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4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
n
#OPYRIGHT (ELDREF 0UBLICATIONS
#ONSTRUCT $IMENSIONALITY OF %NGAGEMENT
AND ITS 2ELATION 7ITH 3ATISFACTION
!.$2%7 * 7%&!,$
2/.!,$ ' $/7.%9
+ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY
!"342!#4 %NGAGEMENTA PERSISTENT AND POSITIVE AFFECTIVE
MOTIVATIONAL STATE OF FUL
FILLMENT CHARACTERIZED BY VIGOR DEDICATION AND ABSORPTION 7 " 3CHAUFELI - 3ALANOVA
6 'ONZLEZ
2OMA ! " "AKKER HAS BECOME A POPULAR SUBJECT AMONG ACA
DEMIC AND INDUSTRY RESEARCHERS &OLLOWING SUGGESTIONS IN THE RECENT LITERATURE CALLING FOR
FURTHER EXAMINATION OF THE UNDERLYING FACTORS COMPRISING THE CONSTRUCT OF ENGAGEMENT THE
AUTHORS INVESTIGATED THE FACTOR STRUCTURE OF 7 " 3CHAUFELI ET ALS MEASURE OF ENGAGEMENT
AND ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENTS RELATION TO ACADEMIC SATISFACTION 0REVIOUS RESEARCHERS FOUND
A
FACTOR STRUCTURE OF ENGAGEMENT THAT COMPRISES VIGOR DEDICATION AND ABSORPTION 4HE
AUTHORS ADMINISTERED TO A SAMPLE OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS A QUESTIONNAIRE ON THEIR LEVEL OF
ENGAGEMENT IN ACADEMIC WORK AND VARIOUS OTHER MEASURES 4HE RESULTS DID NOT CONFIRM
THE
FACTOR STRUCTURE 4HE PRESENT AUTHORS FOUND ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION TO BE HIGHLY
RELATED CONSTRUCTS
+EYWORDS CONSTRUCT DIMENSIONALITY CONSTRUCT OVERLAP ENGAGEMENT SATISFACTION
). /.% /& 4(% &)234 $)3#533)/.3 /& */" %.'!'%-%.4 +AHN
DEFINED PERSONAL ENGAGEMENT AS THE hHARNESSING OF ORGANIZATION MEM
BERS SELVES TO THEIR WORK ROLES IN ENGAGEMENT PEOPLE EMPLOY AND EXPRESS THEM
SELVES PHYSICALLY COGNITIVELY AND EMOTIONALLY DURING ROLE PERFORMANCESv P
+AHN FURTHER DEFINED PERSONAL DISENGAGEMENT AS THE hUNCOUPLING OF SELVES
FROM WORK ROLES IN DISENGAGEMENT PEOPLE WITHDRAW AND DEFEND THEMSELVES
PHYSICALLY COGNITIVELY OR EMOTIONALLY DURING ROLE PERFORMANCESv P
)N THE PRESENT STUDY WE FOCUSED ON THE ENGAGEMENT CONSTRUCT ITS DIMEN
SIONALITY IE DEGREE TO WHICH SATISFACTION IS A SEPARATE CONSTRUCT FROM ENGAGE
MENT AND CONSEQUENCES OF ENGAGEMENT FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS )N THE LITERATURE
REVIEW WE EXAMINED THE HISTORY OF THE ENGAGEMENT CONSTRUCT HOW IT RELATES TO
SIMILAR CONSTRUCTS EG FLOW SATISFACTION WHY RESEARCHERS HAVE NOT EXTENSIVELY
STUDIED INTERVENTION STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE ENGAGEMENT IN CORPORATE SETTINGS
!DDRESS CORRESPONDENCE TO !NDREW * 7EFALD +ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY 3CHOOL OF ,EADERSHIP
3TUDIES . -ANHATTAN !VENUE -ANHATTAN +3 53! WEFALD KSUEDU E
MAIL
4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
WHAT SOME OF THE PREDICTORS OF ENGAGEMENT ARE AND LAST SOME CRITIQUES OF THE
ENGAGEMENT CONSTRUCT
/FTEN RESEARCHERS DISCUSS ENGAGEMENT AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSTRUCT IN
WORK SETTINGS HOWEVER THEY ALSO USE IT IN RESEARCH ON UNIVERSITY STUDENTS 4HE
UNDERLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSTRUCT IS THE SAME FOR STUDENTS AND WORKERS 4HE
ONLY DIFFERENCE IS THE SETTING IN WHICH THE WORK IS PERFORMED 2ESEARCHERS HAVE
CONDUCTED SOME OF THE RESEARCH ON ENGAGEMENT ON EMPLOYEES AND MOST OF THE
RESEARCH ON OTHER JOB ATTITUDES ALSO ON EMPLOYEES "ECAUSE OF THE NATURE OF PREVI
OUS RESEARCH ON JOB ENGAGEMENT AND OTHER JOB ATTITUDES WE USED THOSE RESULTS
IN ADDITION TO THE RESEARCH USING STUDENTS TO SUPPORT OUR HYPOTHESES ON STUDENT
ENGAGEMENT
2ECENT (ISTORY OF %NGAGEMENT
4HE RECENT HISTORY OF STUDYING JOB ENGAGEMENT BEGINS WITH THE CONSTRUCT
OF JOB BURNOUT -ASLACH AND ,EITER INITIALLY DEFINED THE ENGAGEMENT
CONSTRUCT AS THE OPPOSITE OF BURNOUT IE SOMEONE WHO IS NOT EXPERIENCING JOB
BURNOUT MUST BE ENGAGED IN THEIR JOB -ASLACH AND ,EITER APPLIED THE CONSTRUCT
OF ENGAGEMENT TO THE RESULTS AND RENAMED THE THREE BURNOUT FACTORS THEY CHANGED
EMOTIONAL EXHAUSTION TO HIGH ENERGY DEPERSONALIZATION TO STRONG INVOLVEMENT
AND REDUCED SENSE OF EFFICACY TO SENSE OF EFFICACY 4HEY RENAMED THE FACTORS OF
BURNOUT AND USED THE OPPOSITE PATTERN OF SCORES ON THE BURNOUT MEASURE TO PUT
BURNOUT RESEARCH IN A MORE POSITIVE LIGHT 4HEN -ASLACH AND ,EITER DEVELOPED
ENGAGEMENT FROM THIS STARTING POINT 4HUS ENGAGEMENT FOCUSES ON THE POSITIVE
ASPECTS OF A PERSONS JOB !T PRESENT THERE IS A DEBATE "RITT #ASTRO !DLER
-ASLACH 3CHAUFELI ,EITER 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA 'ONZLEZ 2OMA
"AKKER 3HIROM REGARDING THE CONSTRUCT DEFINITION OF ENGAGEMENT
BETWEEN THOSE WHO BELIEVE ENGAGEMENT IS THE OPPOSITE OF BURNOUT AND THOSE WHO
BELIEVE ENGAGEMENT IS MORE COMPLICATED IN THAT IT IS OBLIQUELY RELATED TO BURNOUT
BUT NOT ITS OPPOSITE
"REAKING WITH THE IDEA THAT ENGAGEMENT IS MERELY THE OPPOSITE OF BURNOUT
3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL DEFINED ENGAGEMENT AS A PERSISTENT AND POSITIVE
AFFECTIVE MOTIVATIONAL STATE OF FULFILLMENT IN EMPLOYEES CHARACTERIZED BY VIGOR
DEDICATION AND ABSORPTION 4HEY WROTE h2ATHER THAN A MOMENTARY AND SPECIFIC
STATE ENGAGEMENT REFERS TO A MORE PERSISTENT AND PERVASIVE AFFECTIVE COGNITIVE
STATE THAT IS NOT FOCUSED ON ANY PARTICULAR OBJECT EVENT INDIVIDUAL OR BEHAVIORv
P 4HIS DEFINITION IS HELPFUL IN DIFFERENTIATING ENGAGEMENT FROM FLOW A
SIMILAR CONSTRUCT 3CHAUFELI -ARTINEZ 0INTO 3ALANOVA "AKKER *OB
ENGAGEMENT DIFFERS FROM FLOW IN THAT hFLOW IS A MORE COMPLEX CONCEPT THAT
INCLUDES MANY ASPECTS AND REFERS TO RATHER PARTICULAR SHORT TERM @PEAK EXPERI
ENCES INSTEAD OF A MORE PERVASIVE AND PERSISTENT STATE OF MIND AS IS THE CASE WITH
ENGAGEMENTv 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL P )N THAT SENSE JOB ENGAGE
MENT CAN BE CONSIDERED A CHRONIC AND PERSISTENT POSITIVE AFFECTIVE COGNITIVE STATE
7EFALD $OWNEY
TOWARD ONES JOB WHEREAS FLOW IS A MORE ACUTE STATE LASTING FOR A MUCH SHORTER
PERIOD AND POTENTIALLY OF A MORE INTENSE NATURE
2ESEARCHERS SHOULD MORE FULLY EXPLORE THE THREE FACTORS OF JOB ENGAGEMENT
THAT 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL DEFINED !CCORDING TO 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA
ET AL A VIGOR IS HIGH ENERGY RESILIENCE A WILLINGNESS TO INVEST EFFORT ON THE JOB
THE ABILITY TO NOT BE EASILY FATIGUED AND PERSISTENCE WHEN CONFRONTED WITH DIFFI
CULTIES B DEDICATION IS A STRONG INVOLVEMENT IN WORK ENTHUSIASM AND SENSE OF
PRIDE AND INSPIRATION AND C ABSORPTION IS A PLEASANT STATE OF BEING IMMERSED IN
ONES WORK EXPERIENCING TIME PASSING QUICKLY AND BEING UNABLE TO DETACH FROM
THE JOB 4HEY STUDIED STUDENTS AND EMPLOYEES IN 3PAIN AND A THREE
FACTOR MODEL
OF VIGOR DEDICATION AND ABSORPTION FIT THE DATA IN BOTH SAMPLES )N ADDITION
THEY MEASURED ENGAGEMENT FOR STUDENTS AND EMPLOYEES USING SIMILAR SCALES AND
CHANGED THE ITEMS BY SWITCHING JOB OR WORK WITH SCHOOL OR ACADEMIC ACTIVITIES
4HEY PERFORMED THIS WITH ALL OF THE SCALES OF ENGAGEMENT SO THAT THE SCALES MEA
SURED THE SAME UNDERLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSTRUCT IN DIFFERENT SETTINGS 4HERE
WAS A WEAK NEGATIVE CORRELATION ONLY BETWEEN EMOTIONAL EXHAUSTION AND VIGOR
INDICATING THAT THEY ARE NOT OPPOSITE AND THUS ARE DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTS 4HAT IS IF
THEY WERE OPPOSITES THEN WE WOULD EXPECT A STRONGER NEGATIVE CORRELATION 3HIN
FOUND SIMILAR RESULTS AMONG A SAMPLE OF 3OUTH +OREAN WORKERS
!NOTHER APPROACH TO STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IS THE .ATIONAL 3URVEY OF 3TU
DENT %NGAGEMENT .33% +UH 4HIS APPROACH IS DIFFERENT FROM THE
OTHER APPROACHES PREVIOUSLY DISCUSSED 4HE .33% SEEKS TO MEASURE STUDENT
STUDYING HABITS WHAT STUDENTS GAIN FROM THEIR COLLEGE EXPERIENCES AND OTHER
