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American University of Afghanistan

Name: Ershad Zaheer
Bahar Jalali

Instructor: Dr.
Course: HIS 120

Modern Afghanistan: Amin Saikal

Chapter One
From Tribal Confederacy to National Coalescence
AFG has existed as a recognizable political unit since the middle of the 18 th
century. Prior to this, of course, the country did not have any national
cohesion or a political identity as AFG.
1. Ahmad Shah (1747- 1772)
Was a leading figure of the prestigious Sadozai clan of the
Pashton Abdali tribe and the Abdali tribe was led by his father
Zaman Khan
Ahmad Shah was at the service of the Persian King Nader Afshar.
After assuming the title of Durr-e-Durran or pearl of pearls
rapidly managed to free divided Afghan tribes from prison and
Mughal domination.
He established a powerful Durrani Conquest empire, stretching
from its north-westernmost point at Khorasan to the Ganges
plain in the Indian subcontinent.
He died in 1773
He ruled AFG for 25 years.
AFG is a macro society with 30 languages and consist of following
populations:
Pashtons
Tajiks
Turkic Mongolian-Iranian (Hazaras, Char Aimaq)
Brahuis (belong to sub continental pre-Aryan, spoke Dravidian)
Baluchis
Turkic Peoples (Uzbeks, Qezelbash (redheads))
Nooristanis

 Arabs
Jews
Armenians
Punjabis
Khorasanis
Ahmad Shah always sought to maintain ethnic peaces and political alliance.
Married wives from other ethnicities and even hired the Qezelbash to serve
as his PSDs.
Ahmad Shahs conquest:
Two main reasons of his conquest successes1. Claimed to be a defender of Islam and the constant urging
from some Indian Muslim leaders, esp. Shah Waliullah
Dehlawi, that he defends Muslims in the Indian
subcontinent against Hindu hegemony.
2. The consideration of the more the Afghan tribal militias
were engaged in offensive ops, the greater the chances of
their units and commanders becoming persistently
preoccupied with warfare, proud of their conquest and,
above all engrossed in the pecuniary gains which war
booty brought them.
While skirted by divine claims-divine right of king-, his rule was in reality
grounded in his unique personality, the supremacy of his own tribal Pashtons
and a skilful manipulation of flexible accommodation of non-Durrani Pashtons
and non-Pashton ethnic groups and sub-groups, as well as offensive warfare.
Four major Abdali tribes:
1. Sadozai Popalzai Durrani
2. Barekzai Mohammadzai
3. Alokozai
4. Achekzai
The Ghilzais were a rival tribe of the Abdali. The central bond that held them
together was Ahmad Shahs charisma and sensible policies in regulating and
controlling tribal relationships within his confederation.
Polygamy: Ahmad Shah Habibullah Khan, father of Amanullah Khan, then
Amanullah Khan abolished this law because it was misused by Afghans.
2. Taimoor Shah: (1772 1793)
Ahmad Shahs older son Taimoor Shah initially appeared successful in
holding the Durrani Empire together to a considerable extent. However, he
didnt have the same leadership attributes as his father. His rule was soon
challenged from within his own sub-clan, and revolts from other tribes and
ethnic groups, particularly the Ghilzais, Khorasanis and Sistanis, forcing him
to transfer the capital from Kandahar to KBL during 1775-76.

