will
eliminate the false flange and secondary
batter caused by the false flange.
The
standards for vehicle wheel maintenance
plays an important part in the switch point
design and must be considered
when
contemplating
the interface between
the
wheel and switch point.
6.5.4 Switches
for Embedded
Tongue switches can either be used in pairs

(a double-tongue switch) or a single tongue
switch can be paired with a mate. A mate is
a rigid assembly that has no moving parts but
rather only two intersecting flangeways in the
top surface.
The mate does not steer the
wheels, it only provides a path for the wheel
flange.
All guidance must therefore come
from the companion tongue switch. Traditional
North American street railway operations used
tongue switches and mates almost exclusively
until very recently.
In a street environment, tongue switches are
far easier to keep clean than conventional tee
rail split switches.
The mate component,
having no moving parts, is especially well
suited to a street environment;
since the
flangeways are no deeper than those in the
adjoining track and are thus easy to keep
clean.
Track
Turnouts in embedded track are a signature

characteristic
of light rail transit systems.
Whenever the railroad or rail transit track must
be paved or embedded
to permit either
rubber-tired vehicles or pedestrians to travel
along or across the track area, conventional
ballasted
track
split
switches-either
conventional
or tangential
design-are
6-22
Special
6.5.4.1
North American Tongue Switch

Designs
North American tongue switches are typically
constructed of solid manganese steel and are
designed as illustrated in the 980 series of
drawings in the AREMA Potiolio of Trackwork
Plans
Those drawings show both doubletongue switches and a tongue switch/mate
While
these
examples
are
design.
conveniently available, a detailed examination
is required to appreciate
the differences
between
the AREMA
designs
and the
configurations
used by traditional
street
railway operations.
Figure 6.5.2 illustrates a
typical tongue switch designed in accordance
with the practices of the former American
Transit
Engineering
Association
(ATEA).
These
design
differences
include
the
following:
Figure 6.52
Non-embedded
l
Tongue Switch and

149 RE 7A Rail
Trackwork
with the point of the tongue recessed into

the switch housing. The nearly tangential
geometry results in turnout lead distances
much
shorter
than straight
tongue
switches. Tongues with radii as short as
about 15 meters (50 feet) were not
uncommon.
l
The flangeway widths in traditional street

railway tongue switches and mates were
narrower than those for railroad service.
Track gauge was also usually unchanged
from tangent track. The AREMA designs,
on the other hand, have extremely wide
flangeways and widened track gaugeto
accommodate
steam locomotives
with
multiple axles and large diameter driving
wheels.
These factors make railroad
tongue switch designs ill-suited for light
rail vehicles that have narrower wheel
treads and almost always have small
wheel diameters.
The wide flangeways
are also hazardous to pedestrians.
Typically, the switch tongue is placed on the

inside rail leading to the diverging curve, so
that truck steering action is provided by the
interaction between the back side of the wheel
flange and the tongue This produces reliable
steering of the truck due to the curve being
continuously guarded.
Some tongue switch
designs amplified this guarding by depressing
the wheel tread level of the diverging
movement immediately beyond the point of
This
switch, as shown in Figure 6.5.3.
causes the tongue to become an even more
effective guard because it is higher than the
wheel tread.
Mate-
Traditional
street
railways
(transit
systems)
in North America
typically
employed tongue switches and mates
rather than double-tongue switches which
were more common for railroad service.
This was probably due to a desire to
reduce the number of moving parts to be
maintained, a key factor on large streetcar
systems that could have hundreds of
switches in embedded track.
Switch tongues require frequent maintenance

to keep them clean and tight. Traffic riding on
top of a rigid tongue tends to loosen and rattle
it.
For that reason, many properties
positioned tongue switches on the outside of
the curve for turnouts that were used either
infrequently
or
only
for
converging
movements.
With the tongue positioned on
Tongue switch and mate designs for

street railway service, as well as modern
flexible
double-tongue
switches,
are
typically curved throughout their length,
6-23
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
the outside of the curve and the mate on the

inside,
straight
through
LRV
wheel
movements
do not ride on the tongue,
providing a quieter street environment.
Note,
however, that with the mate on the inside of
the curve, outside tongue switch turnouts are
not fully guarded.
The deletion
of a
continuous guard through the critical switch
area can result in derailments under some
circumstances.
Accordingly, outside tongue
switches were typically not employed on
switches with radii of less than about 30
meters (100 feet).
tightening
throw.
difficult
to
The ATEA standard tongue switch included a

tongue heel design that could be locked down
by lever action. American special trackwork
fabricators produced several other proprietary
heel designs. These alternative heel designs
generally
required less maintenance
and
performed better in street railway use than the
AREMA designs, but may have been ill-suited
to the heavy axle load demands of railroad
service. Manufacturers
of these alternative
designs are no longer in the transit industry
and the patents on their designs may have
lapsed, placing them in the public arena.
The AREMA switch tongue design pivots on

an integral cylinder that is positioned beneath
the heel of the tongue. This cylinder is held in
place by wedges on either side that are
tightened by large diameter bolts.
These
wedges tend to work loose as both they and
the cylinder wear, causing the tongue to rattle
and rock which leads to noise and accelerated
wear.
Tightening
the wedges will only
temporarily correct the problem and over-
SNGUE
can make the switch
Standard American-designed
tongue switches
and mates were typically fabricated from
manganese steel castings, similar to the solid
manganese steel frogs.
Some alternative
designs were partially fabricated from either
girder or tee rail sections. Tongue switches
and mates have always been expensive items
POINT DETPJL
Figure 6.5.3 ATEA 75 Radius Solid Manganese
6-24
Tongue
Switch
Special
because it is difficult to produce large castings

to precise tolerances.
6.5.4.2
European
Tongue
Switch
Trackwork
A number of North American

light rail
operators have procured such switches.
Intrack performance of these installations has
varied. Traditional street railway operations
rate fabricated flexible tongue switches as
inferior to the robust design of the cast
manganese steel tongue switches and mates,
particularly with respect to wear. This poor
performance
could be due to the use of
relatively soft European girder rail steels.
Newer LRT operations, on the other hand,
have no problems with the European designs,
perhaps because they have no basis for
comparison.
Special surface hardening weld
treatments can be incorporated in the design
of flexible tongue
switches
to provide
enhanced protection against wear. Refer to
Section 5.2.4.
Designs
European light rail manufacturers

developed
flexible tongue switches in the post-WII
era.
A typical flexible tongue switch is illustrated in
Figure 6.5.4.
6.5.4.3
Switch Tongue Operation and

Control
The switch throw of a tongue switch must be

Double Tongue Switch
Fabricated
extremely
short to preserve the switch
tongues ability to perform as an effective
guard and to keep the open point flangeway
as narrow as possible.
The ATEA switch
throw was only 64 millimeters (2-l/2 inches)
long; a steel company designed an even
shorter throw, 57 millimeters (2-l/4 inches).
Such small switch throws are completely
outside of the adjustment
range of any
standard railroad power switch machine of
North American design.
Instead, traditional
North American
street railway properties
employed
switch
machines
that
are
essentially a large solenoid.
Depending on
the current flow direction in the solenoid field,
the switch will be thrown in one direction or
another. Once thrown, the tongue is held in
place by a spring loaded toggle. The toggle
keeps the tongue in place until the solenoid is
activated to throw the switch in the opposite
direction.
It also makes the switch trailable
without having to first throw the switch. The
most common design, which is stilt in
Steel
Fabricated from rolled and machined rails and

flat steel plate sections, these designs are
considerably less expensive to manufacture
than the solid manganese steel castings used
in North American
tongue switches and
mates. The European design also typically
employs double tongues (no mate) so that
both wheels provide the steering action.
Some European designs provide a rigid mate
in lieu of an outside tongue switch, but usually
only in complex layouts where overlapping
turnouts make it impossible to provide the
second tongue.
In nearly all cases the
tongues are rigidly fastened at the heel and
flex, rather than pivot as is the case with North
American design.
6-25
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Corrosion of threaded fastenings in embedded

switches can make them impossible to adjust.
All threaded fastenings in embedded switches
should
be made
of corrosion-resistant
materials, such as bronze or stainless steel, to
avoid corrosion problems.
production, was known as a Cheatham switch,

after its original manufacturer.
A major
drawback of the solenoid design is that the
spring toggle does not lock the switch tongue
in place. This makes it possible for a switch
tongue to accidentally throw under a rail car.
Some
North American
operators
have
equipped
Cheatham
switches
with point
detection relays that verify electronically that
the switch tongue has been completely
thrown.
6.5.4.5
Design Guidelines for Embedded

Switches
If pedestrians can be reliably restricted from
the location, embedded track switch designs
identical to those used on open track turnouts
can be considered, as shown in Figure 6.5.5,
since
conventional
North
American
interlocked switch operating mechanisms can
be used.
If pedestrians cannot be reliably
excluded from the vicinity of an embedded
turnout-which
is usually
the
caseembedded
switches
should
use either
traditional
North American
street railway
tongue switches and mates or European
fabricated flexible double-tongue
switches.
AREMA tongue switch and mate and doubletongue switch designs should not be used, as
the flangeway openings are too large for
areas where the general public has access.
European suppliers have developed

more
modern switch machines for tongue switches
that do provide point locking. Their design
philosophy, however, does not comply with
conventional North American signal practice.
6.5.4.4 Embedded Switch Drainage

Tongue switches, regardless of design, create
an opening in the street surface that will
inevitably fill with water and miscellaneous
debris that is blown or washed into the switch.
A positive drainage system must be installed
that will also permit solid debris to be flushed
away. The switch design should promote free
drainage of any cavity and should also allow
access into all cavities to enable cleaning out
any solid material that may accumulate.
Leaving such materials in place can interfere
with the operation of the switch, promote
corrosion, and facilitate stray currents. If the
design includes cavities that are not essential
to operation of the switch, but are likely to
cause problems if they become filled with
water or debris, the designers should consider
filling such areas with a non-conductive
material, such as an epoxy grout, prior to
installation
in track.
The maintenance
program should include sweeping, vacuuming,
flushing, or blowing out embedded switches
on an as-needed
basis, as well as an
inspection to verifiy that the drainage systems
are clear and functional.
Figure 6.5.5 Embedded

Tee Rail SwitchEquilateral
Turnout,
Steel Cover Plates,
Epoxy Filler
6-26
Special
6.55
Fully Guarded
Designs
Tee Rail Switch
The house top guard piece, which is

positioned above the straight switch point,
protects the critical first 300 to 450
millimeters (12 to 18 inches) of the
diverging switch point by pulling the wheel
set away from it. Because the house top
is rigidly fixed and must allow the passage
of a wheel that is traveling on the straight
switch rail, it does not provide any
guarding action for lateral moves beyond
the immediate vicinity of the point of the
The house top is usually a
switch.
continuation of a conventionally designed
restraining rail that is placed in the
tangent track ahead of the switch point.
Readers will have noted that tongue switch

and mate turnouts provide a continuous
restraining rail through the entire turnout. This
includes the critical switch area, where the
vehicle trucks must first make a change of
direction. The preponderance of derailments
occurs at switches. Providing a guard in the
switch area can be very beneficial, particularly
if the turnout curve immediately beyond the
switch is sharp and protected
with a
restraining rail. Rail transit systems that have
extremely sharp turnouts in open track often
employ what are variously known as either
house top or cover guard switches. These
switch designs are the signature component
of fully guarded turnouts.
A typical house
top double-point
switch is illustrated
in
Figures 6.5.6 and Figure 6.5.7. As the name
implies, a fully guarded turnout is one in which
the diverging movement through the turnout
includes continuous guarding from ahead of
the point of switch through the frog.
The switch
characteristics
including:
The double point for the straight switch

rail provides
a continuation
of the
restraining rail along the curved stock rail
from the house top to the heel of the
switch. This restraining rail is fastened
directly to the back face of the switch
point and extends the restraining face
through the switch area beyond where the
house top provides guarding action.
Note that the spread
switch is much larger
AREMA split switch
required so that the
made between the
area provides
the unique
of a fully guarded turnout,
~GUbJXl
RAILS
UNDERCUT
STRAIGHT
SIOCK RPU.
Trackwork
,-ADJUSTABLE
at the heel of the

than in conventional
This is
design.
connection can be
double-point switch
RAIL BRACES
CURVED
SWITCH
POINT R&L
HOUSE TOP OR COVER CUM?0

----.-.-.______
m
LUNoER
CUT
CURVED
STOCK R&L
Figure 6.5.6 Fully Guarded
6-27
House Top Switch
L*mrol
F Dr-wWT Ddll
CAST STEEL TYHEEL BLOCKS
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
A large amount of freeplay between wheel

gauge and track gauge is essential for a
house top to be an effective guard and to
protect an appreciable portion of the curved
switch rail. Therefore, house tops are most
effective when used with railroad standard
wheel gauges.
If conventional
transit
standard wheel gauge is used as the standard
on a light rail system, track gauge will need to
be widened through the switch area.
Fully guarded
turnouts
with house top
switches are rarely justified and should be
used only as a last resort in cases where
sufficient right-of-way cannot be acquired to
permit the use of flatter turnouts.
Figure 6.5.7
Fully Guarded
Turnout115 RE Rail Switch with House Top and
Double Point Guarding
and the restraining
rail.
Some transit
agencies have installed house tops without a
double point, thereby protecting the point of
the switch but not the remainder of the
diverging switch rail.
6.5.6 Switch
Point Detail
Very careful attention must be given to the

cross section of the switch point rail at the
point of the switch, particularly if the wheel
contour is not a standard railroad design. If
the transit system includes a street railway
wheel profile with a narrow or short wheel
flange (generally less than 25 millimeters (1
inch) in either dimension}, there is a real
danger that the wheel will either pick or ride
up on the switch point. This is a particular
problem in facing point diverging movements.
In order for the double point to act as an

effective restraining rail, the switch throw must
be as short as possible. A throw distance no
greater than 89 mm (3-l/2 inches) is required
and a shorter throw dimension would be
preferred.
The normal throw distance for a
powered switch in accordance with standard
North
American
railroad
practice
is
approximately 121 mm (4-314 inches). Most
conventional North American power switch
machine designs allow for an adjustment of 89
to 140 millimeters (3-l/2 to 5-l/2 inches).
If
they were set to the smaller dimension, they
would have no adjustment
left for wear.
Hence, a power switch machine for a house
top switch must be custom designed.
North
American signal equipment
manufacturers
can provide machines with short throws;
however, the locking rod design cannot be as
robust as those provided with ordinary switch
machines.
This makes them a high
maintenance
item that requires frequent
adjustment.
In general, the top of the tip of the switch point

rail should be at least 8 to 13 millimeters (3/8
to l/2 inch) above the bottom of the wheel
flange and should rise to the full height of the
flange as rapidly as possible.
Special
attention must be given if the wheel flange, in
either the new or maximum-wear
condition,
has either a flat bottom or a sharp bottom
corner. Such wheels can readily ride up the
flat surface provided by the second machined
cut in the AREMA 5100 switch point detail. If
the light rail system employs such wheels, it
may be necessary to use switch point details
other than the 4000, 5100, and 6100 designs
6-28
Special
contained
in the AREMA
Porffolio
Trackwork Plans (see Figure 6.5.8).
AREMA
DETAJL 5100
AREMA
DFTAJL 6100
AREA
DFTAIL
1000
(OBSOLETE1
AREA
DETAIL ZOOQ
of
accomplished
by either grinding or planing
away a portion of the head of the stock rail for
a distance of approximately 300 millimeters
(12 inches) ahead of and beyond the point of
the switch. This stock rail tread depression
lowers the relative position of the tip of the
wheel flange so that it cannot easily climb on
top of the point. The gauge corner radius of
the stock rail is reduced to approximately 15
millimeters (about 9/16 inch) through the
depressed area. While the stock rails with the
depressed tread must be custom fabricated,
this technique enables the use of off-the-shelf
AREMA 5100 detail switch points.
An
alternate design where the undercut stock rail
and switch point machining of the 5100 point
detail actually places the switch point l/4 to
318 inches below the top of the stock rail has
recently been implemented to improve gauge
point contact.
For future transit design of
switch points, a 7200 point detail number
should be considered.
(OBSOLETE)
Trackwork designers on new systems should

strongly encourage the adoption of wheel
profiles with flange contours that are no less
than 25 millimeters (1 inch) high. In addition
to the above mentioned problems with switch
points, short wheel flanges also concentrate
the lateral component
of the wheel-to-rail
loading onto a narrower band than taller
flanges. This higher contact pressure leads to
accelerated wear on both wheels and rails.
Refer to Chapter 2 for additional discussion on
this topic.
ATEA DETAIL FOR

SHALLOW
FLANGES
(OBSOLETE)
Figure 6.5.8
Details
Trackwork
Switch
Point
and Stock
Rail
The ATEA had a switch point standard for use

with American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE) rails that placed the top of the switch
a mere 6 millimeters (l/4 inch) below the top
of the stock rail as shown in Figure 6.58.
These dimensions are not achievable with
more modern rails that have broader gauge
corner radii. Some light rail operations have
reduced the distance between the wheel tread
This is
and the top of the switch point.
6.6 FROGS
6.6.1 Frog Design
Track and vehicle design teams must carefully
consider frog design in conjunction with the
selection of a preferred wheel profile.
If the light rail vehicle wheel is generally
identical to the AAR I-B wheel, then frog
6-29
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
designs can generally conform to AREMA

standards
as cited in the Porffolio of
Trackwork Plans.
Suggested revisions are
noted below. Such frogs should comply with
the following standards:
Frogs in primary track can ordinarily be
railbound manganese steel, heavy wall
design, conforming to details given in the
AREMA Portfolio of Trackwork Plans.
Frogs in secondary track can be either
railbound
manganese
steel or solid
manganese steel construction conforming
to the details given in the AREMA
PorIfolio of Trackwork Plans.
Figure 6.6.1 Monoblock
Railbound
manganese
frogs tend to
introduce more noise and vibration at the
interface between the wing rail and the
manganese
irregular
running surface.
LRT/railroad
should
Joint
systems
consider solid manganese
frogs with
welded rail joints to eliminate irregularities
in the rail surface to improve on reducing
special trackwork noise.
Monoblock
welded
frog construction
is
extremely popular in Europe and has seen
increased use in North America.
Monoblock
frogs have a central portion that is machined
from a block of either rolled steel or cast steel
that is metallurgically consistent with normal
rail steel. Rolled steel rails are then welded to
the central portion to form the frog arms This
design can be advantageous for production of
small quantities or one-of-a-kind frogs such as
those required for crossing diamonds.
See
Figure 6.6.1 for the arrangement of a typical
monoblock frog.
Frog arms should be longer than the

current (1997) AREMA standard to ensure
that the toe and heel spreads are wide
enough to permit field thermite welding.
Additional length may be required to make
it possible to crop off a failed thermite
weld and make a second weld.
Consideration
should
be given
to
depressing the point of frog slightly below
the top of rail plane for a distance of
approximately 100 millimeters beyond the
actual point of the frog. This will minimize
frog point batter from the wheels gauge
corner fillet, particularly on a transit
system that features a compound radius
wheel tread design, such as the AAR 1-B
wheel (see Figures 6.6.2 and 6.6.3).
WHEELPOSITION
CENTERED
BETWEENGAUGE--\
POINT
r-r m-c
6.6.2 Frog Design Modifications
Frog Details
POSITION OF WHEELEXTREMERIGHT AT LocAnoN OF LOAD TRANSFERFROM

FROG WlNC TO POINT
POSITION OF WHEELEXTREMELEFT
LNO. 6 FROG POINT DEPRESSED

953mm IN 1524mm (3/a IN
NO 6 FROG POiNT DEPRESSED
9.53mm IN 1524mm (3/8 IN 6)
Even if AREMA frogs are chosen, track

designers
should
consider
several
modifications, including:
Figure 6.6.2 Plan View at Frog Area with

45-mm Flangeway
6-30
6)
Special
6.6.3 Flange-Bearing

l
Frogs
Flange-bearing
frogs are typically provided
whenever continuous wheel support cannot
be provided by the wheel tread.
This
condition is most prevalent on light rail
systems that employ a narrow wheel tread but
also can occur on a transit system with wider
wheels. Inadequate support often occurs in
sharp angle frogs and crossing diamonds and
is a universal problem as crossing frog angles
approach 90 degrees. It can also occur at the
mate opposite a tongue switch.
at 15-mm Frog Point
If the light rail vehicle wheel has a tread

that is less than 100 millimeters (4 inches)
wide, it may not have continuous support
while passing over the opposite flangeway
of the frog. Excessive impacts can occur
if the wheel tread has less than 25
millimeters (1 inch) of support width as it
over
the open
passes
flangeway,
particularly if the operating speed is
relatively high.
If tight control can be
maintained
on both track gauge and
wheel gauge, it is usually possible to
correct this situation by narrowing the
flangeway widths from the customary 48
millimeters (l-7/8 inches) to about 40
millimeters (l-9/16 inches) as shown in
Figures 6.6.3 and 6.6.4).

Flange Bearing
Trackwork
6.6.3.1
Flangeway
Depth
Flange-bearing design carries the wheel load

past the point of inadequate wheel tread
support by transferring the load to the wheel
flange tip. Typically, the tread is elevated a
few millimeters above the normal top of rail
elevation as this occurs. As the flangeway
floor wears, equilibrium of both the flange and
tread bearing may be achieved. This may or
may not be acceptable depending on how
uniformly the systems vehicle wheels are
maintained.
The depth of the flange-bearing
portion of the frog should be 3 millimeters (l/8
inch) less than the nominal height of the LRV
wheel flange.
The flange-bearing
section
should extend longitudinally from about 300
millimeters
(12 inches)
ahead
of the
theoretical
frog point to a location 200
millimeters (8 inches) beyond the actual frog
point (see Figure 6.6.4) to ensure that the
wheel is carried well past the point of nontread support.
at 75-mm Frog Point,
6.6.3.2
Flangeway
Ramping
The wheel flanges on most rail systems tend

to get higher as the wheels wear since the
wheel tread experiences virtually all of the
wheel wear. In order for a flange-bearing frog
to
accommodate
normal
maintenance
tolerances in wheel flange height, there must
If open point frogs are not possible, then

either flange-bearing
frogs, spring frogs, or
movable point frogs are needed.
6-31
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
recognizes flange-bearing design for the first

time, but limits operation over such frogs to
FRA Class 1 speeds of 16 klhr freight and 24
Whr passenger (10 mph freight and 15 mph
passenger). While the FRA standards do not
apply to most rail transit operations, they will
in segments of light rail systems where
railroad freight operations are permitted.
If
any flange-bearing construction is considered
for joint use areas, system designers should
be aware that the operating speed of both
freight and light rail passenger equipment will
be restricted by federal mandate.
If such
speed restrictions compromise
the transit
systems operations plan, it may be necessary
to forgo flange-bearing design and adopt other
approaches to provide wheel support.
be a transition
ramp from the ordinary
flangeway depth of perhaps 50 millimeters (l7/8 inches) to the flange-bearing depth. The
slope of this ramp should be varied depending
on the desired vehicle speed so as to
minimize the impact. A taper as flat as I:60 is
not unusual in situations where a Rangebearing frog is used in a main line track. As a
guideline, the ramp ratio should be no steeper
than 1 divided by twice the design speed in
kilometers per hour
6.6.3.3 Flange-Bearing
Frog Construction
Flange-bearing frogs are typically fabricated
as solid manganese steel castings or welded
Hardened steel inserts have
monoblocks.
also been used in bolted rail frog construction.
The center manganese
steel insert in a
railbound maganese (RBM) frog may not be
long enough to obtain ramps of appropriate
length for typical transit operating speeds.
6.6.3.5 Wheel Flange Interface

A light rail system with a minor amount of
flange-bearing special trackwork can typically
use a conventional
wheel contour with a
rounded flange. On the other hand, if there is
a significant amount of flange-bearing special
trackwork, a rounded flange tip tends to flatten
due to wear and metal flow under impact.
This results in flanges that are shorter than
design, which in turn could cause problems at
switch points. If a large amount of flangespecialwork
is
expected,
bearing
consideration
should be given to a wheel
flange design that is flat or nearly flat on the
bottom. This will minimize the likelihood that
wheel flanges will experience damaging metal
flow from traversing flange-bearing
frogs.
Refer to Chapter 2, Figure 2.6.5F, for a typical
wheel design intended for use with flangebearing special trackwork.
Flange-bearing frogs tend to develop a wheel

wear groove in the floor of the flangeway that
can steer the wheels. If one side of the frog is
only used rarely, this groove can become
deep enough to possibly cause wheel tracking
problems when a vehicle passes through the
rarely used flangeway.
Flange-bearing frogs
may therefore require additional flangeway
floor maintenance,
including grinding away
sharp edges and occasional welding to build
up the groove.
6.6.3.4
Speed Considerations
at FlangeBearing Frogs
The support between the wheel flange and the
flangeway
floor can cause
moderately
disagreeable noise and vibration.
For this
reason, flange-bearing
design is usually
limited to relatively slow speed operations
(less than 25 Whr is common).
The 1998
revisions to the Track Safety Standards of the
U.S. Federal Railroad Administration
(FRA)
It is important for track designers to recognize

that when an LRV wheel is running on a
flange tip, its forward velocity is slightly
greater than when it is operating on the wheel
tread even though the rotational velocity in
terms
of revolutions
per unit time is
6-32
Special
unchanged.
Thus, if one wheel is running on
its flange and the other wheel on the same
axle is rolling on the tread surface, the flangebearing wheel will attempt to travel slightly
further ahead. This condition cannot persist
for long before wheel slip will force both
wheels to resume their normal orientation
opposite each other. This is rarely a problem
provided that each axle is independently
powered.
However, if the LRV truck design
powers both axles from a single motor
(monomotor
truck design) flange-bearing
design can introduce
loadings that may
overstress mechanical portions of the LRV
drive train as one wheel attempts to travel
further than the other three to which it is rigidly
connected.
Failures of gearbox connections
between the axles and the monomotors have
been common and vehicle manufacturers in
part blame flange-bearing
special trackwork.
To minimize this problem, some European
track designers
include a flange-bearing
grooved head girder rail opposite any flangebearing frog.
many locations.
In locations where an
embedded
turnout
is used only very
infrequently,
such
as
an
emergency
crossover,
some light rail systems have
employed what is known as either a lift over
or jump frog (see Figure 6.6.5)
A jump frog provides a flangeway only for the
main line movement.
When a movement
occurs on the diverging route, the frog
flangeway and wing rail portion is ramped up
to a level that allows the wheel to pass over
the main line open flangeway and running rail
head. To protect the direction of the raised
wheel, a restraining guard rail is provided on
the opposite wheel. The lift over action will
introduce noise and vibration comparable to a
flange-bearing
frog.
However the more
frequent
straight
through
main
line
movements will have a continuous wheel
tread support and the overall amount of street
noise attributable to the light rail system will
be reduced.
6.6.6
6.6.4 Spring and
Movable Point Frogs
When continuous support is required and

flange-bearing design is not appropriate due
to operating speed or.other conditions, either
spring frogs or movable point frogs can be
considered.
Such components are costly,
high maintenance items and should be used
only when unavoidable.
If the system
includes tracks where high vehicle speeds are
required, system designers should seriously
reconsider whether the use of narrow wheel
treads is advisable.
6.6.5 Lift Over (Jump)
Frogs
Any frog will generate noise and vibration,

which can be an environmental concern at
Trackwork
Frog Running
Surface
Hardness
Regardless of frog design, the portions of the

frog that support the wheels should have a
minimum surface hardness of 385 BHN. This
can either be inherent in the material from
which the frog is fabricated or achieved by
post-fabrication treatments such as explosive
hardening.
If flange-bearing
design is
employed, the flangeway floor should also be
hardened.
6.7 FROG GUARD RAILS
Guard rails must be installed opposite from

frog points both to protect the fragile frog point
and to prevent wheel flanges from tracking on
the wrong flangeway through the frogs.
If transit wheel gauge standards are followed,
it may be necessary to provide a very narrow
6-33
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
p-6/, SPECIM
TOE LENCTN
WJNLINE
-SLOPE
0.675
N 12
NO. 8 TURNOUT FROG - LIFT OVER DESIGN- RIGHT HAND (SHOWN)
SLOPE 0.125 N 2.5

SLWE 0.878 I
1N R&SE0 mC
FL*NGEWAT
RISER
FLOOR OF FLYlCEWAY
20- LEVEL
TOP OF RIL
I
SLOPE 05
N 12
SLOPE H FLYK;EWAY
FLOOR 0.875 N 173-
5- LEVEL
TOP OF RM-
TREK) RISER)
-SLOPE
SLOPE OS
N l2-
IN FLANGEWAy
FLOOR 0.679 N 17.5
SECTION ALONG LIFTOVER FROG FLANGEWAY

(LIFTOVER
DESIGN)
Figure 6.6.5 Lift Over Frog Design
6-34
Special
guard rail flangeway in order to ensure that

the wheel flange remains in the proper path
through the frog. Widened track gauge may
be required. Guard rails should extend ahead
of the point of frog for a distance not less than
that given in the AREMA
Potiolio
of
Trackwork Hans. They should extend beyond
the frog point to at least the location of the
heel end of the frog wing rail. Where the
closure curve radius of the turnout is sharp
enough that curve guarding is required, the
required restraining rail system and the frog
guard rail on the diverging side of the turnout
should be continuous.
Trackwork
wheel tread.
The designer must not only
consider the as-new width of the wheel tread,
but also the allowable wear limits on both the
side of the wheel flange and on the gauge line
of the rail as well as any allowable metal
overflow on the outer edge of the wheel.
Wheel tread clearance will rarely be less than
125 mm (5 inches) except for systems with
narrow
wheel
treads.
For additional
information on wheel profiles refer to Section
2.6.4.
6.9 SWITCH TIES
While domestic hardwoods are the most

popular materials for North American switch
ties, significant advances have been made in
the design of concrete switch ties. Particularly
on any system that elects to use concrete
crossties
for main line ballasted track,
consideration
should
be given to the
employment of alternative materials for switch
ties.
Frog guard rails should be adjustable and

generally compatible with the restraining rail
design adopted for the project.
Installing
an adjustable
guard
rail in
embedded
track
is difficult;
therefore
traditional street railway operations typically
installed a section of girder guard rail in lieu of
a
conventional
guard
rail.
Some
contemporary
embedded
track installations
provide a segment of U69 guard rail fastened
to chairs in a manner that nominally permits
adjustment (provided that the fastenings do
not become corroded and unusable).
If the
guard rail cannot be adjusted in the installed
environment,
complete
removal
and
replacement of both the pavement and the
guard rail may be required. In addition, frog
guard rail rarely need adjustments if properly
installed. Designers should carefully consider
whether frequent guard rail wear is likely
before selecting a complex design that may
have limited value.
Tropical hardwoods from forests in Africa and

South America, such as Azobe, Jarrah, and
Quebraco,
were briefly popular in North
America for switch ties and crossties in
special applications.
They have fallen out
favor in recent years due to environmental
concerns relative to rain forest depletion and
unsatisfactory
experiences
that
some
railroads and transit agencies have had with
these products. They remain in common use,
however, on railways and transit systems in
countries that do not have large hardwood
forests.
Trackwork
designers
must
consider
requirements for stray current control when
choosing the type of switch tie to be used. If
insulated
installations
are required,
the
designer
must
consider
the dielectric
properties at each rail seat and the switch
plate must be evaluated on both timber and
6.8 WHEEL TREAD CLEARANCE
Throughout any special trackwork unit, it is

important to be certain that nothing projects
above the top of rail plane into a zone where it
might be struck by the outer edge of the LRV
6-35
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
concrete switch ties. For more information

rail seat insulation refer to Chapter 5.
on
track designer should consider integrating the

restraining rail into the turnout by design to
avoid makeshift connections between them in
the field.
Concrete switch ties can improve the stability

of turnout and crossing installations and will
provide a track modulus comparable to main
line concrete crosstie track. Concrete switch
ties must be individually designed to fit at
each specific location within a turnout. Hence,
a concrete switch tie designed for use at a
particular location in a No. 6 turnout will likely
not be usable in a No. 10 turnout. However,
because of their size-they
generally are 250
millimeters (10 inches) wide-concrete
switch
ties require a spacing layout that is distinctly
different from that used with timber switch ties.
The new tie layout can impact turnout switch
design by requiring alternate switch rod
positions. The two ties at the point of switch
area that support the switch machine must
remain at the 559-millimeter (22-inch) AREMA
standard center distance if they are to
accommodate
power
standard
North
American switch machines.
Figures 6.9.1
and 6.9.2 illustrate typical Number 8 and 10
concrete tie ballasted turnouts using SI units.
For addition information on switch ties, refer to
Chapter 5.
6.10 RESTRAININGRAIL
TRACK
6.11 PRECURVlNGlSHOP
RAIL
Precurved
trackwork
processing
beyond its
6.11-l
For addition information

designs for guarded
Chapter 5.
rail is also considered special

since shop fabrication or special
is required to bend the rail steel
elastic limit.
Shop Curving
Rail Horizontally
For additional information on precurving of tee

rail and girder groove rail refer to Chapter 5.
6.11.2
Shop Curving Rail Vertically