ASPECTS OF STUDENT LIFE 4HEREFORE THE .33% DOES NOT DIRECTLY MEASURE THE
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSTRUCT OF STUDENT ENGAGEMENT 4HE .33% AIMS TO FOCUS ON
GOOD EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES IMPROVE STUDENTnFACULTY INTERACTIONS AND EFFECT
OVERALL INSTITUTIONAL IMPROVEMENT
$IMENSIONS OF %NGAGEMENT
3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL SUGGESTED TWO DIMENSIONS OF WORK
RELATED
WELL
BEING A ACTIVATION WHICH RANGES FROM LOW EXHAUSTION TO HIGH VIGOR
AND B IDENTIFICATION WHICH RANGES FROM LOW CYNICISM TO HIGH DEDICATION )N
ADDITION TO THESE TWO DIMENSIONS BURNOUT INCLUDES REDUCED PERSONAL ACCOMPLISH
MENT AND ENGAGEMENT INCLUDES ABSORPTION 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL 5SING
CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS AND THREE SAMPLES OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS 3CHAUFELI
3ALANOVA ET AL FOUND THAT THE THREE
FACTOR MODEL OF VIGOR DEDICATION AND
ABSORPTION FIT BEST BUT ABSORPTION AND VIGOR MAY HAVE BEEN MEASURING SOMETHING
SIMILAR 3CHAUFELI -ARTINEZ ET AL (OWEVER THERE ARE SOME PROBLEMS
WITH 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET ALS AND 3CHAUFELI -ARTINEZ ET ALS CONCLUSIONS
4HE FACTOR STRUCTURE FOR THE THREE
FACTOR MODEL WAS TENUOUS AND CORRELATIONS
AMONG THE THREE FACTORS WERE MODERATE TO HIGH n FOR 3CHAUFELI 3ALA
NOVA ET AL n FOR 3CHAUFELI -ARTINEZ ET AL
4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
-ANY ORGANIZATIONS CONSIDER JOB SATISFACTION TO BE A MEASURE OF HOW HAPPY
THEIR EMPLOYEES ARE AT THEIR JOBS 0SYCHOLOGISTS AND OTHERS HAVE EXTENSIVELY
STUDIED JOB SATISFACTION &RITZSCHE 0ARRISH !S CONSTRUCTS JOB SATISFAC
TION AND ENGAGEMENT DIFFER (OWEVER WHEN RESEARCHERS MEASURE THEM THEY ARE
RELATED *OB SATISFACTION AND JOB ENGAGEMENT ARE MEASURES OF AFFECT REGARDING
ONES JOB ,OCKE IDENTIFIED JOB SATISFACTION AS A PLEASURABLE OR POSITIVE
EMOTIONAL STATE THAT RESULTS FROM AN APPRAISAL OF ONES JOB AND JOB EXPERIENCES OR
FROM THE PERCEPTION THAT A JOB FULFILLS ONES NEEDS AND IMPORTANT JOB VALUES (ULIN
AND *UDGE SUGGESTED THAT JOB ATTITUDES ARE COGNITIVE EVALUATIONS OF SOCIAL
OBJECTS AND THAT JOB SATISFACTION IS AN EMOTIONAL REACTION TO A JOB RESULTING FROM
COMPARISONS IE EVALUATIONS OF ACTUAL OUTCOMES WITH DESIRED OUTCOMES
4HE JOB ENGAGEMENT CONSTRUCT SEEMS TO HAVE BEEN MORE FOCUSED ON THE
COGNITIVE
AFFECTIVE MOTIVATION AT WORK FOR LONG PERIODS 4HE MAIN DIFFERENCE
IS THAT ENGAGEMENT EMPHASIZES THE COGNITIVE ASPECT OF INVOLVEMENT WITH JOB
TASKS WHEREAS SATISFACTION FOCUSES ON AFFECT %NGAGEMENT INVOLVES ONES ENERGY
ON THE JOB VIGOR DEDICATION TO THE WORK AND LEVEL OF ABSORPTION IN THE WORK
3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL
)N THEORY ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION ARE DISTINCT CONSTRUCTS ALTHOUGH THERE
IS EVIDENCE FOR OVERLAP IN THE DEFINITIONS NAMELY AFFECTIVE REACTIONS TO THE JOB
ARE PRESENT IN BOTH DEFINITIONS 4HE FRAMING OF BOTH CONCEPTS UNDER JOB ATTITUDES
PUTS A BURDEN ON THE NEWER CONCEPT OF ENGAGEMENT TO DIFFERENTIATE IT FROM SAT
ISFACTION )N THIS FRAMEWORK IT IS IMPORTANT TO DETERMINE WHETHER ENGAGEMENT
ADDS TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF JOB ATTITUDES AND PREDICTION OF IMPORTANT OUTCOMES
EG PERFORMANCE
2ECENTLY RESEARCHERS HAVE SUGGESTED THAT JOB SATISFACTION IS A MEDIATOR
BETWEEN ANTECEDENTS SUCH AS INTERNAL FACTORS EG PERSONALITY EXTERNAL VARI
ABLES EG JOB CHARACTERISTICS AND CONSEQUENCES EG WITHDRAWAL CITIZENSHIP
BEHAVIORS #REDE #HERNYSHENKO 3TARK $ALAL "ASHSHUR 4HE PSYCHO
LOGICAL CONSTRUCTS OF ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION AT WORK ARE APPLICABLE TO STU
DENTS IN THAT STUDENTS JOBS TYPICALLY INVOLVE THEIR SCHOOLWORK 2ESEARCHERS HAVE
SHOWN ENGAGEMENT TO BE A PREDICTOR OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE 3CHAUFELI -ARTI
NEZ ET AL AND MORALE "RITT $ICKINSON -OORE #ASTRO !DLER
!SSUMING ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION ARE DISTINCT CONSTRUCTS RESEARCHERS MAY
EXPECT ENGAGEMENT TO UNIQUELY PREDICT OUTCOMES EG STUDENT PERFORMANCE
BEYOND OTHER SIMILAR CONSTRUCTS
3HIROM RECENTLY CRITIQUED 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET ALS MODEL OF
ENGAGEMENT EXPECTING ENGAGEMENT TO BE FOCUSED ON VIGOR AS THE ONLY NONCONFOUND
ED CONSTRUCT IN THE ENGAGEMENT MODEL 3HIROM DEFINED VIGOR AS PHYSICAL STRENGTH
EMOTIONAL ENERGY AND COGNITIVE LIVELINESS !LTHOUGH 3HIROM DID NOT EMPIRICALLY TEST
IT HE BELIEVED THAT THE ANTECEDENTS OF VIGOR MAY INCLUDE VARIABLES SUCH AS BEING MORE
EXTROVERTED HAVING CERTAIN TASK CHARACTERISTICS EG TASK AUTONOMY SIGNIFICANCE
FEEDBACK IDENTITY SKILL VARIETY AND HAVING MULTIPLE ROLES GROUP COHESION AND
LEADERS WHO ENCOURAGE EMPLOYEES TO THINK CREATIVELY 3HIROM ALSO CRITICIZED -ASLACH
7EFALD $OWNEY
AND ,EITERS DEFINITION OF ENGAGEMENT BECAUSE IT HAD NOT YET BEEN CONCEPTU
ALLY VALIDATED IN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH 3HIROM CLAIMED THAT 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET ALS
ALTERNATE DEFINITIONS OF VIGOR DEDICATION AND ABSORPTION WERE NOT DEDUCED THEORETI
CALLY AND COMBINED ALL THREE IN ONE CONCEPT IE ENGAGEMENT THAT RESEARCHERS HAVE
NOT INVESTIGATED IN DETAIL 3HIROM ARGUED THAT BECAUSE VIGOR IS THE ONLY NONCONFOUND
ED CONSTRUCT IN THE ENGAGEMENT MODEL RESEARCHERS SHOULD STUDY IT ON ITS OWN
!LSO FOLLOWING 3HIROMS LOGIC RESEARCHERS SHOULD CONSIDER ENGAGE
MENT TO BE A ONE
FACTOR CONSTRUCT DEFINED BY VIGOR /THER INTERNAL STATES EG FEEL
ING JOY BEING CONTENT BEING OPTIMISTIC HAVING COURAGE CAN PRODUCE ENGAGEMENT
*UDGE %REZ AND "ONO BELIEVED THAT POSITIVE SELF
CONCEPT IS RELATED TO JOB
PERFORMANCE AND GIVEN 3HIROMS ARGUMENTS IE ENGAGEMENT AND VIGOR MAY
BE RELATED TO INTERNAL STATES SUCH AS JOY AND OPTIMISM IT SEEMS LIKELY THAT BEING
ENGAGED AT WORK IS RELATED TO HAVING A POSITIVE SELF
CONCEPT AND PERFORMING AT A
HIGHER LEVEL 3HIROM ARGUED THAT VIGOR IS NOT CONFOUNDED AS DEDICATION AND ABSORP
TION ARE BECAUSE THEY OVERLAP WITH OTHER ELEMENTS SUCH AS PSYCHOLOGICAL PRESENCE
AT WORK AND IMPORTANCE OF WORK TO A PERSONS SELF IMAGE 3HIROM CLAIMED THAT
VIGOR AND JOB BURNOUT ARE OBLIQUELY RELATED IE THEY ARE NOT OPPOSITES $EMAND
ING WORK WHEN THOSE DEMANDING TASKS ARE COMPLETED MAY MAKE A PERSON FEEL
EMOTIONALLY EXHAUSTED AND VIGOROUS AT THE SAME TIME 3HIROM 3HIROMS CRITIQUE
HIGHLIGHTS THE NEED FOR MORE EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE ON ENGAGEMENT AND POINTS TO A
POSSIBLE EXPLANATION OF THE SEEMINGLY HIGH POSITIVE CORRELATIONS AMONG THE THREE
FACTORS OF ENGAGEMENT IN 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET ALS MODEL OF ENGAGEMENT
3HIROM ARGUED THAT VIGOR IS THE ONLY NONCONFOUNDED CONSTRUCT OF ENGAGEMENT AND
BECAUSE OF THE HIGH CORRELATIONS AMONG 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET ALS THREE FACTORS OF
ENGAGEMENT THEY MAY ACTUALLY BE A ONE
FACTOR CONSTRUCT "RITT $ICKINSON 'REENE
AND -C+IBBEN ALSO VIEWED ENGAGEMENT AS A SINGLE
FACTOR CONSTRUCT
"RITT $ICKINSON 'REEN ET AL BELIEVED THAT MEASURING ENGAGEMENT ALONG TWO OR
MORE FACTORS LEADS TO CONFUSION ABOUT WHICH FACTORS ARE RELATED TO THE VARIOUS OUT
COMES OF ENGAGEMENT
%NGAGEMENT AND %USTRESS
2ESEARCHERS HAVE HYPOTHESIZED ENGAGEMENT TO BE A SUBCONSTRUCT UNDER
THE MORE GENERAL CONSTRUCT OF EUSTRESS IE GOOD STRESS %USTRESS OCCURS WHEN
A PERSON HAS A POSITIVE EVALUATION OF A STRESSOR IN THAT THE EVENT IS CONSTRUED
AS POSITIVE OR THE OUTCOMES OF AN EVENT ARE PERCEIVED AS POSITIVE 3IMMONS
!LSO EUSTRESS AND DISTRESS ARE CONSIDERED DISTINCT CONSTRUCTS SIMILAR TO
