Issues in Evaluating Capacity of Rock Socket Foundations

F. H. Kulhawy
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
fhk1@cornell.edu

W. A. Prakoso
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
wprakoso@eng.ui.ac.id

Abstract: Drilled foundations often are socketed into rock to increase the capacity. However, procedures to quantify the socket side
and tip resistance vary considerably. This paper reviews methods to predict socket capacity and critically assesses them. One method
for side resistance is recommended, and several approaches are suggested to assess tip resistance, depending on the degree of geologic
data available. Statistics for the methods are given, where available, and design and construction implications are noted.

INTRODUCTION

Drilled shafts (bored piles) are a common foundation selection

for all types of structures. When the structure loads are relatively
large or where the soil is of relatively poor quality, the shafts
often are drilled through the soil to the underlying rock mass.
These shafts could be founded or seated on the rock mass
surface, or they could be drilled into the rock mass to form a rock
socket, as shown in Fig. 1. The applied butt load or stress is
supported by the socket through both tip and side resistances,
assuming for illustration that the soil is non-contributory. How
the loads are distributed between the tip and side is a function of
the loading magnitude, problem geometry, properties of the rock
mass and shaft concrete, ultimate bearing capacity of the tip, side
resistance of the socket, and butt displacement. Discussion of all
of these issues is well beyond the scope of this paper.
Herein, the basics of socket capacity are addressed. Key rock
mass property issues are discussed first. Then methods are given
to calculate the socket capacity. The side resistance can be quantified well, and various approaches are described to assess the tip
resistance. Some simple observations are made regarding displacement limits. The paper concludes with general observations
on construction and field acceptance criteria.

Fig. 1. Illustrative rock socket.

ROCK MASS ENGINEERING PROPERTIES

The capacity of foundations in rock is a function of the rock mass

strength, which often is estimated, at least partially, from the
intact rock strength, which in turn often is estimated from the
intact rock index properties. However, several key issues need to
be addressed during property evaluation, as described below. If
these testing issues are not addressed properly, then the subsequent capacity predictions are likely to be in error.
2.1 Intact Rock: Effect of Testing Parameters
Fig. 2 illustrates a very important testing issue, which is the
influence of sample diameter on the resulting uniaxial compressive strength (qu). Most standards specify a sample diameter on
the order of 50 to 54 mm. As can be seen, non-standard samples
tend to give strengths that decrease with increasing sample
diameter. Similar trends were noted with other strength measures
as well (Prakoso 2002).
Note that, in this figure and others herein, a wide variety of
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic (primarily non-foliated)
rock types are included. These data were collected from the literature but were included only if both high-quality foundation
load tests and physical property tests were conducted.
In Fig. 2, the solid line represents the regression for the entire
data population. When these data were examined by separate
rock type family, it was found that each rock type gave results
that were very similar to the entire population. For example, the
dashed line represents the results for all carbonate rock types. As
can be seen, the results are very similar.
Fig. 3 illustrates the importance of testing at the field water
content. As can be seen, the saturated qu is only about 0.79 of the
dry value. Although not shown, comparable data for the point
load index (IS) give a value of 0.84, while data for the Brazilian
tensile strength (qt-Brazilian) give a value of 0.89. Therefore, testing
samples that have been allowed to dry clearly will overestimate
the actual in-situ strength.

4000
I. Intrusive
I. Pyroclastic
S. Clastic
S. Chemical
M. Non-Foliated

1.5

1.0

0.5

I. Intrusive
I. Extrusive
I. Pyroclastic
S. Clastic
S. Chemical
M. Foliated
M. Non-Foliated

3000
Mean qu / pa

Strength Ratio, SRqu

2.0

2000

qu / pa = 143.1 exp (0.048 R)

m = 78, r2 = 0.57

1000

SRqu = [50 / Bsample] 0.25

0.0

50

100

150

200

20

Diameter, Bsample (mm)

80

Fig. 4. Relationship between qu and R for Bsample = 50 - 58 mm

(Kulhawy & Prakoso 2003; Prakoso & Kulhawy 2004b).

300

2.02000
106

I. Intrusive
I. Extrusive
S. Clastic
S. Chemical
M. Non-Foliated

I. Intrusive
I. Extrusive
I. Pyroclastic
S. Clastic
S. Chemical
M. Foliated
M. Non-Foliated

1.51500
106

200

Mean Et-50 / pa

Mean qu-saturated (MPa)

60

Mean R

Fig. 2. Effect of sample size on uniaxial compressive strength qu

(Kulhawy & Prakoso 2001).

qu-sat = 0.79 qu-dry

m = 67, r2 = 0.92
S.D. / pa = 165

100

40

1.0 1000
106

0.5500
106
Et-50 / pa = 5280 (qu / pa)0.62
m = 100, r2 = 0.57

100

200

300

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

Mean qu / pa

Mean qu-dry (MPa)

Fig. 3. Effect of water content on qu (Kulhawy & Prakoso 2001).

Fig. 5. Relationship between Et-50 and qu.