Special Trackwork
for
If a special trackwork unit is within a vertical

curve, as often happens when embedded
trackwork must conform to existing street
geometry, it may be necessary to shop curve
rails vertically so that they lay uniformly
without kinked joints or welds to adjoining
rails.
This is particularly true when it is
necessary to field weld adjoining rails.
FOR GUARDED
An 1189-mm (39-foot) long 115 RE rail is

supported only at its ends, can assume a sag
vertical radius of about 1524 meters (5,000
feet). A similar crest radius can be achieved
by a rail supported only in the center. These
equate to a mid-ordinate deflection of about
25 mm (1 inch) over the length of the rail. If
the requisite vertical radius is sharper than
this, the rails should be shop curved vertically
to avoid assembly problems in the field.
Technically, the shapes assumed by such
simply supported rails are neither circular
curves nor parabolic curves, but are close
enough for practical field purposes.
As noted in the beginning of this chapter, the

broad definition of special trackwork includes
restraining rail systems for guarded track. For
details concerning these topics refer to the
following:
l
For additional information on guarded
trackwork, refer to Chapter 4.
l
CURVING OF
on restraining rail
track, refer to
When curves with restraining

rails are
adjacent to turnouts and track crossings, the
6-36
NO. 10 llJRNOU1 BAllASlEO AND m

EllC I -50
P.1.
Special
In extremely sharp horizontal curves, it will be

necessary to account for rail cant when
bending the rails. This requires that the rails
be cambered vertically prior to horizontal
bending
6.12
Trackwork
Regardless of the source of supply, special

trackwork units should be standardized to the
maximum degree possible so that economies
of scale are possible during both initial project
construction
and
subsequent
long-term
maintenance.
One-of-a-kind
assemblies
should be avoided.
PROPRIETARY SPECIAL
TRACKWORK DESIGNS AND
LIMITED SOURCES OF SUPPLY
6.13 SHOP ASSEMBLY
Many of the innovative transit-specific special

trackwork designs developed by European
fabricators
are not produced
by North
American special trackwork manufacturers.
Some of these designs are proprietary, but, in
general, North American special trackwork
manufacturers
have been disinterested
in
undertaking
the investment
necessary
to
satisfy the limited demand for such products.
Instead, they concentrate on the materials
customarily
required
by their
largest
customers-North
American freight railroads.
The trackwork
designer
must carefully
consider the prudence of designing a system
where essential trackwork products will be
difficult to obtain at reasonable cost through
competitive
bidding.
Use of sole-source
products
or proprietary
designs
should
generally be avoided.
Because complex
interrelationships
can exist between
the
various elements of the overall trackwork
design, this evaluation should be performed
before design details are selected
and
procurement and construction contracts are
advertised.
The designer
should also
consider whether the same products or
interchangeable
substitutes are likely to be
available
for future
maintenance
and
expansion
of the system.
Caution
is
recommended
if special trackwork sources
are limited solely to overseas manufacturers
or a single domestic supplier.
Special
trackwork
layouts,
particularly
complex layouts involving more than one
turnout, should be preassembled
at the
fabrication shop. This will enable inspectors
to verify that all components fit together as
specified
and are in accordance
with
approved shop drawings.
Any allowable
deviations from the approved shop drawings
should also be noted on assembly plans so
that field installation crews can make any
necessary adjustments to the trackwork.
During shop assembly all components should
be fully assembled ready for installation in the
field. The only exception would be insulated
joints that are glued during field installation,
which can be assembled dry in the shop. If
crossties and rail fastenings
are to be
furnished with the layout, they should be
installed during shop assembly.
If timber
switch ties are included as a part of the
assembly, they can be permanently preplated
during the shop assembly,
particularly if
elastic rail fastenings are being used.
6.14 REFERENCES
[I]
6-39
American
Railway Engineering
and
Maintenance
of Way
Association,
Manual for Railway Engineering, 1964.
Chapter
7-Aerial
Structures/Bridges
Table of Contents
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7-1
7.2 DESIGN CODES
7-l
7.3 VEHICLE
7-2
FORCES
7.4 TRACK CONFIGURATION

7.5 RAIL/STRUCTURE
7-2
7-4
7-4
7-6
7-6
7-7
7-10
7-l 1
7-12
7-12
INTERACTION
7.5.1 General
7.5.2 Bearing Arrangement at the Piers
7.5.3 Rail/Structure Interaction Analysis
7.54 Rail Break/Rail Gap Occurrences
7.5.5 Terminating CWR on Aerial Structures
7.5.6 Types of Deck Construction
7.5.6.1 Ballast Deck Construction
7.5.6.2 Direct Fixation Deck Construction
7.6 DIRECT FIXATION
7-13
FASTENERS
7.7 TYPES OF SUPERSTRUCTURE
7-14
7.8 REFERENCES
7-17
List of Figures
Figure 7.21
Vehicle Bending
Moments
Figure 7.5.1 Radial Rail/Structure

Figure 7.5.2 Bearing
Configurations
Interaction
Rail Break Gap Size predicted
Figure 7.54
Tie Bar on Aerial Crossover

of Elevated
7-s
Forces
for Elevated
Figure 7.53
Figure 7.7.1 Typical Section
7-1
on Simple Spans
Structure
Girders
by Finite Computer
Model
7-6
7-9
7-l I
Structure
Figure 7.7.2 Range of Deck Costs as a Function

Beam Spacing of Structure
7-15
Studied
of Span Length
and
7-15
Figure 7.7.3 Range of Supporting Bent Costs as a Function

Span Length of Structure
of
7-15
Figure 7.7.4 Range of Foundation

Costs for Different Soil Conditions
as a Function of Span Length of Structure
7-15
Figure 7.7.5 Range of Total Costs of Elevated Structural

as a Function of Span Length for Different
Soil Conditions
7-16
System
Figure 7.7.6 Average Ratio of Cost of Each Structural Subsystem

to Total Cost of Structure-Founded
in Good Soils
7-i
7-16
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Figure 7.7.7 Average Ratio of Cost of Each Structural Subsystem

to Total Cost of Structure-Founded
in Poor Soils
7-16
Figure 7.7.8 Average Ratio of Cost of Supporting

Structure and
Foundation
to Cost of Deck Structure for Different
Soil Conditions
7-17
List of Tables
Table 7.1 Effects of Unbroken Rail and Column Longitudinal
on Loads Transferred
to the Substructure
Table 7.2 Comparison
of Rail Break Gap Size by Different
7-ii
Stiffness
7-8
Formulas
7-10
CHAPTER
7-AERIAL
STRUCTURES/BRIDGES
structures. In addition to local design codes,
designers must choose between the Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges, published
by the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) and
the Manual for Railway Engineering issued by
the American
Railway
Engineering
and
Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA).
Unfortunately,
neither the AASHTO
nor
AREMA
code
accurately
defines
the
requirements of an aerial structure to resist
light rail transit loads, although the AASHTO
code is probably more applicable.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Railway aerial structures started as ballasted

track structures
that had little structural
interaction between the rails and the structure.
Urban railways and long span lift bridges have
been constructed with open deck designs.
These lighter structures used jointed rail to
limit the interaction between the rail and the
structure.
CWR direct fixation track on a
concrete deck is typical of modern light rail
aerial structures.
These structures can have
significant interaction between the rail, which
does not move, and the structure, which must
expand
and contract
with changes
in
temperature.
This chapter discusses the
resolution of rail/structure interaction issues
and presents the items to be considered
during the design of aerial structures.
Most light rail loads are greater than the HS20

truck load used by AASHTO, but they are
much less than the Cooper E80 railroad
loading cited in the AREMA code.
Figure
7.2.1 plots bending moment versus span
length for the Cooper E80 train load, the HS20
truck load, and the LRV load from the Dallas
and St. Louis transit systems. As shown in
the figure, for a 305meter
(lOO-foot) span,
the LRV produces
a bending
moment
approximately
50 percent higher than that
produced by the HS20 truck load, but less
than 20 percent of the bending moment
caused by the Cooper E80 train load.
The design of aerial structures for light rail

transit systems involves choosing a design
code, determining
light rail vehicle (LRV)
configuration
forces,
confirming
track
requirements,
and applying
rail/structure
interaction forces. This interaction is affected
by such factors as the bearing arrangement at
the substructure units, trackwork terminating
on the aerial structure,
type of deck
construction, and type of rail fasteners.
The structural engineer must coordinate with
the trackwork engineer to fully understand the
issues that affect the design of an aerial
structure. The details of the trackwork design
significantly affect the magnitude of the forces
that must be resisted by the aerial structure.
z. trrm !
s-
..=i;SZO
HIGHWAY-\
_-- --LIGHT RAIL MHICX
-
Figure 7.2.1 Vehicle Bending

Simple Spans [I
Moments
on
7.2 DESIGN CODES

The AREMA code, although applicable to
railroad structures, is too restrictive for light
rail transit structures
due to the great
difference in loadings.
Wheel spacings for
At present there is no nationally accepted

design code that has been developed
specifically
for light rail transit
aerial
7-1
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
AREMA loading do not correspond to those

found on LRVs, and the AREMA impact
criterion is not consistent with the suspension
and drive systems used on LRVs.
The
service conditions, frequencies, and types of
loading applicable to freight railroad bridges
are not consistent
with those items on
dedicated light rail transit systems. [,*I
heavier vehicles in the design criteria for

aerial
alternative
structures
These
maintenance/construction
vehicles include a
crane car, maintenance car, work train with
locomotive,
and even highway
vehicles
(during construction).
On the other hand,
some transit properties establish the LRV as
the basis of design for the aerial structures.
Alternately, a strong similarity exists between

light rail transit design requirements and the
AASHTO code.
For light rail transit aerial
structures, the ratio of live load to dead load
more closely approximates that of highway
loadings than freight railroad loadings.
In
addition, since the magnitude of the transit live
load can be more accurately predicted, the
conservatism inherent in the AREMA code is
not required in light rail transit structures.
In addition to the LRV and alternative vehicle

live loads applied to the aerial structure, the
following vehicle forces are considered:
0 Vertical impact
l
Transverse horizontal impact
0 Centrifugal force
l
Rolling force (vertical force applied at
each rail, one up and one down)
l
Longitudinal
force from braking and
tractive effort
l
Derailment force
It is interesting to note that the older transit

systems (Chicago, Philadelphia, New York)
often refer to the AREMA code for design of
their bridges, but the newer systems (Atlanta,
Washington, Baltimore) base their designs on
AASHTO specifications.
This is partly due to
an increased understanding
of an aerial
structures
behavior
and the designers
confidence in the ability to more accurately
predict the transit loads. Both heavy rail and
light rail transit systems can use AASHTO as
a guide since their axle loads and car weights
are similar.
Combinations of vehicle forces, in conjunction

with dead loads, wind loads, and seismic
loads, are developed to generate the load
cases that govern the design of an aerial
structure.
7.4 TRACK
The majority of the early transit systems used

trackwork comprised of jointed rail supported
on elevated, simple-span guideway structures.
Alternatives have been developed for light rail
transit trackwork.
Rather than the classical
jointed rail with bolted connections every 12
meters (39 feet), the trackwork is normally
constructed with continuous welded rail. With
either rail configuration,
the rails can be
fastened directly to the aerial structures deck
or installed on ties and ballast.
Although there is no current bridge design

code that is completely applicable to light rail
transit bridges, the use of the AASHTO code
will result in a conservative design that is not
overly restrictive or uneconomical. (,2,31
7.3 VEHICLE
CONFIGURATION
FORCES
The bolted connections used with jointed rail

allow sufficient longitudinal expansion and
contraction to reduce the accumulation
of
thermal stresses along the rails. But bolted
joints have the following disadvantages:[41
The vehicle forces applied to an aerial

structure are often set by the transit agencys
design criteria for site-specific circumstances.
Many transit properties include alternative
7-2
Aerial
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Structures/Bridges
and contracts, while the CWR remains in

a fixed position
Generate noise and vibration

Are troublesome to maintain
Contribute to derailments
Cause rail fatigue in the proximity of the
rail joints
Cause wear of the rolling stock
Reduce ride quality
Increase the dynamic
impact forces
applied to the aerial structure
Providing a connection between the CWR

and aerial
structure
(direct fixation
fasteners)
that is resilient enough to
permit the structure to expand and
without
overstressing
the
contract
fasteners
An important
element in the design of
trackwork using CWR is the consideration of
rail breaks.
Rail breaks often occur at
structural
expansion joints in the aerial
structure and must be accommodated without
catastrophic effects such as derailment of the
vehicle. Depending on the length of the aerial
structure, the CWR has to be sufficiently
restrained on the aerial structure to limit the
length of the gap if the rail does break.
Over the past 20 years, CWR has been the

most common track configuration for light rail
transit systems.
This is mainly due to its
ability to overcome many of the disadvantages
of jointed rail. Specifically, CWR? 61
l
Minimizes noise and vibration
l
Reduces track maintenance
l
Improves track safety
l
Eliminates the joints that cause rail fatigue
l
Limits wear of the rolling stock
l
Provides a smooth, quiet ride
l
Limits the dynamic impact forces applied
to the aerial structure
CWR is a standard now employed in the

transit industry.
Therefore, transit system
designers must understand how it interacts
with aerial structures as the temperature
changes in order to provide a safe track and
structure.
The use of CWR, combined with direct fixation

of the rails to the supporting structure, is an
improvement in the support and geometric
stability of the trackwork.
As a result, rider
comfort and safety is enhanced and track
maintenance requirements are decreased.
Expansion (sliding) rail joints are used in

certain
circumstances
to
reduce
the
interactive forces between the CWR and the
structure.
These include locations where
special trackwork is installed on the aerial
structure, where signal track circuits need to
be accommodated,
and where the aerial
structure includes very long spans.
The use of CWR requires designers of

trackwork and aerial structures to consider
items that are neglected with the use of
jointed rail, such as? **I
Providing sufficient rail restraint to prevent
horizontal or vertical buckling of the rails
Rails can be attached to the structure in a

The most common
variety of ways.
mechanism
is the use of direct fixation
fasteners with spring clips. Rigid rail clips
have also been used in the vicinity of
substructure units (piers and abutments) with
fixed bearings, as well as adjacent to special
trackwork.
Also, zero longitudinal restraint
fasteners have been installed to minimize the
Providing anchorage
of the CWR to
prevent excessive rail gaps from forming if
the rail breaks at low temperature
Determining the effect a rail break could
have on an aerial structure
Calculating the thermal forces applied to
the aerial structure, the rail, and the
fasteners as the aerial structure expands
7-3
Light
Rail
Track
Design
interaction forces between

existing aerial structure.
7.5 RAIL/STRUCTURE
7.51
Handbook
CWR
and
installation temperature cause tensile forces

that increase the probability of a rail break
(pull-apart).
A rail break creates unbalanced
forces and moments in the aerial structure
and results in a gap in the rail that could
cause a derailment.
Rail breaks are
discussed in further detail in Section 7.5.4.
an
INTERACTION
General
Based on these thermal effects, there are

three problems to address in the design of
aerial structures with CWR:
1. Controlling
the stresses
in the rail
attributed to the differential longitudinal
motions
between
the rail and the
superstructure
because of temperature
changes or other causes
With widespread use of CWR, the designer of

an aerial structure must be aware of trackwork
design and installation procedures, as well as
vehicle performance and ride comfort issues.
Trackwork design and installation procedures
are especially critical in establishing
the
magnitude of the interaction forces between
the rail and aerial structure.
As
the
temperature
changes,
the
superstructure (deck and girders) expands or
contracts.
The rails are basically stationary
because of their continuity throughout the
length of the bridge and because they are
anchored off the bridge. The movement of the
superstructure
as the temperature
changes
imposes deformation on the fastening system
that attaches the rails to the bridge deck.
2.
Controlling the rail break gap size and

resulting loads into the superstructure
3.
Transferring of superstructure
moments into the substructure
loads and
A structural system is formed when CWR

track is installed on an aerial structure. The
major components of this system include:61
Long, elastic CWR, whose ends are
anchored in ballasted track beyond the
abutments
additional
This
thermal
action
exerts
interactive axial forces and deformations on
the rails and superstructure.
Reaction loads
are applied to the substructure (piers and
abutments) through the fixed bearings and by
shear or friction through
the expansion
bearings. The aerial structure must also resist
lateral components of the longitudinal loads
When the cumulative
on curved track.
resistance of the fastening devices (rail clips)
along a length of superstructure is overcome,
the superstructure slides relative to the rail.
Elastic rail fasteners that attach the rails

directly to the superstructure
The elastic superstructure
Elastic bearings connecting
the substructure
The elastic substructure
foundations
the girders to
anchored to rigid
There are a number of principal design factors

that affect the magnitude of the interaction
movement and forces between the rails and
the structure, including:nO~ I
l
The composition of the girder material
(steel or concrete)
will affect
the
expansion/contraction
response
to
temperature changes
Since CWR is not able to expand or contract,

temperature
increases
above
the
rail
installation temperature
cause compressive
Rail
forces that could buckle the rail.
fasteners
prevent
buckling
of the rail.
Temperature
decreases
below
the rail
7-4
Aerial
The girder length and type (simple span

or continuous) will affect the magnitude of
the structures thermal movement that the
rail fasteners must accommodate
where:
F, = thermal rail force

A, = cross sectional area
E, = modulus of elasticity
a = coefficient of thermal
Ti = final rail temperature
T, = effective construction
temperature of the
The girders support pattern of fixed and

expansion bearings from adjacent spans
on the piers (refer to Section 7.5.2)
The magnitude
of the temperature
The rail fastener layout and longitudinal

restraint characteristics; there are at least
four concepts of fastener and restraint
in
1. Frictional
restraint
developed
mechanical fasteners
2. Elastic restraint developed in elastic
fasteners
3. Elastic restraint developed in elastic
fasteners with controlled rail slip
4. Elastic and slip fasteners installed in
accordance with the expected relative
movements between girder and rail;
install sufficient elastic fasteners near
the fixed bearing to control rail creep;
install slip fasteners over the balance
of the girder length to provide full
lateral
restraint
and
minimal
longitudinal restraint
rail
RPSIN FORCEPER FWT
RAOIALFORCEPER FOOT PER RAJL=
Depending on the method used to attach the

rails to the structure, the structural engineer
must design the structure for longitudinal
restraint loads induced by the fasteners,
horizontal forces due to a rail break, and radial
forces caused by thermal changes in rails on
curved alignments. Todays designer can use
computer
models to simulate the entire
structure/trackwork
system to account for
variations in the stiffness of the substructure
and the dissipation of rail/structure interaction
forces due to the substructures
deflection
(see Section 7.53).
Fr =ArEra(Ti-To)
of the rail
of steel
expansion
On horizontal curves, the axial forces in the

rail and superstructure result in radial forces.
These radial forces are transferred to the
substructure by the bearings. The magnitude
of the radial force is a function of rail
temperature,
rail size, curve radius, and
longitudinal fastener restraint. Refer to Figure
7.5.1 as well as other pertinent publications
for the equation to calculate
the radial
rail/structure interaction force.
change
The thermal force in the rail is calculated

the following equation: r4,, I
Structures/Bridges
E aAT k
R
KF CCNT
4
MEINN
CWWT
INTERACTlCN
CCMPONENT
WERE: E
YMJULUSff ELASTICITY
OF RNL STEEL
CWFICJWT OF THERUN EXPANSCtN

OF RAi!. STEEL
AT
OIANCXR RfiL TENPERATJRE

FROUSTRESS-FREETEYPERATURE
AREA ff RAlL SECTION
RADIUSff HCRIZONTALCJRX
KF =
I~,=
FASiENERsup VALUEMWDEOBY FASTENERSPAONG

LENGWIOF WW3UP.E 8ETWEN EXPANSCNJOINTS
Figure 7.5.1
Radial
action Forces WI
Rail/Structure
Inter-
Various solutions have been implemented in

an attempt to minimize the interaction forces
caused by placing CWR on aerial structures,
including the use of
l
Ballasted track instead of direct fixation
track (refer to Section 7.56)
l
by
l
(Ew 1)
7-5
Zero longitudinal
to Section 7.6)
restraint fasteners
(refer
High-restraint
fasteners
near
the
structures point of fixity and low-restraint
fasteners
on the remainder
of the
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
structure (Note: it has been reported that

this solution results in problems with rail
creep and excessive rail gaps at breaks in
the rail)
l
A series of rail expansion joints and lowrestraint fasteners to allow the rail to
move independent
of the structure;
requires
highly restrained
zones to
transfer traction and braking forces to the
structure.
/-RAIL
7.5.2 Bearing
Arrangement
(DNFIGURATION
CONFIGURATION
(X7)
,-QRMR
,-FASTENERS
at the Piers
The magnitude of rail/structure

interaction
forces transferred to the substructure depends
heavily on the bearing arrangement used. As
shown in Figure 7.5.2, there are three
commonly
used
bearing
arrangements.
Configuration
A is a symmetrical
bearing
arrangement,
with
fixed
bearings
(or
expansion bearings) from adjacent spans at
the same pier. Configurations A and B are
commonly used on modern transit systems
that utilize CWR. Configuration C is a nonsymmetrical
bearing arrangement
typically
used on railroad and highway bridges.
0
A
EXPANSION BEARING
FIXED BEARING
~FIGURATION
Figure 7.5.2
Bearing
Configurations
Elevated Structure Girders WI
engineer must still design the bearings

their anchor bolts to resist these forces.
7.5.3
Rail/Structure
interaction
for
and
Analysis
Opinions differ throughout the transit design

community regarding the level of complexity
required to design aerial structures subjected
to thermal interaction forces from CWR. The
interaction of the rails and supporting structure
involves the control of rail creep, broken rail
gaps, stresses induced in the CWR, axial
stresses induced in the guideway structure,
and longitudinal
and transverse
forces
developed in the supporting substructure.[*l
As a guideline for light rail transit systems with

CWR, the symmetrical bearing arrangement is
the most desirable. In this arrangement, the
thermal interactive forces induced into the rail
tend to cancel out each other. This is true as
long as the adjacent spans are of similar
length and geometry.
On the contrary, if an
expansion bearing at the end of one span is
coupled with a fixed bearing at the end of the
adjacent
span
on
the
shared
pier
(Configuration C), then the thermal interactive
forces would have a cumulative effect.
Some suggest that hand calculations are

adequate and provide a good understanding
of the important considerations of rail/structure
interaction.
Todays structural engineer has
the advantage of being able to use computer
software
to more exactly analyze this
complex interaction.
Although the interactive forces at symmetrical

bearing arrangements
tend to cancel out
before loading the piers, the structural
7-6
Aerial
Others have found that simpler analysis

methods are unreliable in predicting stresses
and structural behavior critical to significant
W/R-related
design elements.[51
These
design elements include:
The control of stresses in rails attributed
to
thermally
induced
differential
movements
between
the
rail and
supporting superstructure
flexural stresses in the rail and the tensile

stress already in the rail is likely to be at its
maximum value at this location. . I21
A broken rail on a light rail transit bridge is an
important
consideration
because
of the
potential to transfer a large force to the bridge
or for a derailment because of the formation of
a rail gap.
As a result, aerial structure
designers
must consider the rail break
condition.
Limits on the size of the rail gap
have to be established, usually based on the
light rail vehicles wheel diameter.
It is
commonly assumed that only one rail of a
single- or double-track alignment will break at
any one time.
The control of the rail break gap size and

the resulting
loads transferred
into
structures during low-temperature rail pullapart failures
The transfer of thermally induced loads
from the superstructure,
through the
bearings, into the substructure
When the rail breaks, the pads of the

fasteners situated between the break and the
thermal neutral point are realigned in the
opposite direction. Then, the rail slips through
the fasteners whose pads have deformed
beyond their elastic limit, engaging enough
fasteners to resist the remaining thermal
force. Once the required number of fasteners
is engaged to balance the thermal force in the
rail, the rail ceases to move.
The choice of the method used to analyze

rail/structure interaction forces is clearly at the
discretion
of the experienced
structural
engineer.
Depending on the length of the
aerial structure and other considerations,
simple formulas may be used to determine the
structural
requirements.
Alternately,
complexities
such as curved alignments,
varying span lengths, and the type of
structural
elements
may require that a
rigorous three-dimensional
structural analysis
be performed.
At times, the transit agencys
design criteria will include the required
analysis methodology.
7.5.4 Rail Break/Rail
Structures/Bridges
The unbalanced force from the broken rail is

resisted by the other unbroken rail(s) and the
aerial structure. The portion of the rail break
force that is resisted by the unbroken rail(s)
versus the aerial structure is significantly
affected by the substructures
longitudinal
stiffness (the force required to induce a unit
deformation
in a component),
the bearing
configuration, and the rail fasteners restraint
characteristics.[51
Gap Occurrences
A rail break occurs when a thermally induced

tensile force, resulting from a significant
decrease in temperature, exceeds the ultimate
tensile strength of the rail. The rail break is
likely to occur at or near an expansion joint in
the superstructure or at a bad weld, a rail flaw,
or other weak spot in the rail.
Refer to Table 7.1 for a comparison of the rail

gap size for different column stiffnesses and
levels of fastener
restraint.
Note that
progressively lower loads are transferred to
the columns as column stiffness decreases.
As a result, higher loads are transferred to the
unbroken rails. This increases the thermally
The structures expansion joint is a likely

general area where a rail break can occur
because the girders end rotations increase
7-7
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
where:
G
X Cl
induced stress in this rail and raises the

possibility of a second rail break. With higher
restraint fasteners, more load is transferred to
the unbroken rail and less to the column than
with medium-restraint fasteners.
X c2
X c3
Researchers found that the superstructures

bearing arrangement, as discussed in Section
7.52, has little effect on rail gap size. But
decreasing the fasteners longitudinal stiffness
or slip force limit, or both, will result in an
increased rail gap size.
AT
L
The redistribution of the rail break force to the

substructure causes a longitudinal deflection
in the
substructure.
The
resulting
substructure deflection, with the thermal slip of
the broken rail, combine to create the total
gap in the broken rail.
P fS
P fns
&
Several methods can be used to calculate the

potential rail gap size.
Following are the
equations discussed herein?]
Rail gap size is generally
following equation:
G=~(XCI+XC~-XC~)
estimated
n ns
n,
by the
A,
(Eqn. 2)
6
= rail gap, cm (in.)

= P,&
the maximum longitudinal
deflection of the non-slip fastener
= aATL,, the nominal rail contraction
= W,
+ Vfns) WNC,
the
reduction in rail contraction
caused by fastener constraint
= coefficient of expansion, 1.17x1 Oe5
cm/cm/% (6.5 x IO in.lin./F) for
steel
= temperature change, C (F)
= length of span (fixed to expansion
point), cm (in.)
= minimum longitudinal restraint
force in controlled slip fastener
kg (lb.1
= minimum longitudinal restraint
force in non-stip fastener, kg (lb.)
= fastener longitudinal stiffness
kg/cm (lb./in.)
= number of non-slip fasteners in
span
= number of controlled-slip
fasteners in span
= cross-sectional area of rail (72.58
cm2 [I 1.25 in.2] for 115 RE rail)
= rail modulus of elasticity, 2.1 X lo6
kg/cm2 (30 X lo6 Ib./in.2)
TABLE 7.1
EFFECTS OF UNBROKEN RAIL AND COLUMN LONGITUDINAL
STIFFNESS ON LOADS TRANSFERRED TO THE SUBSTRUCTURE
* Assuming a symmetrical girder bearing configuration of E-F/F-E/E-F

drop.
7-8
[S]
and a 600 F temperature
Aerial
A simplified form of Equation 2 has been used

to estimate rail gap size, based on a length, L,
on either side of the break over which full rail
anchorage is provided, so that:
G = (wIT)~ AEJR,
(Ew.
0%
I I I I I I I I1
I
II
:ASE 6 (btt.dAT~)/I
I ! ! ! !I!
, , ,
! ! !
, ,
! ! ! 1
3)
I i i
i i
i iii
i
:F
CL
Equation 2 provides a reasonable estimate of

rail gap size for medium- and high-restraint
fasteners, but significantly underestimates the
rail gap size for low-restraint fasteners. Lowrestraint fasteners generally do not adequately
control the size of the rail gap. Equation 3
provides relatively accurate estimates in many
cases, except where high-restraint fasteners
are used. Improved accuracy can be obtained
with Equation 2 if the term &, is modified to
.use the estimated total number of fasteners
over which the locked-in load is distributed.
Therefore:
+ &, - W
I I I I I I Y
where R, is the longitudinal restraint per

centimeter of rail in kilograms per centimeter
(pounds per inch).
G = WL
Structures/Bridges
:2
a
cc
i i i
20
I I I I I I I I I I I
40
60 80 100 120 140
TEMPERATUREDROP, DEGREE F
160
Figure 7.5.3 Rail Break Gap Size Predicted

by Finite Computer Model fg
Table 7.2 summarizes
estimated rail gap size

using different equations and software.
4)
where:
&2
n,
PT
P fmax
Y
Kf
Once the rail gap size has been estimated,

the variables affecting the magnitude of the
gap (such as rail fastener spacing and
stiffness) should be adjusted to limit the size
of the gap. This will minimize the chance of a
light rail vehicle derailment caused by a rail
gap. The size of the rail gap is usually limited
based on the diameter of the vehicles wheel.
Typically accepted rail gaps are in the range
of 50 millimeters (2 inches) for a 400millimeter (16-inch) diameter wheel. [41
= 0.5 aAT nxLs
= PJPfmax = PfmcJwPTKf
= aAT AE,, the thermal load, kg (lb.)
= hsPfns + n,h)4n,,
+ n,>, the
average fastener restraint limit
kg (lb-1
= AE&, the rail spring, kg/cm
(lb./in.)
= fastener longitudinal stiffness
kg/cm (Ib.in.)
Equations 2 and 3 estimate rail gap size

assuming linear load distributions.
Typically,
finite-element
computer
models show the
fastener load distributions to be nonlinear.
Refer to Figure 7.5.3 for the rail gap sizes
predicted using a finite-element model.
It is interesting to note that efforts to control

rail gap size offer opposing solutions.
For
safety reasons, the length of the rail gap
should be minimized to reduce the possibility
of a derailment.
In addition, the forces and
7-9
Light
Rail
Track
Design
COMPARISON
Handbook
TABLE 7.2
OF RAIL BREAK GAP SIZE BY DIFFERENT
FORMULASm
Note: AT, = Temperature change in the girder; the girder bearing configuration = E-F/F-E/E-F;
the length of the span = 80 ft.; the length of the fastener = 30 in.; and the temperature
change in the rail = 60 F (temperature drop).
a Using average of R, = n,h + nnsPhsY(ns + nns) where n, = the number of slip fasteners,
= the number of non-slip fasteners.
and nns
bTBTRACK and TRKTHRM are programs developed to calculate rail-break gap size.
moments transferred to the structure due to a
rail break should be minimized to achieve an
economical
structure.
To resolve safety
relatively
issues,
fasteners
with
high
longitudinal restraint should be used.
To
address the structural issues, fasteners with a
relatively low longitudinal restraint should be
used. The trackwork and structural engineers
must
coordinate
the opposing
design
requirements to balance the needs for each
transit system.
7.55
Terminating
Structures
specialwork locations due to discontinuities in

the rail. Standard turnout units, by design,
transfer high forces through the units on an
aerial structure which causes misalignment
and wear.h2]
To accommodate the large forces occurring at
locations of specialwork, rail anchors or rail
expansion joints could be used. Rail anchors
create a zero force condition through the
specialwork,
but pass the rail termination
force to the structure. The massiveness of the
resulting
substructure,
however,
may be
aesthetically and economically
undesirable.
The use of sliding rail expansion joints must
consider the following:
l
The construction length of the sliding rail
joints
CWR on Aerial
As much as possible, CWR should not be

terminated on an aerial structure due to the
large termination
force transferred
to the
structure.
Problems arise when specialwork
must be located on an aerial structure due to
the length of the structure, the needs of the
transit operations,
or other occurrences.
Unbalanced
thermal
forces
exist
in
7-l 0
The length
accommodate
rail joint
of structure
required to
the specialwork and sliding
The design, location, and

details of the rail anchors
installation
Aerial
Some transit systems have used a tie bar

device to accommodate specialwork on their
aerial structures.
See Figure 7.5.4 for a
picture of a tie bar installation at an aerial
structure crossover.
Structures/Bridges
girder. An equal and opposite thermal force is

developed in the tie bar and transferred to the
AX0 girder through a welded connection.
Therefore, the net longitudinal thermal force is
directed through the tie bar instead of the
piers or the specialwork, where the trackwork
could be damaged.
Designers should avoid specialwork on aerial
structures.
When this cannot be avoided,
there
are ways
to accommodate
the
specialwork without causing it to malfunction.
7.56
Figure 7.54
Tie Bar on Aerial Crossover
Types of Deck Construction
Traditionally, three distinctly different types of

deck construction have been used in rail
transit construction.
The earliest elevated
transit track featured open deck construction,
where timber crossties were attached directly
to the steel superstructure.
This type of
construction was used to eliminate the cost
and dead load of the ballast, as well as the
deck structure required to support/contain the
ballast. Ballast deck construction was then
used to address the publics complaints about
the noise and vibration generated by the
transit vehicles as they traveled along the
open deck structures, among other issues.
Over the last 30 years, a mixture of ballast
deck and direct fixation deck construction has
been used.
The direct fixation deck was
developed to resolve the shortcomings of the
ballast deck.
Iq
With a tie bar system, the CWR is interrupted

at the crossover and the rail ends are
attached as rigidly as possible to special
AXO girders adjacent to the outer ends of
the specialwork. The AX0 girders are similar
to standard girders except for the addition of
an embedded steel plate to which the tie bar
is attached by welding.
The tie bar, a
structural steel member with a cross section
equal to two rails, is located on the centerline
of each track and is welded to the embedded
plates on the centerline of the two AX0
girders. The tie bar rests on Teflon bearing
pads placed directly on the concrete deck for
the length of the crossover.
The decision concerning which type of deck

construction to use with CVVR has profound
construction cost implications.
Based on the
difference in cost of aerial structures with and
without CWR and the resultant thermal effects
considered in the structural design, the most
conservative
design
using CWR could
increase structure costs by 23 percent.i51 But
there are many variables to consider when
When the temperature changes, the thermal

force built up at the end of the CWR is
transferred to an AX0 girder through a group
of rail fasteners equally spaced along the
7-11
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
many transit properties.