ENGAGEMENT AND BURNOUT AS 3CHAUFELI AND COLLEAGUES DEFINED %NGAGEMENT IS
TYPICALLY PERCEIVED AS A COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE INVOLVEMENT IN ONES WORK AND
IT MAKES SENSE THAT WHEN TASKS ARE ASSIGNED AND COMPLICATIONS ARISE IN ONES
WORK THOSE EVENTS ARE VIEWED EITHER POSITIVELY WHICH FOSTERS ENGAGEMENT AND
IMPROVES PERFORMANCE OR NEGATIVELY WHICH FOSTERS DISTRESS AND DISCONTENT AND
MAY HINDER PERFORMANCE
4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
4HEREFORE ENGAGEMENT MAY BE PERCEIVED AS A PART OF AN OVERALL TENDENCY OR
PARTIALLY A TRAIT TO PERCEIVE ONES WORK AND THE NATURAL AND COMMON COMPLICA
TIONS IN ANY JOB POSITIVELY 3IMMONS POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED EUSTRESS WITH
PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH WORK PERFORMANCE SPOUSES HEALTH MARITAL QUALITY
QUALITY OF FRIENDSHIPS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT &URTHER RESEARCHERS HAVE
SHOWN THAT HAPPINESS PRECEDES AND FOLLOWS MANY SUCCESSFUL OUTCOMES SUCH
AS WORK PERFORMANCE MARRIAGE FRIENDSHIP INCOME AND HEALTH ,YUBOMIRSKY
+ING $IENER 3IMMONS VIEWED ENGAGEMENT AS A PERSON BEING ENTHU
SIASTICALLY INVOLVED WITH HIS OR HER WORK AND PLEASURABLY OCCUPIED BY THE TASKS
OF THE JOB 3IMMONS SUGGESTED THAT BEING ENGAGED AT WORK IS AN INDICATOR OF AND
FOSTERS EUSTRESS AS A RESULT OF ENCOUNTERING STRESSORS
"RITT ET AL FOUND THAT SOLDIERS WHO WERE MORE ENGAGED IN THEIR JOBS
WERE ABLE TO WARD OFF THE EFFECTS OF STRESS AND REPORTED LOWER LEVELS OF NEGATIVE
CONSEQUENCES WHEN THEY WERE WORKING LONG HOURS AND DOING DIFFICULT WORK
(OWEVER THE SAME SOLDIERS WHO WERE MORE ENGAGED REPORTED MORE NEGATIVE CON
SEQUENCES FROM WORK OVERLOAD WHEN THEY ENCOUNTERED STRESSORS THAT INTERFERED
WITH THEIR ABILITY TO PERFORM JOBS WELL 4HIS FINDING SUGGESTS A MORE COMPLEX
VIEW OF ENGAGEMENT
"EING HIGHLY ENGAGED AT WORK MAY HAVE NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE CONSEQUENCES
(IGHLY ENGAGED EMPLOYEES HAVE HIGHER PERFORMANCE MORE COMMITMENT AND
LOWER TURNOVER WHEN THEY HAVE THE RESOURCES AND APTITUDES TO DO THEIR JOBS
BUT THEY MAY HAVE THE OPPOSITE WHEN THERE ARE ROADBLOCKS TO DOING THEIR JOBS
AND PERFORMING WELL "RITT $ICKINSON 'REENE ET AL "RITT $ICKINSON
'REENE ET AL DEFINED ENGAGEMENT DIFFERENTLY THAN OTHER ACADEMIC RESEARCHERS
DID 4HEY REFERRED TO SELF
ENGAGEMENT AS hFEELING A SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR
AND COMMITMENT TO A PERFORMANCE DOMAIN SO THAT PERFORMANCE @MATTERS TO THE
INDIVIDUALv P 4HE MAIN DIFFERENCE IN HOW THEY VIEWED ENGAGEMENT IS
THAT THEIR VIEW IS MORE COMPLEX IN THAT BEING HIGHLY ENGAGED CAN HAVE NEGATIVE
AND POSITIVE CONSEQUENCES "RITT SUGGESTED THAT WHEN WORKERS ARE SELF
ENGAGED IE HIGHLY MOTIVATED TO DO WELL THEY CAN QUICKLY LOSE ENTHUSIASM AND
MOTIVATION IF THEY BEGIN TO PERCEIVE THEIR WORK TO BE LESS MEANINGFUL OR THAT THEY
CANNOT SUCCEED IN THEIR JOB EG BECAUSE OF A LACK OF RESOURCES OR SUPPORT
3UMMARY
"ECAUSE OF THE INCONSISTENCIES IN RESEARCH FINDINGS REGARDING THE FACTOR
STRUCTURE AND DIMENSIONALITY OF ENGAGEMENT "RITT $ICKINSON 'REENE ET AL
(ALLBERG 3CHAUFELI OTHER RESEARCHERS VIEW OF ENGAGEMENT AS
A SINGLE FACTOR "RITT $ICKINSON -OORE ET AL (ALLBERG 3CHAUFELI
AND THE OVERLAP WITH JOB SATISFACTION MORE RESEARCH IS NEEDED )N THE PRESENT
ARTICLE WE FIRST LOOK AT THE FACTOR STRUCTURE OF ENGAGEMENT AND DEGREE TO WHICH
SATISFACTION IS A SEPARATE CONSTRUCT FROM ENGAGEMENT AND HOW ENGAGEMENT AND
SATISFACTION PREDICT STUDENT PERFORMANCE 7E ANALYZE ATTITUDES PERFORMANCE AND
7EFALD $OWNEY
STUDENTS RELATION TO ENGAGEMENT AND WE HOPE TO PROVIDE DIRECTION FOR FUTURE
RESEARCHERS IN THIS IMPORTANT AREA
(YPOTHESES
)N THE LITERATURE THERE ARE INCONSISTENCIES REGARDING THE ENGAGEMENT CON
STRUCT (OWEVER MUCH OF THE RESEARCH HAS SUPPORTED THE THREE
FACTOR CONCEPTUAL
IZATION OF ENGAGEMENT THAT 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL PROPOSED &OR THAT
REASON OUR FIRST HYPOTHESIS IS THAT A THREE
FACTOR STRUCTURE OF ENGAGEMENT EXISTS
(OWEVER BECAUSE OF THE LACK OF A THEORETICAL BASIS FOR A THREE
FACTOR STRUCTURE AND
INCONSISTENT EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE ON THE FACTOR STRUCTURE OUR FIRST ANALYSIS EXPLORED
THE FACTOR STRUCTURE OF ENGAGEMENT ITEMS "ECAUSE WE ASSESSED THE POSITIVE
CONSTRUCT ON ONE SCALE AND NEGATIVE CONSTRUCTS ON THE TWO OTHER SCALES SOME OF
THE FACTOR STRUCTURE MAY BE BECAUSE OF HOW WE ASKED THE QUESTIONS IE POSI
TIVE AND NEGATIVE ITEMS &ULLAGAR 3CHRIESHEIM %ISENBACH (ILL
3CHRIESHEIM (ILL !LSO 3CHAUFELI AND 3ALANOVA ACKNOWLEDGED
THE HIGH CORRELATIONS OF THE THREE FACTORS OF ENGAGEMENT AND GIVEN THOSE CORRELA
TIONS THE TOTAL ENGAGEMENT SCORE IE ONE FACTOR CAN BE USED JUST AS WELL AS THE
THREE
FACTOR SCALE SCORES CAN (ALLBERG AND 3CHAUFELI FOUND CORRELATIONS
AMONG THE THREE
FACTOR SCALE SCORES TO BE AS HIGH AS AND ACKNOWLEDGED A
ONE
FACTOR INTERPRETATION AS PLAUSIBLE !LSO THEY ATTEMPTED TO SHOW THE UNIQUE
NESS OF ENGAGEMENT FROM JOB INVOLVEMENT AND JOB COMMITMENT (OWEVER THEY
DID NOT INCLUDE JOB SATISFACTION NOR DID THEY PERFORM A REGRESSION ANALYSIS TO
DETERMINE WHETHER ENGAGEMENT PROVIDES ANY INCREMENTAL VALIDITY OVER THE OTHER
CONCEPTS 3CHAUFELI AND 3ALANOVA REPORTED THAT OTHER RESEARCHERS HAVE SOMETIMES
FOUND A ONE
FACTOR SOLUTION TO FIT THE DATA BETTER THAN A THREE
FACTOR SOLUTION
3HIROM REPORTED THAT VIGOR IS THE ONLY NONCONFOUNDED CONSTRUCT IN THE
ENGAGEMENT MODEL !LSO FOLLOWING 3HIROMS LOGIC RESEARCHERS MAY CONSIDER
ENGAGEMENT TO BE A ONE
FACTOR CONSTRUCT DEFINED BY VIGOR 'IVEN THE CONTRADIC
TORY FINDINGS REGARDING THE FACTOR STRUCTURE OF ENGAGEMENT IN THE PRESENT STUDY
WE FIRST FOCUS ON DETERMINING ENGAGEMENTS FACTOR STRUCTURE 4HE CONTRADIC
TORY FINDINGS ARE ALSO WHY WE PERFORMED AN EXPLORATORY PRINCIPLE COMPONENTS
ANALYSIS $ESPITE THE CONTRADICTORY THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE REGARDING
ENGAGEMENTS FACTOR STRUCTURE 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET ALS THREE
FACTOR STRUCTURE
IS THE MOST WIDELY CITED AND PUBLISHED MODEL 4HEREFORE (YPOTHESIS ( IS
THAT A THREE
FACTOR SOLUTION EXISTS
$EFINITIONS OF ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION REVEAL DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES
BETWEEN THE TWO CONSTRUCTS 4HE AMBIGUITY OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENGAGEMENT
AND SATISFACTION LED TO THE QUESTION REGARDING WHETHER THEY WERE SEPARATE CON
STRUCTS 4HERE IS LIMITED RESEARCH ON THIS ISSUE (OWEVER IT IS LOGICAL TO EXPECT THE
TWO TO BE SEPARATE CONSTRUCTS BECAUSE ENGAGEMENT PURPORTS TO TAP INTO A COGNITIVE
ASPECT OF WORK AND SATISFACTION DOES NOT 4HEREFORE ( IS THAT ENGAGEMENT AND
SATISFACTION ARE SEPARATE AND DISTINCT IE UNCORRELATED CONSTRUCTS
4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
4HE LITERATURE HAS SHOWN THAT STUDENTS ENGAGEMENT SCORES ARE CORRELATED
WITH '0! 3CHAUFELI -ARTINEZ ET AL 3CHAUFELI -ARTINEZ ET AL REPORTED
A POSITIVE RELATION BETWEEN EFFICACY AND VIGOR TWO OF ENGAGEMENTS FACTORS AND
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE "ECAUSE WE HYPOTHESIZED ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION TO
BE RELATED WE USED BOTH TO PREDICT PERFORMANCE ( IS THAT ENGAGEMENT AND PERFOR
MANCE AS MEASURED BY '0! ARE POSITIVELY RELATED AND THAT ENGAGEMENT MAKES A
SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION ABOVE SATISFACTION IN PREDICTING STUDENT PERFORMANCE
-ETHOD
0ROCEDURE
7E DEVELOPED AND ADMINISTERED AN ANONYMOUS QUESTIONNAIRE WHICH CON
TAINED QUESTIONS REGARDING ENGAGEMENT ITEMS DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION '0!