2.2 Intact Rock: Index Property and Strength Correlations

2.3 Intact Rock: Strength and Modulus Correlation

For small projects, and for general correlation studies, various

quick and simple index tests have been used to estimate the intact
rock uniaxial compressive strength (qu), including the Schmidt Lhammer rebound hardness (R), Shore scleroscope hardness (Sh),
and point load index (IS). Many correlations among these
parameters have been proposed. Fig. 4 shows our relationship
between qu and R, as normalized by the atmospheric stress, pa.
Although not shown, the Sh and IS correlations are as follows:
qu (MPa) = 7.57 exp (0.064 Sh) [m = 30, r2 = 0.77] and qu = 23.3
IS [m = 43, r2 = 0.77]. Other useful correlations are summarized
by Prakoso (2002). It should be noted that these correlations are
not deterministic; there is always a transformation uncertainty
associated with them. Using any of these correlations implies that
the COV of qu will be larger than that of R, Sh, or IS.

The intact rock Youngs modulus often is represented by the tangent Youngs modulus at 50% of the uniaxial compressive
strength (Et-50). This value commonly is estimated from the uniaxial compressive strength (qu), as shown in Fig. 5. The regression equation in Fig. 5 is comparable to, and a bit less than, the
typical modulus correlation for concrete, which is given by E =
5000 (fc in MPa)0.5. Note that Et-50 / qu varies from about 500 or
more at low strength to about 200 at very high strength.
2.4 Intact Rock: Weathering
The deleterious effect of weathering on intact rock properties is
well-recognized, but quantifying this effect is more difficult. Fig.
6 shows various mean correlations between the properties of
unweathered rock and rock weathered to varying degrees. These

SRblock = (1-3)f-block / (1-3)f-intact

(1)

in which (1-3)f-block and (1-3)f-intact = deviator stresses at

failure of the rock mass and intact rock, respectively. The
results from several sets of tests, with typical confining stress
(3) for foundations (3 < 1 MPa), are plotted versus in Fig. 7,
and they can be fitted by the following:

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

R
qu
qt-Brazilian
Is
Et-50

< 40
SRblock = - 0.02 + 0.9
40 < < 60 SRblock = 0.1
> 60
SRblock = 0.02 - 1.1

0.0
Slight

Moderate

High

Weathering Conditions

Fig. 6. Effect of weathering on rock properties (Kulhawy &

Prakoso 2001, 2003).
degrees are somewhat subjective, as given by the source authors.
This database is dominated by igneous intrusive rocks, followed
by igneous extrusive and sedimentary clastic rocks. However, the
general rock type is not expected to have a significant effect on
the overall results.
All properties decrease with increasing weathering. The unit
weight () decreases only a modest amount, to about 90% of the
unweathered value. However, all other properties decrease substantially, with the R value decreasing to about 40% of the
unweathered value. The strength and modulus values decrease
even more, to about 15 to 25% of the unweathered values. These
decreases should be addressed in engineering evaluations.
Furthermore, these decreases are not deterministic; there is
always some uncertainty in the data. The standard deviation
(S.D.) for is about 0.04 for all degrees of weathering, but the
S.D. of the other properties is about 0.11. Therefore, the coefficient of variation (COV = S.D. / mean) increases substantially as
the weathering increases, from about 15% for slightly weathered
to 50% or more for highly weathered. These substantial variations need to be addressed cautiously.
2.5 Rock Mass: Strength of Artificial Rock Blocks
In bearing capacity calculations, it is necessary to estimate the
rock mass strength, which is difficult to do because of the need to
assess the in-situ rock mass structure. Instead, researchers have
conducted artificial rock block tests to estimate the effect of rock
mass structure on its strength (e.g., Brown 1970; Brown & Trollope 1970; Ladanyi & Archambault 1972; Einstein & Hirschfeld
1973; Kulatilake et al. 1997; Yang et al. 1998). Herein, these test
results were compiled and re-analyzed to evaluate the rock mass
strength relative to the intact rock strength and to estimate the
variability of the rock mass strength.
In general, the rock mass strength is dependent on the primary
discontinuity orientation. However, the results of artificial block
tests are not always in agreement with theoretical solutions.
Therefore, a simplified approach was adopted in evaluating the
effect of discontinuity angle relative to a horizontal plane () on
the strength. This effect is represented by a strength ratio
(SRblock), which is given by:

(2a)
(2b)
(2c)

The S.D. of Eqs. 2a and 2b is 0.09, while that of Eq. 2c is 0.10. It

can be inferred that the variability of rock mass strength, as represented by the COV, is maximum for between 40 and 60.
The effect of number of discontinuities, typically assessed by
using different block sizes, also was evaluated using the strength
ratio (SRblock) approach. The results from blocks with three different discontinuity orientations (vertical only, horizontal only,
and vertical and horizontal) were considered. Only three numbers
of discontinuities were available for evaluation. As shown in Fig.
8, SRblock decreases only slightly with increasing number of discontinuities. However, the variability of SRblock appears to increase with increasing number of discontinuities. In addition, for
vertical and horizontal discontinuities, the effect of discontinuity
orientation appears to be minimal.
These test results also were used to estimate the variability of
rock mass strength, which is defined as the deviator stress at failure [(1-3)f]. The results were separated based on the discontinuity angles ( = 0-25 and 70-90, and = 25-70) to consider
the effect of on the strength. The results are plotted versus the
confining stress (3) in Fig. 9 and show that the COV of (1-3)f
1.0
SRblock = (1 - 3)f-block / (1 - 3)f-intact

