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Graphene Fundamentals and Emergent Applications
Graphene Fundamentals and Emergent Applications
Graphene Fundamentals and Emergent Applications
Fundamentals and
Emergent Applications
Jamie H. Warner
Department of Materials
University
of Oxford
Oxford,
UK
Franziska Schaffel
Department of Materials
University of Oxford
Oxford, UK
Alicja Bachmatiuk
IFW Dresden
Helmholtzstrafte 20
Dresden, Germany
Mark H. Rummeli
IFW Dresden
Helmholtzstrafte 20
Dresden, Germany
AMSTERDAM
ELSEVIER
WALTHAM
NEW YORK
SAN FRANCISCO
HEIDELBERG
OXFORD
PARIS
SYDNEY
LONDON
SAN DIEGO
TOKYO
Contents
1.
Introduction
1.1.
References
2.
Graphene and
Its
Few-layer
5
Counterparts
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
Graphene
BHayer, Trilayer
Carbon Nanotubes
16
Introduction
2.4.2.
17
2.4.3.
Transition Metal
20
2.4.4.
2.4.5.
Silicene
2.4.6.
Nanostructured
16
Dichalcogenides
23
25
2.5.2.
Lithography
Patterning Graphene
Sonochemical Cutting of Graphene
2.5.6.
28
32
33
Introduction
2.5.5.
Oxide
Graphene
2.5.1.
2.5.4.
33
via
34
40
41
Carbon Nanotubes
45
Bottom-up
Fabrication of
Graphene
References
Nanostructures
47
49
Properties of Graphene
3.1.
12
2.4.1.
2.5.3.
3.
10
Few-layer Graphene
Relationship of Graphene to
Other Layered 2D Crystals
2.4.7.
2.5.
5
and
Electronic
61
Properties
3.1.1.
Introduction
3.1.2.
61
61
Graphene
62
vi
Contents
3.1.3.
in
Transport Experiments
Graphene
References
3.2.
73
3.2.1.
Introduction
73
3.2.2.
Covalent Functionalisation of
3.2.3.
Noncovalent Functionalisation
Graphene
of
3.2.4.
Graphene
Summary
83
84
Graphene
3.3.1.
Introduction
3.3.2.
3.3.3.
3.3.4.
in
Graphite
87
in
Graphene
88
95
97
The Mechanical
99
3.4.1.
99
3.4.2.
Properties of Graphene
Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength
Adhesion, Tearing and Cracking of Graphene
3.4.3.
3.4.4.
3.4.5.
3.5.
104
110
111
114
3.5.1.
114
Properties of Graphene
Thermal Conductivity
125
129
Mechanical Exfoliation
129
4.1.1.
129
4.1.2.
Micromechanical Exfoliation
130
4.1.3.
Mechanical
Cleavage
134
4.1.4.
Mechanical
Milling
4.1.5.
Summary
of
of
Graphite
Graphite
135
135
References
4.2.
103
The Thermal
102
References
References
4.
86
86
References
3.4.
74
80
References
3.3.
64
71
136
Chemical Exfoliation
137
4.2.1.
Introduction
4.2.2.
138
4.2.3.
Different Types of
147
4.2.4.
148
4.2.5.
150
4.2.6.
How
to
to
Chemical Exfoliation
Characterise
Graphene
4.2.7.
Other 2D
4.2.8.
Summary
References
Graphite
137
Chemically Exfoliated
151
Crystals
153
153
154
GD
Contents
4.3.
155
155
4.3.2.
Chemical Reduction of
4.3.3.
Heat Treatment of
4.3.4.
Electrochemical Reduction of
4.3.5.
Summary
Graphene
Graphene
Oxide
156
Oxide
159
Graphene
Oxide
160
References
4.4.
162
of
Bottom-up Synthesis
Precursors
163
4.4.1.
Introduction
163
4.4.2.
Solution-based approaches
Sol utilisation Strategies
163
4.4.3.
4.4.4.
Solvothermal
166
4.4.5.
Chemothermal-based Approaches
167
4.4.6.
Self-assembly
170
Synthesis
of
164
and sonication
Graphene
Oxide Nanosheets
References
4.5.
Chemical
171
Metals
introduction
173
4.5.2.
CVD Basics
173
4.5.3.
Substrate Selection
174
4.5.4.
Substrate Pretreatment
175
4.5.5.
Graphene
176
4.5.6.
Early
4.5.7.
The Role of
Over Ni and Cu
Growth
177
4.5.8.
4.5.9.
Segregation
CVD
Reaction
routes
183
184
186
187
Synthesis of Graphene
Over Nonmetals
189
4.6.1.
Introduction
189
4.6.2.
Aspects
190
Graphene
191
4.6.3.
to
4.6.4.
Metal-assisted Routes
4.6.5.
Non-metals
as
195
for Carbon Nanowall
Catalysts
graphene)
Fabrication (vertical
4.6.6.
4.6.7.
Nanowall
4.6.8.
Substrate-free PECVD
Sheets
4.6.9.
