Practical-1

Aim: Introduction to MATLAB

MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a numerical computing environment and fourthgeneration programming language. Developed by Math Works, MATLAB allows matrix
manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of
user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages, including C, C+
+, Java, and FORTRAN. Since its conception it has developed many advanced features
for the manipulation of vectors and matrices. It can solve large systems of equations
efficiently and is therefore useful for solving differential equations and optimization
problems. It also provides excellent means for data visualization and has symbolic
capabilities.
MATLAB users come from various backgrounds of engineering, science, and economics.
It is widely used in academic and research institutions as well as industrial enterprises.

Key Features
High-level language for numerical computation, visualization, and application
development
Interactive environment for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving
Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering,
optimization, numerical integration, and solving ordinary differential equations
Built-in graphics for visualizing data and tools for creating custom plots
Development tools for improving code quality and maintainability and maximizing
performance
Tools for building applications with custom graphical interfaces
Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and
languages such as C, Java, .NET, and Microsoft Excel
MATLAB involves typing MATLAB code into the Command Window or executing text
files containing MATLAB code and functions. Various parts of MATLAB Screen are:
Command Window
You can enter individual statements in the Command Window.
For example, create a variable named a by typing this statement at the command line:
a=1
MATLAB immediately adds variable a to the workspace and displays the result in the
Command Window.
a= 1
When you do not specify an output variable, MATLAB uses the variable ans, short for
answer, to store the results of your calculation.
sin(a)
1

ans =0.8415
The value of ans changes with every command that returns an output value that is not
assigned to a variable. You also can enter more than one statement on the same line by
separating statements. To distinguish between commands, end each one with a comma or
semicolon. Commands that end with a comma display their results, while commands that
end with a semicolon do not. To recall previous lines in the Command Window, press the
up- and down-arrow keys, ( and ). Press the arrow keys either at an empty command
line or after you type the first few characters of a command.
Current Directory
The current directory or folder is a reference location that MATLAB uses to find files.
This folder is sometimes referred to as the current directory, current working folder, or
present working directory. It is not the same location as the operating system current
folder.
You can always load files and execute scripts and functions that are in the current folder,
even if that folder is not currently on the MATLAB search path. Functions in the current
folder take precedence over functions with the same file name that reside anywhere on
the search path.

Workspace
The MATLAB workspace consists of the variables you create and store in memory
during a MATLAB session. You add variables to the workspace by using functions,
running MATLAB code, and loading saved workspaces.
For example, if you run these statements:
A = magic(4);
R = randn(3,4,5);
The workspace includes two variables, A and R.
The Workspace browser displays the variables in your workspace. From the Workspace
browser, you can select variables to view, modify, or plot.
Command History
The Command History window displays a log of statements you ran in the current and
previous MATLAB sessions. The time and date for each session appear at the top of the
statements listed for that session, in your operating system's short date format. All entries
remain until you delete them, or until the command history file exceeds its maximum size
of 200,000 bytes. When the file exceeds its maximum size, MATLAB automatically
deletes the oldest entries.
MATLAB saves statements that run in the Command Window to the to the history file.
By default, MATLAB automatically saves the command history file after each command.
The history file does not include every action taken in MATLAB.

For example, modifications of values in the Variable Editor are not included in the
Command History.
How to create M file function in MATLAB?
Syntax
edit
edit file
Description
edit opens a new file called Untitled in the Editor. MATLAB does not
automatically save Untitled.
edit file opens the specified file in the Editor. If file does not already exist,
MATLAB asks if you want to create it. File can include a partial path, complete
path, relative path, or no path. You must have write permission to the path to
create file, otherwise, MATLAB ignores the argument.