Mean Property Ratio (Weathered / Unweathered)

1.0

1: SRblock = -0.02 + 0.9; S.D. = 0.09

2: SRblock = 0.1; S.D. = 0.09
3: SRblock = 0.02 - 1.1; S.D. = 0.10

0.8

0.6
3
0.4

1
*

0.2
2
0.0
0

30o

60o

90o

Discontinuity Angle to Horizontal Plane,

Einstein et al. (1969, 1973), 3 = 0
Ladanyi & Archambault (1972), 3 = 0.35 MPa
Ladanyi & Archambault (1972), 3 = 0.70 MPa
Kulatilake et al. (1997), 3 = 0, symm.
Kulatilake et al. (1997), 3 = 0, asymm.
Yang et al. (1998), 3 = 0

Fig. 7. Effect of discontinuity angle on rock block strength

(Prakoso & Kulhawy 2004b).

80
Discontinuity Angle to
Horizontal Plane,

COV of (1 - 3)f (%)

SRblock = (1 - 3)f-block / (1 - 3)f-intact

1.5

1.0

0.5
Vertical Discontinuities
Horizontal Discontinuities
Vertical & Horizontal Discontinuities
No. Discontinuity = 2: Mean = 0.98; S.D. = 0.12
No. Discontinuity = 4: Mean = 0.92; S.D. = 0.10
No. Discontinuity = 8: Mean = 0.92; S.D. = 0.17

0o - 25o 25o-70o
70o - 90o
Einstein & Hirschfeld (1973)
Brown & Trollope (1970),
Brown (1970)
Ladanyi & Archambault (1972)

60

40

20

0.0
0

10

Fig. 8. Effect of number of discontinuities on rock block strength

(Prakoso & Kulhawy 2004b).

A realistic rock mass Youngs modulus (Em) is required in any

foundation displacement analysis, but typically it is obtained by
conducting field load tests, which are rather expensive. Alternatively, Em can be estimated from the intact rock uniaxial
compres-sive strength (qu) or the intact rock modulus (Et-50).
A modulus ratio can be defined as follows:

log10(Em / qu) = 2.73 - 0.49 log10(qu / pa)

m = 71, r2 = 0.48, S.D. log(Em / qu) = 0.26

1000

100

10

Mudstone
Shale
Sandstone
Others

(3)

Using mainly the data base developed by Rowe and Armitage

(1984), this ratio is plotted versus qu in Fig. 10. Note that the
exclusion of some data in Fig. 10 was based on a further detailed
statistical analysis (Prakoso 2002).
Em also can be estimated from Et-50 using a modulus reduction
factor defined as follows:

1
1

10

100

1000

Uniaxial Compressive Strength, qu / pa

Fig. 10. Rock Mass Youngs Modulus from Load Tests (Filled
symbols excluded from statistical analysis).

(4)

No. Observations

10

In this form, E is a lumped parameter that includes the intact

rock properties and the discontinuity frequencies and properties.
Using the data base developed by Heuze (1980), the distribution
of E is shown in Fig. 11.
In addition, geomechanical models have been proposed to
estimate Em. The orthogonal model proposed by Kulhawy (1978)
incorporates key physical properties of the intact rock and the
rock discontinuities, as well as the mean discontinuity spacing, as
given by:

Em

16

10000

Modulus Ratio, Em / qu

2.6 Rock Mass: Modulus

1
1
=
+
Er Sj Kn

12

Fig. 9. Effect of confining stress on COV of rock block strength

(Prakoso & Kulhawy 2004b).

decreases with increasing 3 but, for typical 3 values for foundations (3 < 1 MPa), the COV range still is wide, from 10 to 75%.
In addition, the prior group of discontinuity angles ( = 0-25
and 70-90) tends to yield a lower COV of (1-3)f.

E = Em / Et-50

Confining Stress, 3 (MPa)

Number of Discontinuities

Modulus Ratio = Em / qu

6
Log-Normal
Distribution

4
2
0
0.0
0

Mean = 0.32
S.D. = 0.26
m = 27

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

E = Em / Et-50

(5)

Fig. 11. Distribution of E from plate bearing tests.

1.0

0.8
Simulation Results
Negative Exponential
Log-Normal (COV = 50%)
Log-Normal (COV = 100%)
Kulhawy (1978)

0.6

QL2

0.4

Final linear region

Mean E

Er / Kn (m) = 0.5

Load

Transition region

0.2

QL1

0
Initial linear region

0.8
Simulation Results
Negative Exponential
Log-Normal (COV = 100%)
Kulhawy (1978)

0.6

Er / Kn (m) = 0.1

0.4

Displacement

0.2

Er / Kn (m) = 1.0

Fig. 13. Generalized load-displacement behavior.