AND SATISFACTION WITH MAJOR 7E ASSESSED SCHOOL ENGAGEMENT USING THE 5TRECHT
7ORK %NGAGEMENT 3CALE FOR 3TUDENTS 57%3
3 FROM 3ALANOVA 3CHAUFELI
,LORENS 0IER AND 'RAU 4HIS MEASURE CONSISTED OF ,IKERT
TYPE ITEMS
RANGING FROM VERY STRONGLY DISAGREE TO VERY STRONGLY AGREE 3AMPLE ITEMS
INCLUDED h7HEN ) STUDY ) FEEL THAT ) AM BURSTING WITH ENERGYv h4IME FLIES WHEN
)M STUDYINGv AND h) AM PROUD OF MY STUDIESv 7E MEASURED '0! ON PARTICIPANTS
SELF
REPORTED '0!S OPEN
ENDED AND CONTINUOUS 7E MEASURED SATISFACTION WITH
MAJOR USING FIVE STATEMENTS SUCH AS h) AM SATISFIED WITH MY MAJORv AND USED A
,IKERT
TYPE SCALE OF AGREEMENT RANGING FROM VERY STRONGLY DISAGREE TO VERY
STRONGLY AGREE !LSO WE MEASURED STUDENTS SATISFACTION WITH THEIR SCHOOL USING A
ITEM SCALE CALLED THE 0ERCEIVED 1UALITY OF !CADEMIC ,IFE 01!, 3CALE 3TAATS
0ARTLO 3AMPLE ITEMS INCLUDED h(OW DO YOU FEEL ABOUT YOUR EDUCATION
AT +ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY v h(OW DO YOU FEEL ABOUT THE CLASSES YOU ARE TAKING AT
+ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY v AND h(OW DO YOU FEEL ABOUT WHAT YOU ARE LEARNING AT
+ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY v 7E MEASURED STUDENTS SATISFACTION WITH THEIR COURSES
AND EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES USING TWO SECTIONS OF THE #OLLEGE $ESCRIPTIVE )NDEX
#$) THAT 2EED ,AHEY AND $OWNEY DEVELOPED 7E FOUND THE ITEMS IN
2EED ,AHEY AND $OWNEYS STUDY 4HE TWO SECTIONS CONSISTED OF ITEMS
WITH RESPONSES OF hYES v hNO v OR h v FOR WORDS SUCH AS CREATIVE IRRELEVANT AND
ROUTINE 4HESE ITEMS ASKED HOW THE WORDS DESCRIBE CLASSES 3ECTION AND EXTRA
CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES 3ECTIONS %ACH SECTIONS HAD ITEMS
#ONSISTENT WITH THE POLICIES AT +ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY WE OBTAINED APPROV
AL FROM THE )NSTITUTIONAL 2EVIEW "OARD )2" !S THE )2"S PROCEDURES REQUIRED
WE PROVIDED SUBJECTS WITH AN INFORMED CONSENT FORM AND EXCUSED THOSE STUDENTS
WHO DID NOT WISH TO PARTICIPATE IN THE RESEARCH
0ARTICIPANTS
0ARTICIPANTS WERE INTACT CLASSES OF PRIMARILY JUNIOR
AND SENIOR
LEVEL UNDER
GRADUATE STUDENTS AT +ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY 4HE MEN
7EFALD $OWNEY
WOMEN PARTICIPANTS WERE ENROLLED IN CLASSES IN THE #OLLEGE OF "USINESS !GES
RANGED FROM TO YEARS HOWEVER OF THE PARTICIPANTS WERE BETWEEN
THE AGES OF AND YEARS - YEARS 3$ YEARS 2EGARDING RACE
REPORTED 7HITE NON
(ISPANIC 4HE PARTICIPANTS WERE SOPHOMORES
JUNIORS AND SENIORS !PPROXIMATELY HALF OF THE PARTICI
PANTS WERE BUSINESS MAJORS WITH VARYING SPECIALIZATIONS EG MARKETING MAN
AGEMENT MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM ACCOUNTING FINANCE /F THE SAMPLE
HAD A JOB AND OF THESE SLIGHTLY MORE THAN REPORTED THAT THEY WORKED
AT THEIR JOB FOR HR OR FEWER PER WEEK
!NALYSES
7E MEASURED STUDENT ENGAGEMENT USING SUMMATED SCALE SCORES OF THE STU
DENT ENGAGEMENT ITEMS WITH APPROPRIATE ADJUSTMENTS FOR POSITIVE ITEMS AND THE
THREE
FACTOR SUBSCALES OF ENGAGEMENT 7E MEASURED STUDENT SATISFACTION ALSO USING
SUMMATED VALUE ON THREE SCALES 01!, #$) AND 3ATISFACTION 7ITH -AJOR
4HE FIRST PHASE OF THE ANALYSIS INVOLVED SPLITTING THE SAMPLE INTO ROUGHLY
EQUAL SUBSAMPLES N N %XCEPT WHERE NOTED WE USED THE FIRST
SUBSAMPLE N IN THE ANALYSES &IRST WE PERFORMED AN EXPLORATORY PRIN
CIPLE COMPONENTS ANALYSIS OF THE ENGAGEMENT ITEMS ON THE FIRST SUBSAMPLE
TO DETERMINE THE UNDERLYING STRUCTURE USING AN OBLIQUE ROTATION 4HEN ON THE
BASIS OF THE RESULTS FROM THE EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS WE PERFORMED CON
FIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSES USING THE SECOND SUBSAMPLE !LSO WE PERFORMED
CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSES ON THE BASIS OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH EG THREE FAC
TORS THAT 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL IDENTIFIED AND A ONE
FACTOR MODEL
OF ENGAGEMENT THAT "RITT $ICKINSON 'REENE ET AL AND 3HIROM
SUGGESTED .EXT WE PERFORMED A SECOND
ORDER FACTOR ANALYSIS ON THE THREE
STUDENT
ENGAGEMENT VIGOR DEDICATION ABSORPTION AND THREE 01!, SCALE
SCORES TO DETERMINE WHETHER STUDENT ENGAGEMENT AND ACADEMIC SATISFACTION
WERE SEPARATE CONSTRUCTS 7E USED REGRESSION ANALYSIS TO EXAMINE HOW STUDENT
SATISFACTION AND OVERALL ENGAGEMENT PREDICTED STUDENT PERFORMANCE 7E CROSS
VALIDATED THE RESULTS FROM THE REGRESSION ANALYSIS ON THE SECOND SUBSAMPLE BY
APPLYING THE BETA WEIGHTS FROM THE FIRST SUBSAMPLE TO THE SECOND SUBSAMPLE
AND CORRELATING THE PREDICTED '0! WITH ACTUAL '0!
2ESULTS
4ABLE SHOWS THE MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE MAIN SCALES FOR BOTH
SAMPLES 4ABLE SHOWS THE MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE ENGAGEMENT
ITEMS 4ABLE ALSO PROVIDES INTERCORRELATIONS AND COEFFICIENT ALPHAS FOR THE TWO SUM
MATED ENGAGEMENT SCALES FOUND IN THE EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS THREE SATISFACTION
SCALES GENDER AND '0! #OEFFICIENT ALPHAS FOR ALL SUMMATED SCALES WERE OR
HIGHER WHICH WE CONSIDERED ACCEPTABLE SEE 4ABLE )N TESTS OF THE DIFFERENCES
4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
4!",% -EANS 3TANDARD $EVIATIONS #OEFFICIENT !LPHAS AND )NTERCORRELATIONS
FOR !LL 6ARIABLES
6ARIABLE
'ENDER
#UMULATIVE '0!
