Engineering Measurements

Textbook
Engineering Measurements
Indrawanto
Mechanical Engineering Department
Faculty of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
ITB
2013
Indrawanto, FTMD-ITB,
Engineering Measurements, 2013
Textbook
Purpose of Measurement
The purpose of a measurement system is to present an

observer with a numerical value corresponding to the
variable being measured
General structure of measurement

system
Example of Measurement system
Measurements
Direct/Indirect comparison (rulers, balance scale,
interferometer)
Calibrated system (odometer, spring scale, pressure gage)
The elements of measurement system can be defined as

Sensing element: device which detects and responds to
measurand
Tire Pressure Gage
Bourdon Type Pressure Gage
Signal conditioning element: amplify, filter, integrate,

differentiate, convert freq. to voltage, etc.
Signal processing element
Data presentation element
Computers Readout Systems
An Example of a Measurement system
Sequential Sampling Data Acquisition
Simultaneous Sampling Data Acquisition
MUX = multiplexer (switch)

S/H = sample & hold (hold voltage while ADC reads)
ADC = analog to digital converter
Block diagram symbols

Static characteristics of
measurement system elements
Systematic characteristics
Static characteristics of
Measurements
Accuracy
Precision
Ideal straight line
Non-linearity
Sensitivity
Environmental effects
Hysteresis
Resolution
Wear and ageing
Error bands
Accuracy: difference between measured and true values

(error); typically specified by a maximum value.
error = = xmeas - xexact
Precision: difference between measured values during
repeated measurements of the same quantity.
Types of error
Accuracy &
Precision
Precision
Accuracy
(can be calibrated)
(can be averaged)
Neither
Ideal straight line
Definition of Non-Linearity
O OMAX
O OMIN = MIN
(I I MIN )
I MAX I MIN
OIDEAL = K I + a
K = ideal straight - line slope =
Ideal straight line
OMAX OMIN
I MAX I MIN
a = ideal straight - line intercept = OMIN KI MIN
N (I ) = O (I ) (KI + a ) or O (I ) = KI + a + N (I )
N
Max NL as procentage of f.s.d =
100%
OMAX OMIN
q=m
O (I ) = a0 + a1 I + a2 I 2 + L + aq I q + L + am I m = aq I q
q =0
Sensitivity
Environmental effects
Rate of change of O with respect to I
Thermocouple
sensitivity.
dO
dN
=K+
dI
dI
Sensitivity: change of an instruments output per unit
change in the measured quantity
Modifying
Interfering
O = KI + a + N (I ) + K M I M I + K I I I
Hysteresis
Example: Histerisys, Backlash in Gears
Hysteresis H (I ) = O(I )I O(I )I

Max hysteresis as proc f .s.d =
H
100%
OMAX OMIN
Resolution
Wear and Ageing
Resolution is defined as the largest change in I that

occurs without any corresponding change in O.
Measurement elements change slowly but

systematically throughout their life.
One example is the stiffness of a spring k(t)
decreasing slowly with time due to wear, i.e.
k(t) = k0 bt
Resolution and potentiometer example.
Resolution expressed as a
percentage of f.s.d.
I R
100%
I MAX I MIN
Error bands
Nonlinearity, hysteresis and resolution effects
in many sensors and transducers are small
that is difficult and not worthwhile to exactly
quantify each individual effect. In these cases
the manufacturer defines the performance of
the element in terms of error band.
Error bands (con.)
Error bands and rectangular probability density function.
Probability density function.
Generalized model of a system

element
Generalized model of a system element

(strain gauge)

(thermocouple)

(accelerometer)
Statistical characteristics
Statistical characteristics (con.)
Probability & Statistics provides a way to deal with uncertainty
Bias error: systematic errors that can

be removed by calibration
Precision error: random error that is
not directly controllable (by
definition), could be minimized by
careful design and statistical analysis
Normal probability
density function
O
O
O
O =
I +
I M + I I I
I
I M
I
Small deviation from the
mean value
Bias:
calibration
consistent human error
loading error
Precision:
disturbances
noise
variable conditions
O 2
O
2
I +
I
I M
O =
2
2
2 O 2
M +
I I
Standard deviation of output for a

single element

O = KI + a + N (I ) + K M I M I + K I I I

Statistical variations amongst a batch of similar
elements tolerance
The Gaussian probability density function
Mean value of output for a single element
p(O ) =
(O O )2
exp
2
2
2
p(R0 ) =
R0
(R0 R0 )2
exp
2
2
2 R0
= mean value of distribution
the corresponding probability density

function
O = K I + a + N (I ) + K M I M I + K I I I
Mean value of output for a batch of elements
2
2
2
2
O 2
O
O
O
O
2
2
2
I2M +
I2I +
O =
I +
I K +
a + L
K
a
I
I M
I I
Standard deviation of output for a batch of elements