Developed in the
1960s for new light rail transit projects, the
rails are attached directly to the concrete deck
by elastic fasteners. The advantages of this
type of construction include?*, I
l
Elastic fasteners
absorb
noise and
vibration and provide vertical flexibility
l
Improves aesthetics by using shallower,
less massive structures
l
Generates a relatively low dead load
l
Rail fasteners provide electrical isolation
and a means to efficiently adjust the line
and grade of the track
l
Requires less maintenance and is easier
to maintain
l
Retains track geometry much longer than
ballasted track
l
Provides relatively good ride quality
l
Offers relatively good live load distribution
choosing the type of deck to use on any

particular transit structure.
7.5.6.1 Ballast Deck Construction

Ballast deck construction is still considered a
valuable choice by some transit agencies. It
is usually used on moderate length bridges,
generally 91 meters (300 feet) or less.
Advantages of the ballast deck incIude:[2~4.01
intermediate
cushion
l
Provides
an
between the rails and the structure to
enhance ride quality
l
Limits the thermal forces associated with
rail/structure interaction
l
Uses typical rail track fasteners
l
Reduces noise and vibration
l
Permits standard track maintenance
to
adjust alignment and profile
l
Provides good live load distribution
l
Offers good track support
The use of direct fixation track construction

has been credited with saving millions of
dollars on a transit project by eliminating the
need for crossties and ballast.r41 MTA New
York City Transit discusses the difficulty in
identifying any specific increased cost for the
rail/structure interaction associated with the
thermal effects.r]
The construction
cost
impacts are unclear since thermal forces are
combined with live loads, dead loads, and
other loads in various combinations according
to the design codes and criteria.
Disadvantages of the ballast deck include:

The cost of deck waterproofing
and the
ballast layer
The heavy deck load
The greater depth of deck required
The cost of maintenance of the ballast

layer, including cleaning and tamping
(although not light rail, some Japanese
and
railways
require
maintenance
tamping operations on their ballast deck
structures two to three times a year. In
addition, their overall maintenance costs
ballast
deck
structures
is
for
approximately five times greater than for
direct-fixation structures 1131)
The development
of
horizontal,
vertical,
displacements
Disadvantages of direct fixation deck include:

Rail/structure
interaction must address
thermal forces
l
High initial cost
0 Tight construction control required
l
Specialized rail fasteners required
l
rail breaks with

and
angular
Although direct fixation deck is presently the

most common construction method on light
rail transit structures, it is clear that the
decision to use ballast deck or direct fixation
deck construction on a transit propertys aerial
structures is based on technical requirements,
7.5.6.2 Direct Fixation Deck Construction

Direct fixation deck construction
has now
become the accepted standard practice for
7-12
Aerial
aesthetics,
construction
cost,
cost, and individual preference.
7.6 DIRECT FIXATION
maintenance
FASTENERS
Since the majority of transit properties now

use
CWR
with
direct
fixation
deck
construction,
the aerial structure designer
should understand the types of rail fasteners
presently available. Rail fasteners secure the
CWR to the deck of the aerial structure; the
bottom portion of the fastener is bolted to the
deck and the top portion is bolted or clipped to
the bottom flange of the rail.
Lateral fastener stiffness:

3,900 to 11,400 N/mm
(22,000 to 64,000 lb./in.)
Longitudinal fastener stiffness
600 to 3,200 N/mm
(3,400 to 18,000 lb./in.)
Longitudinal restraint
9,000 to 15,750 N
(2,000 to 3,500 lb.)
Most light rail transit systems use a concrete

pad, or plinth, to support the direct fixation
fasteners
and
attach
them
to
the
superstructure.
Intermittent gaps are provided
along
the
length
of the
plinths
to
accommodate
deck drainage and to provide
openings for electrical (systems) conduits
placed on the deck.
With a conventional direct fixation fastener,

the elastomer provides isolation of the high
wheel/rail
impact forces from the deck;
electrical
isolation;
vertical
elasticity
to
dampen
noise and vibration;
longitudinal
elasticity
to accommodate
rail/structure
interaction movements; and distribution of the
wheel loads longitudinally along the rail. The
fastener also provides full restraint in the
lateral direction, maintains the desired rail
tolerances, and prevents rail buckling under
high temperature.
The level of longitudinal
restraint
chosen for the fastener
is a
compromise between the restraint required to
limit the rail gap size and the desire to
minimize rail/structure interaction forces.r6~*l
ranges
Vertical fastener stiffness:

13,300 to 26,600 N/mm
(75,000 to 150,000 lb./in.)
Direct fixation fasteners are commonly spaced

at 762 millimeters (30 inches) on center. This
spacing is determined by analysis of rail
bending stresses, interaction forces of the rait
and rail fasteners, and the rail gap size at a
rail break location. Trackwork and structural
engineers
need to carefully
coordinate
fastener spacing on sharply skewed bridges to
ensure that the fasteners are adequately
supported on each side of the joints in the
deck.
Low-restraint,
moderate-restraint,
and highrestraint fastener clips are available.
In
addition, some transit properties have utilized
zero longitudinal restraint (ZLR) fasteners in
certain
circumstances.
Although
ZLR
fasteners allow the superstructure
to move
longitudinally
without
generating
thermal
interaction forces, the rail gap size at a rail
break has to be carefully considered when it is
used.
The following are typical

fixation fastener properties:
Structures/Bridges
Reinforcing steel dowels project from the

bridge deck, anchoring
the second-pour
concrete plinths to the deck.
Alternately,
threaded female inserts are embedded in the
concrete deck and threaded reinforcing steel
is installed prior to pouring the plinths.
In
addition, the deck slab is usually recessed for
the second-pour plinths, forming a shear key
to help resist the lateral loads from the rail and
vehicles.
The installation of direct fixation
trackwork requires tight tolerances for the
of direct
7-13
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
support structure
The second-pour concrete
plinths are carefully constructed to meet the
alignment and profile requirements
of the
CWR and fasteners.
Aesthetics
Owners preference
Urban constraints
Durability
Construction
7.7 TYPES OF SUPERSTRUCTURE
During the early stages of design, the

designer
must
determine
the type of
superstructure to be used for a specific aerial
transit structure. Whether the superstructure
is comprised of steel or concrete girders, as
well as the configuration of the girders, must
be evaluated with respect to the project and
site constraints.
used
to
types:rr 4,
151
Effectiveness of structural function (span

lengths, vertical clearances,
span-todepth ratio, etc.)
Constructibility issues, such as erection

and construction convenience,
including
transportation of the structural elements to
the site
Production schedule constraints
Capital cost
Maintenance
cost
Availability
product
of
Availability of construction expertise
The relative costs of different structural

components
considered for each span are
shown as plots of cost versus span length in
Figures 7.7.2 through 7.7.8.
Although this
comparison
was performed
in 1976, the
following conclusions still apply to present
aerial structure design efforts:
l
Economically attractive span lengths vary
from 9 meters (30 feet) to 21.4 meters (70
feet).
l
materials
and
schedule
For comparison
of the many variables
involved
in
evaluating
a
type
of
superstructure,
a structural
system was
selected
that
includes
a cast-in-place
reinforced
concrete
slab supported
by
standard
precast,
prestressed
concrete
girders, whose substructure included concrete
pier columns and a concrete footing (see
Figure 7.7.1). The goal is to select a span
length that minimizes
the sum of the
construction costs for the deck, girders, and
substructure. The cost optimization effort can
be based on a typical span or an entire transit
line.r161
Commonly considered superstructure

types
include:
0 Cast-in-place concrete
0 Precast concrete
0 Segmental precast concrete
l
Steel girders with cast-in-place or precast
deck slab
l
Steel box section with either cast-in-place
or precast deck
The
following
factors
are
comparatively study superstructure
conditions,
including
Site
working
weather, local ordinances, and working
restrictions
finished
7-14
The effect of beam spacing increases with

span
length;
within
other
design
constraints, the largest beam spacing
possible should be used.
Aerial
80 -
$/FT.
Structures/Bridges
= 328
f/M
0
40
60
80
SPAN. FEET
l-l
=0.305
I
II (1FT.
Figure 7.7.1 Typical

Structure Studied rw
500
1 f/FT.
1I f/FT2
Figure 7.7.3 Range

Costs as a Function
Structure r16l
Section
(10 FT = 305
M)
of Supporting
Bent
of Span Length of
10
of Elevated
= 3.28 t/M
= 10.75 $/M2
120
100
200
1 f/FT.
1 s/F?=
= 328 S/M
1075 $/HZ
-20
5
g
400
8
s
300
2
ii
=
200
(1
SPACING
-5
*
100
60
80
SPAN. FEET
40
60
SPAN, FEET
80
100
loo
.1
120
(10 FT. = 305 M)
Figure 7.7.4 Range of Foundation

Costs
for Different Soil Conditions as a Function
of Span Length of Structuren61
120
(10 FT. = 3.05 M)
Figure 7.7.2 Range of Deck

Function
of Span Length
Spacing of Structure rw
Costs as a
and Beam
soil conditions exist and spread

foundations are more economical.
l
40
In poor soil conditions, foundation costs

increase sharply with increasing
span
deep
length, up to a point where
foundations should be considered instead
of spread footings; therefore, shorter spans
when
unfavorable
are recommended
7-15
footer
The minimum cost span derived from

minimizing the total construction cost is
generally different than that obtained by
minimizing the cost of one component
substructure,
or
(deck,
girders,
foundations).
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
600
EARING CAFAUTY W
FCWDATION SW 5 KSF (2.5 KG / CN2)
BEARINGCAPAClM OF
FOUNDATIONSW 2 KSF (1 KG / OA2)
500
-25
-20
-20
400
R BEAM
NG
-15
-15
300
BEARINGCAPACITY OF
FOUNDAWN SOIL: 10 KSF (5 KG / CU*)
HIGHER
FOUNDATIONON PkES
25
1
130
cnn -
BEAM
SPACIN
40
60
80
100
120
---
40
60
80
100
120
SPAN. FEET
Figure 7.7.5 Range of Total Costs of Elevated Structural System as a Function

Length for Different Soil Conditions f761
BEARING CAPACITY OF
FOUNDATION SOIL = 10 KSF
I-
(5 KG/CM)
f'OIJNDATION
of $oan
ON PILES
DECK
FOOTING + PILES
BENT - PIER
BENT - PIER
40
SPAN,
FEET
60
80
SPAN, FEET
(10 FT. = 3.05 M)
loo
120
(10 FT = 3.05 M)
Figure 7.7.7 Average Ratio of Cost of Each

Structural
Subsystem
to Total Cost of
Structure-Founded
in Poor Soils WV
Figure 7.7.6 Average Ratio of Cost of Each

Structural
Subsystem
to Total Cost of
Structur+Founded
in Good Soils [W
7-16
Aerial
Structures/Bridges
7.8 REFERENCES
80
SPAN, FEET
100
120
PI
Dunn,
P.C ,
Harrington,
G.,
Investigation of Design Standards for
Urban Rail Transit Elevated Structures,
UMTA, June, 1981.
PI
Niemietz, R.D., Neimeyer, A.W., Light

Rail Transit Bridge Design Issues,
Transportation
Research Board, Light
Rail Transit:
Planning, Design, and
Operating Experience,
Transportation
Research Record No. 1361, 1992.
131
Grouni,
H.N.,
Nowak,
AS.,
Development
of Design Criteria for
Transit
Guideways,
AC/
Journal,
September-October,
1983.
I41
AC1 Committee
358, Analysis and
Design
of
Reinforced
Concrete
Guideway Structures, ACI 358.1 R-86.
El
Ahlbeck, D.R., Kish, A., Sluz, A., An

Assessment
of Design Criteria for
Continuous- Welded Rail on Elevated
Transit
Transportation
Structures,
Research
Board, Rail Track and
Structures,
Transportation
Research
Record No. 1071, 1986.
(10 FT. = 3.05 M)
Figure 7.7.8
Average Ratio of Cost of
Supporting
Structure
and Foundation
to
Cost of Deck Structure
for Different Soil
Conditions fs1
It is important to note that in planning for aerial
structures, any economical span range can be
considered in the design.
The final span
length selection should be weighted by other
considerations
such as aesthetics
and
community factors.
I31 Clemons, R.E., Continuous Welded Rail
Many times in an urban setting, the span

lengths are specified that provide the required
horizontal and vertical clearances to existing
facilities
along
the light rail systems
alignment.
The location of existing railroad
tracks,
roadways,
highway
bridges,
waterways, and major utilities can restrict
substructure
locations, thereby limiting the
choices for span lengths.
on
BART
Aerial
Structures,
Transportation
Research Board, Rail
Track and Structures, Transportation
As part of a preliminary design effort for an

aerial structure, a study should be performed
to determine the most desirable structure
configuration
based on economic, social,
environmental, and technical needs.
7-l 7
[71
Grouni, H.N., Sadler, C., Thermal

interaction of Continuously Welded Rail
and Elevated
Transit
Guideways,
Ontario Ministry of Transportation and
Communications.
PI
Guarre,
J.S.,
Gathard,
D R.,
implications
of Continuously
Welded
Rail on Aerial Structure Design and
Construction, June, 1985.
Light
PI
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
New York City Transit

Authority,
Metropolitan
Transportation
Authority,
Continuous Welded Rail on Elevated
Structures, August, 1991.
v91
Beaver,
J.F.,
Southern
Railway
Systems Use of Sliding Joints, AREA
Bulletin 584, February, 1964
PO1
Billing, J.R., Grouni, H.N., Design of

Elevated Guideway Structures for Light
Rail Transit, Transportation
Research
Record, Journal 627, 1977.
WI
Green
Casey,
J.,
Engineering, May, 1996.
PI
Deenik, J.F., Eisses, J.A., Fastening

Rails to Concrete Deck, The Railway
Gazette, March 18, 1966.
t231
Dorton, R.A., Grouni, H.N., Review of

Guideway Design Criteria in Existing
Transit System Codes, ACI Jounral,
April 1978.
[241
Fox, G.F., Design of Steel Bridges for

Rapid
Transit
Systems,
Canadian
Structural
Engineering
Conference,
1982.
1101Clemons, R.E., Continuous Welded Rail

on Aerial Structure:
Examples
of
Transit Practice, APTA, January, 1985.
1111 Fine,
D.F., Design and Construction of

Aerial Structures of the Washington
Metropolitan
Area
Rapid
Transit
System, Concrete International,
July,
1980.
t121
Lee, R. J., Designing Precast Aerial

Structures to Meet Track and Vehicle
Geometry Needs, 1994 Rail Transit
Conference.
iI31
Eisenmann, J., Leykauf, G., Mattner, L.,

Recent
Developments
in German
Railway Track Design, Proceedings of
the Institution
of Civil Engineers,
Transport. Vol. 105, No. 2 (May, 1994)
[I41
Meyers, B.L., Tso, S.H., Bay Area

Rapid Transit: Concrete in the 196Os,
Concrete International, February, 1993.
[151
Desai, D.B., Sharma, M., Chang, B.,

Design of Aerial Structure
for the
Baltimore Metro, APTA Rapid Transit
Conference, June 1986.
[If31
iI71
Light,
Civil
Civil
Engineering
1251 International
Consultants,
Inc., Task Report on a
Study to Determine the Dynamic Rail
Rupture
Gaps Resulting
from a
Temperature Drop for BART Extension
Program, July 26, 1991.
1261 Jackson, B., Ballastless Track, A Rapid

Transit Wave of the Future?, Railway
Track and Structures, April, 1984.
Naaman, A.E., Silver, M.L., Minimum

Cost Design
of Elevated
Transit
Structures,
Journal of Construction
Division, March, 1976.
Fassmann, S., Merali, A.S., Light Rail
Track
Transit
Direct
Fixation
Rehabilitation: The Calgary Experience,
Transportation
Rail Transit: Planning, Design, and
Operating Experience,
Transportation
Research Record No., 1361, 1992.
1181AREA Manual for Railway Engineering,

Section 8.3, Anchorage of Decks and
Rails on Steel Bridges, 1995
7-18
v71
Kaess, G., Schultheiss, H., Germanys

New
High-Speed
Railways,
DB
Chooses
Tried and Tested
Track
Design, International Railway Journal,
September, 1985.
PI
Magee, G.M., Welded Rail on Bridges,

Railway
Track
and
Structures,
November, 1965.
WI
Mansfield,
D.J., Segmental
Aerial
Structures for Atlantas Rail Transit
System,
Transportation
Research
Board, Rail Track and Structures,
Aerial
Transportation
1071, 1986.
[301
Research
Record
No.
Study of Bridge1361 PBQD, Thermal

Continuous
Rail Interaction,
Metro
Pasadena Project, Los Angeles River
Bridge, August, 1994.
Philadelphias El Gets Major Facelift,

Mass Transit, May/June, 1995.
L.J.,
1311 McLachlan,
Light Rail Traffic,
1994.
University
Developing
I371
Boosts
Metros,
W.D.,
Engineering
the
Renaissance
of Transit in Southern
Railway
and
California,
Track
Structures, March, 1993.
Innovative
c331 Middleton, W.D., DART:
Engineering, innovative Construction,
Railway
Track
and
Structures,
December, 1994.
Patel, N.P., Brach, J R., Atlanta Transit
Structures,
Concfe te lntema tional,
February, 1993.
t351
Rail/Structure
interaction
PBQD,
Analysis - Retrofit of Direct Fixation
Fasteners with Spring C/ips, WMATA Rhode Island Avenue, February, 1995.
Swindlehurst,
J., Frankford Elevated
Reconstruction
Project, lntemational
Bridge Conference, June, 1984.
1381 Thorpe, R.D., San Diego LRT System:

Ten
Years
of Design
Lessons,
Transportation
Rail Transit, Planning, Design, and
Operating
Experience,
Transportation
~321 Middleton,
WI
Structures/Bridges
Varga, O.H., The Thermal Elongation of

Rails on Elastic Mountings,
AREA
Bulletin 626, February, 1970.
Yu, s., Closing the Gaps in Track
Design, Railway Gazette International,
January, 1981.
Zellner, W., Saul, R., Long Span
Bridges of the New Railroad Lines in
Germany, Bridges: interaction Between
Construction Technology and Design.
7-l 9
Chapter
8-Corrosion
Control
Table of Contents
8-l
8.1 GENERAL
8.2 TRANSIT
8-2
8-2
8-2
8-3
8-4
8-4
8-4
8-5
STRAY CURRENT
8.2.1 Stray Current Circuitry

8.2.2 Stray Current Effects
8.2.3 Design Protection Components
8.2.3.1 Traction Power
8.2.3.2 Track and Structure Bonding
8.2.3.3 Drain Cables
8.2.3.4 Trackwork
8.3 TRACKWORK
DESIGN
8.3.1 Rail Continuity

8.3.2 Crossties
8.3.2.1 Concrete Crossties
8.3.2.2 Timber Crossties
8.3.3 Ballast
8.3.4 Embedded Track
8.35 Cross Bonds
8.3.6 Direct Fixation Track
8.3.7 Impedance Bonds
8.3.8 Rigid Bumping Post
8.3.9 Stray Current Tests and Procedures
8-5
8-6
8-6
8-6
8-6
8-7
8-7
8-7
8-8
8-8
8-8
8-9
8.4 SUMMARY
8-9
8.5 REFERENCES
88
8-i
CHAPTER
8-CORROSION
CONTROL
The problem with stray currents evolves from
the fact that whenever electric current leaves
a metallic conductor (i.e., a water pipe) and
returns to the soil (perhaps because it is
attracted to a nearby gas line), it causes
corrosion on the surface of the conductor it is
leaving. This is the same phenomenon that
occurs when a metallic object is electroplated,
such as when construction materials are zinc
In the case of stray currents, the
plated.
typical current path can involve several
different conductors as the electricity wends
its way back to the substation; therefore
corrosion can occur at multiple locations. This
can create conditions that range from leaking
water lines to gas line explosions.
The rail
itself will also corrode wherever the current
jumps from it to reach the first alternative
conductor.
Structures along the transit line,
particularly
steel bridges and embedded
Hence,
reinforcing steel, are also at risk.
multiple parties have an interest in controlling
or eliminating the leakage of stray currents
and minimizing the damage they inflict.
8.1 GENERAL
Electrified rail transit systems, both light and

heavy rail, typically utilize the track system as
the negative side of an electrical circuit in the
systems traction power network. In light rail
transit systems, the positive side, which
carries
DC electrical
current from the
substation to the transit vehicle, is typically an
overhead contact wire system or catenary.
Because perfect electrical insulators do not
exist, electrical currents will leak out of this
circuit and escape into the soil to find the path
of least resistance back to the substation.
The amount of such stray currents will be
inversely proportional to the efficiency of the
electrical insulation provided and directly
related to the conductivity of the soil and any
alternative
current
paths
back
to the
substation such as pipes, cables, reinforcing
steel, etc.
Typically, unless a fault has occurred in an
insulator, stray currents from the positive side
of the light rail transit traction power circuit are
minuscule.
Stray currents from the track, on
the other hand, are common and can get quite
large due in no small part to the proximity of
the track to the ground. Once in the soil, stray
currents will follow any available conductor to
get back to the traction power substation.
These paths can include the soil itself, buried
utility pipelines and cables, or other metallic
structures, such as bridges, along the way. If
an alternative
path offers less electrical
resistance than another route, then the better
conductor will carry proportionally more of the
current.
In extreme
examples,
stray
particularly when the electrical continuity of
the track structure is poor, more electricity will
return as stray current than through the
running rails. Some older elevated systems
were actually designed for this occurrence.
Stray currents are common on a light rail

transit system because its track structures are
Grade
typically close to the ground.
crossings, embedded track, and fouled or
muddy ballast are common locations for
propagation of stray currents. Because of the
maze of underground
utility lines typically
found in urban and suburban areas where
light rail transit systems are built, abundant
alternative electrical paths exist. Predicting
the likely path of potential stray currents and
defining methods to protect against them can
Because of this
be extremely complex.
complexity, it is essential that the advice of a
certified corrosion control specialist with stray
current experience
be sought from the
beginning of design.
8-1
Corrosion
In his book Corrosion Engineering, Mars G.

Fontana states:
. . . The term stray current refers
to extraneous direct currents in
the earth. If a metallic object is
p/aced in a strong current field, a
potential
difference
develops
and
accelerated
across
it
corrosion occurs at points where
current leaves the object and
enters the soil.
Stray current
problems were quite common in
previous years due to current
leakage
from trolley
tracks.
Pipelines and tanks under tracks
were rapidly corroded. However,
since this type of transportation is
now obsolete, stray currents from
this source are no longer a
problem. [I
This text requires updating since
tracks have evolved into light
(LRT) lines and the stray currents
will re-introduce potential corrosion
and perform
regular
maintenance afterwards.
l
Con fro/
monitoring
and
Provide auxiliary conductors to improve

the ampacity of the rail return system.
This can be accomplished by connecting
all rails together or by adding cable
conductors.
Existing pipes and cables in the vicinity of the

tracks must be investigated and protective
action taken as necessary to protect them
from stray current corrosion.
Whether the light rail operator or the local
utility takes responsibility, it is imperative that
strategic action is required to mitigate the
effects of stray current corrosion in the design
phase and during construction. This will avoid
corrosion
from becoming
a costly and
dangerous maintenance issue later.
the trolley
rail transit
from LRT
problems.
8.2 TRANSIT STRAY CURRENT
8.2.1 Stray Current

Some of the principal measures that can be
taken to minimize traction current leakage
include:
If jointed track is used, install electrical
bonding across the joints.
One of the
many advantages of continuous welded
rail (CWR) is that it offers a superior
traction power return.
Circuitry
Traction power is normally supplied to light rail

vehicles
(LRV) by a positive overhead
catenary system. The direct current is picked
up by a vehicle pantograph
to power the
motor and then returns to the substation via
the running rails, which become the negative
part of the circuit. Unfortunately, a portion of
the current strays from the running rails and
flows onto parallel metallic structures such as
reinforcing steel, utility pipes and cables, and
other structures such as pilings, ground grids,
and foundation reinforcing bars.
insulate rails from their fastenings and

encase rails in embedded track in an
insulating
material.
The
steel
reinforcement in the underlying concrete
slab can be continuously welded to act as
a stray current collector.
8.2.2 Stray Current
In ballasted track areas the ballast should

be clean, well-drained and not in contact
with the rail.
Effects
Corrosion
of metallic
structures
is an
electrochemical process that usually involves
small amounts of direct electrical current (dc).
It is an electro process because of the flow
Conduct corrosion surveys on susceptible

metal structures before service begins
8-2
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
is, some portion of the traction power current

will always seek an alternative path back to
the substation.
of electrical current. It is a chemical process

because of the chemical reaction that occurs
on the surface and corrodes the metal. One
ampere of direct current flowing for 1 year will
corrode 20 pounds of iron, 46 pounds of
copper, or 74 pounds of lead.
Natural
galvanic corrosion involves milliamperes of
current so many buried structures can last
several years before structural failure.
Utility companies fought this problem, both in

the courts and in the field. Once the legal
issues were resolved, the most effective
means of minimizing stray current damage
was to make the buried utility network as
electrically continuous as possible.
Copper
bonds were placed around joints in buried
pipes and crossing
utility lines were
electrically bonded to each other. Finally, the
entire utility network was directly connected to
the negative bus of the traction power
substation by drain cables so that any stray
currents
could
return
without
causing
significant corrosion along the way. All big
city utility companies
participated
in a
corrosion control committee with the trolley
company to ensure that all new facilities were
properly integrated into the system, thereby
preserving
the delicate balance of the
network.
(Since in many cities, a single
holding company might own most of the utility
companies and the trolley company as well,
such
committees
were
not necessarily
combative congregations.)
Such methods
were generally effective; however a side effect
of the improved
underground
electrical
continuity was that the utility grid typically
became
better
bonded
than the track
structure. As such, a significant portion of the
traction power current would perversely elect
to stray from the rails and use the buried
utilities to get back to the substation.
Unlike the very small currents associated with

galvanic corrosion, stray current corrosion
from a transit system can involve several
hundred amperes.
The same physical laws
apply for corrosion of the metal, electron flow,
chemical reactions, etc., but metal loss is
much faster because of the larger amounts of
For example, with 200
current involved.
amperes of current discharging
from an
underground steel structure, 2 tons of metal
will be corroded in 1 year (20 pounds per
ampere per year x 200 amperes = 4,000
pounds of steel corroded).
Thus, stray current from a light rail system will
corrode transit rails, rebar, and steel structural
members
and all adjacent
underground
metallic structures unless protective measures
are provided.
82.3
Design Protection
Components
The phenomenon
of stray currents from
electrified street railways was first observed
when trolley systems were constructed in the
1880s. The importance of maintaining good
electrical continuity of the rails was quickly
recognized and many trolley systems welded
rail joints 60 years before the process was
widely accepted on steam railroads. Where
rails could not be welded,
they were
electrically bonded to each other with copper
cables.
These measures
reduce stray
currents, but cannot eliminate them.
No
matter how good a conductor the track system
When trolley systems were abandoned

in
most cities, the corrosion committees were
disbanded and the utility companies became
less zealous about bonding their networks. In
many cases, the introduction of non-metallic
significant
electrical
piping
created
discontinuities in utility systems.
Such gaps
were of no consequence in a city without a
local originator of significant stray currents
8-3
Corrosion
Control
and
associated
corrosion
protection
measures.
With no trolley network in the
neighborhood,
corrosion
potential
could
typically
be neutralized
using sacrificial
anodes.
However, if a light rail system is
introduced into such a city, the sacrificial
anodes are insufficient.
The result can be
corrosion problems not unlike those that
occurred a hundred years ago with stray
currents leaping off metal pipes when they
reach an electrical dead-end at a non-metallic
conduit.
improvement
in stray
current
control.
Nevertheless, stray currents are still possible
in an ungrounded system as the electricity can
leave and return to the track structure from the
ground.
It is entirely possible for current to
leak out of the track, travel along alternative
paths in the ground, and then return to the
track at another location. Since the track itself
must eventually be directly connected to the
negative substation bus, stray currents can
circumvent substation isolation systems.
Reverting to the continuous utility bonding and

drain cable methods of the past is typically not
a completely
effective
methodology
of
achieving stray current control.
Because of
the widespread use of non-metallic buried
pipe, and the subsequent high expense of recreating
an electrically
continuous
path
through the utilities, it is typically much
cheaper-and
arguably easier-to
attempt to
effectively insulate the track structure from the
ground so that stray currents are minimized
from the beginning. Such insulation, coupled
with other protective
measures,
including
selective bonding of utilities and drain cabling,
is the foundation of stray current corrosion
control measures of modern light rail transit
systems.
This controlled approach also
protects rails and other transit structures that
would be subjected to these stray currents.
8.2.3.2
8.2.3.1
Traction
Track and Structure
Bonding
Achieving electrical continuity of the track

structure
is of paramount
importance
in
keeping negative return current in the rails.
The use of continuously welded rail, together
with the installation of bonding cables around
unavoidable bolted joints, provides most rail
transit systems with an excellent current path
through the rails. Stray current corrosion of
transit structures can typically be controlled
through electrical bonding. Since the 1960s it
has been common practice to also bond
reinforcing steel in concrete structures so as
to provide a continuous electrical path. The
bonding is typically concentrated in reinforcing
bars in the lowest portions of the structure and
those surfaces in contact with rail such as
retaining walls.
Many light rail systems have been built with
heavily reinforced slabs beneath the track to
provide both structural support and a barrier
against migration of stray currents into the
ground.
Bonded reinforcing steel networks
can provide a shielding effect for outside utility
structures.
Power
Since the 1960s increased efforts to reduce

stray currents have been made through
modifications to traction power substations.
Typical
modern
substations
are either
ungrounded
or floating
above
ground
potential, or are grounded through diodes that
prevent stray currents from passing from the
negative bus to the ground. This frequently
reduces stray currents from hundreds of
amperes
to near
zero.
Completely
ungrounded
systems exhibit the greatest
8.2.3.3
Drain Cables
Drain cables are sometimes

future use on modern light rail
are not necessarily connected
system.
Utility companies
8-4
provided for
systems, but
to the utility
monitor their
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
pipelines for any stray currents and, if

problems are detected, they have the option
of connecting to the drain cable as a last
resort. Coupled with other protective systems,
such cabling provides a secondary approach
to corrosion protection in the event that the
primary measures are ineffective at locations
where excessive
leakage from the rails
occurs.
8.2.3.4
each require individual attention. Electrical

isolation of the rail using insulation
is
necessary
for utility pipelines and steel
structures.[21 In addition, if the track is shared
by railroad freight traffic during non-revenue
hours, insulated rail joints are required at all
rail sidings and connections to adjacent rail
facilities.
The essence of state-of-the-art technology in
the design of modern transit systems is the
concept of controlling stray current at the rails.
Operation of the traction power system with
the substation negatives isolated from ground
(floating) will result in a higher overall systemto-earth resistance. The goal is to maximize
the conductivity of the rail return system and
the electrical isolation between the rails and
their support systems.
Trackwork
Ultimately, electrical insulation of the track

structure offers the first line of defense against
stray currents.
Keeping the rails clean and
dry is important, as is good insulators between
the rail and the ties. Good drainage is also
critical. Rail laid in streets may also have
insulating
coatings to maintain electrical
isolation. Since track design is the focus of
this handbook,
track insulation
will be
discussed in detail in Section 8.3. It must be
emphasized, however, that track insulation is
not a panacea,
particularly if the track
insulation
systems
are
not
regularly
maintained and cleaned.
If track insulation
systems are compromised, such as by fouled
ballast or dirty insulators,
stray current
leakage is inevitable. Thus, the required level
of maintenance should be considered during
design.
8.3 TRACKWORK
The following are generally accepted design

measures for the various track types to create
an electrically
isolated rail system that
controls stray currents at the source:
Continuous welded rail
Rail bond jumpers at mechanical rail
connections (especially special trackwork)
Insulating
crossties
pads and clips on concrete
Insulated rail fastening system for timber

crossties and switch timber
Maintaining a minimum separation of 25
millimeters (1 inch) between the bottom of
the rail and the ballast on ballasted track
DESIGN
LRT systems utilize dc electrical power that is

normally returned from the LRV to the
substations through the rails. Stray current
control is a necessary element in the design of
the track system.
Modern designs for dc
transit systems include the concept of source
control at the base of the rail or rail surface to
minimize the generation of stray currents.
The route of an LRT system is not generally
right-of-way;
within
a totally
dedicated
therefore, the various types of rail construction
Insulated direct fixation

concrete structures
fasteners
on
Coating the rail with coal tar epoxy or

other insulating material at all roadway
and pedestrian crossings
Coating
embedded
rails with an
insulating material and encasing the track
slab with an insulating membrane
8-S
Corrosion
special trackwork components.