0ERCEIVED 1UALITY OF !CADEMIC ,IFE
3ATISFACTION 7ITH -AJOR
#HILDRENS $EPRESSION )NVENTORY
6IGORSTRENGTH
%MOTIONAL ATTACHMENT
3AMPLE
-
3$
A
N
.OTE #ORRELATIONS ABOVE THE DIAGONAL ARE FROM 3AMPLE CORRELATIONS BELOW THE DIAGONAL
ARE FROM 3AMPLE OF THE SPLIT FILE &OR GENDER MALE AND FEMALE
P TWO TAILED
P TWO TAILED
BETWEEN THE TWO SAMPLES FOR EITHER DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS OR SCALES SCORES WE FOUND
NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES
'ENDER HAD SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS WITH '0! AND 3ATISFACTION 7ITH -AJOR
IN BOTH SAMPLES POINT
BISERIAL '0! HAD SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS WITH THE
01!, AND SATISFACTION WITH MAJOR SCALES AND THE TWO ENGAGEMENT SCALES IN
BOTH SAMPLES 7E FOUND THE THREE SATISFACTION SCALES TO BE MODERATELY CORRELATED
ACROSS THE TWO SAMPLES n !LSO WE FOUND THE THREE ENGAGEMENT SCALES
THAT 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL DEVELOPED TO BE CORRELATED AT MUCH HIGHER
VALUES 7E FOUND VIGOR #RONBACHS A TO BE CORRELATED WITH DEDICATION
#RONBACHS A AT AND WITH ABSORPTION #RONBACHS A AT ,AST
WE FOUND DEDICATION TO BE CORRELATED WITH ABSORPTION AT 7HEN CORRECTED FOR
ATTENUATION THE THREE ENGAGEMENT SCALES CORRELATED FROM TO SUGGESTING
SUBSTANTIAL OVERLAP AMONG THE THREE ENGAGEMENT CONSTRUCTS AS 3CHAUFELI 3ALA
NOVA ET AL SUGGESTED 7E FOUND THE SATISFACTION AND ENGAGEMENT SCALES TO BE
MODERATELY CORRELATED ACROSS BOTH SAMPLES n
&OLLOWING THE ANALYSIS PLAN WE CONDUCTED AN EXPLORATORY PRINCIPLE COMPO
NENTS ANALYSIS TO DETERMINE THE FACTOR STRUCTURE OF THE ENGAGEMENT ITEMS 7E
CONDUCTED A PRINCIPLES FACTOR OBLIQUE ROTATED SOLUTION WHICH PRODUCED TWO FAC
TORS WITH EIGENVALUES GREATER THAN 7E USED AN OBLIQUE ROTATION BECAUSE OF THE
HIGH CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE ENGAGEMENT FACTORS 4HIS SOLUTION ACCOUNTED FOR
A TOTAL OF OF THE VARIANCE 5SING A CUTOFF VALUE OF FOR THE FACTOR LOAD
INGS ALL ITEMS LOADED ON ONE OF THE TWO FACTORS SEE 4ABLE 7E LABELED THE
FIRST FACTOR %MOTIONAL ATTACHMENT WHICH COMPRISED )TEMS n 7E LABELED THE
SECOND FACTOR 6IGORSTRENGTH WHICH COMPRISED )TEMS n 4HE TWO FACTORS HAD A
NEGATIVE CORRELATION OF n
7EFALD $OWNEY
3AMPLE
-
3$
A
N
7E THEN FORCED A ONE
FACTOR SOLUTION AND FOUND ALL ITEMS TO LOAD AT A LEVEL
OF OR GREATER 4HIS FACTOR ACCOUNTED FOR OF THE TOTAL VARIANCE SEE
4ABLE
! THREE
FACTOR PRINCIPLES FACTOR OBLIQUE OBLIMIN SOLUTION WAS ALSO DEFINED
AND ACCOUNTED FOR OF THE EXPLAINED VARIANCE SEE 4ABLE /F THE ITEMS
WE CROSS
LOADED ONE )TEM USING A CRITERION OF 4HE FIRST FACTOR FROM THE
THREE
FACTOR SOLUTION WAS SIMILAR TO THE FIRST FACTOR FROM THE TWO
FACTOR SOLUTION
EXCEPT WE DID NOT LOAD )TEMS AND ON THE FACTOR 4HE SECOND FACTOR FROM
THE THREE
FACTOR SOLUTION WAS THE SAME AS THE SECOND FACTOR FROM THE TWO
FACTOR
SOLUTION 4HE THIRD FACTOR FROM THE THREE
FACTOR SOLUTION COMPRISED )TEMS AND
PLUS THE CROSS
LOADED )TEM = WAS NOT SUPPORTED USING EXPLORATORY FAC
TOR ANALYSIS &URTHER THE LOADINGS OF THE THREE FACTORS DID NOT MATCH THE LOADINGS
FROM PREVIOUS RESEARCH
5SING THE SECOND SUBSAMPLE WE PERFORMED CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSES
USING ,ISREL VERSION /N THE BASIS OF THE FINDINGS FROM THE EXPLORATORY
FACTOR ANALYSES WE TESTED A TWO
FACTOR MODEL OF ENGAGEMENT &OLLOWING THE LIT
ERATURE AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND WE ALSO TESTED BOTH A ONE
"RITT $ICKINSON
'REENE ET AL 3HIROM AND THREE
FACTOR 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET
AL MODEL
4ABLE SHOWS THE RESULTS OF THE CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSES -ODELS
AND WERE ONE
TWO
AND THREE
FACTOR SOLUTIONS RESPECTIVELY 4HE TWO
FACTOR
SOLUTION -ODEL HAD THE BEST FIT BUT FAILED TO REACH THE STANDARD ADJUSTED
GOODNESS
OF
FIT LEVEL .EITHER THE ONE
NOR THREE
FACTOR MODEL WAS A GOOD FIT
WITH THE DATA "ECAUSE OF THESE INCONCLUSIVE FINDINGS IT IS CLEAR THAT A ONE
FACTOR
EXPLANATION IS THE MOST PARSIMONIOUS !S A RESULT ( WAS NOT SUPPORTED 4HE
4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
4!",% -EANS 3TANDARD $EVIATIONS AND &ACTOR ,OADINGS FOR %NGAGEMENT
)TEMS 4WO
&ACTOR 3OLUTION .
%NGAGEMENT ITEM
) AM PROUD OF MY STUDIES
7HEN ) AM STUDYING ) FEEL
MENTALLY STRONG
7HEN STUDYING ) FEEL STRONG AND
VIGOROUS
7HEN ) STUDY ) FEEL LIKE ) AM
BURSTING WITH ENERGY
7HEN ) AM STUDYING ) FORGET
EVERYTHING ELSE AROUND ME
) FEEL HAPPY WHEN ) AM STUDYING
INTENSIVELY
) AM ENTHUSIASTIC ABOUT MY STUDIES
) FIND MY STUDIES CHALLENGING
4IME FLIES WHEN ) AM STUDYING
7HEN ) GET UP IN THE MORNING ) FEEL
LIKE GOING TO CLASS
) FIND MY STUDIES TO BE FULL OF
MEANING AND PURPOSE
) CAN CONTINUE FOR A VERY LONG TIME
WHEN ) AM STUDYING
-Y STUDIES INSPIRE ME
) CAN GET CARRIED AWAY BY MY STUDIES
-
3$
%MOTIONAL 6IGOR
ATTACHMENT STRENGTH
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
.OTE )TEMS WITH FACTOR LOADINGS OF OR GREATER WERE CONSIDERED LOADED ON A FACTOR &OR
%MOTIONAL ATTACHMENT PERCENTAGE OF VARIANCE WAS &OR 6IGORSTRENGTH PERCENTAGE OF
VARIANCE WAS 6ALID C
ORIGINAL THREE
FACTOR STRUCTURE DID NOT EMERGE FROM THE EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS AND
WAS NOT CONFIRMED IN THE CONFIRMATORY ANALYSIS
4O TEST ( WE PERFORMED A SECOND
ORDER FACTOR ANALYSIS ON THE THREE
FACTOR
SCALE SCORES OF ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT THAT 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL SUG
GESTED AND THREE SATISFACTION SCORES 01!, #$) 3ATISFACTION 7ITH -AJOR SEE
4ABLE /NLY ONE EIGENVALUE WAS GREATER THAN ONE AND ALL SIX SCALES LOADED ON
ONE FACTOR WITH LOADINGS OF OR GREATER 4HIS SUGGESTED A LARGE OVERLAP BETWEEN
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT AND ACADEMIC SATISFACTION 7HEN WE FORCED A TWO
FACTOR
SOLUTION THE TWO FACTORS OF ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION EMERGED SEE 4ABLE
7E USED A HIERARCHICAL REGRESSION ANALYSIS TO EXAMINE WHETHER ENGAGEMENT
AND SATISFACTION UNIQUELY PREDICTED STUDENT PERFORMANCE "ECAUSE THE TWO
FACTOR
MODEL OF STUDENT ENGAGEMENT HAD THE BEST FIT WITH THE DATA IN THE PRESENT SAMPLE
WE USED THE TWO
FACTOR MODEL 5SING THE SPLIT SAMPLE WE ENTERED GENDER IN THE
&ACTOR
/NE FACTOR SOLUTION
n
&ACTOR
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
&ACTOR B
4HREE FACTOR SOLUTION
n
n
n
n
&ACTOR C
.OTE )TEMS WITH FACTOR LOADINGS OF OR GREATER WERE CONSIDERED LOADED ON A FACTOR &ACTOR NAMES ARE NOT GIVEN BECAUSE THE THREE FACTORS DID NOT
MATCH THE THREE FACTORS THAT 7 " 3CHAUFELI - 3ALANOVA 6 'ONZLEZ
2OMA AND ! " "AKKER FOUND
A
6ARIANCE B6ARIANCE C6ARIANCE
) AM PROUD OF MY STUDIES
7HEN ) AM STUDYING ) FEEL MENTALLY STRONG
7HEN STUDYING ) FEEL STRONG AND VIGOROUS
7HEN ) STUDY ) FEEL LIKE ) AM BURSTING WITH ENERGY
7HEN ) AM STUDYING ) FORGET EVERYTHING ELSE AROUND ME
) FEEL HAPPY WHEN ) AM STUDYING INTENSIVELY
) AM ENTHUSIASTIC ABOUT MY STUDIES
) FIND MY STUDIES CHALLENGING
4IME FLIES WHEN ) AM STUDYING
7HEN ) GET UP IN THE MORNING ) FEEL LIKE GOING TO CLASS
) FIND MY STUDIES TO BE FULL OF MEANING AND PURPOSE
) CAN CONTINUE FOR A VERY LONG TIME WHEN ) AM STUDYING
-Y STUDIES INSPIRE ME
) CAN GET CARRIED AWAY BY MY STUDIES
%NGAGEMENT ITEM
4!",% /NE AND 4HREE &ACTOR 3OLUTIONS FOR %NGAGEMENT )TEMS .
7EFALD $OWNEY
4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
4!",% /VERALL &IT )NDEXES #ONFIRMATORY &ACTOR !NALYSIS .
-ODEL
.ULL
/NE FACTOR
4WO FACTOR
4HREE FACTOR
C
Y[
.&)
#&)
)&)
'&)
!'&) 2-3%!