Model for chromelalumel thermocouple.
Model for millivolt to current temperature transmitter.
Calibration
Calibration
Calibration
Measurement error of a system of

ideal elements
Ideal output
O = On = K1 K2 K3 Ki KnI
E = (K1K2K3Kn -1)
Example
General calculation of system
10
General calculation of system
Example
11
Model for recorder
Summary of calculation
Error band
Error Reduction Technique
12
Closed-loop
Dynamic characteristics of
measurement systems
Dynamic behavior is described by the heat balance equation:

Rate of heat inflow rate of heat outflow = rate of change
sensor heat content
13
W = U A(TF T ) watts
The quantity MC/UA has the dimensions of time

and is refered to as the time constant t
rate of increase of sensor heat content = MC

U A(TF T ) = MC
d
[T T (0 )]
dt
dT
dt
i.e.
kg J kg -10 C -1
J
=
= secs
- 2 0 -1
2
W
W m C m
MC dT
+ T = TF
UA dt
First order linear differential equation
dT
+ T = TF Linear first order diff. eq.
dt
Laplace transform
f (s ) = e st f (t ) dt
Definition of Laplace transform
Using Laplace table
[sT (s ) T (0 )]+ T (s ) = TF (s )
At initial conditions
equal zero
sT (s ) + T (s ) = TF (s )
i.e.
( s + 1)T (s ) = TF (s )
14
Transfer function
Analogous First Order Elements
Vin V = iR
d q Cd V
Charge q = CV , current i =
=
dt
dt
dV
+ V = VIN
RC
dt
i.e.
dV
+ V = VIN , E = RC
dt
FIN F =
dx
dt
Nsm 1 = damping constant
displacement x =
F
, k Nm 1 = spring stiffness
k
dF
+ F = FIN
k dt
dF
M
+ F = FIN , M =
dt
k
15
Mass-spring-damper model for elastic

sensor

1
MC
, CTh = MC
= RTh CTh ; RTh =
UA
UA
A R
A
Fluidic F = F F = RF C F ; RF = RF , C F = F
g
g
Electrical g = RC = Rg C g , C g = C
Thermal Th =
Mechanical M =
= RM C M ; RM = , CM =
resultant force = mass acceleration

F kx x& = m&x&
m&x& + x& + kx = F
1
k
F = F F (0 ), x = x x(0 )
x& = x& ,
x = &x&
m d 2 x dx
1
+
+ x = F
2
k dt
k dt
k
=
k
rad / sec
m
Undamped
natural
frequency
n =
n2
[s x (s ) sx(0 ) x& (0 )]+ 2 [sx (s ) x(0 )] + x (s ) = k1 F (s )

2
1 2 2
1
s + 1 x (s ) = F (s )
2s +
k
n
n
2 km
x (s ) 1
= G (s )
F (s ) k
Damping
ratio
1 d 2 x 2 dx
1
+
+ x = F
n2 dt 2 n dt
k
Linear second
order differential
equation
G (s ) =
n2
1
2
s +
s +1
2
Transfer function
for a second-order
element
16
Series R-L-C circuit

= +
Identification of the dynamics of an element

Step response of first order elements
f 0 (s ) = G (s ) f i (s ) =
where =
( = charge on the capacitance)
thus
2
1
+
+ =
2

(1 + s )s
Expressing in partial fractions
f 0 (s ) =
(1 + s )s (1 + s )
B
s
B=1, A=-t
f 0 (s ) =
(1 + s )s
1
1
s (s + 1 / )
Second order elements