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Mean RQD (%)

Fig. 12. Relationship between Rock Mass Modulus and RQD.

in which Er = intact rock modulus (typically given by Et-50), Sj =
discontinuity spacing, and Kn = discontinuity normal stiffness.
This Em also can be correlated to Er = Et-50, as in Eq. 4, to define
the modulus reduction factor E.
The discontinuity spacing (Sj) is not obtained routinely in
foundation practice, but the Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is
used commonly to characterize the rock mass. Kulhawy (1978)
used a simple geometric model to relate Si to RQD; others have
used statistical or random number-generated relationships. In any
case, as shown in Fig.12, the effect of different Sj-RQD relationships is minor, compared to that of the properties of the rock and
discontinuities.
3 ROCK SOCKET CAPACITY
3.1 Generalized Socket Behavior
Fig. 13 depicts the generalized load-displacement behavior of
drilled shafts under axial load. This general pattern holds in both
soil (Hirany & Kulhawy 1988) and rock (Carter & Kulhawy
1988), as shown in many load tests that were carefully conducted
and well-documented. There is essentially a linear response from
the origin to L1, followed by a nonlinear transition region to L2,
after which there is a final linear region. In rock masses, these
regions correspond to initial linear elastic behavior, followed by
bond breakage and progressive slip, and then full frictional slip
with dilation. The same general pattern holds for both compression and uplift tests, although the relative sizes and importance of
the regions differ somewhat. In all cases, the occurrence of a
clearly defined peak to the curve is infrequent.
With nonlinear curves such as these, there is always a major
question about how to define the foundation "capacity" for subsequent design use. Examination of the literature (Hirany &
Kulhawy 1988) reveals at least 41 different methods used for the
interpretation of axial load tests, including displacement limits

(absolute and percent of diameter), graphical constructions, and

mathematical functions. These also reflect a mix of what actually
are both ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state criteria.
Our detailed studies (e.g., Hirany & Kulhawy 1988; Prakoso
2002) indicate that a consistent and reasonable method for
defining the "interpreted failure load" is to use QL2, which is the
load at L2. Similarly, QL1 is the load at L1, which represents the
"elastic limit". The L1 and L2 points are determined graphically
from a plot at a scale similar to that of Fig. 13. As can be seen,
QL2 always follows the nonlinearity, sometimes represents the
actual curve peak where there is little or no dilation, and can be
evaluated from virtually all quality test data.
Once the "capacity" is defined, then the tip and side resistances can be evaluated based on measurements made in compression tests of full sockets. In uplift tests, and in compression
tests with a void or frangible material beneath the tip, the evaluation is straightforward and only requires consideration of the
shaft weight.
Most often, the tip and side resistances then are compared to
one of the simpler rock material indices, such as the uniaxial
compressive strength (qu). The qu tests should all be done in
accordance with proper test procedures, such as those given by
ASTM, ISRM , or others. Estimating qu from simpler tests such
as the point load index, Schmidt hammer, or others, may be inappropriate, as shown by the variability in the correlations shown
previously. Strictly speaking, any comparison also should be
with the average qu over the depth of the socket.
Most studies conducted to date have not met these criteria,
based on the documentation presented or stated. This statement is
not intended to fault the authors, who undoubtedly presented the
best information they could. It is intended to point out that we are
frequently dealing with imperfect and sometimes poor data, and
therefore our expectations should be tempered accordingly.
3.2 Calculation Model
In general, foundation capacity is a function of the tip resistance
(Qt), side resistance (Qs), and foundation weight (W). By force
equilibrium, the compression capacity (Qc) is given by:
Qc = Qtc + Qsc W

(6)

in which the subscript c refers to compression. The uplift capacity (Qu) is given by:
(7)

in which the subscript u refers to uplift.

In most design cases, only limited information is available on
the rock mass properties and in-situ conditions, and consequently
the use of theoretical solutions is difficult. More often, the only
rock strength property available is the intact rock uniaxial compressive strength (qu), and therefore the foundation resistances
typically are related to qu. In simplified fashion, the tip (or base)
resistances of circular footings and drilled shafts in compression
can be estimated by:
Qtc = 0.25 B2 Nc* qu

Nc* = 3.38, S.D. = 1.20

Bearing Capacity Factor, Nc*

Qu = Qtu + Qsu + W

10

(8)
0

Qs = B D f

(9)

in which B = foundation diameter and D = foundation socket

depth. It is assumed commonly that f can be related directly to
the intact rock uniaxial compressive strength (qu), and therefore
the side resistance is given by:
Qs = B D r qu

(10)

in which r = empirical side resistance factor = f / qu.

3.3 Tip Resistance
The tip resistance for tests conducted on the socket tip and on
complete sockets was evaluated to assess the range of the tip
resistance factor (Nc*). The data base developed for this study
included 9 sites with 14 field load tests conducted in several rock
types, mainly in fine-grained sedimentary rocks, and 2 centrifuge
laboratory tests. All of the load tests had qu, and all were conducted on straight-sided rock sockets. Axial compressive loading
was applied in all cases, with 7 tests performed on socket tips and
7 tests performed on complete sockets. For the complete sockets,
the tip resistance was determined from the reported tip and side
resistance load distribution.
The tip resistance factor (Nc*) was evaluated using Eq. 8, and
these values are plotted versus the corresponding socket diameter
(B) in Fig. 14, in which Nc* appears to be independent of B. The
mean of the tip resistance factor (mNc*) and its COV (COVNc*)
are given by mNc* = 3.38 and COVNc* = 35.4%. The distribution
of Nc* is shown in Fig. 15, and it resembles a log-normal probability distribution with the same mNc* and COVNc*. Furthermore,
Nc* appears to be independent of the rock type.
3.4 Side Resistance
Carter & Kulhawy (1988) reviewed the Rowe & Armitage (1984)