Practical-2
Aim: List and Describe various basic commands used in MATLAB
a.) Sum
Syntax: B=sum(A)
Returns sums along different dimensions of an array. If A is floating point, that is
double or single, B is accumulated natively, that is in the same class as A, and B has
the same class as A. If A is not floating point, B is accumulated in double and B has
class double.
b.) Diagonal
Syntax: diag(A)
Where A is a vector with n components, returns an n-by-n diagonal matrix having A
as its main diagonal. If A is a square symbolic matrix, diag(A) returns the main
diagonal of A.
c.) Sum of diagonal elements
Syntax: sum (diag (A))
t adds both the diagonal elements and displays the result. Here, diag(A) is a vector.
So, sum(diag(A)) is the sum of vectors. It gives you a simple answer which is scalar.
d.) Flip the elements of matrix from left to right
Syntax: B = fliplr(A)
Returns A with columns flipped in the left-right direction, that is, about a vertical
axis.
e.) Indexing
The element in row i and column j of A is denoted by A(i,j). For example, A(4,2) is
the number in the fourth row and second column. For the magic square, A(4,2) is 15.
So to compute the sum of the elements in the fourth column of A, type
A(1,4) + A(2,4) + A(3,4) + A(4,4)
This subscript produces
ans =34

f.) Matrix Indexing

Indexing into a matrix is a means of selecting a subset of elements from the matrix.
The simple case of a vector and a single subscript. The vector is
v = [16 5 9 4 2 11 7 14];
The
subscript
can
be
a
single
value.
v(3)
%
Extract
the
third
element
ans = 9
The colon notation in MATLAB provides an easy way to extract a range of elements
from
v.
v(3:7) % Extract the third through the seventh elements
ans = 9 4 2 11 7
g.) Create an array of all zeroes
Syntax: B = zeros(m,n)
It returns an m-by-n matrix of zeros.
h.) Create an array of all ones
Syntax: B=ones(m,n)
It returns an m-by-n matrix of ones.
i.) To calculate mean and standard deviation
Syntax: s=std(X)
Where X is a vector and s returns the standard deviation.
Syntax: M = mean(A)
Returns the mean values of the elements along different dimensions of an array.
j.) Transpose of a matrix
Syntax: b = a'
It computes the non-conjugate transpose of matrix a and returns the result in b.
k.) To find prime numbers
Syntax: p = primes(n)
It returns a row vector containing all the prime numbers less than or equal to n. The
data type of p is the same as that of n.
l.) Two-dimensional line plot
Syntax: plot(Y)
It plots the columns of Y versus the index of each value when Y is a real number. For
complex Y, plot(Y) is equivalent toplot(real(Y),imag(Y)).
m.)Factorial of input
Syntax: factorial(n)
It returns the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n, where n is a
nonnegative integer value. If n is an array, then f contains the factorial of each value
of n. The data type and size of f is the same as that of n.
5

n.) Prime factor

Syntax: f=factor(n)
It returns a row vector containing the prime factors of n. Vector f is of the same data
type as n.
o.) if loop
Syntax: if expression
statements
elseif expression
statements
else
statements
end
if expression, statements, end evaluates an expression, and executes a group of statements
when the expression is true.
elseif and else are optional, and execute statements only when previous expressions in
the if block are false. An if block can include multiple elseif statements.
An evaluated expression is true when the result is nonempty and contains all nonzero
elements (logical or real numeric). Otherwise, the expression is false.
p.) while loop
Syntax: while expression
statements
end
while expression, statements,
end repeatedly
executes
one
or
MATLAB program statements in a loop as long as an expression remains true.

more

An evaluated expression is true when the result is nonempty and contains all nonzero
elements (logical or real numeric). Otherwise, the expression is false.

Practical-3
Aim: Write a program to implement if condition.
Syntax:
if(condition)
body;
end
Example 1:
x=5;
if(x>3)
disp ( [ x is bigger ] );
end
Output:
x is bigger

Example 2:
x=2;
y=3;
z=x+y;
if(z = =5)
disp ( [ result matches ] );
end
Output:
result matches

Practical-4
Aim: Write a program to implement if-else condition.
Syntax:
if(condition)
body;
else
body;
end
Example 1:
grade=50;
if(grade>75)
disp( [ congratulation your grade %d is passing \n grade ] );
else
disp( [ fail ] );
end
Output:
fail
Example 2:
x=2;
y=3;
z=x+y;
if(z = =5)
disp ( [ result matches ] );
else
disp ( [ result not matches ] );
end
Output:
result matches
8