3. Zaman Shah (1793 1800)

Taimoor Shah failed to designate someone as his successor.
Zaman Shah, Taimoor Shahs 5th son by his favorite wife, who belonged
to the east Pashton tribe of the Yousofzai, with the help of a leading
Barekzai figure of KAN, Payendah M. Khan, set in motion a sequence of
power struggles between him and his brothers.
The Durrani Empire was disintegrated in 1818 into three major
princedoms KBL, KAN, and Herat plus scores of lesser principalities.
The Persians under their new and assertive Qajar dynasty were trying
to remove AFG control over part of Persia and Herat.
The Sikhs, under the leadership of Ranjit Singh, threw off AFG
domination in the wake of Nowshera in 1823, rapidly expanding
influence in the traditional AFG lands.
The British supported the Sikhs, and the Russians encouraged and
assisted the Persians to move against the Afghans as part of wider
competition between Russian and GB.
Decentralized Provincial Kingdoms (1800 1880)
Emergence of Modern State with Demarcated Borders (1880)
Major Power Rivalry
Russians wanted:
a. Safe geographical borders, preferably delineated by the ocean
b. Kulturager, or the civilizing of the White Man
c. Opening new economic markets for Russias export
British wanted:
To protect their new colonial outlay on a region-wide base.
The Great Game:
The Great Game between two imperial powers developed three salient
features.
1. It unleashed an extraordinary chain of actions and reactions,
unparalleled in modern history, aimed at the securing of regional
domination. It prompted the British to manipulate the Afghans as a
resisting force against possible Russian ambitions in the direction of
the Indian subcontinent and the Persian Gulf. This motivated the
Russians to become more assertive in their desire - to tighten their
influence in the Central Asian territories lying between Russia proper
and AFG. This in turn increased British determination to do whatever
possible to prevent the Russians from expanding beyond the Amu River
and threatening British colonial interest. To this end, the British
eventually developed the Forward Defense Policy by Lord George
Curzon who claimed that it was the most resolute defender of the
British colonial power.

2. Neither Britain nor Russian thought it beneficial to colonize AFG. This

was for two reasons:
a. Total subjugation of the country by either side would have placed
the two powers on a course of full mil confrontation, which neither
side seemed to wish to risk.
b. AFG then had none of the immediately exploitable economic and
mineral resources that might have made it sufficiently attractive to
make colonization worthwhile.
3. The relative independence of central control and warlike nature of the
tribes made conditions highly unfavorable to foreign invaders. During
both first two Anglo-Afghan Wars, the British lost only one of the setpiece of battles, but the writ of their amir ran only, and even then not
always, where their troops were, and they could occupy only main
centers such as KBL, JBad and KAN. During each war, a British general
election, in Aug 1841 and Apr 1880 respectively, resulted in
replacement of a pro-forward defense policy government by one
opposed to it. The new govs, of Robert Peel in 1841 and William
Gladstone in 1880, each dismissed the Governor-General/Viceroy who
had ordered invasion, and after achieving some face-saving victories,
the Anglo-Indian forces returned to India.
These experiences eventually convinced both British and Russians that it was
in their interests to transform the country into an effective buffer zone,
separating Russian imperial domain from British colonial possessions.
However, the only way the rival powers could enforce a buffer status on AFG
was for each one of them to make sure it had sufficient influence in the
country to pre-empt any moves by the other. This predictable led to their
quest for individual spheres of influence in AFG, with the British attempting
to be dominant in the region south of the Hindu Kush range, which bisects
AFG in the middle from east to west, and the Russians trying to maintain
influence in the region north of the range. At the same time, both sides
endeavored either to have a friendly gov in KBL or to check the power of the
KBL gov by allying themselves with the regional and tribal leaders in what
they regarded as their respective zones on influence.
The British steady but forceful campaign to limit and manipulate Afghan
rulers had two objectives:
1. To expand the security perimeter of their Indian colony and eventually
confine Afghans within as limited a territorial base as possible
2. To secure a foundation for long-term anti-Russian influence in the
country
The British forged alliances and counter-alliances with competing southern
tribes, their leading figures and various full and half ruling Durrani brothers
and throne aspirants; and they acted like kingmaker.

