Week 9

Chapter 6: Vector Spaces

We have already looked at a few number systems in this course that have displayed similar algebraic
properties. For example, R, matrices, vectors in R2 , R3 , . . . , Rn .
In terms of linear operations, they have all shared properties such as associativity, distributivity,
commutative addition, a zero element, and an identity element. We can deal with these number
systems and many others simultaneously by introducing the notion of an abstract vector space.
Definition:
A vector space V is a non-empty set of objects called vectors with two operations called addition
and scalar multiplication subject to the following 10 axioms below.
(These terms are in quotes because we will refer to the objects as vectors but they may actually be
matrices or polynomials or real numbers etc. The addition and scalar multiplication are in quotes
since these operations will be have varying definitions depending on the object that the operation is
applied to.)
Addition Axioms:
A1. If ~u and ~v are in V ,then ~u + ~v V .
A2. ~u + ~v = ~v + ~u
A3. ~u + (~v + w)
~ = (~u + ~v ) + w
~
A4. There is a ~0 V such that ~v + ~0 = ~v for all ~v V .
A5. There is a ~v V for each ~v V such that ~v + (~v ) = ~0.
Scalar Multiplication Axioms:
S1. If ~v V , then a~v V for all a R.
S2. a(~v + w)
~ = a~v + aw
~ for all ~v , w
~ V and all a R
S3. (a + b)~v = a~v + b~v for all ~v V, a, b R.
S4. a(b~v ) = (ab)~v for all ~v V, a, b R
S5. 1~v = ~v for all ~v V
Examples:
1. R is a vector space where the vectors are real numbers and addition and scalar multiplication
are the operations you learned long, long ago.
2. Rn is a vector space where the vectors are the vectors youve come to love in Math 115 and
addition and scalar multiplication are defined in your notes from Week 1.

3. Mmn : the set of all m n matrices is vector space where the vectors are matrices and the
operations were defined in Week 3. You enjoyed proving those 10 axioms using (i, j)-notation.
4. Pn : the set of all polynomials of degree n is a vector space.
Here the vectors are of the form:
p~ = p(x) = an xn + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
~q = q(x) = bn xn + . . . + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0
We define addition as follows:
p~ + ~q = (p + q)(x) = (an + bn )xn + . . . + (a2 + b2 )x2 + (a1 + b1 )x + (a0 + b0 )
Scalar Multiplication: k(~p) = k(p(x)) = kan xn + . . . + ka2 x2 + ka1 x + ka0
Zero Vector: ~0 = 0(x) = 0xn + . . . + 0x2 + 0x + 0
Negative Vector: ~p = p(x) = an xn . . . a2 x2 a1 x a0
We can verify that the rest of the axioms hold as well.
5. F [a, b]: the set of all continuous functions on the closed interval [a, b].
Vectors are functions such as f (x) and g(x).
Two functions f and g are equal or f = g iff f (x) = g(x) for all x [a, b].
Addition and scalar multiplication are defined point-by-point so that (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
and (rf )(x) = r(f (x)) for all x [a, b].
The zero vector is the zero function f (x) = 0 for all x [a, b].

Crazy Vector Spaces

We can define vector spaces however we like by coming up with crazy definitions of addition and
scalar multiplication as long as they satisfy the 10 rules.

Let V = {(1, x) : x R}.

Define addition as (1, a) + (1, b) = (1, a + b)
Define scalar multiplication as k(1, a) = (1, ka)
Is V a vector space?

Let U = {(x, y) : x, y R}.

Define addition as: (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c + 1, b + d + 1).
Define scalar multiplication as k(a, b) = (ka, kb).
Is U a vector space?

We will now generalize all our algebraic properties of Rn to a general vector space V . We could
go back to all the theorems we proved in Chapter 5.2 and replace R by V . These theorems involved
linear independence and span which are defined in terms of addition and scalar multiplication. Any
properties that were used in the proofs will be found under the list of 10 axioms of a general vector
space. We will not restate all the theorems and definitions here.