Practical-5
Aim: Write a program to implement nested if-else condition.
Syntax:
if(condition)
body;
elseif(condition)
body;
else
body;
end
Example 1:
a=5;
b=10;
c=25;
if(a>b&&a>c)
disp( [ a is greater ] );
elseif(b>a&&b>c)
disp( [ b is greater ] );
else
disp( [ c is greater ] );
end
Output:
c is greater
9

Practical-6
AIM: Write programs to implement for loop.
FOR LOOP: Syntax of for loop:
for index=values
<program statements>
.
End
Example1:
x=1:5;
for k=1:5
c(k)=x(k)^2;
d(k)=x(k)^3;
e(k)=x(k)^4;
end

OUTPUT:
1

c=
4

16

25

27

64

125

81

256

625

d=
1

8
e=

16

Example2:
for ii=1:3
for jj=1:3
product=ii*jj;
fprintf(%d*%d=%d\n,ii,jj,product);
10

end
end
OUTPUT: 1*1=1
1*2=2
1*3=3
2*1=2
2*2=4
2*3=6
3*1=3
3*2=6
3*3=9

11

Practical-7
Aim: Write a program to implement while loop.
Syntax:While condition do
Body
End_while
While(condition, body)
Example 1 :
Value=input(please enter a number between (1-10));
Please enter a number between (1-10) 7
While (value<1 || value>10)
Fprintf(incorrect input, please try again..!! /n )
Disp(value)
Output :
7
Example 2 :
X=3;
While(x<10)
Disp([The value of x is,num2str(x)]);
X=x+1;
End
Output :
The value of x is 3
The value of x is 4
The value of x is 5
The value of x is 6
The value of x is 7
The value of x is 8
The value of x is 9
12

Practical-8
AIM: write a program to implement switch case.
Syntax: switch switch_expression
Case case_expression
Statements
Case case_expression
Statements
.
Otherwise
Statements
End
Example 1:
Mynumber=input(enter the number:);
Enter the number:1
Switch mynumber
Case 1
Disp(negative number);
Case 2
Disp(positive number);
Case 3
Disp(other values);
Otherwise
Disp(invalid input);
End
Output:
Negative number

13

Example 2:
Num=input(enter the no of day:);
Enter the no of day:6
Switch num
Case 1
Disp(the day is Monday);
Case 2
Disp(the day is Tuesday);
Case 3
Disp(the day is Wednesday);
Case 4
Disp(the day is Thursday);
Case 5
Disp(the day is Friday);
Case 6
Disp(the day is Saturday);
Case 7
Disp(the day is Sunday);
Otherwise
Disp(invalid input);
end
Output:
The day is saturday

14

Practical-9
AIM: Write a program to implement function.
Syntax:
function [y1,...,yN] = myfun(x1,...,xM)
Example:
Function y=myfunction(x)
X=1:3;
Y=x.^2+x
Output:
2

12

Example:
Function y = average(x)
x=1:4
if ~isvector(x)
error('Input must be a vector')
end
y = sum(x)/length(x);
end
Output:
X= 1

Ans =
3.5000

15

Practical-10
Aim: Write a program to demonstrate Array operations.
Arithmetic Operations:In MATLAB arithmetic operation will be preceeded by .. It shows
array operation. All the operations will be performed element by element.
Operations:
+

element by element addition

element by element subtraction

element by element mulatiplication

element by element division

element by element exponential

Examples:
a=[1 2 3;4 5 6];
b=[1 2 3;1 3 6];
c=a.*b
c=
1

15

36

c=a+b
c=
2

12

c=a-b
c=
0

16

 c=a./b
c=
1.0000

1.0000

1.0000

4.0000

1.6667

1.0000

c=a.\b
c=
1.0000

1.0000

1.0000

0.2500

0.6000

1.0

c=a.^b
c=
1

27

125

46656

17

Practical-11
AIM: Introduction with relational operators.
Relational Operations: There are six relational operators:>,<,>=,<=,==,^=.
Examples:
x=[1 3 5;6 7 8];
y=[2 6 7;6 8 9];
z=(x>y)
z=
0

z=(x<y)
z=
1

z=(x<=y)
z=
1

z=(x>=y)
z=
0

z=(x~=y)
z=
1

1
18

Practical-12
AIM: Introduction with logical operators.