.OTE .&) NORMED FIT INDEX #&) COMPARATIVE FIT INDEX )& INCREMENTAL FIT INDEX '&)
GOODNESS OF FIT !'&) ADJUSTED GOODNESS
OF
FIT INDEX 2-3%! ROOT MEAN SQUARE ERROR
OF APPROXIMATION THE CHI SQUARE AND DEGREES OF FREEDOM REPORTED FOR THE NULL MODEL ARE
FROM THE -ODEL OUTPUT 4HE ONE
FACTOR MODEL STEMMED FROM THE RESULTS OF THE EXPLOR
ATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS AND LITERATURE REVIEW SEE 4 7 "RITT * - $ICKINSON $ -OORE #
! #ASTRO ! " !DLER ! 3HIROM 4HE TWO
FACTOR MODEL STEMMED FROM THE
RESULTS OF THE EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS 7 " 3CHAUFELI - 3ALANOVA 6 'ONZLEZ
2OMA
AND ! " "AKKER FOUND THE THREE
FACTOR MODEL
HIERARCHICAL REGRESSION IN THE FIRST STEP THE 01!, MEASURE OF SATISFACTION IN THE
SECOND STEP AND THE TWO FACTORS OF ENGAGEMENT IN THE THIRD STEP 'ENDER PREDICTED
A SMALL AMOUNT OF VARIANCE IN THE FIRST STEP 2 2 P )N THE FULL
MODEL WITH ALL THE PREDICTORS INCLUDED ONLY SATISFACTION CONTRIBUTED TO THE PREDIC
TION OF '0! 2 2 01!, P GENDER P
VIGORSTRENGTH P EMOTIONAL ATTACHMENT P 7E CREATED
A REGRESSION EQUATION USING THE UNSTANDARDIZED BETA WEIGHTS FROM THE PRECEDING
REGRESSION OUTPUT AND USED THAT EQUATION TO PREDICT '0! IN THE SECOND SUBSAMPLE
TO CROSS
VALIDATE THESE FINDINGS 4HE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE ACTUAL AND PREDICTED
'0!S WAS P 2 AND WAS CONSISTENT WITH THE ORIGINAL FINDING OF
2 "ECAUSE ENGAGEMENT DID NOT MAKE A UNIQUE CONTRIBUTION BEYOND SATISFAC
TION IN PREDICTING '0! ( WAS NOT SUPPORTED
$ISCUSSION
"ECAUSE THE ENGAGEMENT CONSTRUCT IS PREVALENT IN THE WORKPLACE SOUND
RESEARCH SHOULD BE CONDUCTED TO INVESTIGATE THE UNDERLYING NATURE OF THE CON
STRUCT AND WHETHER IT IS SIGNIFICANTLY DISTINCT FROM SIMILAR CONSTRUCTS #LARIFYING
THE NATURE OF ENGAGEMENT IS IMPORTANT FOR SCIENCE AND PRACTICE -ANY CONCEPTS
MAY BE GENERALLY CLASSIFIED AS POSITIVE AFFECT IN THE WORKPLACEDISTINGUISHING
AND CLARIFYING THESE CONCEPTS INCLUDING ENGAGEMENT WILL FURTHER THE UNDER
STANDING OF ENGAGEMENT AND SIMILAR CONSTRUCTS 4HE PRESENT RESEARCH CALLS INTO
QUESTION THE PREVAILING DIMENSIONALITY OF ENGAGEMENT AND PROVIDES EMPIRICAL
AND THEORETICAL EVIDENCE FOR A ONE
FACTOR STRUCTURE &URTHER THE RELATION BETWEEN
ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION POINTS TO A GREAT DEAL OF OVERLAP AND CALLS INTO QUES
TION THE USEFULNESS OF THE ENGAGEMENT CONSTRUCT BEYOND THAT OF SATISFACTION *OB
&ACTOR B
H
/NE
FACTOR SOLUTION
COMPONENT MATRIX
n
&ACTOR A
n
&ACTOR A
4WO
FACTOR SOLUTION
PROMAX PATTERN MATRIX
"ECAUSE AN OBLIQUE SOLUTION WAS USED ONLY TOTAL PERCENTAGE OF VARIANCE CAN BE REPORTED B6ARIANCE
0ERCEIVED 1UALITY OF !CADEMIC ,IFE SUM
3ATISFACTION 7ITH -AJOR SUM
#OLLEGE $ESCRIPTIVE )NDEX SUM
6IGOR SUM
$EDICATION SUM
!BSORPTION SUM
%NGAGEMENT ITEM
H
4!",% 3TUDENT %NGAGEMENT AND !CADEMIC 3ATISFACTION /NE AND 4WO &ACTOR 3OLUTIONS FOR 0RINCIPAL #OMPONENTS
!NALYSIS
7EFALD $OWNEY
4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
SATISFACTION IS A GENERAL JOB ATTITUDE WITH A LONG HISTORY OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE IN
ACADEMICS AND INDUSTRY .EW JOB ATTITUDES APPEAR OFTEN BUT FEW OFFER INCREMEN
TAL VALIDITY BEYOND THAT OF SATISFACTION 4HE PRESENT RESEARCH PROVIDES EMPIRICAL
AND STATISTICAL EVIDENCE THAT ENGAGEMENT MAY NOT OFFER ANYTHING NEW THAT IS NOT
ALREADY OFFERED BY SATISFACTION
0REVIOUS RESEARCHERS ON ENGAGEMENT HAVE FOUND SUPPORT FOR A THREE
FAC
TOR STRUCTURE OF ENGAGEMENT STUDENT AND JOB ENGAGEMENT 3CHAUFELI 3ALA
NOVA ET AL DEFINED ENGAGEMENT AS THE PERSISTENT AND POSITIVE AFFECTIVE
MOTIVATIONAL STATE OF FULFILLMENT IN EMPLOYEES CHARACTERIZED BY VIGOR DEDICA
TION AND ABSORPTION 3CHAUFELI -ARTINEZ ET AL WROTE h2ATHER THAN A
MOMENTARY AND SPECIFIC STATE ENGAGEMENT REFERS TO A MORE PERSISTENT AND PERVA
SIVE AFFECTIVE
COGNITIVE STATE THAT IS NOT FOCUSED ON ANY PARTICULAR OBJECT EVENT
INDIVIDUAL OR BEHAVIORv P )N THE PRESENT STUDY ONE FOCUS WAS ON CONFIRM
ING THE THREE
FACTOR STRUCTURE OF ENGAGEMENT (
!LTHOUGH THE ONE
AND THREE
FACTOR SOLUTIONS APPEARED EQUALLY REASONABLE
/CCAMS 2AZOR AND THE PRINCIPLE OF PARSIMONY SUGGEST THAT THE ONE
FACTOR
MODEL IS THE BEST MODEL TO EXPLAIN ENGAGEMENT %VEN THOUGH A TWO
FACTOR
STRUCTURE EMERGED FROM THE EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS AND WAS THE BEST FITTING
MODEL IN THE CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS THIS APPEARS TO BE LARGELY A DATA
DRIVEN RESULT 4HERE IS NO THEORETICAL BASIS FOR A TWO
FACTOR STRUCTURE OF ENGAGE
MENT AND THE TWO
FACTOR MODEL FROM THE CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS WAS NOT
A GOOD FIT EVEN THOUGH IT WAS A BETTER FIT THAN THE ONE
AND THREE
FACTOR MODELS
WERE 'IVEN THE PREVIOUS RESEARCH THE ITEMS IN EACH OF THE TWO FACTORS ALSO DID
NOT MAKE SENSE TOGETHER #URRENT RESEARCHERS HAVE SUGGESTED EITHER A ONE
OR
THREE
FACTOR MODEL OF ENGAGEMENT /UR EXPLORATORY FINDING OF TWO FACTORS DID
NOT MATCH THE EXISTING RESEARCH NOR DID IT FIT WITH ANY THEORETICAL EVIDENCE IN
THE LITERATURE
-ORE RESEARCH IS NEEDED TO FURTHER SORT THE STRUCTURE OF ENGAGEMENT
(OWEVER BECAUSE OF THE NATURE OF THE PREVIOUS FINDINGS ON ENGAGEMENT SEE
3CHAUFELI -ARTINEZ ET AL 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL 3CHAUFELI
3ALANOVA AND THE HIGH CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE THREE FACTORS OF
ENGAGEMENT IN THOSE STUDIES IT SEEMS LIKELY THAT A ONE
FACTOR MODEL IS THE MOST
REASONABLE ONE 4HIS MEANS THAT CURRENT AND FUTURE RESEARCHERS ON ENGAGEMENT
SHOULD NOT AUTOMATICALLY ACCEPT THE THREE
FACTOR STRUCTURE !LSO BECAUSE OF THE
HIGH CORRELATIONS OF THE THREE FACTORS OF ENGAGEMENT AND CORRECTED CORRELA
TIONS APPROACHING THE SIMPLEST EXPLANATION OF ENGAGEMENT SEEMS TO BE A
SINGLE FACTOR 4HUS ( WAS NOT SUPPORTED 4HIS LINE OF THOUGHT AND LOGIC FOL
LOWS WHAT SOME OTHER RESEARCHERS HAVE SUGGESTED 3HIROM ARGUED THAT
ENGAGEMENT SHOULD BE CATEGORIZED AS VIGOR AND "RITT $ICKINSON 'REENE ET AL
ARGUED THAT ENGAGEMENT IS A SINGLE CONSTRUCT FOCUSING ON CARING ABOUT
INDIVIDUAL WORK PERFORMANCE
7E PERFORMED A SECOND
ORDER FACTOR ANALYSIS TO DETERMINE THE NATURE OF THE
STRUCTURE OF THE DATA FOR THE ORIGINAL THREE SCALE SCORES OF ENGAGEMENT AND THREE
7EFALD $OWNEY
SCALE SCORES OF ACADEMIC SATISFACTION 4HE RESULTS YIELDED A ONE
FACTOR SOLUTION
WITH ALL SIX SCALES HAVING LOADINGS GREATER THAN 4HUS ( WAS NOT SUPPORTED
!T THE LEVEL OF THE SCALE SCORES ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION WERE HIGHLY RELATED
CONSTRUCTS 4HIS SUGGESTS THAT THERE IS A GENERAL FACTOR OF AFFECTIVE ATTACHMENT IN
A COLLEGE CONTEXT
4HE REGRESSION ANALYSIS ALSO SUGGESTED THAT THE TWO CONSTRUCTS ARE HIGHLY
RELATED !LTHOUGH SATISFACTION AND OVERALL ENGAGEMENT UNIQUELY PREDICTED PERFOR
MANCE AT THE ZERO
ORDER LEVEL WHEN WE ENTERED THE TWO ENGAGEMENT SUBSCALES AS
FOUND IN THE EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS AS PREDICTORS SEPARATELY NEITHER ENGAGE
MENT SCALE UNIQUELY PREDICTED PERFORMANCE BEYOND SATISFACTION 4HESE RESULTS
MIRROR THE FINDINGS FROM THE FACTOR ANALYSIS AND HIGHLIGHT THE NEED FOR A MUCH
CLOSER EXAMINATION OF ENGAGEMENT AS A CONSTRUCT THAT IS DISTINCT FROM SATISFACTION
4HIS LEADS US TO BELIEVE THAT STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IS STRONGLY TIED TO ACADEMIC
SATISFACTION AND THAT THERE IS A GREAT DEAL OF OVERLAP BETWEEN THE ENGAGEMENT AND
SATISFACTION CONSTRUCTS
"OTH ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION ARE DEFINED IN TERMS OF AFFECT SEE ,OCKE
3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL 4HE SIMILARITY OF THE DEFINITIONS OF
ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION PROVIDE SOME THEORETICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE OVERLAP OF
THE CONSTRUCTS AND 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET ALS ENGAGEMENT ITEMS ARE A MEASURE
OF AFFECTIVE STATES AS ARE THE SATISFACTION ITEMS WE USED IN THE PRESENT STUDY /UR
RESULTS ARE CONSISTENT WITH 3HIROM S CRITICISMS !LSO IT IS PROBABLE THAT
THE OVERLAP BETWEEN THE CONSTRUCTS HOLDS TRUE FOR ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION IN
THE WORKPLACE !LTHOUGH THIS WAS NOT TESTED IT SEEMS REASONABLE TO EXPECT THE
SAME FACTORS TO APPLY TO BOTH POPULATIONS 2ECENT RESEARCHERS HAVE SUGGESTED THAT