Using Laplaces table
t
f 0 (s ) = 1 exp

G (s ) =
n2
Output signal
due to a unit
step input
0.8
0.4
Expressing in
Partial functions
0.2
1
2
s +
s +1
2
f 0 (s ) =
1
1 2 2
2s +
s + 1 s
n
n
f 0 (s ) =
As + B
C
+
1 2 2
s
2 s +
s + 1
n
n
0.6
17
f 0 (s ) =
=
(s + 2 n )
1
s s 2 + 2 n s + n2
(s + 2 n )
1
s (s + n )2 + n2 1 2
f 0 (t ) = 1 e nt cos n 1 2 t +
(s + n )
n
1
=
2
2
2
2
s (s + n ) + n 1
(s + n ) + n2 1 2
n
1
1
f 0 (s ) =
s s + n (s + n )2
f 0 (t ) = 1 e n t cosh n
(1 )
1 t +
sin n 1 2 t
(1 )
2
sinh n
1 t
f 0 (t ) = 1 e nt (1 + n t )
Sinusoidal response of first order elements

f 0 (s ) =
1
I
(1 + s ) s 2 + 2
A
Bs + c
f 0 (s ) =
+
(1 + s ) s 2 + 2
I
I
I
, B=
, C=
2 2
)
(1 + 2 2 )
(1 + 2 2 )
f 0 (s ) =
1
I
2 I
s +
+
2 2
2 2
(1 + ) (1 + s ) (1 + ) s 2 + 2
(1 +
1
I
+
2 2
) (1 + s )
(1 +
1
2 I
(1 + 2 2 ) (1 + s ) +
(1 +
2)
A=
(1 +
(1 +
+s
s2 + 2
(1 +
cos + s sin
s2 + 2
18
Bode Diagram
2)
, sin =
I
e t / +
2 2
4
11+4
244
3
f 0 (s ) =
Transient term
(1 +
2)
sin (t + )
Magnitude (dB)
(1 +
1 + 2 2
1444
424444
3
Sinusoidal term
-10
-20
-30
-40
0
Phase (deg)
cos =
-45
-90
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
n2
1
2
s +
s +1
G ( j ) =
n2
10
Magnitude (dB)
( j )
2
( j ) + 1
n
G ( j ) =
Bode Diagram
20
0
-10
1
2 2
2
1 2 4 2 2
n
n
-20
2 / n
arg G ( j ) = tan 1
2
2
1 / n
-30
-40
0
-45
Phase (deg)
G (s ) =
-90
-135
-180
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
19
Dynamic errors in measurement

systems
I (s ) = I1 (s )
K1G1(s)
Input i.e.
true signal
O2 (s )
O1 (s ) = I 2 (s )
K2G2(s)
2
I i ( s )
Oi (s )
KiGi(s)
3
O (s )
I n (s )
Transfer function for complete measurement system
KnGn(s)
4
E (t ) = O(t ) I (t )
Output i.e.
measured
signal
O (s )
= G (s ) = G1 (s )G2 (s )L Gi (s )L Gn (s )
I (s )
Complete measurement system with dynamics
Simple measurement system with

dynamics
(s ) = 20
1
1
1
1
2
s (1 + 10 s ) 1 + 10 4
1
s
1 +
200
1
A
B
Cs + D
= 20
4
(
)
+
s
s
0
.
1
s
+
10
(s + 200)2
TM (t ) = 20{u (t ) Ae 0.1t + Be 10 t Ee 200t (1 + 200t )}

4
E (t ) = TM (t ) TT (t )
= 20{ Ae 0.1t + Be 10 t Ee 200t (1 + 200t )}
4
20
Periodic Functions
I (t ) = I sin t
G ( j ) =
O(t ) = G ( jw) I sin (t + )
A function f(t) is said to be periodic it is defined for all real t and if there is some
positive number p such that
f (t + p ) = f (t )
(1 + 10 j )(1 + 10 4 j )(1 + 10 2 j + 2.5 10 5 ( j )2 )
G ( j ) =1 =
)(
{(1 + 100) 1 + 10 [ 1 2.5 10

8
5 2
0.10
For any integer n
f (t + np) = f (t )
+ 10 ]}
arg G ( j ) =1 0 tan 1 (10 ) tan 10 4 tan 1 10 2 85
for all t
If f(t) and g(t) have period p, then
h(t ) = af (t ) + bg (t )
(a,b constant)
E (t ) = 20{0.1sin(t 85) sin t}

Periodic Signals
Periodic Signals Contd
A periodic signal may have:
Integrating the series term by term over one period f(t), we obtain
f (t ) = a 0 + a1 cos 0 t + a 2 cos 2 0 t + L
+ b1 sin 0 t + b2 sin 2 0 t + L
f (t ) dt = a dt + a cos t dt + a cos 2 t dt + L
0
T0
T0
T0
n =1
n=2
f (t ) = a 0 + a n cos n 0 t + bn sin n 0 t
<t <
T0
+ b1 sin 0 t dt + b2 sin 2 0 t dt + L
This may be written as
where
T0
T0
Thus the coefficient a0 is given by
a0 =
1
T0
f (t ) dt
T0
21
Multiplying both sides by cos mw0t and integrating over a period of f(t),
we obtain
The first term integrates to zero. We multiply each term of the series
in parentheses by cos w0t and integrate term by term to obtain
f (t )cos m t dt = a cos m t dt
0
T0
T0
f (t )cos m t dt = a cos n t cos m t dt