0 0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

Socket Diameter, B (m)

Fig. 14. Drilled socket tip resistance factor (Prakoso & Kulhawy
2002).
8
No. Observations

in which B = foundation diameter and Nc* = empirical tip resistance factor. Information on the tip resistance in uplift is very
limited, so this resistance is not discussed herein.
The side resistance of drilled shaft foundations socketed in
rock involves a complex interaction among the adhesion, friction,
dilatancy, and normal stress effects along the socket wall. These
effects are difficult to measure or estimate, and therefore they
often are lumped into an average unit side resistance (f). Using
this simplification, the side resistance (Qs) can be estimated by:

Mean = 3.38
COV = 35.4%
m = 14

Log-Normal
Distribution

6
4
2
0
0

Tip Resistance Factor, Nc*

Fig. 15. Distribution of drilled socket tip resistance factor

(Prakoso & Kulhawy 2002).
data and noted that there is an approximate lower bound to side
resistance that is given by:
f / pa = 0.63 (qu / pa)0.50

(11)

in which f = average unit side resistance. To link the f / pa format

with the r format, the equations are given by:
log10 r = A B log10 (qu / pa)
f / pa = 10A (qu / pa)B

(12a)
(12b)

After examination of these data, they also made two important

design check recommendations. First, values of f in excess of
0.15 qu, over the full range of expected values, should be used
only when they are demonstrated to be reasonable by a load test,
local experience, or adequate in-situ testing. And second, after
obtaining the design value of f, typically from Eq. 9, and applying a factor of safety to this value, a check should be made
against the concrete bond value of 0.05 f'c. The lower value
should be used unless load test data show otherwise.
More recently, Prakoso (2002) re-examined the data available
and attempted to evaluate them in a more consistent manner.

f / pa = 2.00 (qu / pa)0.69

(13)

Side Resistance Factor, r

First, the only data used were those that had load-displacement
curves to failure so that the "interpreted failure load" could be
determined for all the data and therefore the "capacities" were
evaluated in a consistent manner. However, it was not possible to
reevaluate the qu data to ensure consistency in test conduct and
averaging over the shaft depth. An initial assessment of additional Asia data (e.g., Ng et al. 2001) indicates that they fall in
the data range as above.
Fig. 16 shows the results for all of the data, including multiple
tests at the same site and results for (a) shafts in natural and manmade rocks, (b) grouted piles in natural rocks, and (c) rock anchors in natural rocks. The regression line is given by:

0
0.1

0
0.01

log10 r = 0.24 - 0.67 log10(qu / pa)

m = 52, r2 = 0.69, S.D. = 0.30

0.001
0

I. Intrusive
I. Extrusive
I. Pyroclastic
S. Clastic (fine)

Fig. 17 shows the results of the data averaged per test site. The
regression line is given by:

S. Clastic (coarse)
S. Chemical
M. Non-Foliated
Man-Made

0.0001
0

f / pa = 1.74 (qu / pa)0.67

(14)

Careful examination of these results indicates that the rock anchor data are clustered in the lower portions of the figure, especially in the lower right. Setting these data aside gives the results
for drilled shafts and grouted piles as shown in Fig. 18 by the
solid line. The regression line corresponds to:
0.50

100

1000

10000

Uniaxial Compressive Strength, qu / pa

Fig. 17. r vs. qu for all data, averaged per site (Kulhawy et al.
2005).
1

(15)

which can be conveniently rounded to

0.50

f / pa = (qu / pa)

(16)

The lower bound 10A value of 0.63 that was cited previously
actually represents the lower bound for 90% of the data in Fig.
18. To capture 100% of the data, the absolute lower bound would
be about 0.5. It should be noted in Fig. 18 that the regression is
altered significantly when the rock anchor data are included.
Clearly these data constitute a separate population.
In addition to the general relationships described above, there
have been a number of studies that have focused exclusively on

Side Resistance Factor, r

f / pa = 0.98 (qu / pa)

10

0
0.1

0
0.01
log10 r = - 0.01 - 0.50 log10(qu / pa)
m = 41, r2 = 0.51, S.D. = 0.31

0.001
0

I. Intrusive
S. Clastic (coarse)
I. Extrusive
S. Chemical
I. Pyroclastic
M. Non-Foliated
S. Clastic (fine)
Man-Made
Regression Line for Data with Rock Anchors

0.0001
0

10

100

1000

10000

Side Resistance Factor, r

Uniaxial Compressive Strength, qu / pa

0
0.1

Fig. 18. r vs. qu for drilled shafts and grouted piles, averaged per
site (Kulhawy et al. 2005).
localized rock units, such as the chalks of southern England and
the limerocks of Florida. These studies are of local importance
and are too specialized to be discussed herein. When these are
addressed, they should be considered within the broad framework
described above.

0
0.01

log10 r = 0.30 - 0.69 log10(qu / pa)

m = 104, r2 = 0.72, S.D. = 0.29

0.001
0

I. Intrusive
I. Extrusive
I. Pyroclastic
S. Clastic (fine)

S. Clastic (coarse)
S. Chemical
M. Non-Foliated
Man-Made

3.5 Effect of Socket Roughening

0.0001
0
1

10

100

1000

10000

Uniaxial Compressive Strength, qu / pa

Fig. 16. Non-roughened side resistance of drilled foundations

(Kulhawy et al. 2005).