SATISFACTION IS A MEDIATOR BETWEEN VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS EG JOB OPPOR
TUNITIES JOB CHARACTERISTICS PERSONAL DISPOSITIONS JOB WITHDRAWAL COGNITIONS
ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS AND COUNTERPRODUCTIVE WORK BEHAVIORS
#REDE ET AL 4HIS PLACE IN THE NOMOLOGICAL NETWORK IS PRECISELY WHERE
ENGAGEMENT IS THOUGHT TO BE LOCATED FURTHER ADDING TO THE THEORETICAL OVERLAP
WITH SATISFACTION
"ECAUSE OF THE SUBSTANTIAL OVERLAP FOUND BETWEEN STUDENT ENGAGEMENT AND
ACADEMIC SATISFACTION WE BELIEVE AS DID 3HIROM THAT IT IS TIME TO TAKE
A CLOSER LOOK AT THE NATURE OF ENGAGEMENT AS A CONSTRUCT AND DETERMINE WHETHER
RESEARCHERS ARE MEASURING IT APPROPRIATELY !LSO THESE RESULTS SUGGEST THAT RESEARCH
ERS SHOULD MORE ACCURATELY DETERMINE WHETHER IT IS A SEPARATE CONSTRUCT OR MERELY A
COMPONENT OF SATISFACTION )T IS ALSO POSSIBLE THAT ENGAGEMENT MAY BE TAPPING INTO
JOB INVOLVEMENT .EWTON +EENAN OR SIMPLY AFFECT ON THE JOB &REDRICK
SON ,OSADA
4HE LITERATURE ON ENGAGEMENT SUGGESTS THAT THE FIELD IS HAVING DIFFICULTY
DIFFERENTIATING ENGAGEMENT FROM SIMILAR CONCEPTS SUCH AS SATISFACTION COM
MITMENT AND POSSIBLY PERSONALITY TRAITS SUCH AS CONSCIENTIOUSNESS ! CLOSE
LOOK AT THE ENGAGEMENT ITEMS "RITT $ICKINSON 'REENE ET AL 3ALANOVA
ET AL REVEALED THAT MANY ARE SIMILAR TO SATISFACTION COMMITMENT AND
4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS ITEMS &OR EXAMPLE (ARTER 3CHMIDT AND (AYES
EXPLICITLY USED SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT CONCEPTS IN THEIR ENGAGEMENT
MEASURES 4HE CONFUSION REGARDING ENGAGEMENT SEEMS TO BE HAPPENING FIRST AT
THE CONCEPTUAL AND THEN AT THE ITEM LEVEL
4O EXPLAIN WHY THESE RESULTS DIFFER FROM RESEARCH THAT PRIMARILY 3CHAUFELI
3ALANOVA ET AL CONDUCTED IT IS POSSIBLE THAT CULTURAL DIFFERENCES MAY
EXIST BETWEEN THE 5NITED 3TATES AND THE COUNTRIES WHERE 3CHAUFELI AND COLLEAGUES
CONDUCTED RESEARCH 3PAIN FOR 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL 3PAIN 0ORTUGAL AND
THE .ETHERLANDS FOR 3CHAUFELI -ARTINEZ ET AL )T IS LIKELY THAT THIS LED TO
THE DIFFERENCES IN THE RESULTS BETWEEN THE PRESENT STUDY AND 3CHAUFELIS PREVI
OUS STUDIES (OWEVER EVEN 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL SUGGESTED A ONE FACTOR
SOLUTION 4HE THREE FACTOR STRUCTURE OF VIGOR DEDICATION AND ABSORPTION THAT
3CHAUFELI -ARTINEZ ET AL REPORTED IS A POTENTIAL PROBLEM 4HE CORRELATIONS THAT
THEY REPORTED OF THREE SAMPLES FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES WERE HIGH AND RANGED
FROM TO 4HESE LEVELS OF INTERCORRELATION AND THE SMALL DIFFERENCES FOUND
IN 3CHAUFELI -ARTINEZ ET ALS FIT INDEXES FOR THE ONE TWO AND THREE FACTOR
SOLUTIONS SUGGEST THAT THE ONE FACTOR SOLUTION THAT WE FOUND IS NOT COMPLETELY
INCONSISTENT WITH THEIR RESULTS "ECAUSE OF THE LIMITED NATURE OF THE SAMPLE WE
USED RESEARCHERS SHOULD CONDUCT FURTHER WORK TO SETTLE THE FACTOR STRUCTURE OF THE
ENGAGEMENT SCALE 4HERE ARE LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDENT SAMPLE AND OUR FINDINGS
MAY NOT GENERALIZE TO THE WORKPLACE &URTHER THERE ARE LIMITATIONS BECAUSE ALL
OF THE STUDENTS WERE IN THE #OLLEGE OF "USINESS 4HESE LIMITATIONS MAY INCLUDE
SAMPLE SPECIFIC RESULTS FROM STUDENTS TAKING BUSINESS CLASSES
&UTURE 2ESEARCH
/UR RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ON THE STRUCTURE OF ENGAGEMENT
ARE THAT NO MATTER WHAT APPROACH RESEARCHERS USE THEY SHOULD NOT ASSUME
A MULTI FACTOR STRUCTURE FOR ENGAGEMENT !LSO WE SUGGEST RESEARCHERS USE A
HIERARCHICAL REGRESSION TO DETERMINE WHETHER ENGAGEMENT HAS INCREMENTAL
VALIDITY BEYOND OTHER CONSTRUCTS THAT THEY MEASURE 2ESEARCHERS SHOULD FOCUS
ON WHETHER STUDENT OR JOB ENGAGEMENT AND ACADEMIC OR JOB SATISFACTION ARE
SEPARATE CONSTRUCTS )T IS POSSIBLE THAT THE ENGAGEMENT ITEMS ARE TAPPING INTO
SOME COMPONENT OF SATISFACTION OR OTHER CONSTRUCT SUCH AS JOB INVOLVEMENT OR
EVEN POSITIVE AFFECT
4HE PREDICTION OF A RELATION BETWEEN ENGAGEMENT AND SATISFACTION WAS SUP
PORTED AND SUGGESTS A SIZABLE RELATION 4HESE RESULTS ARE CONSISTENT WITH THOSE
THAT (ARTER ET AL FOUND IN THE WORKPLACE !T THE UNIT LEVEL ENGAGEMENT
AND EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION WERE RELATED AND ENGAGEMENT AND PERFORMANCE WERE
ALSO RELATED 4HE PATTERN OF THE FINDINGS FOR STUDENTS APPEARS TO CLOSELY SUPPORT
THOSE FOUND IN A LARGE SAMPLE OF WORKERS 2ESEARCHERS SHOULD BE CAREFUL NOT
TO IMPLY ANY CAUSAL LINK INCLUDING DIRECTION BETWEEN ACADEMIC SATISFACTION
AND ENGAGEMENT 4HE FINDINGS AND AMOUNT OF RESEARCH ON THIS ISSUE IS LIMITED
7EFALD $OWNEY
!NOTHER INTERESTING FINDING WAS THAT STUDENTS PERFORMANCE WAS SIGNIFICANTLY
RELATED TO SATISFACTION 4HESE RESULTS RUN COUNTER TO ESTABLISHED RESEARCH FIND
INGS )AFFALDANO -UCHINSKY THAT PERFORMANCE AND SATISFACTION ARE
UNRELATED HOWEVER THEY SUPPORT *UDGE "ONO 4HORESEN AND 0ATTONS
REVIEW OF THAT RELATION
!N INCREASING NUMBER OF ORGANIZATIONS ARE DEVELOPING ENGAGEMENT PRO
GRAMS #ORPORATE ,EADERSHIP #OUNCIL ;#,#= A B %NGAGEMENT
OFFERS A MUCH MORE POSITIVE PERSPECTIVE WITH THE POTENTIAL TO HELP ORGANIZATIONS
"ECAUSE OF THE INCREASING NUMBER OF ORGANIZATIONS STUDYING EMPLOYEE ENGAGE
MENT SEE #,# A B (ARTER ET AL ACADEMICS SHOULD PROVIDE
SOLID RESEARCH TO UNDERSTAND ITS CORRELATES ANTECEDENTS AND CONSEQUENCES
7E DEVELOPED THE FINAL MODEL IDENTIFIED IN OUR RESEARCH ON THE BASIS FO
RESULTS FROM THE PRESENT SAMPLE AND MODIFICATION INDEXES FROM PREVIOUS MODELS
)T IS POSSIBLE THAT THESE CHANGES WERE CAPITALIZING ON CHANCE FACTORS IN THE DATA
HOWEVER THE USE OF A CROSS VALIDATION APPROACH ARGUES AGAINST THIS EXPLANATION
!LSO ALL DATA POINTS WERE SELF REPORTED INFORMATION AND THUS MAY PRODUCE
INFLATED RELATIONS BETWEEN THE VARIOUS MEASURES AND CONSTRUCTS )T IS CLEAR THAT
ADDITIONAL RESEARCH NEEDS TO BE CONDUCTED TO REPLICATE THESE FINDING AND CONCLU
SIONS &UTURE RESEARCHERS SHOULD INVESTIGATE THE RELATION BETWEEN PERSONALITY AND
ENGAGEMENT /UR SPECULATION IS THAT THE CORRELATION BETWEEN ENGAGEMENT AND
PERSONALITY FACTORS WILL BE SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM ZERO HOWEVER THIS IS AN
EMPIRICAL HYPOTHESIS
)N THE PRESENT STUDY WE HYPOTHESIZED THAT ENGAGEMENT HAS THREE DIMEN
SIONS AND THAT IT IS A SEPARATE AND DISTINCT CONSTRUCT FROM SATISFACTION (OWEVER
THESE HYPOTHESES WERE NOT SUPPORTED )NDIVIDUALS WHO MEASURE ENGAGEMENT
USING 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET ALS APPROACH AND ARE ENGAGED IN THEIR
WORK ARE LIKELY TO FEEL MORE SATISFIED )F THEY ARE SATISFIED THEY ARE LIKELY TO FEEL
MORE ENGAGED 3CHAUFELI 3ALANOVA ET AL DEFINED ENGAGEMENT AS A PERSISTENT
AND POSITIVE AFFECTIVE MOTIVATIONAL STATE OF FULFILLMENT /UR RESULTS STRONGLY
SUPPORT THIS VIEW OF ENGAGEMENT AND DEMONSTRATE THE CONNECTIVITY BETWEEN
ENGAGEMENT AND POSITIVE FEELING ABOUT WHAT ONE IS DOING AND HOW WELL ONE
DOES IT !LSO OUR RESULTS STRONGLY SUPPORT THE VIEW THAT IF ENGAGEMENT IS A
DIFFERENT CONSTRUCT RESEARCHERS SHOULD MEASURE IT IN WAYS THAT DOWNPLAY THE
AFFECTIVE COMPONENT 3UCH AN APPROACH MAY BE THE VIGOR MEASURE THAT 3HIROM
DEVELOPED
!54(/2 ./4%3
!NDREW * 7EFALD IS A VISITING ASSISTANT PROFESSOR IN THE 3CHOOL OF ,EADERSHIP
3TUDIES AT +ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY (IS RESEARCH INTERESTS INCLUDE ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
AND HUMAN RESOURCES WITH A FOCUS ON ENGAGEMENT LEADERSHIP AND PERSONALITY 2ONALD
' $OWNEY IS A PROFESSOR IN THE $EPARTMENT OF 0SYCHOLOGY AT +ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY
(IS RESEARCH INTERESTS INCLUDE PART TIME EMPLOYMENT SERVICE ORIENTATION OF EMPLOYEES
WORKnFAMILY CONFLICT AND JOB STRESS AND BURNOUT
4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
2%&%2%.#%3
"RITT 4 7 "LACK HAWK DOWN AT WORK 7HEN YOUR MOST MOTIVATED EMPLOYEES
CANT DO THEIR JOB GET READY FOR AN EXODUS (ARVARD "USINESS 2EVIEW n
"RITT 4 7 #ASTRO # ! !DLER ! " 3ELF ENGAGEMENT STRESSORS AND HEALTH
! LONGITUDINAL STUDY 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY "ULLETIN n
"RITT 4 7 $ICKINSON * - 'REENE 4 - -C+IBBEN % 3ELF ENGAGEMENT AT
WORK 4O APPEAR IN # , #OOPER $ .ELSON %DS 0OSITIVE ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
!CCENTUATING THE POSITIVE AT WORK 3AGE 4HOUSAND /AKS #!