0
+ a n cos n 0 t cos m 0 t dt
T0 n =1

+ bn sin n 0 t cos m 0 t dt
T0 n =1
n =1
T0
T0
+ bn sin n 0 t cos m 0 t dt
n =1
T0
Three possible cases occur

The resulting integrals are
0, m n
I 1 = sin m 0 t sin n 0 t dt =
T0 / 2, m = n 0
T0
0, m n
I 2 = cos m 0 t cos n 0 t dt =
T
/
2
0 , m=n0
T0
and
For n=m, the integral gives T0/2, which yields
f (t ) cos m t dt = a
0
T0
T0

2
Multiplying both sides by T0/2
am =
2
T0
f (t )cos m t dt ,
0
m0
T0
In similar manner it can be shown that
I 3 = sin m 0 t cos n 0 t dt = 0, all m, n

T0
bm =
2
T0
f (t )sin m t dt
0
T0
22
Example
Example Contd
Recalling that w0=2p/T0, we see that
A square wave signal f(t) is defined as
T0
A 0<t < 2
f (t ) =
T
A 0 < t < T0
2
and
2
T0
T0 / 2
Thus all the am coefficient are zero. The bm coefficients can be

obtained as follow
T0
2
A cos m t dt + T ( A)cos m t dt
0
bm =
0 T0 / 2
m0T0
= sin m = 0
2
sin m0T0 = sin 2m = 0
And periodically extended outside this interval. The average

value is zero, so a0=0, therefore ams are
am =
sin
(1)
T0 / 2
T0
2 A sin m 0t
sin m0t
T0 m0 0
m 0 T / 2
0
2
T0
T0 / 2
T0
2
A sin m t dt + T ( A)sin m t dt
0
0 T0 / 2
T0 / 2
T0
2 A cos m0t
cos m0t
=
+
T0
m0 0
m0 T / 2
0
Example Contd
Example Contd
Recalling that w0=2p/T0, then
bm =
2A
(1 cos m )
T0
which results because cos 2mp = 1. Finally, since cos mp=-1 for
m odd and cos mp = 1 for m even, we obtain
The Fouries series of a square wave of amplitude A with odd

symmetry is therefore
f (t ) =
4A
1
1
sin 0t + sin 30t + sin 50t + L

3
5

4A
, m odd
bm = m
0,
m even
23
Periodic Signals
n =
n=
n =1
n =1
f (t ) = a0 + an cos n1t + bn sin n1t

n =
I (t ) = In sin n1t
Fourier series for periodic

signal
n =1
n=
O(t ) = In G ( jn1 ) sin (n1t + n )
2 +T / 2
an =
f (t ) cos n1t dt
T T / 2
2 +T / 2
bn =
f (t )sin n1t dt
T T / 2
1 +T / 2
a0 =
f (t ) dt = average value of f (t ) over T
T T / 2
n =1
n =
E (t ) = In {G ( jn1 ) sin (n1t + n ) sin n1t}

n =1
Damped harmonic oscillator
Response of damped harmonic oscillator to

sawtooth excitation
Excitation
= 0
= 20
Excitation
= 0
Response
= 20
= 3 0
Response
24
Response of damped harmonic oscillator to

sawtooth excitation
TT (t ) =
Excitation
=
0
2
= 0
3 0
2
80
1
1
1
sin t + sin 3t + sin 5t + sin 7t + L

3
5
7
G ( j ) 0.100,
G (3 j ) 0.033,
G (5 j ) 0.020,
G (7 j ) 0.014
arg G ( j ) 850 , arg G (3 j ) 90 0

arg G (5 j ) 920 , arg G (7 j ) 930
Response
TM (t ) =
80
[0.100 sin (t 85 )+ 0.011sin (3t 90 )

(
)
(
)]
0
+ 0.004 sin 5t 92 0 + 0.002 sin 7t 930
Solution of differential equation using Laplace Transform
Solution of differential equation using Laplace