Graphene
on
or
196
Nanosheet
Synthesis
Synthesis of Graphene
197
198
Surfaces
198
References
Epitaxial
195
Vapour Deposition
4.7.
173
4.5.1.
References
4.6.
159
201
Growth of
Graphene
on
SiC
204
4.7.1.
Introduction
204
4.7.2.
Reaction Protocol
205
4.7.3.
206
C viii")
Contents
4.7.4.
Epitaxial Graphene
4.7.5.
Face-to-Face Growth
4.7.6.
Laser-induced Growth of
4.7.7.
Epitaxial Graphene
4.7.8.
Graphene Growth by
on
208
Epitaxial Graphene
on
Molecular Beam
of SiC
4.7.9.
Epitaxy
212
ofSiOx
213
SiC/Metal
Hybrid
Systems for
Graphene
Formation
References
Transfer to
Introduction
4.8.2.
Transfer of
216
216
4.8.3.
4.8.4.
Transfer of
Graphene
4.8.5.
Towards
Grown
on
Grown
on
on
219
SiC
223
Graphene
Arbitrary Substrates
225
Summary
226
227
Characterisation Techniques
5.2.
229
Optical Microscopy
229
References
237
Raman
5.2.1.
Spectroscopy
238
Introduction
238
References
5.3.
Scanning
246
Electron
Microscopy
248
References
5.4.
253
Transmission Electron
Microscopy
5.4.1.
Introduction
5.4.2.
Atomic Resolution
Atomic Scale
254
254
5.4.3.
Surface Contamination
5.4.4.
Determining
256
259
the Number of
Layers Through
(Scanning) Transmission Electron Microscopy
Characterisation of Defects in Graphene
261
5.4.6.
Characterisation of
272
5.4.7.
In-situ
5.4.5.
Graphene Edges
Manipulation of Graphene in
TEM
References
5.5.
216
Metals
References
5.1.
213
214
Substrates
Arbitrary
4.8.1.
to
5.
210
212
4.7.11.
4.8.6.
209
4.7.10.
4.8.
207
265
276
277
Electron Diffraction
280
5.5.1.
Introduction
280
5.5.2.
Determining the
Diffraction
Number of
GD
Contents
5.5.3.
5.5.4.
of Rotational
5.5.5.
Low-energy
Stacking Faults
287
Electron Diffraction
292
References
5.6.
294
STM of
5.6.5.
Summary
Graphene
on
Insulators
AFM
as a
Graphene
Introduction
5.7.2.
Graphene
5.7.3.
AFM Studies
5.7.4.
AFM
as a
on
309
309
Different Surfaces
on
310
GO
Tool to
313
Properties
313
319
Mobility
and Field-effect
Mobility
5.8.1.
5.8.2.
321
321
Mobility
on
Graphene
Samples
5.8.3.
322
Graphene
Maximising Mobility
Summary
Mobility
in
5.8.4.
5.8.5.
325
326
331
References
6.
331
Applications of Graphene
6.1.
299
307
Tool for
5.7.1.
Hall
298
306
References
5.8.
296
296
304
References
5.7.
284
333
Electronic Devices
333
6.1.1.
Introduction
6.1.2.
333
6.1.3.
The
336
333
6.1.4.
Graphene MOSFET
Opening a Band Gap
6.1.5.
Strain
6.1.6.
Engineering
338
Band Gap
in
338
338
6.1.10.
Gap
Bilayer Graphene
Graphene Nanoribbons
Further Techniques
The Optimisation of Mobility
Deposition of a High-K Gate Dielectric and
Low-Resistance Metal Contacts
341
6.1.11.
The
6.1.7.
6.1.8.
6.1.9.
6.1.12.
6.1.13.
of
Viability
Graphene
Radio-Frequency (RF) Electronics
Novel Field Effect Transistor Designs
in CMOS
339
340
340
342
343
344
Contents
Gas Sensors
6.1.14.
Metrology
6.1.15.
6.2.
345
346
Spintronics
352
6.2.1.
Introduction
352
6.2.2.
352
6.2.3.
6.2.4.
Summary
365
References
6.3.
Transparent Conducting
366
380
Nanoelectromechanical
384
6.4.1.
384
6.4.2.
6.5.
396
397
Slide
Graphene
397
Template
by Electrons
Free-Standing Graphene
as a
for
Catalyst-Free Graphene
Fabrication
6.5.3.
6.5.4.
402
as a
Subnanometer
Trans-Electrode Membrane
405
406
References
407
6.6.2.
6.6.3.
6.6.4.
6.6.5.
6.6.6.
Graphene-Based
Graphene
Materials in Supercapacitors
in Electrochemical
409
Double-Layer
Capacitors (EDLCs)
Graphene-Based Pseudo Capacitors
Graphene-Based Materials in Lithium Ion
Graphene-Based Materials in Fuel Cells
Graphene-Based Materials in Solar Cells
References
Index
409
6.7.
386
References
6.5.2.
6.6.
357
365
Electrodes
References
6.4.
346
References
411
414
Batteries
416
418
419
421
425
425
427
434
435
439