"RITT 4 7 $ICKINSON * - -OORE $ #ASTRO # ! !DLER ! " #ORRELATES
AND CONSEQUENCES OF MORALE VERSUS DEPRESSION UNDER STRESSFUL CONDITIONS *OURNAL OF
/CCUPATIONAL (EALTH 0SYCHOLOGY n
#ORPORATE ,EADERSHIP #OUNCIL #,# A $RIVING EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE AND RETEN
TION THROUGH ENGAGEMENT #ATALOG .O #,#060$ 7ASHINGTON $# #ORPORATE
%XECUTIVE "OARD
#,# B %NGAGING THE WORKFORCE &OCUSING ON CRITICAL LEVERAGE POINTS TO DRIVE EMPLOYEE
ENGAGEMENT #ATALOG .O #,#+9334 7ASHINGTON $# #ORPORATE %XECUTIVE "OARD
#REDE - #HERNYSHENKO / 3 3TARK 3 $ALAL 2 3 "ASHSHUR - *OB SATIS
FACTION AS MEDIATOR !N ASSESSMENT OF JOB SATISFACTIONS POSITION WITHIN THE NOMOLOGICAL
NETWORK *OURNAL OF /CCUPATIONAL AND /RGANIZATIONAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
&REDRICKSON " , ,OSADA - & 0OSITIVE AFFECT AND THE COMPLEX DYNAMICS OF
HUMAN FLOURISHING !MERICAN 0SYCHOLOGIST n
&RITZSCHE " ! 0ARRISH 4 * 4HEORIES AND RESEARCH ON JOB SATISFACTION )N 3 $
"ROWN 2 7 ,ENT %DS #AREER DEVELOPMENT AND COUNSELING 0UTTING THEORY AND
RESEARCH TO WORK PP n (OBOKEN .* 7ILEY
&ULLAGAR # ! FACTOR ANALYTIC STUDY ON THE VALIDITY OF A UNION COMMITMENT SCALE
*OURNAL OF !PPLIED 0SYCHOLOGY n
(ALLBERG 5 % 3CHAUFELI 7 " h3AME SAMEv BUT DIFFERENT #AN WORK ENGAGE
MENT BE DISCRIMINATED FROM JOB INVOLVEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT %URO
PEAN 0SYCHOLOGIST n
(ARTER * + 3CHMIDT & , (AYES 4 , "USINESS
UNIT
LEVEL RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND BUSINESS OUTCOMES ! META
ANALYSIS *OURNAL OF !PPLIED 0SYCHOLOGY n
(ULIN # , *UDGE 4 ! *OB ATTITUDES )N ) " 7EINER %D 7 # "ORMAN
$ 2 )LGEN 2 * +LIMOSKI 6OL %DS (ANDBOOK OF PSYCHOLOGY 6OL )NDUSTRIAL
AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY PP n (OBOKEN .* 7ILEY
)AFFALDANO - 4 -UCHINSKY 0 - *OB SATISFACTION AND JOB PERFORMANCE !
META
ANALYSIS 0SYCHOLOGICAL "ULLETIN n
*UDGE 4 ! "ONO * % 4HORESEN # * 0ATTON ' + 4HE JOB SATISFACTIONnJOB
PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP ! QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE REVIEW 0SYCHOLOGICAL "ULLETIN
n
*UDGE 4 ! %REZ ! "ONO * % 4HE POWER OF BEING POSITIVE 4HE RELATION
BETWEEN POSITIVE SELF
CONCEPT AND JOB PERFORMANCE (UMAN 0ERFORMANCE n
+AHN 7 ! 0SYCHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF PERSONAL ENGAGEMENT AND DISENGAGEMENT
AT WORK !CADEMY OF -ANAGEMENT *OURNAL n
+UH ' $ 4HE NATIONAL SURVEY OF STUDENT ENGAGEMENT #ONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
AND OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES "LOOMINGTON )NDIANA 5NIVERSITY #ENTER FOR
0OSTSECONDARY 2ESEARCH
,OCKE % ! 4HE NATURE AND CAUSES OF JOB SATISFACTION )N - $ $UNNETTE %D
(ANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY PP n #HICAGO
2AND -C.ALLY
7EFALD $OWNEY
,YUBOMIRSKY 3 +ING , $IENER % 4HE BENEFITS OF FREQUENT POSITIVE AFFECT
$OES HAPPINESS LEAD TO SUCCESS 0SYCHOLOGICAL "ULLETIN n
-ASLACH # ,EITER - 0 4HE TRUTH ABOUT BURNOUT (OW ORGANIZATIONS CAUSE
PERSONAL STRESS AND WHAT TO DO ABOUT IT 3AN &RANCISCO *OSSEY "ASS
-ASLACH # 3CHAUFELI 7 " ,EITER - 0 *OB BURNOUT !NNUAL 2EVIEW OF
0SYCHOLOGY n
.EWTON 4 * +EENAN ! )S WORK INVOLVEMENT AN ATTRIBUTE OF THE PERSON OR THE
ENVIRONMENT *OURNAL OF /CCUPATIONAL "EHAVIOR n
2EED * ' ,AHEY - ! $OWNEY 2 ' 4HE #OLLEGE $ESCRIPTIVE )NDEX
$EVELOPMENT OF A STUDENT SATISFACTION MEASURE 3TUDIES IN STUDENT PERSONNEL NO
-ANHATTAN +3 +ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY #ENTER FOR 3TUDENT $EVELOPMENT
2EED * ' ,AHEY - ! $OWNEY 2 ' $EVELOPMENT OF THE #OLLEGE $ESCRIP
TIVE )NDEX ! MEASURE OF STUDENT SATISFACTION -EASUREMENT AND %VALUATION IN #OUNSEL
ING AND $EVELOPMENT n
3ALANOVA - 3CHAUFELI 7 " ,LORENS 3 0IER * - 'RAU 2 $ESDE EL
hBURNOUTv AL hENGAMEMENTv 5NA NUEVA PERSPECTIVA ;&ROM hBURNOUTv TO hENGAGEMENTv
! NEW PERSPECTIVE= 2EVISTA DE 0SICOLOGA DEL 4RABAJO Y DE LAS /RGANIZACIONES
n
3CHAUFELI 7 " -ARTINEZ ) 0INTO ! - 3ALANOVA - "AKKER ! " "URN
OUT AND ENGAGEMENT IN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS ! CROSS NATIONAL STUDY *OURNAL OF #ROSS
#ULTURAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
3CHAUFELI 7 " 3ALANOVA - 7ORK ENGAGEMENT !N EMERGING PSYCHOLOGICAL
CONCEPT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANIZATIONS )N 3 7 'ILLILAND $ $ 3TEINER $ 0
3KARLICKI %DS 2ESEARCH IN SOCIAL ISSUES IN MANAGEMENT -ANAGING SOCIAL AND ETHICAL
ISSUES IN ORGANIZATIONS 6OL 'REENWICH #4 )NFORMATION !GE
3CHAUFELI 7 " 3ALANOVA - 'ONZLEZ 2OMA 6 "AKKER ! " 4HE MEA
SUREMENT OF ENGAGEMENT AND BURNOUT ! TWO SAMPLE CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYTIC
APPROACH *OURNAL OF (APPINESS 3TUDIES n
3CHRIESHEIM # ! %ISENBACH 2 * (ILL + $ 4HE EFFECT OF NEGATION AND
POLAR OPPOSITE ITEMS REVERSALS ON QUESTIONNAIRE RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY !N EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION %DUCATIONAL AND 0SYCHOLOGICAL -EASUREMENT n
3CHRIESHEIM # ! (ILL + $ #ONTROLLING ACQUIESCENCE RESPONSE BIAS BY ITEM
REVERSALS 4HE EFFECT ON QUESTIONNAIRE VALIDITY %DUCATIONAL AND 0SYCHOLOGICAL -EA
SUREMENT n
3ELIGMAN - % 0 #SIKSZENMIHALYI - 0OSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY !N INTRODUCTION
!MERICAN 0SYCHOLOGIST n
3HIN + *OB ENGAGEMENT AND JOB BURNOUT IN A 3OUTH +OREAN SAMPLE 5NPUBLISHED
DOCTORAL DISSERTATION +ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY -ANHATTAN
3HIROM ! &EELING VIGOROUS AT WORK 4HE CONSTRUCT OF VIGOR AND THE STUDY OF
POSITIVE AFFECT IN ORGANIZATIONS )N $ 'ANSTER 0 , 0ERREWE %DS 2ESEARCH IN ORGA
NIZATIONAL STRESS AND WELL BEING 6OL PP n 'REENWICH #4 *!) 0RESS
3IMMONS " , 0OSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK 3AVORING CHALLENGE AND ENGAGE
MENT )N 2 "URKE $ , .ELSON %DS !DVANCING WOMENS CAREERS 2ESEARCH AND
PRACTICE PP n /XFORD %NGLAND "LACKWELL
3TAATS 3 0ARTLO # 0REDICTING INTENT TO GET A COLLEGE DEGREE *OURNAL OF #OLLEGE
3TUDENT $EVELOPMENT n
/RIGINAL MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED -AY
&INAL VERSION ACCEPTED $ECEMBER
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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