The use of
jumpers must be carefully coordinated with
the design of the signal system _
Providing an insulated rubber boot around

the rail in embedded sections
Cross-bonding cables installed between
the rails to maintain equal potentials of all
rails and reduce resistance back to the
substation
Insulation of the impedance
bond
connections from the housing case
Insulation of switch
switch rods
machines
8.3.2 Crossties
8.3.2.1
tap
Concrete
Crossties
Concrete crossties with an insulating base

consisting of a rail pad and clip insulators
provide good rail insulation. The rail seat pad
is generally constructed
of thermo-plastic
rubber, ethylvinyl acetate, or natural rubber. It
is approximately 6 to 16 millimeters (0.25 to
0.62 inches) thick and is formed to fit around
the iron shoulder embedded in the concrete
crosstie. The clip insulator may be a glass
reinforced nylon material formed to sit on the
rail and under the steel anchoring clip. This
affords electrical insulation between the rail
and the concrete tie anchoring clip. Insulating
the rail base is important because concrete
crossties, with their reinforcing steel, are not
good insulators.
at the
Installation of rail insulated joints to isolate

rail-mounted bumping posts
Installation of insulated rail joints to isolate
the main line from the yard and the yard
from the usually grounded maintenance
shop area
Separate traction power substations to
supply operating currents for the main
line, yard and shop
Rail insulated joints to isolate the main
line
rails from
freight
sidings
or
connections to other rail systems
8.3.2.2
8.3.1
Control
Timber Crossties
While wood is generally a good insulating

material, timber crossties are only marginal
insulators
when they are treated
with
preservative chemicals or as they age and
absorb moisture. While they provide sufficient
insulation against low-voltage, low-amperage
signal system currents, they also offer a
leakage path for high-voltage, high-amperage
traction power current. Timber crossties with
insulating components at the fastening plate,
as shown in Chapter 5 (Figure 5.4.2), can be
used on main line track and at special
trackwork turnouts and crossovers to reduce
leakage.
Rail Continuity
Continuous
welded rail is the generally
accepted standard for main line light rail
construction.
CWR creates an electrically
continuous
negative
return path to the
substation, in addition to other well-known
benefits.
The rail configuration at special trackwork,
turnouts, sharp curves, or crossovers may
require
jointed
rails.
Jumper
cables,
exothermically welded to the rail on either side
of the bolted rail joint connections, ensure a
electrical
path
across
the
continuous
mechanical connections. Jumper cables may
be used to bypass complex special trackwork
Jumpers can also
to provide continuity.
protect track maintenance
workers
from
electrical shock when they are replacing
Electrical
inserting
metal rail
insulating
the steel
8-6
insulation can be achieved by

a polyethylene pad between the
plate and the timber tie, installing an
collar thimble to electrically isolate
plate from the anchoring lag screw,
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
and applying coal tar epoxy to the hole for the

lag screw.
The insulating pad and collar
thimble afford insulation directly between the
two materials. Coal tar epoxy applied to the
drilled tie hole fills any void between the end
of the collar thimble and timber tie and affords
some insulation between the lag screw and
wood tie. The insulated tie plate pad should
extend a minimum of 12 millimeters (0.5
inches) beyond the tie plate edges to afford a
higher resistance path for surface tracking of
stray
currents.
Chemical
compatibility
between the pad and epoxy material must be
verified during design.
requirement pertains to rail on both concrete

and timber crossties for both main line and
yard trackage.
This is essential to increase
the rail-to-earth
resistance
and assist in
minimizing the stray current leakage to earth.
Ballast should be clean and well-drained. The
use of metallic slags as ballast is not
recommended.
Rail grinding should be done
with
vacuum
systems
to
minimize
contaminating ballast with metallic grindings.
8.3.4 Embedded Track

Embedded track is generally located in the
central business district (CBD) street-running
section of a light rail system.
Electrical
isolation of the rails can be provided by
insulating the rail face and rail base, insulating
the trough that the rail sits in, or a combination
of both.
Track may also be isolated by
insulating the perimeter of the entire concrete
base slab, using the bathtub stray current
isolation concept.
The materials used to
provide this insulation generally consist of
polyethylene sheeting, epoxy coal tar coating,
polyurethane grout (Icosit), or natural rubber
sheeting, such as pads or rail boots. All these
materials have been used successfully.
The
specific design for stray current control is
selected
by the track
designer
with
recommendations
from the corrosion control
specialists.
Maintenance
shop tracks are grounded to
protect workers. Maintenance yard tracks are
generally
floating or non-grounded,
and
insulation is rarely included between the rails
and the timber crossties. This design decision
is based on economic considerations, as well
as the fact that the rails are only used
sporadically and a separate traction power
substation is used to supply operating current
for train movement in the yard. The only time
the yard rails become electrically connected to
the main line or shop rails is when a train
enters or leaves the yard or shop. This is a
short period and does not result in any
harmful sustained current leaking into the
earth.
Note that transit system structures
within a yard complex may have to be
protected
against locally originated
stray
currents between yard trackage and the yard
substation.
Consequently,
underground
utilities in yards are constructed with nonmetallic materials such as PVC, FRE, and
polyethylene.
8.3.5 Cross Bonds

Periodic cross bonding of the rails and parallel
tracks
provides
equivalent
rail-to-earth
potentials for all rails along the system. Using
all parallel rails to return current provides a
lower negative
return resistance
to the
substation, since the return circuit consists of
multiple paths rather than individual rails.
8.3.3 Ballast
To eliminate the path for stray current leakage
from rail to ballast, the ballast section should
be a minimum of 25 millimeters (1 inch) below
the bottom of the rails.
The clearance
Cross bonds are generally

installed at
impedance bond locations on rails to avoid
interference with rail signal circuitry. Cross
8-7
Corrosion
bonding is accomplished
by exothermically
welding insulated cables to the rails. Both
rails are connected in single-track locations,
with all four rails cross bonded in double-track
areas.
are subject to seepage.

This coats the
fastener with a wet conductive film, which can
be mitigated by periodic cleaning.
8.3.7 Impedance
Cross bonding in embedded track sections
requires an alternative design approach since
the signaling system is not carried through the
embedded track area. This is typically the
case as most embedded
track light rail
systems run on line-of-sight operating rules
coordinated with street traffic signal patterns.
Bonds
Leakage of stray currents into the earth can

be a significant problem if the cables from the
rails are electrically
connected
to an
impedance
bond housing case that is in
contact with the earth. This type of grounded
installation
can result in a continuous
maintenance
problem if an effectively high
rail-to-earth
resistance is to be achieved.
Instead, the housing case should be mounted
clear
of any concrete
slab conduits,
reinforcing bar and contact with the earth.
To provide cross bonding of embedded tracks,

insulated conduits are generally
installed
between track rail troughs prior to installation
of the concrete for the initial track slab.
Insulated cables are exothermicaiiy welded to
each rail to obtain electrical continuity.
Smaller cables may be used to provide an
easier turning radius to the rails in the rail
trough zone and facilitate exothermic welding
of the cables to the rails in constrained
spaces.
It is common design practice to
install the cables at 305-meter (l,OOO-foot)
intervals throughout
the CBD, with one
location being directly adjacent to each
substation.
8.3.6 Direct Fixation
Con fro/
Impedance bond housing cases for a light rail

transit line are generally located at-grade
along the right-of-way.
The cases are
mounted
on timber tie supports in the
ballasted area either between or directly
adjacent to the rails. In order to eliminate
possible points of contact with the earth, the
center taps of the impedance bonds are
insulated from the mounting case by installing
a clear adhesive silicone sealant between the
center taps and the case.
Track
8.3.8 Rigid Bumping
Direct fixation (DF) track is generally located

on aerial sections or in tunnels in light rail
transit systems. The direct fixation fasteners
provide electrical insulation between the rails
and the concrete structure.
The elastomer
design consists of a component of natural
rubber bonded between the metal base plate
and the top surface metal plate. An elastomer
of the proper resistivity provides excellent
insulation
and deters
current
leakage.
Fastener inserts are often epoxy coated to
further isolate the rails from the concrete slab.
Leakage may occur in DF track in tunnels that
Post
In order to reduce
the frequency
of
maintenance required and maintain a higher
degree
of rail-to-earth
resistance,
rail
insulating joints are installed in the rails to
isolate the bumping post. The insulating joints
eliminate the electrical connection between
the bumping posts and the running rails and
prevent leakage of stray currents into the
earth.
Most of the methods
discussed
above
(Sections 8.3.2 through 8.3.8) provide good
initial values of rail-to-earth resistance. As
8-8
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
these components deteriorate, they become

dirty and require maintenance
to maintain
their original resistivity.
Periodic tests are
also required to locate and remove direct
shorts that occasionally occur as discussed in
the following section. Stray currents can rise
to harmful levels if short circuits to ground are
not detected and removed.
8.3.9 Stray Current
system operators and builders to either avoid

or mitigate the effects of stray current
corrosion. The designer must seek the advice
of experts in this complex field, as well as
coordinate with the utility companies and the
signal system designer. It is also important to
recognize that track component specifications
should
appropriate
include
electrical
resistance
features
to accomplish
the
corrosion
protection
plan.
If such
specifications
are provided, the designer
should not specify performance requirements
for earth-to-ground
resistance of the entire
track system.
Tests and Procedures
Regularly scheduled tests are required to

maintain the integrity of stray current control
systems once they are in operation. The most
common tests are rail-to-earth
resistance
tests, substation-to-earth
voltage tests, and
structure-to-earth
tests. Research shows a
broad spectrum of approaches
are used
ranging from infrequent use of consultants to
permanent
in-house
corrosion
control
personnel.
The greatest efforts seem to be
put forth when stray current problems have
already damaged
piping, utility structures,
trackwork components,
or signal circuits.
Such troubleshooting
can be effective, but
regularly
scheduled,
routine
conducting
monitoring for stray currents problems can
allow detection and correction before they
manifest
themselves
in the
form
of
measurable
corrosion or degraded
signal
system performance.
8.5 REFERENCES
PI
Fontana,
Mars
G.
Corrosion
Engineering,
McGraw-Hill
Book
Company,
Third
Edition,
Fontana
Corrosion Center, Ohio State University
1988.
PI
Sidoriak,
William
& McCaffrey
Source
Control
for Stray
APTA
Mitigation,
Rapid
Conference
1992,
California, June 1992.
131
Moody,
Transit
Kenneth
System
Los
Kevin,
Current
Transit
Angeles,
J., A Cookbook for

Stray Current Control
NACE Corrosion 93, paper No 14, New

Orleans, Louisiana, February 1993.
t41
8.4 SUMMARY
NACE
International,
Stray
Current
Corrosion:
The Fast, Present, and
Future of Rail Transit Systems, NACE
Corrosion from stray electrical currents is an

important issue that requires the attention of
the design team. There are several effective
methods that have been used by the light rail
International
Texas, 1994.
8-9
Handbook,
Houston,
Chapter
g-Noise
and Vibration
Control
Table of Contents
9-l
9-l
9-2
9.1. INTRODUCTION
9.1 .I Acoustics
9.1.2 Scope
9.2. NOISE AND VIBRATION
CONTROL
DESIGN GUIDELINES
9.2.1 Groundborne Noise and Vibration Criteria

9.2.2 Wheel/Rail Rolling Noise
9.2.2.1 Normal Rolling Noise
9.2.2.1 .I Generating Mechanisms
9.2.2.1.2 Wheel Dynamics
9.2.2.1.3 Rail Dynamics
9.2.2.1.4 Resilient Direct Fixation Fasteners
9.2.2.1.5 Contact Stiffness
9.2.2.2 Impact Noise
9.2.2.3 Rail Corrugation Noise
9.2.2.4 Treatments for Rolling Noise Control
9.2.2.4.1 Continuous Welded Rail
9.2.2.4.2 Rail Grinding
9.2.2.4.3 Rail Support Spacing
9.2.2.4.4 Direct Fixation Fastener Design
9.2.2.4.5 Trackbed Acoustical Absorption
9.2.2.4.6 Rail Vibration Absorbers
9.2.2.4.7 Wear-Resistant Hardfacing
9.2.2.4.8 Low Height Sound Barriers
9.2.3 Special Trackwork Noise
9.2.3.1 Frogs
9.2.3.1.1 Solid Manganese Frog
9.2.3.1.2 Flange-Bearing Frog
9.2.3.1.3 Liftover Frog
9.2.3.1.4 Railbound Manganese Frogs
9.2.3.1.5 Movable Point Frogs
9.2.3.1.6 Spring Frogs
9.2.4 Wheel Squeal Noise
9.2.4.1 Causes of Wheel Squeal
9.2.4.2 Treatments
9.2.4.2.1 Dry-Stick Friction Modifiers
9.2.4.2.2 Lubrication
9.2.4.2.3 Water Sprays
9.2.4.2.4 Rail Head Inlays
9.2.4.2.5 Rail Head Damping Inlays
9.2.4.2.6 Track Gauge
9.2.4.2.7 Asymmetrical Rail Profile
9-i
9-2
9-4
9-6
9-7
9-7
9-9
9-9
9-10
9-10
9-l 1
9-11
9-11
9-12
9-12
9-13
9-l 3
9-14
9-14
9-15
9-15
9-15
9-15
9-15
9-l 5
9-l 6
9-16
9-16
9-16
9-16
9-17
9-18
9-18
9-18
9-l 9
9-19
9-19
9-l 9
9-20
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
9-20
9-20
9-20
9-21
9-21
9-22
9-22
9-22
9-23
9-24
9-25
9-26
9-26
9-27
9-27
9-27
9-28
9-28
9-28
9-28
9.2.4.2.8 Rail Vibration Dampers

9.2.4.2.10 Double Restrained Curves
9.2 5 Groundborne Noise and Vibration Mitigation
9.251 Vibration Generation
9.2.5.2 Groundborne Noise and Vibration Prediction
9.2.5.3 Vibration Control Provisions
9.2.5.3.1 Floating Slab Track
9.2.5.3.2 Resiliently Supported Two-Block Ties
9.2.5.3.3 Ballast Mats
9.2.5.3.4 Resilient Direct Fixation Fasteners
9.2.5.3.5 Rail Grinding
9.2.5.3.6 Rail Straightness
9.2.5.3.7 Vehicle Primary Suspension Design
9.2.5.3.8 Resilient Wheels and Rail Head Ball Radius
9.2.5.3.9 Subgrade Treatment
9.2.5.3.10 Special Trackwork
9.2.5.3.11 Distance
9.2.5.3.12 Trenching and Barriers
9.2.5.3.13 Pile-Supported Track
9-28
9.3 REFERENCES
List of Figures
Figure 9.1 Change in Elastic Modulus and Rail Head Curvature Required
Generate Wheel/Rail Excitation Equivalent to Roughness Excitation
Figure 9.2 Vertical Pinned-Pinned
Resonance
Separation for Various Rails
Figure 9.3 Geometry
of Curve Negotiation
Figure 9.4 Track Crabbing
Under Actual
Frequency
to
98
vs. Rail Support

9-9
9-18
and Lateral Slip
9-18
Conditions
List of Tables
Table 9.1 Criteria
For Maximum
Table 9.2 Guidelines

Table 9.3 Groundborne
Airborne
Noise From Train Operations
For Noise From Transit System Ancillary

Vibration
And Noise Impact Criteria
Table 9.4 Criteria For Maximum Groundborne

Vibration
Train Operations By Land-Use Category
Table 9.5 Criteria For Maximum
Train Operations
Groundborne
Facilities
9-3
94
9-5
From
9-8
Noise From
9-7
g-ii
CHAPTER
9: NOISE AND VIBRATION
9.1. INTRODUCTION
Noise and vibration can cause significant

adverse environmental
impacts on wayside
communities
and, as a result, noise and
vibration
impact
mitigation
must
be
considered in track design. With appropriate
design and maintenance
provisions, noise
and vibration from light rail transit can usually
be held to acceptable levels at reasonable
cost. Effective noise control must consider the
vehicle and track as a system rather than as
separate,
independent
components.
For
example, expensive track vibration isolation
systems might be avoided where vehicles with
low primary suspension vertical stiffness are
used, whereas vehicles with high primary
suspension stiffness might produce vibration
that can only be controlled by a floating slab
track-an
expensive proposition.
The track
and vehicle design teams must coordinate
their designs in the early stages of any
project. Mitigation could involve considerable
expense,
weight,
space,
or
special
procurements
Late consideration of noise
and vibration isolation may preclude some
treatments simply because insufficient time
exists to obtain them or to implement design
changes.
CONTROL
prepared in Transit Cooperative Research
Program
(TCRP)
Report
23, which
includes
numerous
references
to
technical reports and other literature.[*]
A review of groundborne
noise and
vibration
prediction
and control was
performed in 1980, including preparation
of an annotated bibliography 13]
A handbook on all aspects of rail transit
noise and vibration control has also been
prepared.
9.1 .I Acoustics
Sound in the form of noise is often included

among
the
most
significant
negative
environmental effects of new transit systems.
The impact of noise will increase with
tightness of track curvature, operation in city
centers, speed, and other general track and
operating
conditions,
unless
noise and
vibration control provisions are implemented
in the track and vehicle designs.
Wayside noise primarily originates at the
wheel/rail interface. During the passage of a
train, the surface roughness of both the
wheels and rails combined at the point of
rolling contact (the contact patch) generates
vibration in the rails, crossties, supporting
track structure, wheels, and other vehicle
components. These vibrating surfaces radiate
sound to a greater or lesser extent, depending
on the magnitude
of vibration and the
radiation
or sending
efficiency
of the
component. This is an area of active research
in the European community, though primarily
with respect to high-speed rail. The physics
of noise and vibration
generation
and
transmission for transit systems is similar or
identical to that of high-speed rail.
Many studies of rail transportation noise and

vibration have been conducted,
producing
detailed
technical
reports
containing
comprehensive
information
concerning rail
transit noise and vibration prediction and
control.
Particularly
useful sources of
literature include:
l
The proceedings
of the International
Workshop
on Railway and Tracked
Transit System Noise (IWRN), which are
usually published in the Journal of Sound
and Vibration.tf
l
A review of the state-of-the-art
in
wheel/rail
noise
control
has been
9-l
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
wheel/rail rolling noise, and wheel squeal.

Rolling
noise and
wheel
squeal
are
fundamentally different processes, hence their
The final section concerns
separation
groundbome noise and vibration.
Noise or sound pressure is conventionally

described with a logarithmic decibel scale
(dB). An approximation of the response of the
human ear can be imposed on this scale by
applying the A frequency weighting network,
which results in the A-weighted sound level
(dBA).
9.2. NOISE AND VIBRATION
CONTROL
DESIGN GUIDELINES
The wheels and rails radiate approximately

equal amounts
of sound energy to the
wayside or surrounding areas. The nature of
sound is such that halving a sound energy
emission produces only a 3-dB reduction in
noise level, a difference that may be barely
perceptible if frequency characteristics remain
unchanged. This condition would be equal to
no sound energy transmitted by the wheels
while leaving the rails untreated, or vice versa.
Therefore, noise control techniques have to
be applied to both components to achieve a
satisfactory reduction in sound level.
Guidelines
have been developed
by the
Federal Transit Administration (FTA) and the
American Public Transit Association (APTA).
These standards or guidelines can be used as
criteria for both airborne and groundborne
noise in a transit corridor.
The APTA
guidelines recommend
limits on maximum
passby noise levels (i.e. the maximum noise
levels that occur during an individual vehicle
or train passby), as well as limits on the noise
caused
by ancillary facilities (i.e., fixed
services associated with the transit system).
The FTA guidance manual provides criteria
for environmental
impact
analysis
and
mitigation in terms of the day-night level (L&
for both pre- and post-build conditions.t5 The
FTA guidelines integrate the noise impact
analysis for rail operations with that for other
modes of transportation, such as highway or
aircraft. The FTA guidance manual should be
used to assess impacts for federally funded
projects, and is recommended by the FTA for
all rail transit projects.
Refer to the FTA
guidance manual for detailed description of
the standards.
For most practical situations,
the wayside
noise levels resulting from
applying the FTA and APTA guidelines are
very similar, though not identical.
9.1.2 Scope
The purpose of this chapter is to provide

guidelines with respect to track design for
acceptable
levels of noise and vibration.
While many of the treatments considered here
can be designed by the transit track engineer,
the design of specific noise and vibration
treatments, such as floating slabs, should be
conducted by those who have considerable
experience with designing and specifying
vibration isolation systems.
The noise and
vibration designer should have an engineering
or physics background and understand basic
concepts in noise and vibration control.
The design of vehicle on-board and wayside
treatments such as sound barriers are not
included here, as these are beyond the limits
of track design.
The APTA guidelines are discussed below,

because they may be used immediately by
the track designer without detailed knowledge
of existing ambient noise levels. The APTA
guidelines
pertain to standards
that are
typically adopted by transit agencies for the
design of new rail facilities to determine the
The following sections include guidelines for

criteria on noise and vibration control at both
the track wayside
and vehicle
interior,
9-2
Noise
location and extent of mitigation measures

necessary to avoid noise impacts. The design
goals can be used directly without any
assumptions regarding schedule, total number
of trains or pre-existing ambient noise, as
would be required when criteria are stated in
terms of a noise exposure level metric. This
results in a consistent design with similar
mitigation being installed in areas with similar
land uses or occupancies.
Community Area
Low-Density Residential
Average Residential
High-Density Residential
Commercial
Industrial/Highway
Control
High-density
urban residential, average
semi-residential/commercial
areas, parks,
museums,
and non-commercial
public
building areas.
IV Commercial areas with office buildings,
retail stores, etc., with primarily daytime
occupancy; central business districts.
V Industrial
areas
or freeway/highway
corridors
The guidelines in Table 9.1 indicate maximum
noise emissions from trains applicable to the
land uses and types of buildings and
occupancies
along the transit route.
The
maximum passby noise level is the level in
decibels relative to 20 micro-Pascal of the
average root-mean-square
(RMS) A-weighted
sound pressure amplitude occurring during a
train passby, usually for a I- to 4-second
average period.
The APTA guidelines as listed in Table 9.1

apply to different types of communities along
the transit alignment as follows:
I Low-density
urban
residential,
open
space park, suburban residential, or quiet
recreational
areas
with
no nearby
highways or boulevards.
II Average
urban
residential,
quiet
apartments
and hotels, open space,
suburban residential or occupied outdoor
areas near busy streets.
Category
I
II
Ill
IV
V
Vibration
III
The various track structure types-ballast

track, direct fixation track and embedded
track-must
be considered in meeting the
criteria as each track type responds differently
to wheel passage, and potential noise and
vibration issues must be considered during
the initial planning stages. The services of a
recognized noise, vibration and acoustical
expert in this field are recommended.
Criteria for Maximum
and
This is not to be confused with the singleevent noise exposure level (SENEL). Specific
criteria are provided for various building types
in the APTA guidelines.
The guidelines in Table 9.2 indicate criteria
for transit system ancillary facilities. Transient
noise criteria apply to short duration events
such as train passby noise transmitted
through tunnel vent shaft openings.
Table 9.1
Airborne Noise from Train Operations*
Maximum Single Event Noise Levels (dBA)
Single-Family
Multi-Family
Hotels and
Dwellings
Buildings
Motels
70
75
80
75
80
75
75
85
80
80
80
85
80
85
85
* These criteria are generally applicable at the near side of the nearest dwelling or occupied
consideration or 50 feet from the track centerline, whichever is furthest from the track center.
building under
Source. Guidelines and Principles for Design of Rapid Transit Facilities; Noise and Vibration, APTA 1979
9-3
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
The
environmental
impact
criteria
recommended by the FTA for ground vibration
are similar to American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) standards for vibration in
buildings.*
The ANSI standard gives a
baseline criterion curve for l/3 octave band
RMS vibration
velocity
of 100 micrometers/second (4,000 micro-inches/ second),
corresponding to a vibration velocity level of
72 dBV re 1 micro-inch/second.
Where l/3
octave analyses are not performed,
the
standard recommends a limit of 72 dB re 1
micro-inch/second
for a frequency weighting
that approximates the criterion curve for 113
octave levels. This latter limit is very similar to
the vibration impact criterion of 72 dBV
recommended
by the FTA for floor vibration
velocity levels in residences.
For rail transit
ground
vibration,
there is no practical
difference between the weighted vibration
velocity described in ANSI standard S3.29
and the overall, or unweighted,
vibration
velocity level, because most of the vibration
energy occurs at frequencies above 8 Hz.
Continuous noise design criteria apply to

noises such as fans, cooling towers, and other
long duration or stationary noises, except
electrical transformers or substation facilities
For transformers and substation facilities (i.e.,
noise with tonal quality) the design criteria
should be lowered by 5 dBA from the values
in Table 9.2.
9.2.1 Groundborne
Criteria
Noise and Vibration
presented
below
for
Guidelines
are
groundborne vibration impacts in buildings.
The guidelines use the RMS vibration velocity
level in dBV relative to 1 micro-inch/second as
the principal descriptor of vibration impacts on
The RMS vibration
building occupants.
velocity metric is incorporated
in various
standards and specifications.t6.71
Vibration
prediction procedures are described in the
FTA guidance manual and other literature.
The FTA guidance
manual recommends
criteria for wayside overall vibration velocity.
These criteria are presented in Table 9.3
Guidelines
The vibration should be measured as the

RMS vibration
velocity occurring
during
vehicle consist passage.
Thus, if a vehicle
consist requires 4 seconds to pass, the RMS
Table 9.2
for Noise from Transit System Ancillary
Maximum
Community
Category
* The
Area
Facilities*
Noise Level Design Criterion
Transient Noises
Continuous
50
40
Average Residential
55
45
III
High-Density
60
50
IV
Commercial
65
55
Industrial/Highway
70
65
Low-Density
II
design
applied
transfomlers
at the
goal
noise
levels
Residential
Residential
should
setback
line of the
or substation
noise,
be applied
nearest
reduce
at 50 feet
line of the
Continuous
nearest
Noises
9-4
from
the shaft
buildings
by 5 dB.
outlet
or other
or occupied
ancillary
area,
(dBA)
Noises
facility
whichever
or should
is closer.
be
For
Noise
Table 9.3
Vibration and Noise Impact
Groundborne
Vibration
Control
Criteria
Groundborne Vibration
Impact Levels (dBV re
1 micro-inch/second)
Land Use Category

Category
1: Buildings
where
low
ambient vibration is essential for interior
operations
Category 2: Residences and buildings
where people normally sleep
Category 3: Institutional land uses with
primarily daytime use
and
Groundborne Noise
Impact Levels (dBA re
20 micro-Pascal)
Frequeyt
InfrequeFt
Events
Events
4
4
NA
NA
Frequevt
Events
5
65
l;frequent
Events
3
65
72
80
35
43
75
83
40
48
Notes
Frequent
Events
* infrequent
3
This
Events
criterion
microscopes
vibration
limit
as more
than
70 vibration
events
is defined
as fewer
than
70 vibration
is based
on levels
that
are acceptable
Vibration-sensitive
per day.
events
per day
for most
manufacturing
or research
is not sensitive
to groundbome
will
require
moderately
detailed
sensitive
equipment
evaluation
to define
such
the
as optical
acceptable
levels.
4 Vibration-sensitive
Source:
is defined
Transit
equipment
Noise
and Vibration
Impact
Assessment,
Federal
noise.
Transit
Administration,
USDOT,
April
1995
Typical design criteria for floor vibration are

listed in Table 9.4, for the land use categories
identified in the APTA Guidelines. These
design criteria are not part of the APTA
Guidelines, but have been applied to several
transit systems, both heavy rail and light rail,
in the United States. They are very similar to
the FTA criteria described
above. The
guidelines
for
maximum
groundborne
vibration are presented in terms of dBV
relative to 1 .O micro-inch/second.
vibration should be measured over a duration

approximately
equal to 4 seconds.
(The
actual duration will depend on the integration
times available from the analyzer.) The result
obtained for the maximum vibration using a
vibration
meter with a slow response,
equivalent to a l-second
averaging time,
would be slightly higher than that obtained
over the train passby duration by a fraction of
a decibel at distances greater than about 15
meters (50 feet) from the track, and should be
acceptable.
A fast meter response, or
integrating time shorter than 1 second, should
not be used, because the vibration level may
fluctuate considerably during vehicle passage,
giving
an
unrepresentative
reading.
Fluctuation of vibration amplitudes and levels
is a normal result of the random nature of low
frequency ground vibration.
Groundborne
vibration that complies with
these
design
criteria
would
not
be
imperceptible in all cases. However, the level
would be sufficiently low so that no significant
intrusion or annoyance should occur. In most
cases, there would be vibration from street
traffic, other occupants of a building, or other
sources that would create vibration that is
9-5
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Table 9.4
Criteria for Maximum Groundborne
from Train Operations by Land-Use
* Criteria
apply
to the vertical
vibration
of floor
equivalent to or greater than vibration

transit train passbys.
surfaces
within
from
9.2.2 Wheel/Rail
Rolling
l
l
Normal roiling noise