Transform
Partial-fraction Expansion: Distinct Real Roots
Y (s ) =
Y (s ) =
(s + 2 )(s + 4 )
s(s + 1)(s + 3)
C1 C2
C
+
+ 3
s s +1 s + 3
(s + 2 )(s + 4) = 8
(s + 1)(s + 3) s =0 3
(s + 2 )(s + 4) = 3
C2 =
s (s + 3) s = 1
2
(s + 2)(s + 4) = 1
C3 =
s (s + 1) s = 3
6
C1 =
8
3
1
y(t ) = 1(t ) e t 1(t ) e 3t 1(t )
3
2
6
Partial-fraction Expansion: Distinct Complex Roots
F (s ) =
C1 = sF (s ) s =0 = 1
1
s s + s +1
(s
C C s + C3
F (s ) = 1 + 22
s s + s +1
f (t ) = 1 e t / 2 cos
+ s + 1 + (C2 s + C3 )s = 1
s + 12 + 12
1
F (s ) =
s (s + 12 )2 + 34
3
4
1 t / 2
e sin
3
3
4
t 1(t )
25
Solution of differential equation using Laplace

Transform
Example 2
Partial-fraction Expansion: Distinct Repeated Roots
F (s ) =
C1 = (s + 1)F (s ) s = 1 =
s+3
(s + 1)(s + 2)2
F (s ) =
A pressure sensor has the

following transfer function
C1
C
C3
+ 2 +
s + 1 s + 2 (s + 2 )2
C2 =
=2
d
(s + 2)2 F (s ) = 2
ds
s = 2
C3 = ( s + 2 ) F ( s )
s+3
(s + 2)2 s =1
s = 2
s+3
=
= 1
s + 1 s = 2
G (s ) =
Input signal Pin to the sensor

can be represented as follow
Show the sensor output due
to the second harmonic of
the input signal
Pout (s )
1
=
Pin (s ) 2s + 1
Pin bar 10
-1
T second
f (t ) = 2e t 2e 2t te 2 t 1(t )
Signals
Deterministic and Random Signals
Deterministic signals: a deterministic signal is

one whose value at any future time can be
exactly predicted
Random signals: a random signal is one whose
value at any future time can not be exactly
predicted
26
Statistical Representation of Random Signals

Contd
y=
1
T0
y(t )dt
T0
y=
Mean for
continuous signal
Sampling of a random signal

T0 is sufficiently long, i.e. N is sufficiently large
The signal is stationary, i.e. long term statistical quantities do not change
with time
2 =
1
T0
Mean for
sampled signal
T0
[y(t ) y] dt
2
2 =
Standard deviation for

continuous signal
1 i=N
yi
N i =1
1 i =N
2
( yi y )
N i=1
Standard deviation for

sampled signal

Contd
Probability Density Function p(y)
For special case
The r.m.s. value is
or
y =0
yrms =
yrms =
1 T0 2
y dt
T0 0
Probability Density Function is function of signal

value y and is a measure of the probability
that the signal will have a certain range of
values
1 i=N 2
yi
T0 i =1
Sampling of a random signal

27
Probability Density Function p(y)
C j = P1 + P2 + L + Pj
The cumulative
probability
The probability
number of times sample occurs in the jth section

total number of samples
nj
= , j = 1, K, m
N
1
(n1 + n2 + L + n j )
N
1
Cm = (n1 + n2 + L + nm )
N
1
= N = 1 (since n1 + n2 + L + nm = N )
N
=
Pj =
The final value of

Cj when j=m is:
Probability for signal that lie between y and y + y is
Py, y +y = P = p( y )y
Probability for signal that lie between y1 and y2 is
P( y ) = lim C j
p( y ) =
y0
Cumulative probability
distribution function
dP
dy
Probability density
function
Py1 , y2 = p( y )d y
y2
y1
The Gaussian probability density function is:
p( y ) =
( y y )2
1
exp
2 2
2
28
Power Spectral Density

Signal power is a stationary quantity which
can be used to quantify random signals.
an =
bn =
n=
n =
n=1
n=1
y(t ) = a0 + an cos n1t + bn sin n1t
i= N
i= N
2
N
y cos(n iT ) = N y cos 2n N
2
N
y sin (n iT ) = N y sin 2n N
i =1
i =1
i= N
i= N
i =1
i =1
Fourier series coefficients for sampled signal
The Fourier series for a signal with period T0

with
1 = 2Indrawanto,
/ T0 , a0 FTMD-ITB,
= mean y
Power Spectrum
Power Spectrum Contd
wn = 12 an2 + bn2
Power due to nth harmonic
Wn = w0 + w1 + w2 + L + wn
Cumulative power
W ( ) = lim Wn
(w) =
1 0
Cumulative power function
dW
d
Power spectral density in

watts sec rad-1 or watts/Hz
29
Autocorrelation function
Autocorrelation function Contd