The two most damaging of treaties which were forcefully signed are:
1. The Treaty of Gandamak: signed in 1879, under which British India
gained practical control over Afghan fiscal, defense and FPs
2. The Durand Agreement: concluded in 1893. The Durand Line, drawn by
a British Commission and named after its head, the British Indian
Foreign Secretary, Sir Mortimer Durand, was the line arbitrarily
determining AFGs present eastern and southern frontiers and it
demarcated British & Afghan responsibilities in the Pashtun area. Since
it ran through and split several Afghan Pashtun tribes, the Durand Line
was rejected by most Afghans then and became the basis for what
subsequently developed as thorny border dispute between AFG and
British India and, after 1947, Pakistan. The Tsarist Russia did not sit
idle, it extended its borders effectively to the north of the Amu River.
After many negotiations, the Panjdeh Oasis was relinquished to the
Russians and determined AFGs northern boundary largely along its
present lines.
From the reign of Zaman Shahs successor, his brother Shah Mahmud, in
1800 to Amir Abdul Rahamn Khans assumption of the throne in 1880, seven
figures proclaimed their sovereignty over AFG. Of these rulers, who held the
throne on average for a period of seven years each, four of them assumed
the throne twice. They were Shah Mahmud (1800 - 1803 and 1809 1818),
Shah Shujah (1803-1809 and 1839 1842), Amir Dost Mohammad Khan
(1826 1839 and 1843 1863) and Amir Sher Ali Khan (1863 1866 and
1868 1879). While Shah Shujah ruled both times completely at the behest
of the British, the last two, whose reigns were the longest among all rulers,
pursued policies towards the British that could be characterized as both
accommodationist and mildly confrontationist. Sher Ali Khan at times even
became receptive to Russians overtures against the British. Of the two,
nonetheless, Amir Dost Mohammad Khans rise to power marked a turning
point in the Durrani rule.
Amir Dost M. Khans Rule
Barekzai Durrani
Sardar Payenda M. Khan, his father, was a notable Barekzai Kandahari
who had served as a powerful official in the courts of Sadozai.
His mother was a Shiite Qezelbash concubine from KBL.
When his brother was assassinated by Sadozais in 1818 and a power
struggle broke out between Sadozais and Barekzai Durrani, in
particular their M.zai clan, named after his ancestral figure, M.
Adopted the title of Amirul Momineen or Commander of Faithful in
1836.
He faced treachery and intrigues from his half-brothers.
A serious challenge was Shah Shuja, Taimoor Shahs son who was
backed by the British as most amenable to their interests

The British refusal to assist Dost M. K. in recovering Peshawar from the

Sikhs led him to receive a Russian officer in KBL. The GB thereupon
invaded in 1839 replacing Dost M. Khan with their client, Shah Shujah,
and thus igniting the first Anglo-Afghan war.
Dos M. was surrendered in Nov 1840.
The change of the gov in GB resulting from the British general election
on Aug 1841enabled Dost M. Khan to regain power in 1842 and ruled
for another 20 years.
The Pashtons were favored over other ethnic groups and the ruling
elite remained exclusionist and continued to be dominated by the
immediate family of the monarch and a handful of Durrani chieftains.
He succeeded in bringing together most territories which had formed
the Durrani Empire in the mid 18th century, with the exception of
Peshawar and other Pashtun lands on the right bank of the Indus and
he held them together by force.
His period was relative stable and it was once again seriously disrupted
when he died in 1863.
Dost M. Khan designated Sher Ali Khan as his successor.

Amir Sher Ali Khans Rule:

Gained power in 1863
His rule was challenged by his two half-bros:
a. Afzal Khan seized the throne and ruled from 1866 1867
and died in 1867
b. M. Azam Khan took power in 1867 and ruled for one year
(1867-68).
Sher Ali Khan regained power in 1868 (second time)
Received the title of Amir, proved more perceptive and innovative than
any of his predecessors, created a professional army and organized a
strong and effective central gov, pursued such a domestic and FP steps
as could both strengthen his authority and keep at bay the AngloRussian rivalry.
His Achievements:
To a degree to revived the late Ahmad Shahs multiethnic
accommodationist approach to gov in an attempt to
broaden his power base and create a national cohesion.
He not only set up a Council of Elders to advise him on
state affairs, but also included people from diverse ethnic
backgrounds in his administrative services. The Ghilzais
were particularly beneficiaries from this policy change.
He initiated a number of reformist measures, which at
least on a modest scale provided some important bases for
his successors in their efforts to achieve greater national
unity and modernize AFG. They included the creation of a

national army and mil school, which received students from

different tribes and ethnic groups; the institution of a
system for collecting land revenues in cash; a postal
service; and publication of a periodical, Shamsul Nehar
Morning Sun- is published for the very first time.
Although, favorably disposed toward Britain, he tried to
avoid antagonizing the Russians and played on AngloRussian rivalry to pursue what could be called a policy of
mild neutrality in his FRs.