Impact noise due to loss
between the wheel and rail
Rail corrugation noise
Grinding artifact noise
of contact
Normal rolling noise is broadband

noise
produced by reasonably
smooth rail and
wheel treads. Departures from this normal
condition include impact noise, corrugation
noise, and grinding artifact noise. Impact and
corrugation noise are more raucous and are
usually the cause of community concerns
about transit noise.
While impact noise
occurs at special trackwork, flat wheels,
excessive
rail
roughness,
undulation,
corrugation, and rail joints also cause impact
noise. Rail corrugation involves periodic rail
roughness
with
wavelengths
from
25
millimeters to 150 millimeters (1 to 6 inches),
may be low amplitude, as during its initial
stages, or may involve deep corrugation and
contact separation.
Grinding artifact noise is
caused by a grinding pattern left in the rail by
rail grinding
machines,
and has been
confused with corrugation noise.
Noise
Rolling noise is associated with the action of

the wheel rolling over tangent or curved track,
and is produced primarily by rail and wheel
surface roughness.
Rolling noise is distinct
from wheel squeal, which may occur at
curves, both in nature and in generating
mechanism. Rolling noise may be radiated by
the wheels and rails, and may also be
radiated by the structure supporting the track,
such as elevated steel or concrete structures.
For the purpose of this chapter,
noise is categorized into
buildings.
The APTA guidelines recommend limits on

groundborne
noise transmitted into building
structures (see Table 9.5). They have been
employed as design criteria for many heavy
and light rail transit systems in the United
States and are similar to the FTA criteria.
Vibration
Category*
wheel/rail
9-6
Noise
Criteria for Maximum
*Source:
9.2.2.1
9.2-2.7.7
Guidelines
and Principles
for Design
Normal Rolling
Noise
Generating
Mechanisms
and
Vibration
Control
Table 9.5
Groundborne
Noise from Train Operations*
of Rapid
Transit
Facilities,
Noise
and
Vibration,
APTA
1979
should not produce as much noise as longer

wavelength components,
unless the milling
marks are non-uniform.
The following generating mechanisms have

been identified as sources of normal roiling
noise:
l
Wheel and rail roughness
l
Parameter variation of rail head geometry
or moduli
l
Dynamic creep
l
Aerodynamic noise
Wheel and rail
surface roughnesses are believed to be the
most significant cause of wheel/rail noise.
The greater the roughness amplitudes, the
greater the wayside noise and vibration.
Assuming that the contact stiffness is infinite,
the rail and wheel would displace relative to
each other by an amplitude equal to their
combined roughness amplitudes. The ratio of
rail motion relative to wheel motion at a
specific frequency will depend on the dynamic
characteristics of the rail and wheel.
Increasing the conformity of the wheel and rail

contact has been proposed as a noise
reduction technique that takes advantage of
uncorrelated
roughnesses
between various
parallel paths along the rail in the longitudinal
direction. rgl Significant noise reductions on
the order of 3 to 5 dB are predicted for
frequencies on the order of 500 Hz. However,
excessive wheel/rail conformity due to wear
has been identified as a cause of spin-creep
corrugation,
leading to increased noise.01
Therefore, care should be exercised before
increasing the conformity of wheel and rail
profiles. Excessive wheel/rail conformity from
wear (and false flanging) will result if wheel
profile truing is not conducted frequently.
Further, good low-noise performance
has
been obtained with 115RE rail with a 250millimeter
(IO-inch)
head
radius
and
cylindrical wheels.
At short wavelengths relative to the contact

patch dimension, the surface roughness is
attenuated
by averaging
the roughness
across the contact patch in a direction parallel
with the rail, an effect known as contact patch
filtering. Thus, fine regular grinding or milling
marks less than 1 or 2 millimeters wide,
Parameter variation
refers to the variation of rail and wheel steel
moduli, rail support stiffness, and contact
stiffness due to variation in rail head ball
radius. The influence of fractional changes in
Youngs elastic modulus and of radius-ofcurvature of the rail head as a function of
Wheel and Rail Roughness.
Parameter
9-7
Variation.
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
wavelength necessary to generate wheel/rail

noise equivalent to that generated by surface
roughness are illustrated in Figure 9.1. The
wavelength of greatest interest is 25 to 50
millimeters (1 to 2 inches), corresponding to a
frequency of about 500 to 1,000 Hz for a
vehicle speed of about 97 km/hr (60 mph).
Over this range, a variation in modulus of 3 to
10% is required to produce the same noise as
that produced by rail roughness.
simple grinding with a parallel axis grinder or

block grinder is preferred.
Dynamic Creep. Dynamic creep may include
both longitudinal and lateral dynamic creep,
roll-slip parallel with the rail, and spin-creep of
the wheel about a vertical axis normal to the
wheel/rail contact area. Longitudinal creep is
wheel creep in a direction parallel with the rail
and is not considered significant by some
researchers,
who claim that rolling noise
levels do not increase significantly during
braking or acceleration on smooth ground rail.
However, qualitative changes in wheel/rail
noise on newly ground rail with an irregular
transverse grinding pattern in the rail surface
are audible as a train accelerates
or
decelerates,
suggesting
that longitudinal
creep may play a role. Lateral creep is wheel
slip across the rail running surface in a
direction transverse to the rail during curve
negotiation and is often accompanied
by
wheel squeal.
Lateral creep may not be
significant at tangent track, but may occur
during unloading cycles at high frequencies
on abnormally rough or corrugated rail, and
may be responsible for short-pitch corrugation
at tangent track.
Spin-creep is caused by
wheel taper that produces a rolling radius
differential between the field and gauge sides
of the contact patch. Roll-slip refers to rolling
contact with slip at the edges of the contact
zone. Some slip, continuous or otherwise, is
required at the edges of the contact zone, as
with Heathcote slip of a bearing in its groove,
required by the conformal contact of curved
contact surfaces.
10
--w--
MODULUS
0.001
1
10
WAVELENGTH
100
1000
- mm
Figure 9.1 Change in Elastic Modulus and

Rail Head Curvature Required to Generate
Wheel/Rail
Excitation
Equivalent
to
Roughness Excitation
Rail head ball radius variation also induces a
dynamic response in the wheel and rail. A
variation of rail head curvature of the order of
IO to 50% produces noise levels similar to
those produced by rail height variation alone.
Rail head ball radius variation will normally
accompany rail height variation. Maintaining
a uniform rail head ball radius is necessary to
realize the advantages
of grinding rail to
maintain
uniform
head height.
Irregular
definition of the contact wear strip is indicative
of excessive ball radius variation. Thus, rail
profile grinding with a vertical axis grinder to
produce a distinct head curvature rather than
Aerodynamic
Noise.
Aerodynamic
noise
due to high velocity air jets emanating from
grinding grooves in the rail has been claimed
to produce a high frequency whistling noise.
No test data have been obtained to confirm
this claim. It is further claimed that fine rail
grinding removes course grinding marks and
thus the noise. This is important if grinding is
9-8
Noise
specified during construction to eliminate mill

scale from the rail to obtain better traction and
The grinding must
electrical conductivity.
have the fine quality mentioned previously
and must maintain the design head radius for
the rail.
cl
-12
Control
18
24
30
36
42
RAIL WFORT SEPARATION

- INCHES
Wheel Dynamics
The dynamic response of the wheel has a

substantial
effect on rolling noise and
vibration.
The response is affected by axle
bending modes beginning at about 80 or 90
Hz, tire resonances, spring-mass resonances
of resilient wheels, and so forth. Up to about
400 Hz, the wheel is considered a rigid mass.
At higher frequencies,
these resonances
cause a very complex response that is not
easily described here.
9.2.2.q.3
Vibration
respectively. It has not been determined if the

pinned-pinned mode is directly responsible for
peaks in the wayside noise spectrum, but it is
expected to have a bearing on wayside noise
and possibly rail corrugation.
Other sources of aerodynamic noise include

air turbulence about the wheels and trucks,
and traction motor blower noise. Neither of
these is controllable by the track designer, but
traction motor blower noise can, under certain
circumstances,
dominate the wayside noise
spectrum if not properly treated. Aerodynamic
noise due to air turbulence about the wheels
and trucks at light rail transit speeds is not
significant.
9.2.2.1.2
and
132 tB/uo
Aloo
115 LB/M)
O 90 LB/Yu
LB/M
Vertical
Pinned-Pinned
Figure
9.2
Resonance
Frequency
vs. Rail Support
Separation for Various Rails
Bending waves will propagate in the rail up to

a frequency corresponding to l/2 the pinnedpinned mode frequency in the case of rigid rail
supports.
Between this frequency and the
pinned-pinned
mode frequency,
vibration
transmissions
along
the
rail may be
attenuated,
depending on the rail support
dynamic characteristics,
producing what is
termed a stop band. Between the pinnedpinned mode frequency and another cutoff
frequency, bending waves may propagate
freely, resulting in a pass band. The
response of the rail and its ability to radiate
noise will be affected by the widths of the stop
and pass bands, A slight randomness in the
support separation may significantly alter the
pass
band
characteristics.
stop
and
Shortening the rail support pitch will increase
the stop band frequency range, and thus
reduce noise. Thus, 600 millimeter (24 inch)
Rail Dynamics
The dynamic response

of the rail also
influences the radiation of noise. Up to about
500 Hz, the rail behaves as a simple beam on
an elastic foundation.
At higher frequencies,
standing waves may occur in the rail due to
resonance between the rail supports.
The
first of these is the pinned-pinned mode of rail
Estimates of the pinned-pinned
vibration.
mode resonance
frequencies
based on
Timoshenko beam theory are presented in
The pinned-pinned
mode
Figure
9.2.
resonance frequencies of a rail supported at
900- and 750-millimeter
(36- and 30-inch)
spacing are about 500 Hz and 800 Hz,
9-9
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
of 650 Hz and higher. The fastener behaves

as a pure spring below the single-degree-ofAt higher
freedom resonance frequency.
frequencies, top plate bending amplifies the
transmission
of forces to the invert and
produces a high reaction to rail motion that
tends to pin the rail at this frequency,
possibly interacting with the pinned-pinned
mode. At higher frequencies the transmitted
force declines significantly.
spacing is probably preferable to 750- or 900millimeter (30-or 364nch) spacing.

The main point here is that the response of
the wheel and rail above 500 Hz is very
complicated,
and that the propensity for
adverse interaction between these elements,
leading to tonal components of wayside noise
Track
and possibly corrugation, is high.
design should, ideally, be directed toward
minimizing
this possible
interaction
by
ensuring
that the pinned-pinned
mode
frequency is not coincident with an antiresonance
or resonance
of the wheel.
Reducing rail support spacing and introducing
damping into the track support system may be
useful for this purpose.
As with the pinned-pinned

mode, the
significance of fastener top plate bending on
rail radiated wayside noise has not been
determined.
However, from the standpoint of
track design, introduction of damping into the
system and exploiting the top plate resonance
may be beneficial. This would be achieved by
incorporating a neoprene elastomer with high
loss factor and tuning the top plate resonance
to absorb vibration energy at the pinnedpinned mode frequency. Tuning the plate can
be accomplished by changing the thickness.
More research and testing are required to
determine which approach is best.
9.2.2.1.4
Resilient Direct Fixation

Fasteners
Resilient direct fixation fasteners are used for
rail support and provide modest vibration
isolation. The most common form of resilient
direct fixation fastener consists of top and
bottom steel plates bonded to an elastomer
pad.
Modern designs incorporate anchor
bolts that engage the bottom plate, so that the
top plate is retained entirely by the elastomer
vulcanized bond.
The top plate contains
recesses to retain the rail clips.
9.2.2.1.5 Contact Stiffness

Contact stiffness is the ratio of the contact
vertical force to the relative vertical deflection
of the wheel and rail running surface. If the
contact stiffness is small relative to the
stiffness of the wheel or rail, wheel/rail forces
will be controlled partially by the contact
stiffness, in which case both the wheel and
rail vibration will decrease in response to
roughness.
The contact stiffness does not
vary greatly over the range of rail head ball
radii. The ball contact stiffness varies about
16% for radii between 150 millimeters (6
inches) and 375 millimeters (15 inches).
Under the most optimistic scenario, this
variation would increase contact forces, and
thus noise, by at most 1.5 dB. However,
contact stresses may also increase as a result
of a smaller contact area, and rail head
A direct fixation fastener is a complex

mechanical element, even when considering
There are two
only vertical motion.
frequencies that affect performance.
One is
the top plate resonating on the elastomer pad
in rigid body motion and the other is the
bending resonance of the top plate. The first
of these can be thought of as a single-degreeof-freedom oscillator with mass equal to the
top plate mass and spring equal to the top
plate stiffness, and may occur at frequencies
as low as 250 Hz. The second is influenced
by the vertical stiffness per unit area of the
elastomer and the bending stiffness of the top
plate, and occurs at frequencies on the order
9-10
Noise
geometry should be designed to minimize

stress and wear.
Also, some investigators
have identified that high wheel/rail conformity
with spin-slip corrugation and large ball radii
may promote
conformity.
Corrugation
notwithstanding,
rail wear is not considered a
serious problem at tangent track due to low
transit wheel loads. Wheel tread concavity
due to wear increases the lateral contact
patch dimension.
Although the rail head
radius may be optimized for noise control,
wheel tread wear may frustrate maintaining a
specific contact geometry unless a vigorous
wheel truing program is in place.
9.2.2.2 Impact Noise

Impact noise is a special type of wheel/rail
noise occurring on tangent track with high
amplitude roughness, rail joints, rail defects,
or other discontinuities
in the rail running
surface and wheel flats.
Impact noise is
probably the most apparent noise on older
transit systems that do not practice regular rail
grinding and wheel truing.
Remingtont1 provides a summary of impact
noise generation
that involves non-linear
wheel/rail
interaction
due
to
contact
separation, and is closely related to impact
noise generation theory at special trackwork.
I. L. Verns categorizes impact noise by type
of rail irregularity, train direction, and speed.
Modern transit systems employing continuous
welded rail will likely not be concerned with
impact noise generated by rail joints, though
impact noise will be generated by rough rail,
wheel flats, turnout frogs, and crossover
diamonds.
Even with continuous welded rail,
rail welds and insulating joints must be
carefully formed to reduce impact noise
generation.
Further, rail joint maintenance is
important on older systems employing jointed
rail. All systems must be concerned with rail
grinding and wheel truing to eliminate
and
Vibration
Control
associated impact noise. Impact noise due to

rough wheels and rails is probably the most
significant and irritating noise on older transit
systems where rail grinding and wheel truing
are not practiced.
9.2.2.3 Rail Corrugation

Noise
Rail corrugation is a series of longitudinal high
and low points or a wave formed in the rail
head surface.
Rail corrugation
causes
excessive rolling noise of a particularly harsh
character and very high sound level. The
terms roaring rail, roar, wheel howl or
wheel/rail howl describe noise produced by
corrugated rail. If rail corrugation exists, the
wayside noise level will be much higher than
that of normal rolling noise, and the frequency
spectrum will contain discrete frequency
components and associated harmonics.
Rail corrugation is more difficult to control on
rail transit systems than railroads because of
the lower contact static loads and uniformity of
transit vehicle types and speeds, which
prevent randomization
of wheel/rail
force
signatures.
maintaining
Thus,
rail
smoothness is probably more important for
transit systems than heavy freight systems.
Rail corrugation is the principal cause of
excessive
noise levels on many transit
systems, and controlling rail corrugation is key
to minimizing rail transit system noise. At
present,
the most effective
means
of
controlling rail corrugation is rail grinding.
Detailed discussions of rail corrugation noise
are included in TCRP Report 23.
9.2.2.4
Treatments for Rolling Noise

Control
Continuous welded rail, rail grinding, fastener
support spacing, rail vibration absorbers and
dampers, and rail head hardfacing are trackoriented treatments
for controlling
rolling
noise Rail grinding is included because it
pertains to track maintenance.
Even though
9-l 1
Light RailTrack
Design Handbook
solutions
to
equipment.
rail grinding is usually the task of the transit

system operator, the initial grind may be
performed during track construction to remove
mill scale from the rail for better traction and
The grinding must
electrical conductivity.
have the fine quality mentioned previously,
and must maintain the design or specified
head radius for the rail.
9.2.2.4.1
Continuous
access
to
work
Some grinders may have difficulty negotiating

curves in tunnels or may be unable to grind
rail on very short radius curves. Adequate
clearance must be included in track and
system designs to accommodate rail grinding
machines.
Rail grinding can be performed
only if there is adequate access to the track
during non-revenue hours. Grinding time can
be optimized by minimizing travel time to and
from the grinder storage location and the
treatment section. Pocket tracks capable of
storing the grinder during revenue periods will
minimize travel time.
Welded Rail
Rolling noise levels with properly ground

continuous welded rail and trued wheels in
good condition are the lowest that can be
achieved without resorting to extraordinary
noise control measures.
There are no rail
joints to produce impact noise, which can be
clearly audible with moderately maintained
track. Noise from jointed rail may be as much
as 5 dB higher than from continuous welded
rail. Continuous welded rail requires less
maintenance than jointed rail, so that the
benefits of low noise are more easily
obtained.
9.2.2.4.2
providing
Vertical axis grinders with special provision

may be able to grind embedded girder rail.
Using standard T-rail sections provides the
greatest flexibility with respect to grinding,
especially on embedded curves.
The optimal grinding procedure
includes
grinding the rail to achieve a head radius
profile with a 12- to 16-millimeter (l/2- to 5/8inch) contact zone. This should be achieved
with grinding facets of about 2 millimeters
(l/l6 inch). Multiple head grinders reduce the
grinding time necessary
to produce the
desired contour. Computer controlled grinders
with various grinding
profiles stored in
memory can simplify setup and further
increase grinding time. The gauge corner can
be finished in a manner consistent with the
wheel profile. Grinding car speeds should be
as slow as possible to reduce the wavelength
of grinding patterns to a minimum. However,
the speed should not be so slow as to
produce excessive heating of the rail.
Rail Grinding
Rail grinding combined with wheel truing is

the most effective method for controlling
wheel/rail noise and maintaining track in good
working condition. With ground rail and trued
wheels, wheel/rail noise levels at tangent
ballasted track are comparable
with the
combined noise levels from traction motors,
gears, and fans.
As a track designer, it is important to plan for
maintenance activities that must be performed
to keep the system working well. Rail grinding
to control noise is one of these activities.
Consideration
should be given to where
grinding equipment (as well as other track
maintenance equipment) can be staged to
access the system. Short track shutdowns for
maintenance are the norm in the industry.
Therefore it is important to have practical
Rail grinding should be performed at intervals

short enough to avoid the development of rail
corrugation.
Periodic track inspections for
corrugation growth and noise increase should
be conducted to identify appropriate grinding
9-12
Noise
intervals.
A grinding interval equal to the
exponential growth time of corrugation (time
for corrugation to grow by 167%) gives a
rough estimate of the optimum
grinding
interval. Varying the location of the contact
zone is used by some systems to reduce
rutting of the wheel tread, and thus reduce
wear resulting in conformal contact and spinslip.
9.2.2.4.3
Rail Support
and
Vibration
Control
will also raise the pinned-pinned

mode
resonance
frequency
above
the
antiresonance frequency of the Bochum tire
wheel, thus placing the maximum driving
frequency of the tire in the stop band region of
the rail vibration transmission spectrum
This
design provision
should be investigated
further. A 600-millimeter (2-foot) rail support
spacing is now being considered by one
transit system overseas with high volume and
strict noise control requirements.
Spacing
Rail support stiffness and damping, fastener

resonances, and fastener spacing all directly
influence high-frequency vibration of the rail.
One of the most common sources of noise is
short-pitch rail corrugation. Modification of rail
support parameters may offer an opportunity
to influence and possibly control the formation
of rail corrugation, which has been related to
the pinned-pinned mode of rail vibration. The
pinned-pinned mode is, in turn, controlled by
fastener spacing.
The pinned-pinned
mode
resonance frequency is on the order of 800
and 500 Hz for fastener spacing of 750 to 900
millimeters (30 and 36 inches), respectively.
Reducing
the fastener
spacing to 600
millimeters
(24 inches) would drive the
pinned-pinned mode resonance frequency to
above 1,000 Hz, possibly high enough to
smooth-out
short-pitch
corrugation
at the
contact
patch,
and thus
reduce
the
corrugation rates.
A second concern with
respect to rail fastener spacing is a singing
rail phenomenon
associated with regularly
spaced (concrete) crossties, rail seat pads,
and spring clips.
The transmission
of
vibration along the rail is subject to certain
stop bands and pass bands in the frequency
domain, which are closely related to the
pinned-pinned mode resonance. Very precise
fastener spacing may contribute to singing rail
and pinned-pinned
modes, and a slight
randomization of crossties or fastener spacing
may be beneficial.
Reduction of concrete
crosstie spacing to 600 millimeters (24 inches)
9.2.2.4.4
Direct Fixation
Fastener
Design
Resilient
rail fasteners
are effective
in
controlling structure-radiated
wheel/rail noise
by providing vibration isolation between the
rail and structure and eliminating looseness in
the rail fixation.
Resilient
elastomeric
fasteners significantly reduce wayside noise
from steel elevated structures
relative to
levels for conventional timber tie and cut-spike
track. Softening the fastener further produces
a marginal reduction of A-weighted noise.
The best performing fasteners would include
those that had the lowest static and dynamic
stiffness with a top plate bending resonance in
excess of about 800 Hz.
Noise radiated by rail in resilient direct fixation
track is usually greater than for ballasted track
due to the high acoustic reflectivity of concrete
plinths and inverts. The character of wayside
noise from resilient direct fixation track also
differs significantly from that produced at
ballasted track, probably due to differing
dynamic characteristics of the rail support and
rail support separation, as well as the amount
of trackbed sound absorption.
Soft natural rubber fasteners support efficient
propagation
of bending waves that radiate
noise. Incorporation of damped elastomers
may be desirable to absorb rail vibration
energy, thus reducing noise radiation.
An
attractive
elastomer
for this purpose is
neoprene, which has an added advantage of
9-l 3
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
resistance to ozone and oils, and is common

in track construction.
However, neoprene
should not be used where vibration isolation is
required
to control structure-radiated
or
groundborne noise radiation. Where vibration
isolation is needed more than airborne noise
control, such as on steel elevated structures
or in subway tunnels, natural rubber is the
preferred elastomer, providing a dynamic-tostatic stiffness ratio of less than 1.4.
very close to the track are claimed to provide

a noise reduction of 3 dB when installed on
direct fixation track, which is consistent with
that obtained with ballasted track relative to
direct fixation track. This treatment has not
been implemented in the US to date.
9.2.2.4.6
The load vs. deflection curve of the fastener

should be reasonably linear within +/- 15% of
the mean static stiffness over the load range
to maintain its dynamic properties over the
load range.
Specifying this linearity in an
unambiguous
is critical
in the
way
procurement process.
The fastener should
provide full 3-degree-of-freedom
isolation.
Fasteners with hard horizontal snubbers can
exhibit high non-linearity and compromise the
vibration isolation that might be otherwise
achievable.
Fasteners with elastomer in
shear are some of the best performing
fasteners in this regard.
The tendency today in direct fixation track
design is to provide fasteners with stiffness on
the order of 15 to 20 MN/m, utilizing natural
rubber elastomers in addition to neoprene and
other synthetics.
As noted above, while
natural rubber has desirable properties for
vibration isolation, the low damping capacity
of these materials may promote bending wave
propagation and noise radiation by the rail.
Trackbed
Acoustical
Absorbers
Absorbers utilizing an elastomer element and

optimized for moderate to high temperatures
may lose a portion of their effectiveness at low
frequencies.
The leaf vibration absorber
might
be susceptible
to freezing
in
sub-freezing weather with snow.
For additional information on direct fixation rail

fasteners refer to Section 54.3.
9.2.2.4.5
Rail Wbration
Rail vibration
absorbers
are resonant
mechanical elements that are attached to the
rail base to absorb vibration energy and thus
reduce noise radiation by the rail.
Rail
vibration absorbers have been employed in
Europe, but have received little attention
within the United States.
Rail vibration
absorbers may be desirable at certain sitespecific locations.
However, the size of the
absorber may require substantial clearance
space beneath the rail. The absorbers are
usually tuned to frequencies
above about
1,000 Hz, while the maximum noise levels
may occur at about 500 to 800 Hz. Absorbers
tuned to 500 to 800 Hz may require more
mass than those now being offered in Europe.
Data provided
by certain manufacturers
indicate a reduction of about 3 to 5 dB in rail
vibration at l/3 octave band frequencies
between 300 and 2,000 Hz for 111 km/hr
trains on tangent track.
Absorbers were
mounted on each rail, one between each rail
fastener. The mass of each absorber was 23
kilograms (50 pounds).
Absorption
Ballasted track is well known to produce about

5 dB less wayside noise than direct fixation
track, due to the sound absorption provided
by the ballast and differences in the tracksupport
characteristics.
Acoustically
absorptive concrete and wood blocks placed
Vibration absorbers may be impractical on

ballasted track unless they can be positioned
clear of the ballast to maintain electrical
isolation.
Further, the ballasted track with
timber crossties and cut spikes may provide
substantial
energy
absorption
without
9-14
Noise
Wear-Resistant
Hardfacing
Hardfacing is the weld application of a metal

alloy inlay to the rail head. The procedure
involves cutting or grinding a groove in the rail
surface and welding a bead of the alloy into
the groove. The Riflex welding technique has
been used on a limited basis in the United
States, primarily for wear reduction, but has
been promoted in Europe since the early
1980s for rail corrugation control and wheel
squeal. For additional information on Riflex
welding,
refer to Section 52.5
in this
handbook.
9.2.2.4.8
Low Height
Control
9.2.3.1 Frogs
Various frog designs have been used in
transit installations: solid manganese, flange
railbound
manganese,
bearing,
liftover,
spring, and movable point frogs.
For
additional information on frog design, refer to
Section 6.6.
The following guidelines are
provided for frog design selection for noise
control.
Sound Barriers
Low height barriers placed very close to the

rail have been explored
in Europe for
controlling
wheel/rail
noise, perhaps just
outside the wheels clearance envelope.
In
one case, an aerial structure has been
designed to provide a trough in which the
vehicle runs, blocking sound transmission to
the wayside.
Sound absorption is used to
absorb sound energy before it escapes the
wayside. The height of the barriers must be
determined by careful analysis. A l- to a-inch
thick glass fiber or mineral wool sound
absorber with perforated
protective cover
should be incorporated on the rail side of the
Adding sound absorption to the
barrier.
concrete slab surface of direct fixation track
should be considered.
9.2.3.1.1
Solid Manganese
Frog
Solid manganese frog design with welded toe

and heel joints provides a virtually continuous
running
surface
except
for the open
Proper wheel and frog design
flangeway.
along with continuous track maintenance and
wheel truing should provide adequate lownoise operation.
Hollow worn wheels with
false flanges will contribute to noise and
vibration when traversing through the frog.
9.2.3.1.2
9.2.3 Special Trackwork
Vibration
special trackwork by wheels traversing frog

gaps and related connections is a special
case of impact noise discussed
above.
Special trackwork noise may be controlled by
grinding the frog to provide as smooth a
transition as possible for each wheel to pass
from one side of the flangeway to the other.
Special frogs, including movable point, swing
nose, and spring frogs, have been developed
to minimize impact forces by eliminating the
fixed gap associated with the frog Because
the frog gap, combined with poorly maintained
wheels, contributes to the increase in noise
when a train passes through a turnout, the
use of special frogs to reduce special
trackwork noise may be a practical noise
control provision for many transit systems.
vibration absorbers, so that the addition of the

absorber may provide little additional noise
reduction.
The absorber is effective where
the track exhibits little damping, such as at
concrete crossties and on ballast systems
with spring clips and resilient rail seat pads.
9.2.2.4.7
and
Flange-Bearing
Frog
Flange-bearing frog design with welded toe

and heel joints is similar to the solid
manganese design except the frog provides
support to the wheel flange while traversing
Noise
Special trackwork includes switches, turnouts,

and crossovers.
The noise generated at
9-l 5
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
performance and is the source of wheel batter

noise and vibrations from the outset of
installation They are not as quiet as the frogs
described above.
the flangeway opening frog point area. The

depth of the flangeway is reduced to a limit to
support the wheel in the point area. If the
wheel and frog are properly maintained, this
design reduces impact of the wheel in the
open flangeway frog point area.
Gradual
ramping of the flangeway is critical to avoiding
impact noise.
9.2.3.1.5 Movable Point Frogs

Movable point frogs are perhaps the most
effective way to eliminate the impact noise
associated with fixed flangeway gap frogs.
The frog flangeway is eliminated by laterally
moving the nose of the frog in the direction in
which the train is traveling.
The movable
point frog generally
requires
additional
signaling, switch control circuits, and an
additional switch machine to move the point of
the frog.
Movable point frogs have been
incorporated
on people mover systems in
Canada and in Australia, but have received
little or no application on light rail transit
systems in the United States.
9.2.3.1.3 Liftover Frog

Liftover frog design with welded toe and heel
joints is similar to the flange-bearing design
except the frog provides a continuous main
line running rail surface and open flangeway.
The lateral move flangeway is omitted in this
design.
When a movement occurs for the diverging
route, the frog flangeway and wing rail portion
is ramped up to a level that allows the wheel
to pass over the main line open flangeway
and running rail head. If the wheel and frog
are
properly
maintained,
this
design
eliminates impact on the main line moves and
reduces impact of the wheel in the diverging
direction.
9.2.3.1.6 Spring Frogs

Spring frogs also eliminate the impact noise
associated with fixed flangeway gap frogs for
trains traversing the frog in a normal tangent
direction. The spring frog includes a springloaded point, which maintains the continuity of
the rails running surface for normal tangent
operations.
For diverging movements, the
normally closed frog is pushed open by the
wheel flange. There may be additional noise
associated
with trains making
diverging
movements, because the train wheels must
still pass through the fixed portion of the frog
Thus, use of these frogs in noise-sensitive
areas where a significant number of diverging
movements will occur will not significantly
mitigate the noise impacts associated with
standard frogs.
The three frog designs described above are

recommended for light rail transit installations
to reduce noise and vibration. The frogs can
be considered for three track types: ballasted,
direct
fixation
and
embedded
special
trackwork.
9.2.3.1.4 Railbound Manganese Frogs

Railbound manganese frogs with the running
rail surrounding
the central
manganese
portion of the frog introduce
interface
openings in the running rail surface in addition
to the flangeway openings. Light rail main line
track installations should always consider
welded joints at the toe and heel of the frog.
The manganese-to-rail-steel
interface in the
frog design introduces a joint in the running
surface
that
severely
impacts
wheel
9.2.4 Wheel Squeal Noise

Wheel squeal is one of the most serious types
of noise produced by light rail transit systems
9-16
Noise
and can occur at both short- and long-radius

curves.
In a central business
district,
pedestrians and patrons are in close proximity
to embedded
track curves of light rail
systems; consequently, they are subjected to
high levels of squeal noise. The high levels of
noise at discrete squeal frequencies result in
high perceptibility and annoyance
Wheel squeal may be intermittent,
varying contact surface properties,
contaminants,
or curving dynamics
vehicle and rail. On wet days, wheel
may be eliminated when negotiating
most of a curve.
9.2.4.1
Causes
and
Vibration
Control
Wheel flange rubbing is due to contact

between the flange and high rail and occurs
on short-radius
curves
with
significant
crabbing of the wheel set, such as at gauge
widened curves
However, lubrication of the
flange does not entirely eliminate wheel
squeal and wheel squeal is not limited to the
high rail, suggesting that flange contact is not
necessarily the only significant cause of
squeal. Flange rubbing is also accompanied
by lateral slip, which may be the primary
cause of squeal.
due to
surface
of the
squeal
all or
Lateral slip with non-linear lateral oscillation of

the tread running surface across the rail head
is believed to be the principal source of
squeal. Figure 9.3 illustrates the geometry of
curve negotiation by a transit vehicle truck.
Lateral
slip across
the rail head
is
necessitated by the finite wheel base (6) of
the truck and the radius of curvature of the
rail, where no longitudinal flexibility exists in
the axle suspension.
However, Figure 9.4
illustrates the actual crabbing of a truck. In
this case, the leading axle of the truck rides
towards the high rail, limited only by flange
contact of the high rail wheel against the
gauge face of the rail. The trailing axle travels
between the high and low rail, and the low rail
wheel flange may, in fact, be in contact with
the low rail gauge face. Gauge widening,
common on many transit systems, increases
the actual creep angle (angle of attack) and
exacerbates the generation of wheel squeal.
For additional information on truck rotation
refer to Section 4.2.9.
of Wheel Squeal
Three assumed types of vibratory motion

producing wheel squeal noise are:
1 Longitudinal slip with non-linear rotational
oscillation of the tire about its axle
2 Wheel flange contact with the gauge face
of the rail
3 Lateral
slip with non-linear
lateral
oscillation of the tire across the rail head.
Longitudinal
slip is due to the different
translation velocities between the high and
low rail wheels in a direction parallel with the
rail. Longitudinal slip is expected on curves
where the distance traversed at the high rail is
greater than at the low rail. Wheel taper is
sufficient to compensate for differential slip on
curves with radii in excess of about 610
meters (2,000 feet), though shorter radii may
be accommodated
by profile grinding of the
rail head and gauge widening. Further, Rudd
reports that elastic compression of the inner
wheel and extension of the outer wheel tread
under torque can compensate for the wheel
differential velocities, and, further, that trucks
with independently
driven wheels
also
squeal. t19 The consensus of opinion is that
longitudinal slip is not a cause of wheel
squeal.
The friction between the wheel and rail

running surfaces during lateral slip varies nonlinearly with the lateral creep function, defined
as the lateral relative slip velocity divided by
the forward rolling velocity. The coefficient of
friction initially increases with increasing creep
function, reaching its maximum at a creep
function
of about
0.09, and declining
thereafter.
The negative slope results in
negative
damping
that, if sufficient
to
9-17
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
to the change in friction characteristics caused

by moisture. Wheel squeal may be naturally
reduced in areas of high humidity.
9.2.4.2 Treatments
There are a number of mitigation measures
available for controlling wheel squeal. The
most effective of these are resilient and
damped wheels. Resilient wheels are not a
component
of track design, but their use
greatly reduces the need for track or wayside
mitigation . Again, wheel squeal control is a
system problem rather than simply a vehicle
or track design problem.
Other treatments
may be considered for application directly to
the track.
6= WHEEL SET (AXLE) BASE