If y(t ) = b sin(1t + )
Ryy ( ) = b 2 lim
1
T0
= b 2 lim
1
T0
{cos cos[ (2t ) + 2 ]}dt
T0
T0
A Simple Correlator
1
T0 T
0
Ryy ( ) = lim
T0
y(t ) y(t )dt
Ryy ( ) =
Autocorrelation
function of a
continuous signal
Autocorrelation function Ryy() of the signal is the relation between Ryy

and time delay .
T0
0
T0
sin (1t + )sin[1 (t ) + ]dt

1
2
b2
1
cos 1 lim
T0 T
2
0
T0
dt
b2
1
lim
2 T0 T0
T0
cos[1 (2t ) + 2 ]dt
= b cos 1
2
Thus the autocorrelation function of a sinusoidal signal is cosine function of

the same frequency, but the phase information in the sine wave is lost
= mT , m = 0,1, 2,K
Ryy (mT ) = lim
1 i=N
yi yim
N i =1
y (t ) = b1 sin 1t + b2 sin 21t + b3 sin 31t
Ryy ( ) =
b12
b2
b3
cos + 2 cos 2 + 3 cos 31
2
2
2
A periodic signal which is the sum

The autocorrelation function
of three harmonics
30

The power spectrum can be obtained from the autocorrelation function by
Fourier analysis. Similarly the autocorrelation function can be obtained from
the power spectrum by adding the harmonics together.
Summary
In order to specify a random signal we need to
know:
For random signals, Ryy() and () are related by the Fourier transform:
Ryy ( ) = ( )cos d
or
( ) =
Ryy ( ) cos d
either probability densityfunction
meanand standarddeviation
or
To specify amplitude
behavior
either powerspectraldensity
auto correlation function

or
To specify frequency/time
behavior
For a signal with () constant up to C and zero for higher frequencies then
C
sin
A cos d = A
0
0
sin C
=A
C
R yy ( ) =
R yy (0) = lim
T0
1
T0
T0
y 2dt = ( ) d
0
2
R yy (0) = y RMS
= WTOT
The autocorrelation
coefficient at zero
time delay
31

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Textbook

The purpose of a measurement system is to present an

General structure of measurement

Example of Measurement system

The elements of measurement system can be defined as

Tire Pressure Gage

Bourdon Type Pressure Gage

Signal conditioning element: amplify, filter, integrate,

Computers Readout Systems

An Example of a Measurement system

Sequential Sampling Data Acquisition

Simultaneous Sampling Data Acquisition

MUX = multiplexer (switch)

Block diagram symbols

Accuracy: difference between measured and true values

Engineering Measurements, 2013

Ideal straight line

Ideal straight line

a = ideal straight - line intercept = OMIN KI MIN

Rate of change of O with respect to I

Example: Histerisys, Backlash in Gears

Hysteresis H (I ) = O(I )I O(I )I

Wear and Ageing

Resolution is defined as the largest change in I that

Measurement elements change slowly but

Resolution and potentiometer example.

Error bands (con.)

Error bands and rectangular probability density function.

Probability density function.

Generalized model of a system

Generalized model of a system element

Generalized model of a system element

Generalized model of a system element

Statistical characteristics (con.)

Probability & Statistics provides a way to deal with uncertainty

Bias error: systematic errors that can

Standard deviation of output for a

Statistical characteristics (con.)

Statistical characteristics (con.)

Mean value of output for a single element

= mean value of distribution

the corresponding probability density

Statistical characteristics (con.)

Statistical characteristics (con.)

Standard deviation of output for a batch of elements

Model for chromelalumel thermocouple.

Model for millivolt to current temperature transmitter.

Measurement error of a system of

General calculation of system

General calculation of system

Model for recorder

Error Reduction Technique

Error Reduction Technique

Error Reduction Technique

Dynamic behavior is described by the heat balance equation:

The quantity MC/UA has the dimensions of time

rate of increase of sensor heat content = MC

Definition of Laplace transform

Using Laplace table

Analogous First Order Elements

Analogous First Order Elements

Analogous First Order Elements

Nsm 1 = damping constant

Mass-spring-damper model for elastic