Logical Operations: There are four logical operations:

&

logical AND

logical OR

logical NOT

XOR exclusive OR
Examples:
x=[0 5;0 8];
y=[0 3;9 8];
z=(x>y)&(x>4)
z=
0

This operation will return 1 if both conditions are true.

z=x&y
z=
0

z=x|y
z=
1

19

 z=~(x|y)
z=
2
1

0
0

z=xor(x,y)
z=
1

p=[0 9;2 16];

q=sqrt(p)
q=
1

3.0000

1.4142 4.0000
q=exp(p)
q=
1.0e+006 *
0.0000

0.0081

0.0000

8.8861

20

Practical-13
AIM: Introduction Regarding Usage of Any Network Simulator.
Virtual Box is a cross-platform virtualization application. What does that mean? For one thing, it installs
on your existing Intel or AMD-based computers, whether they are running Windows, Mac, Linux or
Solaris operating systems. Secondly, it extends the capabilities of your existing computer so that it can run
multiple operating systems (inside multiple virtual machines) at the same time. So, for example, you can
run Windows and Linux on your Mac, run Windows Server 2008 on your Linux server, run Linux on your
Windows PC, and so on, all alongside your existing applications. You can install and run as many virtual
machines as you like -- the only practical limits are disk space and memory.
VirtualBox is deceptively simple yet also very powerful. It can run everywhere from small embedded
systems or desktop class machines all the way up to datacenter deployments and even Cloud
environments.
The following screenshot shows you how VirtualBox, installed on a Mac computer, is running Windows 7
in a virtual machine window:

21

Why is virtualization useful?

The techniques and features that VirtualBox provides are useful for several scenarios:
Running multiple operating systems simultaneously. VirtualBox allows you to run more
than one operating system at a time. This way, you can run software written for one operating
system on another (for example, Windows software on Linux or a Mac) without having to reboot
to use it. Since you can configure what kinds of "virtual" hardware should be presented to each
such operating system, you can install an old operating system such as DOS or OS/2 even if your
real computer's hardware is no longer supported by that operating system.
Easier software installations. Software vendors can use virtual machines to ship entire
software configurations. For example, installing a complete mail server solution on a real machine
can be a tedious task. With VirtualBox, such a complex setup (then often called an "appliance")

22

can be packed into a virtual machine. Installing and running a mail server becomes as easy as
importing such an appliance into VirtualBox.
Testing and disaster recovery . Once installed, a virtual machine and its virtual hard disks can
be considered a "container" that can be arbitrarily frozen, woken up, copied, backed up, and
transported between hosts.
On top of that, with the use of another VirtualBox feature called "snapshots", one can save a
particular state of a virtual machine and revert back to that state, if necessary. This way, one can freely
experiment with a computing environment. If something goes wrong (e.g. after installing misbehaving
software or infecting the guest with a virus), one can easily switch back to a previous snapshot and avoid
the need of frequent backups and restores.
Any number of snapshots can be created, allowing you to travel back and forward in virtual machine time.
You can delete snapshots while a VM is running to reclaim disk space.
Infrastructure consolidation. Virtualization can significantly reduce hardware and electricity
costs. Most of the time, computers today only use a fraction of their potential power and run with
low average system loads. A lot of hardware resources as well as electricity is thereby wasted. So,
instead of running many such physical computers that are only partially used, one can pack many
virtual machines onto a few powerful hosts and balance the loads between them.