R= CURM RADIUS
Figure 9.3 Geometry

and Lateral Slip
of Curve Negotiation
DIRECTION OF,
TRAML
IL1
L
_._____.-
---------------.
1
-._______
46
?
i
gs
u-J2
gi;
2%
A=
+
I
2
9.2.4.2.1
TANGENT
5= B/2R
B= WHEEL SET (AXLE) BASE
R= CURM RADIUS
6= ACTUAL CREEP ANGLE
Figure 9.4
Conditions
Truck
Crabbing
Dry-Stick
Friction
Modifiers
Modification of the friction-creep curve is an

attractive
approach
to controlling
wheel
squeal. Dry-stick friction modifiers applied to
the wheel tread, and thus the rail running
surface, improve adhesion and flatten the
friction-creep
curve, thereby
reducing
or
eliminating
the negative
damping
effect.
Friction modifiers are being offered as an
on-board treatment for wheel squeal.
The
treatment has also be& applied directly to the
rail head with moderate success. Manual
application of wayside friction modifiers can
be considered
for controlling
squeal on
curves, but no fixed automatic applicators are
commercially available at this time.
Under Actual
overcome the internal damping of the system,

will produce regenerative oscillation or squeal.
For a wheel base of 2280 millimeters (7.5
feet), squeal would not be expected for curve
radii greater than 125 to 253 meters (410 to
830 feet), the lower limit being achieved when
there is no gauge widening.
As illustrated
above, gauge widening increases the creep
A
angle for the same radius of curvature.
typical assumption is that squeal does not
occur for curves with radii greater than about
200 meters (700 feet), corresponding
to a
dimensionless
creep rate equal to 0.7 B/R,
where B is the wheel base and R is the curve
radius.
9.2.4.2.2
Lubrication
Wayside lubricators can be used to lubricate

the rail gauge face, restraining rail, and wheel
flange. However, this leads to an undesirable
situation; the lubrication tends to migrate to
the running rail head, reducing wheel squeal
due to lateral slip at the expense of loss of
traction.
The effectiveness of this type of
lubrication
in reducing
noise can be
Without lubrication, maximum
substantial.
Meteorological
conditions
affect
the
generation of squeal.
In wet weather, for
example, wheel squeal is greatly reduced due
9-l 8
Noise
and
Vibration
Control
wheel squeal noise levels may exceed 100

dBA. With lubrication, wheel squeal noise
levels have been reduced by approximately
15to25dB.
native rail steel. Refer to Section 5.2.5 for

additional information concerning rail head
treatments.
Wheel tread and rail running surfaces cannot

be lubricated without loss of adhesion and
braking effectiveness.
Loss of braking
effectiveness will result in wheel flatting, which
produces
excessive
rolling
noise,
a
counterproductive
improper
result
of
lubrication.
Loss of wheel-to-rail electrical
contact from the use of uncontrolled wayside
lubricants is also a concern. Environmental
degradation
by lubricants
is a serious
consideration;
thus lubricants
should be
biodegradable
to the maximum
extent
possible.
9.2.4.2.5
9.2.4.2.3
Wafer Sprays
Water spray by wayside applicators on curved

track can be used to control wheel squeal, rail
corrugation and wear. Both the high and low
rails can be treated. Water spray has been
reported to reduce wheel squeal by 18 dB on
short-radius curves. Water spray cannot be
used during freezing weather. Water sprays
may induce corrosion that is not conducive to
electrical contact, and might not be advisable
for lightly used track or where signaling may
be affected. Water sprays would likely pose
less of an environmental problem than grease
or oil.
9.2.4.2.4
Rail Head Damping
Inlays
Rail head damping, consisting of a synthetic

resin glued to a groove in the rail head, has
been offered as a treatment to control wheel
squeal. This procedure has been applied for
at least a year on German rapid transit
systems, and can be applied to all grades of
steel. The vulcanization process is used with
all types of rails and is applied so that the
wheel does not come into contact with the
resin-based filler material. The manufacturer
claims that noise is reduced by the material
damping provided by the resin inlay.
No
performance data have been provided and
there are significant
questions
regarding
actual performance, wear, and squeal noise
reduction.
This approach
should
be
thoroughly
checked
and tested
before
applying it as a general noise reduction
treatment.
9.2,4.2.6
Track Gauge
Gauge narrowing is an attractive approach to

promoting curving and reducing crab angle
and creep, and thus squeal. However, the
wheel and rail gauges used on trolley systems
typically vary by 3 millimeters (l/8 inch), and
this slight variation in gauge may dictate
against gauge narrowing in curves to prevent
the flanges from binding when axle spacing is
taken into consideration.
Refer to Section 4.2
for additional information concerning track and
wheel gauge.
Rail Head Inlays
The friction versus creep curve can be

modified by treatment of the rail heads with a
babbit-like (soft malleable metal) material.
This treatment
has been successful
in
eliminating wheel squeal, reducing passby
noise levels by approximately
20 dB.
However, after several months of service,
chronic squeal reappeared.
The loss of
performance
is likely due to wear of the
material, allowing wheel tread contact with the
Gauge widening has been incorporated in

track design to control squeal and promote
curving, but has produced the opposite effect.
Gauge widening appears to be a holdover
locomotive
days
when
from
steam
locomotives with three-axle trucks were in
use, and is not specifically necessary to
9-19
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
prevent excessive flange wear for two-axle

trucks. Quite the opposite; gauge widening
promotes
crabbing
because
the natural
tendency of a truck is to crab its way through
a curve, with the high rail wheel of the leading
axle riding against the high rail, as illustrated
in Figure 9.4.
9.2.4.2.7 Asymmetrical
Rail Profile
Asymmetrical rail head profiles are designed
to increase the wheel rolling radius differential
and promote self-steering of the truck through
the curve, which requires a longitudinally
flexible truck. In this case, the contact zone of
the high rail is moved toward the gauge
comer and the larger diameter of the tapered
wheel, while the contact zone at the low rail is
moved to the field side and the smaller
diameter of the taper. The wheel taper thus
allows the high rail wheel to travel a greater
distance than the low rail wheel per revolution.
In so doing, the axles tend to line up with the
curve radius, thus reducing the lateral slip
squeal. While this approach is attractive, it is
effective for curve radii of the order of 200
meters (700 feet) or more. This process has
been used in Los Angeles and Vancouver.
9.2.4.2.8 Rail Vibration Dampers

A rail vibration damper is a visco-elastic
constrained layer damping system applied to
the rail web to retard wheel squeal. In one
design, the constrained layer damper is held
against the rail web with a steel plate and
spring clip under and about the base of the
rail.
The treatment can be applied with
minimal disturbance of track, provided that it
may be made short enough to fit between the
track supports. A second design includes a
damping compound that is bonded to the rail
web and constraining steel plate, without the
use of a steel spring clip.
9-20

Rail
vibration
absorbers
are resonant
mechanical elements that are attached to the
rail to absorb vibration energy. Rail vibration
absorbers are reputed to control wheel squeal
and also reduce
rolling noise.
This
technology has not been tried in the United
States as of this writing. The most attractive
design at present incorporates a series of
tuned dampers that bear against both the rail
foot and the rail web. Thus, vibration energy
is absorbed from both these elements of the
rail. The absorbers are clamped to the rail
with bolts, and a plate extends beneath the
base of the rail. These systems have been
used in Europe, but not in North America.
9.2.4.2.10 Double Restrained Curves

Double restraining
rails are designed to
reduce the angle of attack and promote
steering of the truck without flange contact on
gauge widened curves. In this case, the high
rail wheel flange can be brought away from
the high rail by the low rail restraining rail and
the low rail wheel flange can be moved away
from the gauge face by the high rail
restraining rail. The restraining rail flangeway
width would have to be controlled to prevent
binding of the wheel set or climbing of the
flange onto the restraining rail. Further, the
restraining rails may be liberally lubricated to
reduce squeal and wear due to friction
between
the wheel and restraining
rail.
However, no successful installations have
been found that completely eliminate wheel
squeal.
Although
this
approach
is
theoretically attractive in reducing crab angle,
mixed results may be achieved. Curving may
be promoted
most by maintaining gauge
through the curve or possibly narrowing the
gauge. Refer to Section 4.2.8 for additional
information
concerning guarded track and
restraining rail.
Noise
9.2.5 Groundborne
Mitigation
and
Vibration
Control
task of predicting groundborne

noise and
vibration has advanced to a highly developed
state, relying on downhole
shear wave
velocity
data,
seismic
refraction
data,
borehole impulse testing, and detailed finite
element
modeling
of
structures
and
surrounding
soils.
As a result, vibration
predictions
can be reasonably
accurate,
though
still less precise
than
noise
predictions.
Special track design is now
regularly considered as a means to control
perceptible ground vibration in addition to
audible groundborne noise.
Noise and Vibration
Groundborne
noise and vibration
is a
phenomenon of all rail transit systems and, if
not controlled, can cause significant impact on
residences,
hospitals,
concert
hails,
museums,
recording
studios,
and other
sensitive land uses.
New light rail transit
alignments include abandoned railroad rightsof-way passing through adjacent residential
developments.
Residences located within 1
meter (3 feet) of right-of-way limits are not
uncommon, and there are instances where
apartment buildings are built directly over light
rail systems with little provision for vibration
isolation.
Vibration impacts on hospitals,
manufacturers,
or
sensitive
high-tech
research facilities may occur.
9.2.5.1
Vibration
Generation
Ground vibration from rail transit vehicles is

produced by wheel/rail interaction, driven by
roughness in the wheels and rail running
surfaces,
discrete track structures,
track
irregularities, and imbalanced conditions of
rotating components
such as wheels and
axles. Vibration forces are imparted to the
track invert or soil surface through embedded
track, direct fixation fasteners, or ballast.
These forces cause the transit structure and
soil to vibrate, radiating vibration energy away
from the track in the form of body and surface
Body waves are shear and
waves.
compression waves, with respective shear
and compression wave propagation velocities.
Body waves attenuate (or lose amplitude) at a
rate of 6 dB (50% in amplitude) as distance
from the source doubles without material
damping (energy absorption) in the soil. Of
these two wave forms, the shear wave is the
most important. For surface track, the ground
vibration includes Rayleigh surface waves,
which attenuate at a rate of 3 dB (30% in
amplitude)
as distance from the source
doubles without material damping or reflection
losses. Rayleigh surface waves are the major
carrier of vibration energy from the surface
track, but inhomogeneities
in the soil may
convert significant portions of the Rayleigh
surface wave energy into body waves. Within
Groundborne noise is heard as a low level

impact
rumble,
and
adversely
may
residences, hospitals, concert halls, and other
areas or land uses where quiet is either
desirable or required. Groundborne vibration
in buildings may be felt as a low frequency
floor motion, or detected as secondary noise
such as rattling windows or dishes. Building
owners often claim that groundborne vibration
is responsible for building settlement and
damage,
though
there
have been no
demonstrated cases of this occurring.
Literature concerning rail transit groundborne
noise and vibration
control is rich with
empirical and quantitative studies conducted
in North America, Europe, Australia, the Far
A substantial
East, and South America.
review of the state-of-the-art
in groundborne
noise and vibration prediction and control was
conducted in 1984 for the U.S. Department of
Recent research includes
Transportation.
studies
on the nature
of subway/soil
interaction, surface track vibration generation,
and extensive downhole testing to assess
vibration propagation in soils.
Indeed, the
9-21
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
one wavelength of the track, the distinction

between
surface
and body waves
is
immaterial, as near-field effects dominate the
response.
both analytical and finite element modeling

methods,
and
multiple-degree-of-freedom
modeling of transit vehicles and track.n61
These
methods
are very powerful
for
analyzing
changes
in structure
design,
structure depth, and vehicle designs.
Structure/soil interaction significantly affects

the radiation of vibration energy into the
surrounding soil.
Heavy tunnel structures
produce lower levels of ground vibration than
lightweight tunnels.
However, the opposite
has been observed for large cut-and-cover
box structures
very close to the ground
surface relative to circular tunnels.
Nearsurface subway structures produce vibration
more easily than deep structures.
9.2.5.3
Groundborne
Prediction
Control
Provisions
Numerous
methods
for
controlling
groundborne
noise and vibration
include
continuous
floating slab track, resiliently
supported
two-block
ties, ballast
mats,
resilient direct fixation fasteners, precision rail,
alignment modification, low stiffness vehicle
primary
suspension
systems,
and
transmission path modification.n71
Achieving
the most practical solution at reasonable cost
is of great importance in vibration mitigation
design.
Factors
to consider
include
maintainability, inspectability, and cleanliness.
Ground vibration excites building foundations

and structures.
Vibrating surfaces of the
rooms then radiate noise into the room as
groundborne noise. The interior sound level
is then controlled by the degree of acoustical
absorption contained in the room. Secondary
noise, such as rattling windows, might be
observed in extreme cases.
9.2.5.2
Vibration
9.2.5.3.1
Floating
Slab Track
Floating slab track is a special type of track

structure that is beyond the normal designs
discussed in Chapter 4. The floating slab
concept would be an additional requirement to
normal track structure. Track structure design
must allow for floating slabs where they are
needed, as the floating slab may require
additional invert depth.
Noise and Vibration
The procedure for predicting groundborne

noise and vibration is an empirical approach
involving transfer function testing of soils and
buildings. The procedure has recently been
adopted by the FTA for use in assessing
groundborne noise and vibration impacts by
rail transit projects. The predictions of ground
vibration
and
groundborne
noise
are
described in detail in the FTA guidelines for
rail transit
noise and vibration
impact
assessment.[141
Screening procedures and
detailed
prediction
techniques
are also
described.
Floating slab systems consist of two basic

types:
l
Continuous
cast-in-place
floating slabs
are constructed by placing a permanent
sheet metal form on elastomer isolators
and filling the form with concrete.
The
floating slabs measure approximately
6
meters (20 feet) along the track and 3
meters (10 feet) transverse to the track.
The depth of the slab is generally 300 to
450 millimeters (12 to 18 inches).
The state-of-the-art
in predicting ground
vibration has recently advanced significantly
to include detailed finite element modeling of
soil/structure interactiorP1, numerical analysis
of vibration propagation in layered soils using
9-22
Discontinuous double-tie pre-cast floating

slabs measure about 1.5 meters (5 feet)
Noise
along the track and 3 meters (10 feet)

transverse to the track. The depth, and
thus the mass, of the slab may vary from
about 200 to 600 millimeters (8 to 24
inches). The mass of the slab may range
from 2,000 to 7,000 kilograms (4,409 to
15,430 pounds.)
The most common
configuration
is with a 2,000-kilogram
(4,409-pound)
slab 200 millimeters (8
inches) thick. The slabs are referred to as
double ties because they support each
rail with two direct fixation fasteners,
giving a total of four direct fixation
fasteners per slab.
and
Vibration
Control
The main support pads of all discontinuous

floating slabs used in the United States are
manufactured from natural rubber. Synthetic
rubber formulations exhibit higher creep rates
than natural rubber formulations and should
be avoided.
Natural rubber formulations
exhibit low creep over time, high reliability,
and dimensional stability.
Natural rubber
pads are not subject to corrosion and provide
natural material damping that controls the
amplification
of vibration
at resonance.
Natural rubber pads installed beneath floating
slabs have survived subway fires without
needing to be replaced and their use results in
a virtually maintenance-free
isolation system.
There have been concerns
over debris
accumulating beneath floating slabs, as well
as providing methods for removal of such
debris. Another concern is the possibility of
the gaps between
discontinuous
floating
slabs, which could trap the feet of persons
escaping down a tunnel during an emergency.
Both of these concerns may be avoided by
providing flexible seals, but care must be
taken to avoid increasing the overall stiffness
of the floating slabs by using the seals.
The design resonance frequency of a floating

slab system is the resonance frequency for
the combined floating slab and vehicle truck
mass distributed over the length of the
vehicle. The design resonance frequency of
the continuous
floating slab and vehicle
combination is typically on the order of 16 Hz,
while that of the discontinuous
precast
double-tie
floating
slab
and
vehicle
combination
ranges from 8 to 16 Hz,
depending
on isolation needs.
Wtth a
continuous floating slab, the entrained air
stiffness must be included with the isolator
spring
stiffness
when
computing
the
resonance frequency.
9.2.5.3.2
Resiliently Supported Two-Block

Ties
Resiliently supported two-block tie designs
are referred to as encased direct fixation track
in Section 4.5.3.4.
In resiliently supported
two-block tie designs, each rail is supported
on individual concrete blocks set in an
elastomer boot encased by the concrete slab
or invert. A stiff elastomer or plastic rail seat
pad protects the concrete block at the rail
base, which is retained by a spring clip or
other fastening system. The design used for
light rail transit vibration isolation must provide
a low rail support modulus, achieved by
including a closed-cell elastomer foam (or
micro-cellular pad) between the bottom of the
concrete block and invert inside the elastomer
boot. Static stiffnesses of the order of 8.9 to
The normal configuration

for the discrete
double-tie design includes four natural rubber
isolators. Additional isolators are incorporated
to increase the isolation stiffness at transition
regions between non-isolated and isolated
The main support pad shape was
track.
selected to provide low shear strain and
control lateral slip between
the bearing
surface of the pad and concrete surfaces.
Lateral slip is further reduced by gluing the
pads to the concrete surfaces.
The pad is
about 100 millimeters (4 inches) thick, with an
overall diameter
of 400 millimeters
(16
inches).
9-23
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
reduction relative to standard ballasted track.

The ballast mat is, therefore, not a substitute
for floating slab track. There may be some
amplification of vibration at the ballast mat
resonance frequency in the range of 16 to 30
Hz.
17.8
MN/meter
(50,000
to
100,000
pounds/inch) can be obtained, though the
dynamic stiffness is likely to be much higher.
The design constitutes
a two-degree-offreedom vibration isolation system, though the
vibration isolation at low frequencies
is
controlled by the elastomer boot surrounding
the concrete block.
Three configurations
of ballast mats have
recently been recommended for surface track.
The first includes a concrete base with a mat
consisting of inverted natural rubber cone
springs placed on a concrete base beneath
the ballast.
The second includes the mat
placed in a concrete bath tub slab with the
track slab consisting
of a second pour
concrete slab supporting the rails. The third,
and
potentially
less
effective
design,
incorporates a uniforrn ballast mat placed
directly on tamped soil or compacted subballast.
The vibration isolation provided by resiliently

supported two-block ties is believed to be
higher than that of very stiff direct fixation
fasteners. The vibration isolation provided by
the two-block tie should be comparable to that
provided by soft fasteners, with stiffness of 8.9
MN/meter (50,000 pounds/inch) and dynamic
11 6
MN/meter
(65,000
stiffness
of
pounds/inch).
Damping has been postulated
as a cause for the low-frequency vibration
isolation provided by some of the two-block
systems.
The
two-degree-of-freedom
isolation of the two-block system may provide
greater vibration
isolation at frequencies
above 200 Hz than that provided by soft
fasteners.
Conventional installations of ballast mats in

Europe have been in subways with concrete
bases, for which vibration insertion losses
have been predicted to be higher than
Surface
track
observed
in practice.
application presents challenges that limit the
effectiveness of ballast mat installations. The
shear modulus of the soil at or near the
surface may be low and can result in a
support modulus comparable to that of the
ballast mat, thus rendering the ballast mat
less effective than if it were employed in
tunnel track.
There have been cases of rail corrugation

associated with the resiliently supported tie
system, though this appears to be related to
the interaction of the rail with the concrete
block through the rail seat pad. Reducing the
rail seat pad stiffness appears to defer the
onset of rail corrugation.
9.2.5.3.3 Ballast Mats

Ballast mats are employed
to control
and vibration
from
groundborne
noise
ballasted track and have been incorporated as
the principal isolator in certain floating slab
track installations.
The effectiveness of a
ballast mat is limited to frequencies above
approximately 25 to 30 Hz. The maximum
vibration isolation that has been measured
from trains with ballast mat is about 10 dB at
40 Hz. At lower frequencies, the ballast mat
is too stiff to provide sufficient vibration
The vibration reductions are limited to the

frequency range in excess of about 30 Hz.
For ballast mats on compacted subgrade, the
insertion loss would likely be on the order of 5
to 8 dB at 40 Hz. For ballast mats on a
concrete base or concrete invert, the insertion
loss at 40 Hz would be between 7 and 10 dB.
The most effective ballast mat is a profiled
mat with a natural rubber elastomer on a
concrete base or trough.
This type of
9-24
Noise
installation provides the greatest vibration

isolation, about IO dB at 40 to 50 Hz.
Vibration
Control
fastener is now being replaced.

Modern
designs include vulcanize-bonded
fasteners
with rolled steel top and bottom plates. More
recent designs include cast top plates and
either rolled steel or cast base plates.
The selection of a ballast mat should favor low

static and dynamic stiffness, low creep, good
drainage, and ease of installation. There are
considerable disparities between the dynamic
stiffnesses of various ballast mats, even
though their static stiffnesses may be similar.
The most desirable material is natural rubber,
which
exhibits
a low dynamic-to-static
stiffness ratio of about 1.4 or less. These
high-performance
natural rubber mats may
cost more than synthetic elastomer mats, but
may be the only choice in critically sensitive
Specifications
for ballast mats
locations.
should include dynamic stiffness requirements
for the intended frequency range over which
vibration isolation is desired.
If this is not
done, much less isolation than expected may
actually be achieved, rendering the vibration
isolation provision ineffective. There is a very
distinct possibility that providing a ballast mat
may increase low frequency vibration in the
16- to 25Hz region. If this is the range of the
most significant vibration, the ballast mat may
actually create or exacerbate
a vibration
impact. Thus, great care must be exercised in
design, specification, and installation of the
ballast mat.
Very soft fasteners provide a modest measure

of groundborne
noise reduction.
Certain
fasteners use elastomer in shear to provide
good rail head control. Soft fasteners have
been designed for use in reducing ground
vibration
groundborne
and
noise
at
frequencies
above about 30 Hz.
The
elastomers shear design provides a vertical
stiffness of about 10 MN/meter
(55,000
pounds/inch).
A unique aspect of this type of
fastener is that it must pass a qualification
test, which includes a measure of the dynamic
stiffness over a frequency range of 10 to 500
Hz. The fastener employs elastomer in shear
and provides a reasonably
high lateral
stiffness to maintain rail position. The high
lateral stiffness and captive design of the top
plate also help to reduce rail rotation under
lateral load in spite of its low vertical stiffness.
This is, perhaps, one of its most important
design features. For additional information on
direct fixation fasteners, refer to Section 54.3
in this handbook.
One feature of a low stiffness fastener is that
the rail static deflection will be distributed over
more fasteners; thus the rail will appear to be
more uniformly supported.
Low rail support
stiffness is advantageous
in reducing the
pinned-pinned
mode resonance
frequency
due to discrete rail supports, as well as the
vertical resonance frequency for the rail on
the fastener stiffness.
A further consideration is ballast pulverization

and penetration into the mat. Ballast mats
have been incorporated in the track structure
to reduce pulverization.
9.2.5.3.4
and
Resilient Direct Fixation

Fasteners
Resilient direct fixation fasteners are used for

concrete slab aerial deck or subway invert
track.
In some instances, resilient direct
fixation fasteners have been incorporated into
embedded track. One of the earliest direct
fixation fastener designs was the Toronto
Transit Commission unbonded fastener with
This relatively stiff
natural rubber pad.
The ratio of vertical dynamic-to-static stiffness

describes the quality of the elastomer; a low
ratio is very important for vibration isolation.
The ratio is obtained by dividing the dynamic
stiffness (measured with a servo-actuated
hydraulic
ram) by the static
stiffness
9-25
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
9.2.5.3.6
determined over the majority of the load

range. A desirable upper limit is 1.4, easily
obtained with fasteners manufactured with a
natural rubber elastomer or derivative thereof.
Dynamic-to-static
stiffness ratios of 1.3 are
not uncommon with natural rubber elastomer
in shear. As a rule, elastomers capable of
meeting the limit of 1.4 are high quality and
generally exhibit low creep.
Neoprene
elastomers
provide
a dynamic-to-static
stiffness ratio greater than 1.4 and can be as
high as 4. (Note: A neoprene elastomer may
be desirable for controlling rail noise radiated
from at-grade or aerial structure track due to
the material damping of the elastomer, which
absorbs rail vibration energy.
Thus, the
choice of elastomer may depend on whether
groundborne
vibration isolation or airborne
noise reduction is desired.)
Though often overlooked or not considered

during track design, rail straightness
is
fundamentally
important in controlling low
frequency
ground
vibration
in critically
sensitive areas. Roller straightened rails have
produced
ground
vibration
frequency
components
that can be related to the
straighteners roller diameter. More recently,
substantial
vibration
was generated
at
residential structures located adjacent to a
main line freight railroad alignment
after
replacing gag-press straightened
rail with
roller straightened rail with excessive vertical
undulation.
Narrowband
analyses of the
wayside ground vibration data identified a
linear relation between frequency peaks and
train speed that related directly with the roller
diameter
of the straightening
machine.
Subsequent field measurements of rail profile
with a laser interferometer
corroborated the
vibration data. The roller straightened rail was
replaced with new rail that was also roller
straightened, but to British standards. Repeat
measurements
indicated
a
substantial
reduction of ground vibration, even though the
effects of the roller straightener pitch diameter
were still identifiable in the wayside ground
vibration spectra.[8*g1
High lateral restraint is often incompatible with

vibration
isolation
design
requirements.
Therefore, a stiffness range is desirable for
the lateral restraint to ensure both an
adequate degree of horizontal position control
and sufficient lateral compliance to provide
vibration isolation.
Hard snubbers
are
undesirable in fasteners, because they limit
vibration isolation to the vertical direction only.
The design principle is to provide a threedegree-of-freedom
isolation.
9.2.5.3.5
Rail Straightness
This experience leads to the recommendation

of super-straight
rail for sensitive areas
where a low-frequency vibration impact is
predicted and unwanted.
Examples include
alignments in very close proximity to sensitive
receivers of all types in areas with very soft
soil. Controlling low-frequency vibration due
to rail undulation
by controlling
rail
straightness
is far less costly than the
installation of a floating slab track structure.
Soft fasteners would provide no positive
benefit, and may even exacerbate
lowfrequency vibration. Corrective rail grinding is
incapable of removing rail height undulation
over long wavelengths of 2 meters (6 feet) or
more. U.S. steel suppliers have not produced
Rail Grinding
Rail grinding to eliminate checks, spalls, and

undulation
of the
rail head
reduces
groundborne
noise and vibration, provided
that the vehicle wheels are new or recently
trued. This applies especially to corrugated
rail track.
Rail grinding to reduce ground
vibration at low frequencies must remove long
wavelength roughness and corrugation, which
may require special grinders
with long
grinding bars or special controls.
9-26
Noise
9.2.5.3.8
rail
with
an
adequate
straightness
specification.
However, such rail is available
from European manufacturers,
where highspeed rail systems require strict adherence to
straightness limits.
9.2.5.3.7
Vehicle Primary
Design
and
Vibration
Control
Resilient Wheels and Rail Head

Ball Radius
Resilient wheels may provide some degree of

vibration
isolation above 20 to 50 Hz,
depending on elastomer stiffness.
However,
light
rail
systems
have
experienced
substantial ground vibration from urethane
embedded
track due to corrugation
with
vehicles using resilient wheels mounted on
Numerical
modeling
mono-motor
trucks.
suggested that a vertical resonance exists in
the wheel and track system at a frequency
coincident with the corrugation
frequency.
Other factors are likely relevant.
More
research is required to further define the
cause of this type of corrugation
and
determine
which,
if any, track design
parameters may influence its generation.
Suspension
Vehicle primary suspension design is not part

of track design, but has a direct bearing on
amplitudes.
wayside
ground
vibration
Selection
of trackwork
vibration
isolation
provisions should ideally be based on the type
of vehicle involved. In general, vehicles with
soft primary suspensions produce lower levels
of vibration
than
vehicles
with
stiff
Differences
in suspension
suspensions.
characteristics may be sufficient to eliminate
the need for floating slab isolation at
otherwise
critically
sensitive
locations.
Introduction
of vehicles with stiff primary
suspensions relative to existing vehicles with
soft suspensions may introduce vibrations in
to 25Hz
frequency
region.
the
loUnfortunately,
the track design is often
blamed.
9.2.5.3.9
Subgrade
Treatment
The vibration amplitude response of soil is,

roughly, inversely proportional to the stiffness
of the soil. Therefore, stiff soils tend to vibrate
less than soft soils. Grouting of soils or soil
stabilization with lime or cement is attractive
where very soft soils are encountered, such
as soft clays or sands. Unfortunately, large
volumes of soil would have to be treated; this
would probably not be attractive for vibration
control unless such treatment were necessary
for structural support.
Test data have not
for
predicting
been
developed
the
performance
of soil cement
or lime
stabilization of track subgrades.
Grouting is
expected to have a significant though possibly
mixed effect on ground vibration.
Grouting
should increase the efficiency of vibration
propagation at high frequencies between track
and building structures,
but reduce the
vibration energy input into the soil at low
frequencies.
Tests at one site indicated low
levels of vibration for alluvial soils that had
been pressure grouted to prevent building
settlement. Additional testing and evaluation
are necessary.
The selection of chevron-type

suspension
systems in lieu of stiff rubber journal bushing
suspension systems may provide sufficient
vibration reduction to reduce the need for
other vibration isolation provisions in the
frequency range of about 16 to 31.5 Hz. Most
modern light rail transit vehicles in the U.S.
primary
suspension
incorporate
chevron
systems with low vertical stiffness, thus
reducing the demand on vibration isolation
elements in the track. However, a chevron
suspension design is no guarantee of low
stiffness.
If the vehicles have stiff primary
particular
attention
suspension
systems,
should be paid to low-frequency
vibration
control in track at the primary suspension
resonance frequency.
9-27
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
9.2.5.3.13
Pile-Supported
Track
Piling used to reinforce a track support system
can be effective in reducing ground vibration
over a broad range of frequencies.
An
example would be a concrete slab track
supported by piles or ballasted track on a
by
piles.
concrete
trough
supported
Performance
improvement
is likely to be
substantial if the piles can be extended to rock
layers within about 20 meters (65 feet).
Standing wave resonances may occur in long
piles, so that there is a limit on the
effectiveness of piles in controlling audible
groundborne noise. Unfortunately, piles may
interfere with utilities and the cost of piling is
substantial.
Piling may be attractive for civil
reasons, however, and the added benefits of
vibration
control
can be realized
with
appropriate attention directed to design.
9.2.5.3.10 Special Trackwork

Turnouts and crossovers are sources of
vibration.
As the wheels traverse the frogs
and joints, impact forces are produced that
cause vibration. Grinding the frog to maintain
contact with a properly profiled wheel can
minimize impact forces at frogs. Spring frogs
and movable point frogs are designed to
maintain
a continuous
running
surface.
Spring frogs are practical for low speed
turnouts, while movable point frogs are more
Refer to
suited to high-speed turnouts.
Chapter 6 for additional discussion on frog
types.
9.2.5.3.11 Distance
The track should be located as far from
sensitive structures as possible within a rightof-way. Where wide rights-of-way exist, there
may be some latitude in locating the track. A
shift of as little as 3 meters (10 feet) away
from a sensitive structure may produce a
beneficial
reduction of vibration.
Avoid
locating track close to sensitive structures
where sufficient right-of-way width exists to
alter the alignment.
9.3 REFERENCES
9.2.5.3.12 Trenching and Barriers

Open trenches have been considered for
vibration
reduction,
but are of limited
effectiveness below 30 Hz for a depth of 7
meters (20 feet) and even less for shallower
trenches. At higher frequencies, the vibration
reduction of a trench filled with Styrofoam may
be as little as 3 to 6 dB. Concrete barriers
embedded
in the soil have also been
considered. While they may interrupt surface
wave propagation,
their mass must be
substantial
to provide sufficient
vibration
reduction. Detailed finite element modeling is
necessary in this case to predict performance.
9-28
[ I]
of Sound
and
Vibration,
Journal
Academic Press, Ltd., Published by
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, London
[2]
Nelson, J. T., Wheel/Rail Noise Control

Manual, TCRP Report 23, Wilson,
lhrig & Associates, Inc., for TRB
National Research Council.
[3]
Nelson, J. T., H. J. Saurenman, G. P.

State-of-the-Art
Review:
Wilson,
Prediction and Control of GroundBorne Noise and Vibration from Rail
Transit Trains, Final Report, Wilson,
lhrig 8 Associates,
Inc., for US
Department of Transportation, Urban
Mass Transit Administration, UMTAMA-06-0049-83-4.
Noise
[4]
Transit Noise and Vibration

impact
Assessment,
for
the
U.S.
Transportation,
Department
of
Federal Transit Administration,
April
1995.
[6]
IS0
[7]
[I 31 Rudd, M J., Wheel/Rail Noise, -Part Ii:

Wheel Squeal, Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 46(3),1976. pg385
[14] Transit Noise and Vibration impact
Assessment, Harris, Miller, Miller &
Hanson, Inc., for the Federal Transit
Administration,
U.S. Department of
Transportation,
Washington,
DC.
April 1995 DOT-T-95-16.
ANSI
S3.29-1983,
Guide
to
the
Evaluation of Human Exposure to
Vibration in Buildings,
American
National Standards Institute, 1983
(See subsequent revisions)
ANSI
S3.29-1983,
Guide
to the
Evaluation of Human Exposure to
Vibration in Buildings,
American
National Standards Institute, 4 April
1983.
(This standard has been
recently revised.)
[9]
Remington, P. J., The Estimation and

Control of Rolling Noise Due to
Roughness, BBN Report No. 8801,
for ERRI Committee C 163,1994.
Control
[12] Ver, I. L., C. S Ventres, and M M. Miles,

Wheel/Rail Noise - Part ill: impact
Noise Generation by Wheel and Rail
Discontinuities,
Journal of Sound
and Vibration, Vol 46, No. 3, 1976,
pp 395-417.
2631, Mechanical
Vibration and
Shock-Evaluation
of
Human
Exposure to Whole-Body Vibration,
2d Ed., International
Organization
for Standardization (ISO), 1997
[8]
Vibration
[I I] Remington,
P. J., Wheel/Rail Roiling
Noise, What Do We Know, What
Dont We Know, Where do We Go
from Here, Journal of Sound and
Vibration, Vol 120, No. 2, ~~203-226.
Saurenman, H. J., G. P. W&on, J. T.