The values of r for roughened drilled foundations are plotted

versus their corresponding qu/pa in Fig. 19. The r decreases with
increasing qu/pa, and the regression equation is given by:
f / pa = 1.91 (qu / pa)0.46

(17)

The side resistance factor (r) differs with socket roughening.

100
Side Resistance, f / pa

Side Resistance Factor, r

0.4

0
0.1

I. Intrusive
I. Extrusive
I. Pyroclastic
S. Clastic (fine)

80
60

S. Clastic (coarse)
S. Chemical
M. Non-Foliated
Man-Made

0.05 FSlim (fc' / pa)

40

FSlim = 3

fc' / pa = 400
2

20

3
fc' / pa = 200

0.04

log10 r = 0.28 - 0.46 log10(qu / pa)

m = 43, r2 = 0.67, S.D. = 0.16
S. Clastic
S. Chemical
Man-Made

10

100

1000

100

1000

10000

Uniaxial Compressive Strength, qu / pa

Fig. 20. Socket side resistance versus concrete bond strength

(Kulhawy et al. 2005).

0.01
0
1

10

10000

Uniaxial Compressive Strength, qu / pa

Fig. 19. Roughened side resistance of drilled foundations.

For non-roughened sockets, r is lower than that for roughened
sockets. The overall trend of both data sets and the regression
lines is similar. Both regression lines are close for lower qu, suggesting that the nominal side resistances are about the same.
3.6 Rock Socket Side Resistance and Concrete Bond Strength
Carter & Kulhawy (1988) recommended a design check to compare the allowable side resistance of the rock socket (f / FS) to
the concrete bond strength, given by 0.05 f'c. The lower value
would control, unless field testing showed otherwise. By using
typical safety factors of 2 and 3, the ultimate side resistance can
be compared with the factored concrete bond strength, as given
in Fig. 20. Typical ranges of concrete strength, f'c / pa = 200 400, were used for comparison.
Fig. 20 shows that most side resistances are below the lower
concrete strength and factor of safety. All of these cases showed
acceptable behavior when the bond strength of the concrete was
exceeded. Clearly the concrete behaves better when it is confined
in a socket and reinforced than when it is unconfined and unreinforced. The percentages are given in Table 1, which shows that
there are more cases of sockets exceeding the concrete bond
strength with lower concrete strength and factor of safety. Again,
all of these cases showed acceptable behavior when the bond
strength of the concrete was exceeded.
4 ROCK MASS CONDITIONS & ROCK FOUNDATION
BEARING CAPACITY: THEORETICAL RELATIONSHIPS
Prakoso & Kulhawy (2004a) proposed a lower bound bearing
capacity model, coupled with a simple discontinuity strength
model, for strip footings on jointed rock masses. The strength of
both the rock material (r and cr) and the discontinuities (j and
cj), and the number and orientation of the discontinuity sets
(1n), are considered explicitly in the model. The lower bound
bearing capacity factor (Ncs) for strip footings on rock masses
with a single discontinuity set is given in Figs. 21 through 24.
The uniaxial compressive strength (qu) of the rock material, normalized by cr, also is given. In all figures, Ncs is related to the
discontinuity orientation angle (1). The effect of friction angle

Table 1. Comparison of Side Resistance and Concrete Bond

Strength (Kulhawy et al. 2005).
Rock Socket
% socket fallow > 0.05 f'c
FSlim = 2
FSlim = 3
Non-Roughened
f'c / pa = 200
16%
4%
2%
0%
f'c / pa = 400
Roughened
40%
14%
f'c / pa = 200
9%
0%
f'c / pa = 400
Concrete bond strength = 0.05 FSlim (f'c / pa)
variation (r = j) on Ncs is shown in Fig. 21. As r increases, the
maximum and minimum Ncs increase, 1 for the minimum Ncs
decreases, and the ratio of maximum to minimum Ncs increases
slightly. Also, the range of 1 affecting Ncs decreases, and the
shape of the line of Ncs changes with increasing r.
The effect of discontinuity cohesion, given by cj / cr, is
shown in Fig. 22. As cj / cr increases, the minimum Ncs increases,
and the range of 1 affecting Ncs decreases. The effect of
discontinuity friction angle (r j) is shown in Fig. 23. As j
increases, the minimum Ncs increases, and 1 for the minimum
Ncs changes. Also, the range of 1 affecting Ncs decreases, and the
shape of the line of Ncs changes significantly with increasing j.
Ncs for rock masses with two discontinuity sets is given in Fig.
24. As shown, Ncs is influenced significantly by 1 and the angle
between the discontinuity sets (). The minimum Ncs and 1 for
this minimum differ for different values. Also, the range of 1
affecting Ncs varies, and the shape of the line of Ncs changes significantly with different values. The results for both one and
two discontinuity sets suggest that the strength of both the rock
material and the discontinuities, and the number and orientation
of the discontinuity sets, all have significant effects on Ncs.
Prakoso & Kulhawy (2006) provide an update of the Kulhawy
& Goodman model for foundations on rock with vertical discontinuities. For a rock mass with open vertical discontinuities,
where the discontinuity spacing (Sj) is less than or equal to the
foundation width (B), the likely failure mode is uniaxial compression of rock columns. The ultimate capacity based on the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion then is given by:
qult = qu = 2 c tan (45 + / 2)

(18)

in which qu = uniaxial compressive strength, c = cohesion, and

= friction angle. The qu, c, and are rock mass properties.