Features overview

Here's a brief outline of VirtualBox's main features:

Portability. VirtualBox runs on a large number of 32-bit and 64-bit host operating systems (again,
see VirtualBox is a so-called "hosted" hypervisor (sometimes referred to as a "type 2" hypervisor).
Whereas a "bare-metal" or "type 1" hypervisor would run directly on the hardware, VirtualBox
requires an existing operating system to be installed. It can thus run alongside existing applications
on that host.
23

To a very large degree, VirtualBox is functionally identical on all of the host platforms, and the same file
and image formats are used. This allows you to run virtual machines created on one host on another host
with a different host operating system; for example, you can create a virtual machine on Windows and
then run it under Linux.
In addition, virtual machines can easily be imported and exported using the Open Virtualization Format
(OVF), an industry standard created for this purpose. You can even import OVFs that were created with a
different virtualization software.
No hardware virtualization required. For many scenarios, VirtualBox does not require the
processor features built into newer hardware like Intel VT-x or AMD-V. As opposed to many other
virtualization solutions, you can therefore use VirtualBox even on older hardware where these
features are not present. The technical details are explained in .
Guest Additions: shared folders, seamless windows, 3D virtualization . The
VirtualBox Guest Additions are software packages which can be installed inside of supported guest
systems to improve their performance and to provide additional integration and communication
with the host system. After installing the Guest Additions, a virtual machine will support automatic
adjustment of video resolutions, seamless windows, accelerated 3D graphics and more. In
particular, Guest Additions provide for "shared folders", which let you access files from the host
system from within a guest machine.
Multigeneration branched snapshots. Virtual Box can save arbitrary snapshots of the state
of the virtual machine. You can go back in time and revert the virtual machine to any such
snapshot and start an alternative VM configuration from there, effectively creating a whole
snapshot tree. For. You can create and delete snapshots while the virtual machine is running.
VM groups. Virtual Box provides a groups feature that enables the user to organize virtual
machines collectively, as well as individually. In addition to basic groups, it is also possible for any
VM to be in more than one group, and for groups to be nested in a hierarchy -- i.e. groups of
groups. In general, the operations that can be performed on groups are the same as those that can
be applied to individual VMs i.e. Start, Pause, Reset, Close (Save state, Send Shutdown,
Poweroff), Discard Saved State, Show in fileSystem, Sort.
Clean architecture; unprecedented modularity. VirtualBox has an extremely modular
design with well-defined internal programming interfaces and a clean separation of client and
24

server code. This makes it easy to control it from several interfaces at once: for example, you can
start a VM simply by clicking on a button in the VirtualBox graphical user interface and then
control that machine from the command line, or even remotely. Due to its modular architecture,
VirtualBox

can

also

expose

its

full

functionality

and

configurability

through

comprehensive software development kit (SDK), which allows for integrating every aspect of
VirtualBox with other software systems.
Remote machine display. The VirtualBox Remote Desktop Extension (VRDE) allows for highperformance remote access to any running virtual machine. This extension supports the Remote
Desktop Protocol (RDP) originally built into Microsoft Windows, with special additions for full
client USB support.
The VRDE does not rely on the RDP server that is built into Microsoft Windows; instead, it is plugged
directly into the virtualization layer. As a result, it works with guest operating systems other than Windows
(even in text mode) and does not require application support in the virtual machine either.

Starting VirtualBox

After installation, you can start VirtualBox as follows:

On a Windows host, in the standard "Programs" menu, click on the item in the "VirtualBox"
group. On Vista or Windows 7, you can also type "VirtualBox" in the search box of the
"Start" menu.

On a Mac OS X host, in the Finder, double-click on the "VirtualBox" item in the

"Applications" folder. (You may want to drag this item onto your Dock.)

On a Linux or Solaris host, depending on your desktop environment, a "VirtualBox" item

may have been placed in either the "System" or "System Tools" group of your "Applications"
menu. Alternatively, you can type VirtualBox in a terminal.

25

When you start VirtualBox for the first time, a window like the following should come up:

This window is called

the "VirtualBox

Manager". On the left,

you can see a pane

that will later list all your

virtual

Since

not

created any, the list

is empty. A row of buttons

above it allows you

to create new VMs and

work

VMs,

some. The pane on

the

you

have

once

right

you

displays

have
the

virtual machine currently

machines.

on

properties
selected,

existing
of
if

the
any.

Again, since you don't have any machines yet, the pane displays a welcome message.
To give you an idea what Virtual Box might look like later, after you have created many machines, here's
another example:

26