Nelson, Handbook
of Urban Rail
Noise and Vibration Control, Wilson,
lhrig
& Associates,
inc.,
for
USDOT/TSC,
1982, UMTA-MA-06
0099-82-I.
[5]
and
[15] Crockett, A. R., and R. A. Carman, Finite

Element Analysis of Vibration Levels
in Layered
Soils Adjacent
to
Proposed Transit Tunnel Alignments,
Proceedings
of
Internoise
97,
Budapest, Hungary, 25-27 August
1997. Institute of Noise Control
Engineering.
[16] Nelson, J. T., Prediction of Ground
Vibration Using Seismic Reflectivity
Mefhods
for
a Porous
Soil,
Proceedings
of the IWRN 1998
Conference,
Isle
de
Embiez,
November 1998.
[IO] Kalousek, J., and K. L. Johnson, An

investigation of Short Pitch Wheel
and
Rail
Corrugation
on the
Vancouver Skytrain Mass Transit
System, Proc. Institute Mechanical
Engineers, Part F, Vol. 206 (F2),
1992, pp. 127-135.
[17] Nelson, J. T., Recent Developments

in
Ground-Borne Noise and Vibration
Control, Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 193(l), pp.367-376, (1996)
9-29
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
1181 Nelson, J. T., and S. L. Wolfe, Kamloops

Railroad
Ground
Vibration
Data
Analysis and Recommendations
for
Control, Technical Report, Wilson,
lhrig & Associates, Inc., for CN Rail.
[19] Nelson, J. T., Recent Developmen& in

Ground-Borne Noise and Vibration
Control, Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 193(l), 1996, p.373.
9-30
Chapter
I O-Transit
Signal Work
Table of Contents
10-I
1 o-1
10.1 TRANSIT
SIGNAL
10.1.1 General
10.1.2 Transit Signal System Design
1 o-2
10.2 SIGNAL EQUIPMENT

10.2.1 Switch Machines
10.2.1 .I General
10.2.1.2 Trackwork Requirements
10.2.1.3 Types of Switch Machines
10.2.1.3.1 Electric
10.2.1.3.2 Electra-pneumatic
10.2.1.3.3 Hand-Operated
10.2.1.3.4 Yard
10.2.1.3.5 Embedded (Surface)
10.2.2 Impedance Bonds
10.2.2.1 General
10.2.2.3 Types of Impedance Bonds
10.2.3.3.1 Audio Frequency
10.2.3.3.2 Power Frequency
10.2.3 Loops and Transponders
10.2.3.1 General
10.2.3.3 Types of Loops and Transponders
10.2.3.3.1 Speed Command
10.2.3.3.2 Train Location
10.2.3.3.3 Traffic interface
10.2.3.3.4 Continuous Train Control Loop
10.2.3.3.5 Transponders
10.2.4 Wheel Detectors/Axle Counters
10.2.4.1 General
10.2.4.3 Types of Wheel Detectors/Axle Counters
10.25 Train Stops
10.251 General
10.2.5.3 Types Of Train Stops
10.2.5.3.1 Inductive
10.2.5.3.2 Electric
10.2.6 Switch Circuit Controller/Electric Lock
10.2.6.1 General
10.2.6.3 Types of Switch Circuit Controller/Electric
1 O-i
Lock
1 o-2
1 o-2
10-2
1o-2
1o-3
1o-3
I o-3
1 o-3
1 o-3
IO-4
10-4
10-4
10-4
10-4
10-4
10-5
IO-5
1 o-5
1 o-5
IO-5
1 o-5
1 o-5
1 o-5
1o-5
1O-6
IO-6
IO-6
1 O-6
10-6
10-6
IO-6
10-6
1 o-7
1 o-7
IO-7
1 o-7
1 o-7
1 o-7
1 o-7
Light
Rail Track
Design
Handbook
10.2.6.3.1 Switch Circuit Controller

10.2.6.3.2 Electric Lock
10.2.7 Signals
10.2.7.1 General
10.2.7.3 Types of Signals
10 2.8 Bootleg Risers/Junction Boxes
10.2.8.1 General
10.2.8.3 Types of Bootleg Risers/ Junction Boxes
10.2.8.3.1 Junction Boxes
10.2.8.3.2 Bootleg Risers
10.2.9 Switch and Train Stop Heaters/Snow Melters
10.2.9.1 General
10.2.9.3 Types of Switch/Train Stop Snow Melters
10.2.10 Highway Crossing Warning Systems
10.2.10.1 General
10.2.10.3 Types of Highway Crossing Warning System
10.2.11 Signal and Power Bonding
10.2.11 .I General
10.2.11.3 Types of Signal and Power Bonding
1o-7
1o-7
1 O-8
1 O-8
1 O-8
-lO-8
1 O-8
1O-8
1O-8
1o-9
1 o-9
1o-9
IO-9
1 o-9
1o-9
IO-9
IO-10
10-10
10-10
IO-10
IO-10
IO-IO
10-11
IO-11
10.3 EXTERNAL WIRE AND CABLE

10.3.1 General
10.3.2 Trackwork Requirement
10.3.3 Types of External Wire and Cable Installations
10.3.3.1 Cable Trough
10.3.3.2 Duct Bank
10.3.3.3 Conduit
10.3.3.4 Direct Burial
IO-12
IO-12
10.4 SIGNAL INTERFACE
IO-13
10.4.1 Signal-Trackwork Interface

10.4.2 Signal-Station Interface
10.4.3 Signal-Turnout/Interlocking
Interface
10.5 CORROSION
IO-13
1 o-14
10-14
IO-14
CONTROL
IO-15
10.6 SIGNAL TESTS
10.6.1
10.6.2
10.6.3
10.6.4
10.65
10-12
10-12
10-12
10-12
10-13
10-13
Switch Machine Wring and Adjustment Tests

Switch Machine Appurtenance Test
Insulated Joint Test
Impedance Bonding Resistance Test
Negative Return Bonding Test
IO-15
IO-15
10-15
10-15
IO-15
IO-15
10.7 SUMMARY
1O-ii
CHAPTER
IO-TRANSIT
SIGNAL WORK
10.1 TRANSIT SIGNAL
detectors, induction couplers, or other

non-vital devices to improve speed by
eliminating intersection delays
10.1 .I General
Power operation of track switch facing

power on/off switches, time
points:
sequences, induction couplers, or other
non-vital devices are used to improve
LRV speed by eliminating stops to throw
switches, thereby allowing trains to keep
moving
Street-running
light rail systems can be
operated without signals only at low speeds.
Train operators must obey the local traffic
laws and yield the right-of-way (ROW) to
traffic on the tracks.
In higher speed
operations on exclusive rights-of-way, trains
use signal systems to avoid collisions with
other trains and with street vehicles crossing
the tracks.
Block supervision (single track, low-speed

operation): similar to preemptive devices,
allows an opposing train to advance
without
incurring
schedule
delay if
possible
The principles of light rail transit signaling are

similar to railroad main line signaling in
providing for the safe movement of trains.
The track is divided into segments called
blocks.
Signals keep two trains from
occupying the same block at the same time
and generally keep an empty block between
trains that are travelling at the posted speed.
Track circuits detect trains in a block. Block
systems ensure train separation with safe
stopping distance.
Interlocked switches and
crossovers protect against conflicting routes
and improper switch operation.
Transit
signaling also provides block supervision as
required for street operation, warning of
approaching trains at grade crossings and
coordination
with
proximate
supervising
vehicle traffic schemes as required for system
performance and safety.
Block and switch protection:

basic
railroad signaling technology employing
wayside
signals,
sometimes
in
conjunction with mechanical or inductive
train stops, to provide safe operation
(newer
light transit
systems
have
employed cab signals with or without train
stops for continuous speed control)
based on
Grade crossing warning:
railroad signaling technology, gates and
flashers
eliminate
slow
downs
to
determine if grade crossings are clear;
generally recognized as the most effective
type of crossing warning system, allowing
improved LRV operating speed
The choice of which system
is most
appropriate for a specific section of track is
based
on
operational
and
political
considerations.
A light rail system may utilize
different
signal technologies
at different
locations based on these concerns. A streetrunning operation with slow speed requires
different controls than a high-speed operation
on an exclusive ROW.
Typically, there are six light rail transit

signaling designs:
l
No signaling at all: the system operates
with fixed-guideway
vehicles in a freewheeled community with no resultant
speed advantage over bus operation
l
No signaling except to provide preferential

access over cross traffic: the LRV uses
signal
preemption
devices
such as
wire
contractors,
wheel
overhead
1o-1
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
The appropriate level of signal automation

varies by transit systems.
The optimum
cost/benefit
ratio
depends
on
local
circumstances
and is determined
by the
authority responsible for providing the service.
These various types of signaling have little
impact on the track designer,
but the
interfaces are important.
Design differences
in light rail systems are primarily related to
their operating environments.
10.1.2 Transit Signal System
10.2 SIGNAL EQUIPMENT

10.2.1 Switch Machines
10.2.1 .I General
Track switches can be operated by hand or by
power.
When time and convenience
are
important, automated
switch machines are
advantageous.
Switch machines may be
controlled from a central control facility or by
the vehicle operator.
Switch machines are used on main lines,
interlockings, and yards.
Switch machines
can operate a switch, derail, or wheel stop.
The type of switch machine selected is
dependent
on
operating
parameters,
clearances, and the type of track installationtimber or concrete switch ties or direct fixation
track.
Design
The system designer is obliged to consider

the signaling technology available to provide
the desired system operating performance at
the least total cost. Within the scope of light
rail transit applications,
a well-established
catalogue of proven technology is available.
Transit signal system design must consider
not only what technology is available, but also
the most rational combination of equipment for
a particular application.
Signal systems are
customized
or specified
by each transit
system to provide safe operation at an
enhanced speed. The location of signal block
boundaries
is
based
on
headway
requirements and other considerations such
as locations
of station stops, highway
crossings, and special interlocking operating
requirements.

Switch machines in ballasted track rest on
headblock switch ties and interface with
turnouts through operating and switch rods.
This interface is often complicated, particularly
in direct fixation (DF) or embedded track,
where blockouts in the concrete must be
provided for proper clearance. The following
elements associated with track and structure
design should be considered when designing
turnout switch machines:
l
Size of turnout or crossover
l
Number of head ties
l
Size, height, width, and length of head tie
l
Type of number one rod-vertical
or
horizontal
l
Thickness of number one rod
l
Type of basket on number one rod
l
Distance
from centerline
of switch
machine to gauge line of the nearest rail
l
Types of tie plate for number one and two
ties
Selection and spacing of track circuits for ac

and dc propulsion systems are influenced by
many factors. These include: the degree of
defective insulated rail joint detection or
broken rail protection required, the likelihood
of stray current, the frequency of interfering
sources of power (propulsion
and cab
signaling), and the inherent advantages of
various types of track circuits.
1 o-2
Transit
Tie or mounting spacing between switch

machine rods
Type of derail or wheel stop
Location of mounting of switch machine to
ties or surface
insulation of trackwork switch, basket, and
tie plate
Distance to throw of the switch machine
Location of extension
plate mounting
holes and interface plate
Lubrication of switch plate and track
layout
10.2.1.3.1
Work
switch machines are usually installed adjacent

to the normally closed point of the switch.
70.2.7.3.2
Nectro-pneumatic
Electra-pneumatic switch machines require a

reliable source of compressed air. While this
is economical for heavy rail transit, which
features short block lengths and frequent
interlockings, the economics on light rail lines
usually make air power switches too costly.
10.2.1.3.3
10.2.1.3
Signal
Hand-Operated
Hand-operated switch machines are typically

used where facing-point
lock protection is
required to help safeguard the movement of
high-speed main line traffic over a switch.
These switch machines contain a locking bar
that, with the switch in the normal position,
enters a notch in the lock rod.
This
arrangement locks the switch points in their
normal position to provide facing-point lock
protection.
Types of Switch Machines

Electric
Electric switch machines are common for light

rail operations
because
of the ready
availability of electric power throughout the
system. Electric switch machines are rugged,
reliable units designed for any installation
where electric power is available.
Electric
switch machines may be used in main line,
interlocking,
and
yard service.
For
installations in which extra vertical clearance
is needed for a third-rail shoe, a low-profile
electric switch machine can be used. Electric
switch machines are available in a variety of
operating speeds and motor voltages.
10.2.1.3.4
Yard
Yard electric switch machines are simple and

compact machines designed for transit yard
application.
For installation in tight spaces,
the low-profile yard electric switch is available
with external switch indicator lights. Unlike
many main line switch machines, some yard
electric switch machines can handle trailing
moves at maximum yard speeds up to 32.2
kilometers per hour (20 miles per hour). The
yard switch machine can be used in either
horizontal or vertical No. 1 rod switch layouts.
If point detection is required, an additional
circuit controller can be installed. Built to fit
practically any yard switch, this machine can
be adjusted for throw, from 114 millimeters
(4.5 inches) up to a full 140 millimeters (5.5
inches).
Switch machines are usually specified to meet

the requirements of AAR Load Curve 14511,
providing ample thrust to operate the heaviest
of switches.
Electric switch machines are
normally provided with one throw rod, one
lock rod and one point detector rod connected
to the rails. They are also available with two
lock rods and two detector rods. The track
designer and signal designer must coordinate
to ensure the specifications provide these
critical elements. Gauge plate extensions can
be supplied that attach the switch machine to
the track switch to aid in holding the
adjustments of the switch machine.
Electric
1 o-3
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
flow around the insulated joints while inhibiting

the flow of signal current between adjacent
track circuits. Audio frequency track circuits
are separated from each other by using a
different frequency in each circuit; as such
they do not normally require insulated joints to
isolate the track circuits. Insulated joints are
used with audio frequency track circuits when
a true definition is needed, such as at signal
locations.
The stagger between insulated
joints should be 610 millimeters (2 feet) or
less for transit signaling to reduce the amount
of cable needed as well as the unbalance in
the current in the rails associated
with
impedance bonds.
Electra-pneumatic
switch machines are also
and a
available
for yard application,
compressed
air plant at the yard or
maintenance
facility
may
make
them
economical.
10.2.1.3.5
Embedded
(S&ace)
Embedded
(surface) switch machines are
designed to throw all tongue and mate,
double-tongue,
or flexible switches with a
maximum switch throw of 114 millimeters (4.5
inches).
The embedded switch machine is
installed between the rails (preferred) or on
the outside of the switch tongue on a paved
street.
Embedded switch machines can be
powered from available 600 to 750 Vdc or
from an ac source through a transformer and
bridge rectifier unit. The switch tongue can be
trailed without damage to the embedded
switch machine and can be thrown manually
in an emergency.
10.2.2.2
10.2.2.1
Impedance
Requirements
The following elements associated with track

and structure design should be considered
when designing impedance bonds:
l
Tie spacing for signal equipment
l
Location of tie or direct fixation mounting
holes for signal equipment
l
Location
of impedance
bond, either
between or outside the rails
l
Location of guard and restraining rails
l
Location and spacing of insulated joints
l
Space for cables and conduit to pass
beneath the rail
l
Conduit and cable location for signal
equipment
Drainage of switches and switch machines is

critical. The embedded switch machine track
box should be drained to a nearby storm pipe,
because an undrained box collects a mixture
of sand, water, salt, etc., that increases wear
on moving parts and prevents their proper
lubrication.
Normally a copper bond wire is
installed between the box and rail to complete
the circuit. This can be omitted if the power
source is a rectifier. Where circuit controllers
are used, either one or two conduits are
required to accommodate
the cables.
A
cleanout box is installed to provide access to
connecting rod adjusting nuts if they extend
beyond the switch.
10.2.2
Trackwork
10.2.2.3
10.2.3.3.1
Types of Impedance
Audio
Bonds
Frequency
Audio
frequency
impedance
bonds are
designed to terminate each end of audio
frequency track circuits in transit installations.
Bonds
The impedance bonds provide:

0 Low resistance for equalizing propulsion
current in the rails
l
Means of cross bonding between tracks
0 Connection for negative return
General
Impedance
bonds are necessary
when
insulated track joints are used to electrically
isolate track circuits from each other. The
impedance bonds permit propulsion current to
IO-4
Transit
Means of coupling the track circuit

transmitter and receiver to the rails
Means of coupling cab signal energy to
the rails
Means of inhibiting the transmission of
other frequencies along the rail
10.2.3.3.2
Power Frequency
Power frequency bonds are designed for use

in ac or dc propulsion systems that use
insulated joints to isolate track circuit signaling
current from signaling currents of adjacent
circuits, but permit propulsion current to flow
around the joints to or from adjacent track
circuits. AC impedance bonds are usually
rated for 300 amps per rail and dc impedance
bonds are usually rated for between 1,000
and 2,500 amps per rail. Typically, power
frequency impedance bonds are installed in
pairs at insulated joint locations and mounted
between the rails across two adjacent ties.
Signal
Work
Attaching the loop or transponder to the

rail
Tie spacing and mounting method for loop
or transponder
Cable and conduit location for signal
equipment
Block out area for loop or transponder and
junction box
10.2.3.3
10.2.3.3.1
Types of Loops and Transponders

Speed Command
Speed command loops are used to provide a

means for coupling cab signal energy to the
rails. Typically, speed command inductive
loops are installed with or without rubber
hoses within the turnout diverging track. They
may be attached to the tie or concrete, or
clipped to the rail. The rubber hose with wire
inside is installed near the inside of the rail at
interlockings and turnout switches.
These
loops provide isolation from the track circuits.
10.2.3 Loops and Transponders

10.2.3.3.2
Train Location
Train location loops are designed to provide

more precise definition of a trains location
and two-way train/wayside communication.
A
wire loop installed between the rails and on
ties links the train to the rails. The horizontal
loop of the wire is directly mounted or placed
in a heavy polyvinyl chloride (PVC), epoxy, or
fiberglass (FRE) conduit that may also be
encased in pavement.
10.2.3.1 General
Loops and transponders are used to transmit
information to the train independent of track
circuits. They may be found in all types of
trackwork and can be used for intermittent
transmission or continuous control systems.
In determining the type or location of loops or
transponders to be used for a light rail transit
system, consideration should be given to the
operation
plan, type of track
circuits,
propulsion system, and train control system
that is installed.
10.2.3.3.3
Traffic Interface
Loops or transponders can be used to preempt traffic signals or provide phasing

command
and release of traffic control
devices.

when designing loops or transponders:
l
Location of loop or transponder inside or
outside the rail
10.2.3.3.4
Continuous
Train Control
Loop
Typically
loops
between
stations
are
transposed at regular intervals. This provides
a signal to the on-board equipment that can
1 o-5
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
10.2.4.3
Types of Wheel Detectors/Axle

Counters
The wheel detector/axle counter unit consists
of a detector head or mechanical detector
arm, mounting hardware, logic board, and
interconnecting cabling. Wheel detectors and
axle counters are mounted with clamps that
attach to the base of the rail or are bolted
directly to the web. The wheel detectors/axle
counters are activated when a vehicle passes.
The magnetic wheel detector/axle counter is
independent of the wheel load and subjected
to almost no wear, since there is no
mechanical interaction between the detector
and vehicle wheels.
be used to recalibrate an on-board odometer.

In station areas, short loops may be provided
for accurate station stopping purposes.
10.2.3.3.5 Transponders
Transponders are designed to transfer data to
wayside
equipment.
the
vehicle
or
Transponders or antennae may be mounted
overhead, on the wayside, or embedded
between the rails.
10.2.4 Wheel Detectors/Axle
Counters
10.2.4.1 General
Wheel detectors and axle counters are used
to detect trains without relying on a track
circuit. Since they do not require insulated
joints, they cause less interference
with
traction return current than detection devices
that depend on electrical signals in the rails.
When used without track circuits or cab
signaling within the rails, they eliminate the
need for insulating switch rods. However,
they are unable to detect broken rails. In
selecting the type and model of wheel
detector/axle counter, consideration should be
given to the operation and mounting method
used.
10.2.5 Train Stops

10.2.5.1 General
Train stops trip the trains braking mechanism
if a restrictive cab signal aspect or signal is
ignored.
They can be inductive units or
electrically-driven
mechanical
units.
In
designing train stops, consideration should be
given to the location of vehicle equipment,
type of trackbed, operation (directional or bidirectional),
relationship to wayside signal
layouts, and location of the train stop
elements.
Train stops are used in exclusive
ROWS and are not conducive to streetrunning applications.

detectors/axle
when
designing
wheel
counters:
l
Type and size of rail
l
Mounting hole size
l
Conduit and cable location
l
Rail grinding
l
Maintenance
. Block
out
requirements
or
box
requirement
10.252
Trackwork Requirements
when designing train stops:
l
Type of track-ballasted,
direct fixation, or
dual block
l
Tie spacing
l
Type of tie-timber
or concrete
l
Location of train stop
l
l
Relationship to signals, insulated joints,
and impedance bonds
1O-6
Transit
10.253
10.2.5.3.1
Types Of Train Stops
Work
protects vehicles by ensuring that the switch

points are closed.
Inductive
Inductive train stops are designed with a

magnetic system that interacts with carborne
vehicle control equipment.
Both the vehicle
magnet and the track magnet need to be
strategically mounted on the vehicle and track,
respectively.
10.2.5.3.2
Signal

when
designing
wheel
switch
circuit
controller/electric locks:
Type of track bed-ballasted,
direct
fixation, or dual block
Type of tie-timber or concrete
Length of tie
Left or right hand layout
Type of hand-operated switch machine or
derail
Number and location of connection lugs
on derail
Location of conduit and cable
Electric
The key component of the electric train stop is

the driving arm, which is pulled to the clear
position 12 millimeters (0.5 inches) below the
top of the running rail by the electric motor
and returned to its tripping position by a
spring.
Electric train stops are usually
mounted on plates midway between two rails.
10.2.6 Switch
Lock
Circuit Controller/Electric
10.2.6.3
10.2.6.1 General
A switch circuit controller is a mechanism that
provides an open or closed circuit indication
for a two-position track appliance, such as a
switch point. A mechanical linkage to the
crank arm of the controller actuates its
normal/reverse contacts.
The switch circuit
break-before-make
controller
provides
contacts that allow separate adjustments at
each end of the stroke. Commonly used to
detect switch positions, the switch circuit
controller can be used to detect positions of
derails, bridge locks, slide detectors, and
tunnel doors. They can shunt track circuits as
well as control relay circuits. Electric switch
locks prevent unauthorized operation of switch
stands, hand-throw switch machines, derails,
and other devices.
In determining the rods
and type of switch circuit controller/electric
locks, consideration
should be given to
operation, type of switch or derail, mounting,
and clearances.
The switch circuit also
10.2.6.3.1
Types of Switch Circuit

Controller/Electric
Lock
Switch Circuit
Controller
A switch circuit controller is a ruggedly

constructed unit commonly used with switches
to detect the position of switch point rails. The
switch circuit controller has a low clearance
profile and is mounted on a single tie.
10.2.6.3.2
Electric Lock
An electric switch lock operates by a means of

a plunger that is lowered into a hole in the lock
rod connected to switch points, derails, or
other devices. Some electric switch locks are
designed for low-profile application to locking
levers located between the rails at the middle
of
hand-operated
crossovers,
where
clearance is limited to 280 millimeters (11
inches). Another electric switch lock secures
the hand-throw lever on a switch stand or
switch machine in the normal position.
1 o-7
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
is typically used in subway installations where

space is limited, while a 162-millimeter (6.4inch) signal is used for outdoor service.
Transit signals are supplied with brackets for
mounting on subway walls, ceilings, or poles.
10.2.7 Signals
70.2.7.1 General
Wayside track signals are usually light fixtures
mounted on poles or at ground level (dwarf
signals) next to switches.
One installation
even uses airport runway lights mounted
between the rails. Several variations of colorlight signals with various indications
are
currently in use on light rail systems.
In
determining the type and configuration
of
wayside signals to be used, consideration
should be given to operation, clearances,
signal layout, track layout, right-of-way, and
insulated joint locations.
Signals are normally installed on the train

operators side of the tracks with adequate
horizontal/vehicle
clearance from gauge of
rail. Where insulated joints are used, the
signal is typically located between the two
insulated joints in double-rail territory.
The
signal can be moved ahead of the insulated
joints to a distance no greater than the
overhang of the vehicle.

when designing signal mast installations:
l
Insulated joint locations
l
Right-of-way clearances
l
l
Vehicle clearances
l
Stopping distances
10.2.8 Bootleg
Risers/Junction
Boxes
10.2.8.1 General
Bootleg risers/junction boxes provide a central
termination point for signal cables. Bootleg
risers/junction
boxes come in a variety of
sizes, with or without pedestals, and are
constructed of cast iron or steel. Based on
the application of the bootleg risers/junction
boxes, the location can be in the center of
tracks, outside or inside the gauge side of the
running rail, outside the end of tie, outside the
toe of ballast, or next to the switch machine or
other signal appliance.
In selecting the type
and size of bootleg risers/junction
boxes,
consideration should be given to the type of
trackbed,
cable, signal equipment,
and
mounting method used.
10.2.7.3 Types of Signals

Long-range color-light signals consist of one
or more light units with a 213-millimeter (8.4inch) outer lens for high signals and a 162millimeter (6.4-inch) lens for dwarf (low)
signals. These high and dwarf signals have
lenses for both tangent and curved tracks.
The dwarf signals are designed for direct
mounting on a ground-level pad such as a
concrete foundation.
The main line high
signals have backgrounds, hoods, pipe posts,
ladders,
pole
mounting
brackets,
and
foundations.

When designing bootleg risers/junction boxes,
the following elements associated with track
and structure design should be considered:
l
0 Type of trackbed-ballast,
direct fixation,
or dual block
l
Tie spacing
l
Maintenance
Transit color-light signals are compact units

designed for lines where clearances are very
limited. A 127-millimeter @-inch) lens signal
1 O-8
Transit
10.2.8.3
Types of Bootleg
Boxes
Risers/Junction
l
l
l
10.2X3.1 Junction Boxes

Pedestal-mounted junction boxes are typically
used in ballasted track at switch machines,
circuit
controllers,
track
circuit
switch
locations, etc. as a central termination point
for underground cables. A variety of adapter
plates allow the junction box to be used with
air hose adapters and connectors.
l
l
Sitmal
Work
Type of rail brace with notch, if required

Junction box(es) location(s)
Length of switch point
Number of switch rods
of trackbed-ballasted,
direct
Type
10.2.9.3
Types of Switch/Train
Stop Snow
Melters
There are several snow melter systems
commonly used in the transit industry. The
most popular system features tubular resistor
electric snow melters that can be installed on
either the field side or gauge side and either at
the underside of the rail head or at the base of
the rail. For gauge side installation, holes are
drilled in the neutral axis of the rail using a
clearance drill for heater support clips with lomillimeter (0.4-inch) bolts.
For field side
installation, snap-on clamps are used (no
drilling is necessary).
Tubular electric snow
melters mounted on the field side and base of
the rail require the special trackwork rail brace
to be notched for passage of the snow melter.
70.2.8.3.2 Bootleg Risers

Bootleg risers are designed as a termination
point between the underground cable and the
track wire to the rail or signal device. They
are available with a bottom outlet, as well as
side and bottom cable outlets.
A typical
bootleg riser installation would locate the riser
box in the center of the track with the top
slightly below the top of ties.
10.2.9 Switch and Train Stop

Heaters/Snow
Melters
10.2.9.1 General
Switch and train stop heating systems are
designed to keep rail switches, switch rods
and tongues, and train stop arms free of ice
and snow in a predictable and reliable fashion.
In designing the heating system, consideration
should be given to the type of power available,
type of trackwork, type of track bed, operation,
type of train stop, type of switch machine, and
mounting method used.
The rail web heater can also be used to

prevent switches from freezing. The rail web
heater is a low-density panel that spans the
rail web. It consumes 20 to 40 percent less
power than a tubular heater installation
Rail
web heaters are interconnected
to provide
more heat to the point and snapped into place
using rugged clips and a special clip tool. No
braces need to be loosened or grooved to
allow installation, which provides for easy
removal
in the spring
prior to track
maintenance or repair.