60

30
r = 40o; cj / cr = 0.3

50

50o

Bearing Capacity Factor, Ncs

Bearing Capacity Factor, Ncs

cj / cr = 0.3

40
45o
30
40o
20

35o

10

40o

20

35o

10
30o
25o

r = j = 30o

qu /cr

j = 20o

0
0

30

60

90

30

60

90

Discontinuity Angle to Horizontal Plane, 1 (o)

Discontinuity Angle to Horizontal Plane, 1 (o)

Fig. 21. Lower bound bearing capacity of strip footings on

jointed rock masses - one discontinuity set (Prakoso & Kulhawy
2004a).

Fig. 23. Effect of discontinuity friction angle on lower bound

bearing capacity (Prakoso & Kulhawy 2004a).
30
r = j = 40o; cj / cr = 0.3

Bearing Capacity Factor, Ncs

Bearing Capacity Factor, Ncs

30

0.9
20

0.7
0.5
1
r = j = 40o

0.3

10

cj / cr = 0.1

2 = 1 +

20

10
= 30o
= 60o
= 90o

qu /cr

qu /cr

0
0

0
0

30

60

30

60

90

90
Discontinuity Angle to Horizontal Plane, 1 (o)

Discontinuity Angle to Horizontal Plane, 1 (o)

Fig. 22. Effect of discontinuity cohesion on lower bound bearing

capacity (Prakoso & Kulhawy 2004a).
For a rock mass with vertical discontinuities spaced wider
than the foundation width (B), the likely failure mode is splitting
of the rock mass. Bishnoi (1968) proposed the following format
to evaluate this failure mode:
qult J c Ncr

(19)

in which J = correction factor, c = intact rock cohesion, and Ncr =

bearing capacity factor. The J factor is later. The bearing
capacity factor (Ncr) is given by Goodman (1980):

N cr =

N
N 1

2 N

0.5

(11 N )

Sj

B

(20)

Fig. 24. Lower bound bearing capacity of strip footings on

jointed rock masses - two discontinuity sets (Prakoso & Kulhawy
2004a).
in which Sj = spacing between vertical discontinuities and N =
bearing capacity factor given by:
N = tan2 (45 + / 2)

(21)

As the spacing between a pair of vertical discontinuities (Sj)

increases, the failure mode changes, from splitting of the rock
mass to general shear failure. For general shear, the modified
solution proposed by Bell (1915) can be used:
qult = c Nc cs cd + 0.5 B N s d + q Nq qs qd

(22)

in which c = rock mass cohesion, B = foundation diameter or

width, = rock mass effective unit weight, q = D = overburden
stress at tip, D = foundation depth, and Nc, N, and Nq = bearing

qult = c Nc cs
qult = 2 c [tan(45 + / 2) + tan3(45 + / 2)] cs

(23a)
(23b)

The modifying factor cs is given by:

cs = 1 + N1.5 / [2 (N + 1)]

(24)

1000

Bearing Capacity Factor, Ncr

capacity factors. The factors cs, cd, s, d, qs, and qd are

modifiers for square or circular foundations; the second subscript
s denotes the shape factor and the second subscript d denotes
the depth factor. For shallow foundations, D is very small, and
the 0.5 B N term normally is very small compared to the c Nc
term, and therefore Eq. 22 often is simplified as:

The results of Eqs. 18-23 are shown in Fig. 25 for a range of rock
mass friction angles. Note that, as the results are given in terms
of Ncr, for the uniaxial compression failure mode, Ncr is given by:

(26)

The changes in failure modes in Fig. 25 are identified by the

dashed lines.
The correction factor (J), based on Bishnoi (1968), also was
updated. Contrary to Bishnois suggestions, the results show no
apparent trend, as can be seen in Fig. 26. The mean and COV of J
are 1.14 and 33.3 percent, respectively.
5

Ncr Equation

DEFORMATION OF ROCK SOCKETS

Carter and Kulhawy (1988) suggested that the displacement of a

rigid shear socket under uplift loading can be evaluated by:

50o
40o

Uniaxial
Compression

30o
20o

10

= 10o

Bell Solution

1
0
0.1

(25)

For the general wedge failure mode, Ncr is given by:

Ncr = Nc cs

100

Limit for Sj > B

1

10

100

Discontinuity Spacing, Sj / B

Fig. 25. Capacity factor for vertical open discontinuities (Prakoso

& Kulhawy 2006).
2.0

1.5
Correction Factor, J

Ncr = 2 tan (45 + / 2)

60o

1.0

0.5

yu =
2

1
F

Gm D u

Igneous Intrusive
Sedimentary Chemical
Concrete

(27)

0.0
0

in which = ln[5 (1-) D/B], = rock mass Poissons ratio, Gm =

rock mass shear modulus, D = shaft depth, and Fu = applied uplift
load. This equation also is used for a single anchor in uplift.
Carter and Kulhawy (1988) also suggested that the elastic displacement of a rigid complete socket can be evaluated by:
yc =

Em D

1+

(28)

in which Fc = applied compressive load, Eb = rock mass Youngs

modulus below the tip, b = rock mass Poissons ratio below the
tip, and B = socket diameter. Note that, because the typical values of and b are low and Eb = Em is commonly assumed, Eq.
28 can be simplified as follows:
yc

Fc E m
D B
1 +

1+

10

15

20

Thickness of Rock Layer, H/B

Fig. 26. Correction factor J (Prakoso & Kulhawy 2006).