Practically all Amir Sher Ali Khans major innovation affected only KBL
and territories immediately adjacent to the capital city where he could
project his power. Despite his vision and craving for reforms, he
remained hostage of traditional forces present in the country. He
ultimately could not save his rule from the dangers inherent in the
deep-rooted polygamic politics of the ruling family and Anglo-Russian
rivalry. His decision to designate as successor his youngest son,
Abdullah Jan, born from a favorite Kandahari wife but who died before
the succession time, alienated his older sons, esp. M Yaqub Khan & M
Ayub Khan. Yaqoob Khan revolted against his fathers decision and was
imprisoned. These rivalries among royals, together with the tribal
uprisings that they ignited markedly hampered Amir Sher Ali Khans
efforts at reform.
The British once again invades AFG in Nov 1878.
Sher Ali Khan escapes to the Russian border and was refused entry by
Gen. Kaufman.
Sher Ali dies in Feb 1879 and Yaqoob Khan succeeded.
Ayub Khan also opposed Abdullah Jans nomination as heir, but took a
different path to his brother by fighting the British in the Anglo-Afghan
War II.
Ayub Khan emerged as the hero of war but was heavily defeated in
Aug, 1880.
Ayub Khan seized KAN after the British left, but was defeated by Abdul
Rahman Khan, and fled to first Persia and then to British India.

Sardar Abdul Rahman Khans Rule:

Son of Afzal Khan, grandson of Dost M. Khan
Lived in exile in Samarkand and Tashkent for 12 years after his father
was defeated by Sher Ali Khan (half-bro and arch-rival of his deceased
father) in 1868.
Gen Kaufman, believing him to be pro-Russian and expecting him at
least to make trouble for the British, facilitated his return to AFG. He
quickly marshaled the support of AFGs northern Khans and Begs
(Uzbek & Turkmen leaders) and marched to KBL. He accepted the most

important point of The Gandamak Treaty that AFG has no FR with other
countries except the GB. Then the British left.
He was an Afghan nationalist, with a special distaste for the Russians,
also a man of great discipline, political will and foresight, capable of
establishing absolute rule and solidifying AFG within the structure of a
modern nation-state.
He identified the ethno-tribal heterogeneity of Afghans and the AngloRussian rivalry as major sources of AFGs problems.
His mission was to work for the welfare of the nation and be devoted
to the progress of the Afghan people for the welfare and true faith of
the Holy Prophet M.
He scorned the foreign powers as infidels and aggressors, who
constantly violated the faith, integrity and territory of the AFG people.

Achievements:
Built a very disciplined and capable army and engaged in a
process of what subsequently became known as internal
imperialism. He changed Kafirstan to Nuristan(10,000
were killed and 16,000 forcibly resettled through the
country, reducing the population by half), and used brutal
force to suppress opponents
Initiated a number of substantive political, administrative,
legal, economic and social reforms.
Concurrently managed to exhibit a great deal of caution
and aloofness in his FR and to assure both Russian and
British that a strong central gov under his leadership would
be in the best interest of both powers, as it would prevent
either from using AFG against other.
His rule was brutal and absolute, based primary on coercion and
backed by an elaborate spy network, which earned him the title of Iron
Amir
Created an AFG that had recognized international boundaries, was
politically unified, and governed directly by a centralized authority,
within the framework of fairly well-defined and universally applied
administrative and judiciary rules and regulations.
Ahmad Shah Durrani created the fundamentals for the modern
evolution of AFG as a pol unit and A. Rahamn Khan took serous steps
toward building the first modern state in that country.
He died in 1901 of natural causes; but despite his having taken several
wives, his death did not bring as turbulent a leadership succession
crisis as the deaths of his predecessors had caused. He had had
established sufficient gov structure and mechanism of controls to
enable his heir and elder son, Habibullah Khan, though born of a
Samarkandi concubine mother, to succeed him with relative ease and
rule for the next 18 years.