Polynomial Subspace Example

Let H = {p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d : a b + c d = 0}. Is H a subspace of P3 ?
Solution:
We need to check that H contains the zero vector of P3 , and that H is closed under addition and
scalar multiplication.
1. ~0 H since the zero polynomial 0(x) = 0x3 +0x2 +0x+0 satisfies the condition 00+00 = 0.
2. Let p1 (x), p2 (x) H.
Then p1 (x) = a1 x3 + b1 x2 + c1 x + d1 where a1 b1 + c1 d1 = 0
and p2 (x) = a2 x3 + b2 x2 + c2 x + d2 where a2 b2 + c2 d2 = 0.
Now (p1 + p2 )(x) = p1 (x) + p2 (x) = (a1 + a2 )x3 + (b1 + b2 )x2 + (c1 + c2 )x + (d1 + d2 )
and (a1 +a2 )(b1 +b2 )+(c1 +c2 )(d1 +d2 ) = (a1 b1 +c1 d1 )+(a2 b2 +c2 d2 ) = 0+0 = 0.
Thus, (p1 + p2 )(x) H.
3. If p1 (x) is in H as above.
Then (kp1 )(x) = k(p1 (x)) = ka1 x3 + kb1 x2 + kc1 x + kd1
and ka1 kb1 + kc1 kd1 = k(a1 b1 + c1 d1 ) = k(0) = 0.
Thus, (kp1 )(x) H.
H is a subspace of P3 .
Matrix Subspace Example
Let A be a fixed matrix in Mnn . Show that U = {X Mnn : AX = XA} is a subspace of Mnn .
1.

2.

3.

Polynomial Span Example

Does p1 (x) = 1 + x + 4x2 lie in the span{1 + 2x x2 , 3 + 5x + 2x2 }?

Function Independence Example

In the vector space F [0, 2], is {sin x cos x, sin 2x} linearly independent or dependent?
What about {sin x, cos x}?

Standard Basis
Rn : Recall that the standard basis for Rn is ~e1 , ~e2 , . . . , ~en .
Note that these vectors are linearly independent and span Rn since the matrix that contains these
vectors as columns is the identity matrix I which has a leading one in every row and column.
Thus, Rn has dimension n since there are n vectors in a basis for Rn .
Pn : The standard basis for Pn is {1, x, x2 , . . . , xn }.
Note that these vectors are linearly independent and
expressed using these vectors.
Thus, Pn has dimension n + 1.

 
1 0 0
0 1
M23 : The standard basis for M23 is
,
0 0 0
0 0
and so M23 has dimension 2 3 = 6.
In general Mmn has dimension m n.

they span Pn since any vector in Pn can be

 
 
 
 

0
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
,
,
,
,
,
0
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

We can use these simple standard basis to create a basis for a vector space from a set of linearly
independent vectors. Recall that Theorem 2 from 5.2 stated that we can extend a linear independent
set of vectors to a basis by adding vectors that do not lie in the span of this set. We can choose these
vectors from the standard basis for our vector space.

Create a Basis by Extending a Set of Polynomials

Find a basis for P3 containing the set {1 + x, 1 + x2 }.
Solution:
This set is linearly independent since neither vector is a scalar multiple of the other.
The standard basis for P3 is {1, x, x2 , x3 } and P3 has dimension 4, so we need to add 2 more vectors
to obtain another basis.
We dont want to add {1, x} or {1, x2 }, since the sets {1 + x, 1 + x2 , 1, x} and {1 + x, 1 + x2 , 1, x2 }
are linearly dependent. (Can you see why?)
If we add {1, x3 }, we obtain a linearly independent set of 4 vectors {1 + x, 1 + x2 , 1, x3 } in P3 which
will form a basis.
Polynomial Basis Example
Show that {x2 + x3 , x, 2x2 + 1, 3} is a basis for P3 .

Matrix Basis Example


Find a basis for the subspace U =

X M22





1 1
1 1
:
X=X
.
0 0
0 0

More Examples
1. Is H = {(x2 + x + 1)p(x) : p(x) P2 } a subspace of P4 ?
2. Show that P2 is spanned by {1 + 2x2 , 3x, 1 + x}.
3. Is U = {A M22 : BAC = CAB} where B and C are fixed matrices, a subspace of M22 ?
4. Find a basis for the subspace S of symmetric n n matrices in M22 . What is the dimension of
S?

 
 
 

1 1
1 1
1 0
0 1
5. Does the set
,
,
,
span M22 ?
1 0
0 1
1 1
1 1
6. Is W = {A Mnn : tr(A) = 0} a subspace of Mnn ? (tr(A) = trace of A, which is the sum of
the entries along the main diagonal of A.)