These equations are valid up until L1, at which displacements
typically are on the order of 10-15 mm. Beyond L1, nonlinearity
and load transfer must be addressed.

Fc
Eb B
+

1 2
b

(29)

6 CONSTRUCTION
CRITERIA

AND

FIELD

ACCEPTANCE

In general, when constructing a rock socket, it is necessary to

ensure that the rock mass is of sufficient quality to carry the load
without adverse behavior. To achieve this goal, it is common to
set exploration and/or construction criteria that must be met.
First and foremost, there must be sufficient exploration data to
define the rock materials present and to delineate the rock mass
structure and discontinuities. These data should be of sufficient
depth beneath the tips of the rock sockets to define the rock mass
well enough so that the bearing capacity and settlement can be
computed with some confidence. In particular, it is necessary to

define the layering and/or soft seams that can be present in many
types of stratified rock masses and the voids that can be present
in certain types of volcanic rocks and in the carbonate rock family. If these features are not defined with some confidence during
exploration, then it usually will be necessary to do so during construction.
Second, the socket must be constructed to give a nominally
"clean" socket. The tip should be cleaned out as best as possible
using conventional clean-out tools. Only in extraordinary cases
should any special procedures be used. If side resistance is being
considered in the design, then the sides of the socket must be
clean as well, again using conventional tools. There is no need to
resort to special procedures for removing any light drilling muds,
because they will be displaced by proper tremie placement of
high-slump concrete. However, in some softer or weathered
rocks, for example compaction clay-shales, softening of the
socket side may occur. Special clean-out procedures and socket
roughening or grooving may be considered in these cases.
Third is the issue of socket use and design. Where there is
rock surface uncertainty and therefore a need to ensure a quality
bearing surface, "seating" sockets can be considered. These types
of sockets minimally penetrate the rock surface, usually to a
depth less than one socket diameter, and provide little, if any,
side resistance. For these sockets, only tip clean-out is necessary.
When the sockets are deeper, they will be "load-carrying" sockets. These sockets can be used and designed in several ways. If
"tip resistance only" sockets are designed, then there is no rationale to prescribe acceptance criteria for the rock along the socket
sides. If "side resistance only" sockets are designed, then there is
no rationale to prescribe acceptance criteria for the rock quality
beneath the socket tips. However, if both side and tip resistances
are included in the design, then acceptance criteria for both are
appropriate. For the side, criteria sometimes are suggested that
relate to the percent of soil surface area or number of seams present along the surface of the socket. These may or may not be
realistic, depending on the actual geologic details. For the tip,
criteria sometimes are suggested for probe holes drilled beneath
the tip to determine the frequency and thickness of soil seams in
the rock within a depth beneath the tip equal to a shaft diameter
or sometimes more. These types of criteria are based on settlement limitations and must be evaluated as such, considering
stress distribution models for sockets in layered media. Guidelines are warranted to adjust these criteria if deepening is needed
because the acceptance criteria are not met. In this case, more
load is transferred through the socket side as the socket deepens.
How the field acceptance criteria are implemented is an issue
of potentially significant economic concern, in the same category
as the evaluation of rock characteristics. If the rock characteristics are defined well during the investigation, then there should
be few, if any, surprises during construction. If the investigation
is minimal, the opposite is likely. To minimize surprises, some
even note that probe holes be drilled prior to construction at each
shaft location to establish the final shaft depth before construction. This important economic issue needs to be assessed carefully and delineated clearly prior to construction.
7

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

Drilled foundations often are socketed into rock to increase the

capacity. However, procedures to quantify the socket side and
tip resistance vary considerably. In this paper, a critical
assessment is made of some key aspects of rock socket behavior.

First, several methods are presented to estimate key rock material

and rock mass properties needed for socket design. Then one
method for evaluating side resistance is presented, after a
detailed evaluation. Several possible approaches are suggested to
assess the tip resistance, depending on the degree of geologic
data available. Where available, statistics are given for the
properties and the methods. Some design and construction
implications are noted as well. Detailed load-settlement-load
transfer evaluations are beyond the scope of this paper.
REFERENCES
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Bishnoi, B.L. 1968. Bearing Capacity of Closely Jointed Rock.
PhD Thesis. Atlanta: Georgia Institute of Technology.
Carter, J.P. & Kulhawy, F.H. 1988. Analysis & Design of Drilled
Shaft Foundations Socketed into Rock. Report EL-5918. Palo
Alto: Electric Power Research Institute.
Goodman, R.E. 1980. Introduction to Rock Mechanics. New
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Heuze, F.E. 1980. Scale Effects in Determination of Rock Mass
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Hirany, A. & Kulhawy, F.H. 1988. Conduct & Interpretation of
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