When designing switch heaters and snow
melters, the following elements associated
with track and structure design should be
considered:
0 Size of turnout or crossover
l
Type of switch point -curved or straight
l
Maintenance
Power is supplied to electric snow melters

from the overhead catenary through a snow
melter control cabinet or case.
Switch rod heaters are used to melt snow and
ice away from switch rods. These switch rod
1o-9
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook

When designing highway crossing warning
systems, the following elements associated
considered:
l
Location of insulated joints (if required)
l
Location of crossing slabs
l
Minimum ballast resistance
l
Tie spacing
l
Right-of-way
clearance
to
highway
crossing equipment
l
l
Insulation of running rails from each other
if a track circuit is used for the warning
system
heaters are installed in the bottom of the crib

where the switch rods are located.
They
consist of a steel channel or panel with tubular
electric heaters or a series of heating
The tubular electric
elements attached.
heater can be mounted on a swing bracket
that clamps to the base of the rail on the field
side and is adjustable for all sizes of rails.
Train stop mechanisms can be furnished with
hairpin-shaped heaters or heating panels.
Other types of snow melting systems include:
oil, natural gas, or an electric high-pressure
heating unit that forces hot air throughout the
switch area via ducts and nozzles.
An
alternate snow blower arrangement
uses
ambient non-heated air to blow snow clear of
the switch point areas.
10.2.10
Highway Crossing
Systems
10.2.10.3
Types of Highway Crossing

Warning System
A typical highway crossing may consist of
flashing light units, gate mechanisms with
arms up to 12 meters (40 feet) long, poles,
foundations,
cantilever assemblies,
cables,
case or signal houses, junction boxes, and
track circuits with island circuits.
Warning
10.2.10.1 General
Highway crossing warning systems provide
indications to motorists that a light rail vehicle
is approaching the crossing.
In determining
the type and configuration of the highway
crossing warning system consideration should
be given to LRV operations, type of track
circuit, roadway layout and posted speeds,
traffic signal(s) location, right-of-way,
and
The challenge
of fail-safe
clearances.
crossing protection is to protect the LRV and
highway traffic without closing the crossing
gates for extended periods of time.
The
federal Manual of Uniform Traffic Control
to include
Devices
is being updated
recommendations
for light rail vehicle
operations.
10.2.11
Signal and Power Bonding
10.2.11 .I General
Signal and power bonding is used to establish
electrical continuity and conductive capacity
for traction power return and signal track
circuits. It prevents the accumulation of static
charges that could produce electromagnetic
interference or constitute a shock hazard to
track maintenance personnel. It also provides
a homogeneous and stable ground plane, as
well as a fault current return path.
Power bonding is typically installed at all noninsulated rail joints, frogs, restraining rails,
guard rails, and special trackwork locations.
Power bonding of the restraining rails requires
special attention to avoiding run around paths
that can falsely energize the track circuit.
Crossing
gate
installations
should
be
interconnected with the traffic signals within
60 meters (200 feet) of the highway grade
crossing.
IO-10
Transit
There are basically

two types of rail
connections
used in the transit industry:
mechanical
and exothermic
welding.
In
determining the type and the amount of signal
and power bonding, consideration should be
given to type of track circuits, capacity of the
traction power equipment, type of rail, vehicle
wheels, and the amount of broken rail
detected.
10.2.11.2
Trackwork
Work
types of bonds of the same length and

cable stranding.
Resistance will not
change throughout the life of the bond.
There is no corrosion
between
an
exothermic
weld bond and the rail.
Intermittent
signal failures due to the
varying resistance of a corroded rail joint
will be eliminated.
Bond
losses
caused
by dragging
equipment, reballasting, and snowplows
are reduced.
Requirements
The following interface elements associated

considered when designing signal and power
bonding:
Type and size of rail
Spaces for bonding to be installed
Space for signal and power bond passing
beneath the rail
Type of track bed-ballasted,
direct
Location of rail joints, insulated or noninsulated
Location of guard and restraining rail
Signal cable connection to rail in special
trackwork
10.2.11.3
Sicmal
Vehicular traffic will not loosen a properly

installed exothermic weld bond.
Rail head signal bonds that are applied
within 125 millimeters (5 inches) of the
end of rail (per AAR Part 8.1.20. E.2.c)
provide better detection of broken rail than
plug bonds that are applied outside of the
splice bars.
Rail web bonds from 14 to 250 square
millimeters (0.2 to 0.4 square inches)
provide a convenient means of connecting
all cable outside the confines of the splice
bar, including special trackwork. Located
at the neutral axis, the connection is less
susceptible to vibration fatigue and is kept
clear
of dragging
equipment
and
maintenance machinery.
Types of Signal and Power

Bonding
Impedance bond leads are factory made to

system specifications and impedance bond
type for ease of installation, eliminating a
typically cumbersome field application.
One
method of connecting cables to rails is via
plug bonds. This method involves drilling a
hole in the rail and hammering the plug into
the hole. Exothermic welding, on the other
hand, generates molten copper to create a
solid bond between the cable and rail or
between cables. Advantages of exothermic
welding vs. plug bonds for connecting signal
and power bonding include:
l
The installation resistance of a length of
exothermic weld bond is less than other
IO-11
The exothermic weld process provides an

efficient field method for any electrical
connection from signal and power to
ground.
The exothermic weld normally outlives the
conductor itself.
Advantages of plug bonds vs. exothermic
welding for connecting signal and power
bonding include:
l
The rail connector clamp can connect
cables
from 250 to 1000 square
millimeters (0.4 to 1.6 square inches) to
the running rails.
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
10.3.3 Types of External

Installations
Mechanical
connectors
such as plug
bonds provide a rail connection without
the risk of overheating the rail steel.
10.3.3.1 Cable Trough

A cable trough system is a surface trench that
protects and provides continuous accessibility
to the signal cables. When installed within the
track gauge between two ties, care must be
taken in track tamping. Signal cables can exit
and enter the cable trough system either from
the bottom or sides.
Rail connection can be easily relocated or

temporarily removed without grinding the
rail or chopping the connection.
Splice bar to rail web bonds may be used
to detect a break in the splice bar itself.
Where signal bonds cannot be installed
from the field side due to tight areas, such
as frogs and switches, a multi-purpose
bond can be used by drilling through the
rail web.
10.3 EXTERNAL
The typical cable trough installation requires a

trench of minimum width to provide free
access to both sides of the trough while
maintaining 200 millimeters (8 inches) of
ballast and sub-ballast below the trough. The
maximum particle size should not exceed 19
millimeters (0.75 inches). Fill material should
not be placed on frozen ground and should be
tamped. The cable trough should be placed
so that the uppermost part is 25 millimeters (1
inch) higher than the surrounding ground or
ballast surface.
WIRE AND CABLE
10.3.1 General
Various types of cable and methods of
installation are required for transit signal
systems. Main cables are those cables that
run between
housings
or that contain
conductors for more than one system function.
Local distribution cables are those cables
running between a housing and an individual
unit of equipment.
In selecting the method of
installation
of external wire and cable,
consideration
should be given to cost,
maintenance, and type of right-of-way.
IO.32
Trackwork
Wire and Cable
The cable trough should be capable

supporting an H-20 load at any point.
of
10.3.3.2 Duct Bank

The underground
duct system should be
completely
encased
in concrete
with a
minimum clearance of 50 millimeters
(2
inches) between conduits and the outside
edge and a minimum cover of 300 millimeters
(12 inches) for non-metallic conduits and 150
millimeters (6 inches) for rigid metal conduits.
If a non-metallic conduit is not encased in
concrete, allow 460 millimeters (18 inches) of
separation for signal cables carrying 0 to 600
volts. For cables carrying over 600 volts, nonshielded cables should be installed in rigid
metal conduits with a minimum cover of 150
millimeters (6 inches) . For cables carrying
over 600 volts in rigid non-metallic conduits,
the conduit should be encased in no less than
Requirement
When determining the location of external wire

and cable the following should be considered:
l
l
Maintenance of trackwork
l
Drainage
l
Locations
of pull boxes, handholes,
manholes, duct banks, etc.
l
Compaction of soil and subballast
l
Location of cable trough
l
Visual impact
10-12
Transit
75 millimeters (3 inches) of concrete, or have

450 millimeters (18 inches) of cover if not
encased in concrete. Cables are connected
to the duct bank systems using handholes,
pull boxes, and manholes for proper pulling
points or cable routing. A minimum cover of
760 millimeters (30 inches) is recommended
for protection (per AAR Part 10.4.40.D.2)
when signal cables pass under tracks, ballast,
or a roadway.
One of the common problems in constructing
light rail systems is the protection of duct
banks while the track is being installed. It is
important that the responsibility for the care of
duct bank risers be assigned in the contract
documents.
10.3.3.3
Conduit
Encased or direct burlal conduit should be

installed as outlined above or as required by
the National Electric Code, Article 300-5 and
1110-4(b).
10.3.3.4
Direct Burial
Signal cable and wire should be buried to a

uniform depth where practicable, but not less
than 760 millimeters
(30 inches) below
finished grade. Where signal cable and wire
is installed within 3 meters (10 feet) of the
centerline of any track, the top of the cable
should be a minimum of 760 millimeters (30
inches) below the sub-ballast grade.
Signal cables and wires should be laid loosely
in the trench on a sand bed a minimum of 100
millimeters (4 inches) thick and covered with a
minimum of 100 millimeters (4 inches) of sand
before
backfilling.
Backfill should be
compacted to not less than 95% of the
maximum
dry density of the respective
materials as determined
by AASHTO Test
Designation T-99 or to the original density of
compaction of the area, whichever is greater.
IO-13
Signal
Work
Where direct burial signal wires cross the

tracks, it is beneficial to install the wiring prior
to the tracks. This improves the integrity of
the track structure, but complicates signal
installation.
Signal cables can be plowed in at a depth of
760 millimeters
(30 inches)
and 300
millimeters (12 inches) beyond the toe of subballast. Avoiding the track ballast and subballast is important to maintain the structural
integrity of the track.
10.4 SIGNAL INTERFACE

10.4.1 Signal-Trackwork
Interface
Signaling and trackwork

interface
include:
Location of insulation joints
issues
Location and mounting requirements for

impedance
bonds, train stops, track
transformers, junction boxes, and bootleg
risers
Physical connection of impedance
track cables and track circuit wiring
bond
Location and mounting layout of track

switch operating
mechanisms,
switch
machine surface and subsurface areas
(ballast, direct fixation, and embedded)
Cable and conduit requirements
interconnection
of signal apparatus
track
for
at
Location and installation of train stops,

inductive
loops, transponders,
wheel
detectors, and axle counters
Interface
system
pick-up
with the traffic signal
Location of block outs for wayside signal

equipment
Electromagnetic interference/ electromagnetic compatibility (EMVEMC)
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
Track alignments with cab speeds
10.4.2
Grounding
Yard signaling
Grade crossing warning systems
Wayside equipment
Corrosion control
Tie spacing for signal control equipment,

impedance
bonds, train stops, and
switches
The following signal equipment is typically

impedance
installed at station locations:
bonds, inductive loops, bootleg risers, junction
boxes, and transponders.
If the station is
located near an interlocking
or highway
crossing, there should be sufficient room from
the end of platform to the signal equipment
(impedance bonds and signals) and insulated
joints if required.
Tie size and length

switches and derails
Signal cable connection

trackwork
housings and cases
requirements
for
Suitable
air gap
between
antenna/transponder
and rails
Physical connection of switch machines to

special trackwork
Loop or transponder mounting on track for

train-to-wayside communication
Location of insulated joints
Spaces for cables and conduit

beneath the rail
Location of guard and restraining rail
Horizontal clearance between

wayside signals and equipment
track and
Vertical clearance
signal equipment
track
Space and drainage for switch machine in

direct fixation or embedded track
Provision for installation of snow melters
Location
embedded
Location of cross bonding

return cables
between
of switch
track
Location of speed limits
Ballast resistance
interface
10.4.3 Signal-Turnout/Interlocking
Interface
to rail at special
Signal-Station
vehicle
passing
indicators
and
The following signal equipment is typically

located at turnouts and interlockings:
switch
machines; impedance bonds; inductive loops
including speed command loops; train stops;
bootleg
risers;
junction
boxes;
switch
controllers; electric locks; transponders; wire
and cables; signal and power bonding;
cases/signal equipment houses; signals; and
snow melter systems. The design of the track
circuit and fouling protection
used will
determine the location of insulated joints in the
Typically
in transit
special
trackwork.
applications,
the insulated joint should be
located approximately 7 to 7.6 meters (23 to
25 feet) ahead of the switch points to allow for
the use of track. The size of the turnouts and
crossovers determines the speed at which the
train can operate. This speed should be one
of the available cab speeds. The insulted joint
for the turnout must be located with a
minimum of clearance taking into account the
longest overhang of any equipment that may
operate on the track.
for
10.5 CORROSION
and negative
CONTROL
Leakage of stray currents into

and earth can be a significant
cables running from the rails
connected to the impedance
IO-14
the ballast bed

problem if the
are electrically
bond housing
Transit
case and the case is in contact with the earth.

This can occur if the cases are mounted on
reinforced concrete where the mounting bolts
contact the re-bar, if the bottom of the case is
resting on concrete, or if dirt and debris
accumulate between the bottom of the case
and the concrete. An accumulation of ballast,
dirt, or other debris around the locations
where the cases are installed along the rightof-way can also provide a path for current
leakage. This type of installation can result in
a continuous maintenance
problem if an
effectively high rail-to-earth resistance is to be
achieved.
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Signal
Center insulation of the front rod

Front rod to switch point
No. 1 vertical or horizontal switch rod
center insulation
Throw rod insulated from No. 1 switch rod
Point detector piece insulated from switch
point
Lock rod insulated from front rod
Other vertical rods as required per layout
Switch
machine
insulated
from the
running rails
10.6.3 insulated
Joint Test
Insulated joint tests measure the resistance

between two ends of the rail separated by
insulating material. An insulated joint checker
requires the traction power system to be
disconnected.
Any reading under 30 ohms
should be evaluated. Measurements for a set
of insulated joints should be within 30 percent
of each other or they should be rechecked.
Insulated rail joint tests for ac track circuits
can be performed using a volt-ohmmeter.
Some impedance bonds are located outside

the tracks on timber ties to eliminate points of
possible contact with earth. The center taps
of the impedance bonds should be insulated
from the mounting case.
Yard tracks should be isolated from the main
line tracks to reduce corrosion. For additional
information on corrosion control, refer to
Chapter 8.
10.6.4
10.6 SIGNAL TESTS
10.6.1 Switch Machine Wiring and
Adjustment Tests
impedance
Test
Bonding
Resistance
Impedance bonding resistance tests ensure

that a proper connection has been made
using a low-resistance ohmmeter.
Switch machine wiring and adjustment tests

verify the wiring and adjustment of the switch
machine. They should preferably be carried
out, in conjunction with the track installer, to
confirm throw rod capability, ensure point
closure, and ensure proper nesting of the
switch point rail to stock rail.
Negative return bonding tests

resistance of each mechanical
power bond using a low-resistance
10.6.2
10.7 SUMMARY
Switch Machine
Appurtenance
Work
10.6.5 Negative
Test
Return Bonding
Test
verify the
or welded
ohmmeter.
Communication-based
signaling systems are
replacing traditional track circuits.
They
eliminate the need for impedance bonds,
signal bonding, and bootleg risers and greatly
Switch machine appurtenance tests verify the

integrity of switch machine layout by taking
resistance measurements across the following
assemblies:
10-15
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
reduce the number of signal wires and cables.

Transit system designers are challenged to
find the correct level of transit signaling for
each segment of a light rail transit line. The
different needs for signals are indicated by the
wide variety of right-of-way
types and
operating conditions, coupled with the broad
catalogue of proven, available transit signal
equipment. This should encourage designers
to seek the technical solution that will both
respond to conditions and minimize total
costs.
Track designers need to coordinate closely

with signal designers to determine the types of
signal equipment that will be installed on the
trackway.
Once the equipment is identified,
the interfaces with the track must be defined
so a coordinated system can be constructed.
Construction phasing is an important part of
this coordination.
IO-16
Chapter
I l-Transit
Traction
Power
Table of Contents
11-I
11.1 GENERAL
II-1
11.1.1 Interface
11.2 SUBSTATION
11.3 WAYSIDE
II-I
LOCATIONS
11-2
DISTRIBUTION
11.4 CATENARY
ALTERNATIVES
11-3
11.5 CATENARY
DESIGN
11-4
11.51 Introduction
11.52 Conceptual Stage
11.53 Application of the Catenary System to the Track Layout
11.5.3.1 Track Centers
11.5.3.2 Horizontal Curves
11.5.3.3 Vertical Curves
11.5.3.4 lnterlockings
11.5.3.5 Track Adjacent to Stations
11.6 TRACTION
POWER RETURN SYSTEM
11.6.1 Territory with Two-Rail Track Circuits for Signaling

1 l.6.2 Territory with Single-Rail Track Circuits for Signaling
11.6.3 Territory Without Signaling Track Circuits
11.7 CORROSION
11.8 MAINTENANCE
CONTROL
FACILITY
II-4
11-4
11-4
11-5
11-5
11-5
11-5
11-6
11-6
11-6
11-6
11-6
II-6
MEASURES
YARD AND SHOP BUILDING
1 l-i
11-7
CHAPTER
1 I-TRANSIT
TRACTION
Traction power positive supply

including substation locations
11.1 GENERAL
Light rail systems, by definition, use electrical

power from overhead wires to provide traction
power to the light rail vehicles. Light rail
systems use the rails, in conjunction with
negative cables, as the return conductor to the
negative terminal of the rectifiers. Therefore,
the electrical properties of the rails and tracks
require special consideration.
Traction power
the rails
this substation
11.2 SUBSTATION
return through
LOCATIONS
The design of the track structure interface with

the traction power system must consider the
cable and conduit access that will pass under
the track at substation locations to provide
power to the catenary pole.
Cables and
conduits for the return current to the
substation will also pass under the track.
The location of traction power substations is
developed
using a computerized
train
performance program that simulates proposed
along
an
accurate
peak
operations
geometrical and geographical depiction of the
planned route. Therefore, in the early stages
of any light rail transit project, track and
traction power designers must interface to
integrate the traction power system into the
overall system design.
to the
Wayside distribution system (catenary or

contact wire) providing adequate voltage
levels throughout the alignment
Return system cables connecting
running rails to the substation
negative
Corrosion control measures to mitigate

the effects of stray direct currents passing
through adjacent conduits, pipes and
cables
The traction power system consists of the:

l
Traction power substation
Cables connecting
distribution system
system,
Wayside
catenary distribution
positive
system, providing power to the vehicles
Theoretically, the traction current flows along

the overhead contact system to the train from
the substation and back to the substation
through the running rails. To obtain good
conductivity for the track as a whole, a rail
system must have a low resistance not only
for reasons of economy but also for safety.
This requires a low voltage drop in the rails.
POWER
the
Corrosion
control
drainage
system
directing stray return current back to the
appropriate substation
The final selection of substation sites is an

iterative process with repeated simulations to
confirm the capability of the traction power
system to sustain peak-hour operations. The
sequence of events to develop substation
sites is as follows:
l
The traction power designer, using the
simulation program, selects theoretically
ideal positions along the route, taking into
11 .I .I Interface
There are four elements in the traction power

system that affect, or are affected
by,
trackwork
design,
construction,
and
maintenance:
11-l
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
account the distribution systems voltage

drop and the lowest voltage acceptable to
the
vehicle
without
degrading
performance.
The
normal,
single
contingency
criteria
for determining
traction power requirements is to test the
system with alternating substations out of
operation.
Placement of a substation at, or near, a

crossover is often desired to sectionalize
electrical supply for each travel direction and
to optimize the operational flexibility of the
crossover.
The designer discusses these proposed

locations with the local power utility to
determine any impacts of the proposed
power demand on their network.
The
utility then evaluates the availability of
power circuits and the potential impacts
on its other customers.
The trackwork element of the traction power

supply system design should allow adequate
space for the conduit to interface with the
wayside distribution system.
The electrical
sectionalization
of the distribution system
usually takes place at the substation for all
travel directions. Adequate space is required
for conduit systems, including terminations,
conduit risers, and manholes.
Wayside
distribution systems can be subdivided into
the overhead
contact wire system and
supplemental cabling systems.
11.3 WAYSIDE DISTRIBUTION
An agreement is eventually reached, if

necessary, by moving the substation to
enable it to be supplied from lightly loaded
power circuits or by building spur cables
to the substation location.
It is also
important, for reliability, that the power
company avoid supplying two adjacent
substations from the same circuit.
In systems utilizing overhead contact wire,

wayside
connections
are made to the
overhead
catenary
system
(OCS) from
trackside
at substation
supply
points,
switching
locations,
station
crossovers,
junctions, and wayside feed points.
The
connection
of the power supply to the
overhead suspension network impacts track
design since the cables are routed in
underground conduits and must include riser
transitions
at the appropriate
height for
termination.
The riser transitions can be
located at the sides of the OCS poles or within
the poles, either of which requires an
appreciable foundation at trackside. Once the
power supply is terminated to the overhead
wire, the power supply distribution usually
remains on aerial structures and does not
interface further with the track.
After an agreement is reached with the power

company, the traction power designer can
finalize the substation
design.
Newer
substations for light rail systems are generally
modular, factory assembled units, that are
delivered to site complete. They are erected
on a prepared base that incorporates
an
extensive
grounding
network
below the
concrete.
Substations are located along the track route
as close to the wayside as possible within the
constraints of available real estate. However,
the final placement
must also consider
interfaces and underground cable duct routes
for both the power distribution supply and
return systems;
access
roadways;
and
security requirements.
The impact of this
construction on trackwork design is limited to
the interfaces with the supply and return
power distribution system.
However, in visually sensitive areas where the

community insists that only a single trolley
wire be utilized, additional cabling is required
to
support
electrical
loading.
This
11-2
Transit
supplementary
distribution
is
routed
underground and conduit risers are required
quite frequently (every third or fourth pole) to
make the transition from the underground
system to the overhead wire. This situation
requires enlarged pole foundations, possibly
stanchion foundations, for switches at each
riser. At the power supply feed points to the
overhead wire, it is common practice to utilize
poles situated on the field side of the tracks
instead of center poles to minimize impacts to
the track design. This also limits the amount
of underground conduit between and beneath
the tracks.
Power
system height at the support is reduced to

approximately 457 millimeters (1.5 feet). This
style is applied in aesthetically sensitive areas
where a lower profile and simple single-wire
cross spans are more desirable
The tradeoff, however, is that the span length between
supporting poles is reduced to approximately
46 meters (150 feet).
The traditional
single-wire
systems
are
considered by some to be much less obtrusive
in the urban environment.
It provides power
through a single trolley wire that must be
supported at least every 30 meters (100 feet).
The span length is limited by the sag of the
unsupported
trolley wire which, in high
temperatures,
could encroach on vehicular
traffic as well as the ability of the supporting
hardware to carry the weight of a whole span
of wire.
It also requires the wire to be
supported electrically by parallel feeders that
must be bonded frequently to the trolley wire
to achieve adequate conductivity.
These
feeders may run underground
through a
series of ducts and manholes, which are
expensive, or hung from poles, which are
unsightly. This system, therefore, has twice
the number of poles than the equivalent
simple catenary system.
The style of catenary and most of the basic

design parameters can be developed prior to
finalization
of the track
configuration.
However the application of a catenary design
to suit the track layout can only proceed after
the track alignment has been finalized.
11.4 CATENARY
Traction
ALTERNATIVES
There are generally three styles of catenafy

used on LRT systems: simple catenary, lowprofile catenaty and the traditional single
trolley wire system.
Simple and low-profile
catenary systems may have fixed terminations
that cause the conductors to rise and fall as
the temperature
varies or balanced weight
tensioned to maintain constant tension and
height under all weather conditions.
As mentioned
above, modern, lightweight
catenary
systems
adopt
balance-weight
tensioning to limit the load applied, therefore
affecting the size of the poles, foundations,
and hardware.
However,
this type of
construction
requires the system to be
separated into l-mile segments with weights
applied at each end to maintain constant
tension in the conductors.
Therefore, the
design requires overlaps to ensure smooth
passage of the vehicle pantograph from one
segment to the other.
A simple catenary system uses a messenger

wire to support the horizontal trolley wire.
Both conductors are used to transmit power
The
from the substation to the vehicle.
system height at the support-the
distance
between the contact or trolley wire and the
messenger-is
approximately
1.2 meters (4
feet). This allows spans between poles of up
to 73 meters (240 feet).
The low-profile catenary system is similar to
the simple catenary design, except that the
11-3
Light
Rail
Track
11.5 CATENARY
Design
Handbook
The catenary system is the most conspicuous

and possibly the most visually undesirable
element of a light rail transit system. TCRP
Report No. 7 discusses visual pollution, to
the extent that it cited a case where a
community refused to introduce an electricpowered
transit system because
of the
expected visual impact. Unfortunately wires
are needed to distribute power to vehicles.
Therefore, poles are needed to support and
register them over the pantograph under all
adverse conditions.
However, if the track
designer considers the catenary constraints,
then the size and number of poles can be
minimized.
DESIGN
11 S.1 introduction
Generally,
technical
papers
have
not
addressed rail/catenary interface issues, since
transit catenary design has developed from
operating railway systems where the track is
already in place and the catenary must allow
for the existing .layout. In many new transit
systems,
the track alignment
has been
selected prior to the catenary designers
involvement in the project. The results of this
lack of coordination are chronicled in TCRP
Report No. 7 Reducing fhe Visual Impact of
Overhead Contact Systems.
Involving the
designer
in
the
track
catenary
design/alignment
selection process can be
cost-effective and reduce the visual impact of
the catenary system.
The catenary distribution system interfaces

with trackwork in the following manner:
On single-wire
catenary systems, the
track designer
must coordinate
the
longitudinal and transverse track feeder
conduits
that support
the electrical
distribution system.
Horizontal
and vertical
track alignment,
passenger
station
locations,
trackwork,
substation sites, etc., must all be determined
before the preliminary catenary design can
proceed. However, the locations and design
of these components can greatly influence the
catenary design and its visual impact on the
environment.
11.5.2 Conceptual
The track designer must also provide

adequate clearance between tracks for
foundations,
poles, catenaty
balance
weights, and down guys.
Track design and maintenance standards
must be coordinated so that the vehicle
pantograph remains beneath the catenary
wires under all adverse operating and
climatic conditions.
Stage
The catenary engineers task is to develop a

conductor configuration to supply power to the
vehicle from a position over the track that will
allow good current collection
under all
adverse weather, operating, and maintenance
conditions.
The engineer must develop the
most economic
solution, considering
the
aesthetic constraints set by the community.
This task involves resolving the number of
wires in the air with the number of poles,
supports, and foundations
to achieve an
efficient
and environmentally
acceptable
design.
11.5.3 Application
of the Catenary
to the Track Layout
System
Since the wire runs in straight lines between

support points and the track is curved, pole
layout is a compromise between the number
of poles and the requirement that the contact
wire remain on the pantograph
under all
adverse climatic, operating, and maintenance
conditions.
Even though the pantograph is
usually 1,980 millimeters (6.5 feet) wide, only
11-4
Transit
460 to 610 millimeters (18 to 24 inches) are

available for the wire to sweep the pantograph
head after allowing for track alignment, gauge,
cross-level tolerances, vehicle displacement,
roll, pantograph sway, and pole deflection. At
the midpoint between supports, this distance
is reduced to zero due to deflection of the
wires under maximum wind and ice loading
conditions.
1153.3
Vertical
Curves
Vertical curves become critical when in the

vicinity
of
reduced-clearance
overhead
bridges.
The rise and fall of the catenary
messenger is governed by the formula:
WL2
2T
where: W is the weight of the catenary
L is the distance between supports
T is the tension in the messenger
Therefore, if there is a change in vertical
grade near an overhead bridge, as is required
when track undercutting is programmed
to
achieve increased vertical clearance, then the
catenary designer should consult with the
track designer to ensure that the wire can
negotiate the vertical curvature.
Track Centers
The clearance between poles and the track is

defined by the systems dynamic clearance
envelope, which comprises three elements:
the vehicle dynamic envelope, construction
and maintenance
tolerances, and running
clearances,
Therefore, if center poles with
supporting
cantilevers
on each side are
desired to reduce cost and visual intrusion,
then the distance between tracks should allow
for this envelope from each track plus at least
305 millimeters
(12 inches)
to permit
installation of standard-sized poles.
1153.2
Power
components,
avoidance of superfluous and
extremely tight curves is most desirable in
catenary system design.
The allocation of pole positions must take into

account the limitations of the catenary style,
the profile of the contact wire necessary to
accommodate
overhead bridges and grade
crossings, track curvature, crossovers and
turnouts, underground utilities, etc. Therefore,
if the track is designed with the catenary
constraints
in mind, economies
can be
achieved.
The following paragraphs identify
parameters that should be considered by the
track designer.
11.5.3.1
Traction
Horizontal
11.5.3.4
lnterlockings
The catenary/pantograph
interface
is a
dynamic
system.
There
are certain
constraints applied to ensure that the system
operates efficiently
under all speed and
weather conditions.
The pole positions at
turnouts are tied to the point of intersection
(PI). It is desirable for the distance between
the inner crossover of a universal interlocking
to be approximately the same length as the
crossover (PI to PI).
Scissor crossovers can be wired; however
they present many difficulties for the catenaty
designer. Usually, for maintenance purposes,
the inbound
and outbound
tracks are
separated into different electrical sections.
With tracks crossing within 2 meters (6 feet),
very limited space is available to insert an
insulator
and avoid the horns of the
pantograph . This is particularly difficult in
higher speed sections where constant tension
Curves
If the track is tangent, there will be no trackrelated constraints,

other than right-of-way
boundaries, when placing the poles along
track However, as the wire negotiates curves
using a series of chords, the number of
supports is very dependent on the curvature.
Therefore, as with other light rail system
11-5
Light
Rail
Track
Design
Handbook
catenary design has been adopted, since the

movement
of wires along track due to
temperature
change
can aggravate
the
problem.
Also since wires serving two
separate crossovers in a universal interlocking
is much less costly, scissor interlockings
should
be avoided
when
catenary
is
employed.
return currents in the rails. At these locations,

conduit stub-ups will be installed beneath the
tracks connecting the two track directions.
Impedance bonds are also required by the
signal system at the end of each signal block.
11.5.3.5
Although most track circuits for signaling in

new light rail systems are of the two-rail type,
single-rail signaling track circuits do exist in
older systems.
In such systems, one rail is
used for traction return and the other is
designated
the signal rail.
This type of
installation requires insulated joints separating
the track circuits.
With single-rail track
circuits, the impedance bonds described in
Section 11.6.1 are not required.
The cross
bonding provided between the traction return
rails of separate tracks uses cables without
impedance bonds for this purpose. Except for
these differences,
the same cabling is
required between the traction return rail and
substations as described in Section 11.6.1.
Track Adjacent
11.6.2
to Stations
Architecturally the introduction of the catenary

system is obtrusive.
Architectural
design
tends to dictate the position of poles to suit the
architectural theme within the station area.
This impacts catenary pole positions adjacent
to station area requiring close coordination
between the architect, track and catenary
designers to ensure adequate space for poles
at stations and approaches.
I I .6 TRACTION
SYSTEM
11.6.1 Territory
Circuits
POWER RETURN
with Two-Rail
for Signaling
Track
11.6.3
The traction power return system directly

impacts track design.
The traction power
return system uses the running rails as an
electrical conductor to return the traction
power to the substation from which it was
generated.
Traction power supplied to the
train enters the running rail through the
vehicle wheels and is extracted from the rail
through impedance bonds in cables installed
at each substation.
Therefore,
track
designers must allow for impedance bond
installation, along with the associated conduit
stub-ups and negative cabling, at each
substation.
Where there is more than one
track, in addition to the impedance bonds at
each substation, impedance cross bonds are
also located along the track every 610 meters
(2,000 feet) or less to equalize the traction
Territory
Circuits
Territory
Circuits
with Single-Rail
for Signaling
Without
Signaling
Track
Track
The requirements for traction return in this

type of territory are similar to the those
described in Section 11.6.1, except that no
impedance
bonds are required.
Instead,
cables are installed directly to the rails for
both traction return at the substation and for
cross bonding between the rails.
11.7 CORROSION
CONTROL
MEASURES
In designing dc traction power systems, it is

common and desirable to isolate and insulate
the running rails from ground as much as
possible.
These issues are discussed at
length in Chapters 4 and 8.
11-6
Transit
Power
Since the traction power return current can be

more easily controlled in a yard by increasing
the quantity and locations of return cables, the
insulation system provided for the yard tracks
may be somewhat less effective than the main
line track system described herein.
Yard
tracks are most commonly placed directly on
the ties without insulation.
The grounding
systems for the yard and main line must be
electrically separate.
This is achieved by
inserting insulated rail joints in the yard entry
track
at each
arrival
and
departure
connection.
The traction power return system interfaces

with trackwork in the following manner:
The siting of impedance bond positions
and cross bonds to adjacent tracks must
be coordinated.
The selection of rail insulation for tie
plates and fastening clips suitable for
track and traction power requirements
must be agreed to by all parties.
Continuity bonds on jointed rails must also
be coordinated.
The track designer
and construction
inspector should ensure that ballast is
clear of rails so that return currents do not
stray into the ground and cause corrosion
problems
in underground
pipes and
cables.
Yard track designers must still consider and

account for the many conduit risers necessary
to feed the numerous electrical sections in the
overhead contact system. Extra coordination
in yard areas should take place due to the
additional users and electrical connections in
the complex track layout.
Special consideration must be taken when

selecting the insulation of the rails at
grade crossing
and embedded
track
sections to ensure minimum leakage to
ground.
11.8 MAINTENANCE
FACILITY
SHOP BUILDING
Traction
In the maintenance facility building, the rails

are installed directly into the shop floor system
and are rigorously electrically grounded for
safety of the personnel working on the
vehicles. The return system is designed for
current to return directly to the substation
through cables to ensure there is no potential
difference
between the vehicle and the
ground.
Space for the conduit and cables
connecting each track section to the building
substation must be coordinated.
The shop
floor tracks also contain insulated joints that
electrically separate these totally grounded
tracks from the yard track system.
YARD AND
The traction power return system in the

maintenance facility yard and shop area is
usually different from that adopted for the
main line. The yard and shop area is usually
designed and constructed along with the light
rail system; therefore, adverse effects of stray
currents can be allowed for in its design.
11-7
The Transportation Research Board is a unit of the National Research Council, which serves the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. The Board's mission is to
promote innovation and progress in transportation by stimulating and conducting research, facilitating the dissemination of information, and encouraging the implementation of research results.
The Board's varied activities annually draw on approximately 4,000 engineers, scientists, and other
transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of
whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state transportation departments, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department
of Transportation, and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of
science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter
granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in
its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering
also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and
research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president
of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the
National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr.
Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to
associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purpose of furthering
knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies
determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to
the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both the Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr.
William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
Abbreviations used without definitions in TRB publications:

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AASHTO
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ASTM
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FHWA
FRA
FTA
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ITE
NCHRP
NCTRP
NHTSA
SAE
TCRP
TRB
U.S.DOT
American Association of State Highway Officials

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
American Society of Civil Engineers
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
American Society for Testing and Materials
Federal Aviation Administration
Federal Highway Administration
Federal Railroad Administration
Federal Transit Administration
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Institute of Transportation Engineers
National Cooperative Highway Research Program
National Cooperative Transit Research and Development Program
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
Society of Automotive Engineers
Transit Cooperative Research Program
United States Department of Transportation

TCRP Report 57 - Track Design Handbook For Light Rail Transit

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T

The Federal Transit Administration

Track Design Handbook for

Transportation Research Board

Project D-6 Fy95

Transportation Research Board

and can be ordered through the Internet at

Printed in the United Statesof America

Rail Transit Vehicles

Rail Transit Track Geometry

9 Noise and Vibration

ROBERT J. REILLY, Director, Cooperative Research Programs

Light Rail Transit Track Geometry: Lee Roy Padget

1.3 What is Light Rail, and Why Is it So Heavy?

and to the designers

The purpose of this Handbook is to provide to

Much research has been conducted

The user of the Handbook assumes all risks

There are many different practical designs for

Handbook as they are introduced.

and sometimes even sharper,

This Handbook furnishes the reader with

Vehicles are not constructed to structural

While purists may quibble with some of the

1.3 WHAT IS LIGHT RAIL, AND WHY IS IT

Tracks for light rail transit are generally

While light rail may need to share right-of-way

The tracks and vehicles must be capable

Chapter 2 elaborates on vehicle design and

3 details issues related to light rail

4 elaborates on the three basic types

longitudinal restraint, and probable conditions

10 highlights signal issues for light

The various track components

and details are

6 provides guidelines for the design

Most light rail transit systems require bridges

11 presents elements pertinent to

An overall table of contents lists the eleven

2 Light Rail Transit

2.2.1 Vehicle Design

2.3 1 Static Outline

2.4.1 Horizontal Curvature-Minimum

STATIC AND DYNAMIC

GAUGE/ WHEEL PROFILE

2.6.1 Track Gauge

2.8.1 Clearance and Tolerances

Wheel Profiles (U.S.)

Light Rail Vehicle

In spite of this lack of design consistency,

It is essential that the track designer and the

relatively small, usually only a single urban

Unidirectional versus bi-directional

Current designs of high-capacity

These characteristics must be considered in

Nearly all of the traditional streetcar systems

Table 2.1 Contemporary

Light Rail Vehicle

More recently, European manufacturers have

The clearance diagram must consider both

2.3 VEHICLE CLEARANCE

2.3.1 Static Outline