De Gruyter

Recognizing the Gods of Socrates

Author(s): Mark L. McPherran
Source: Apeiron: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science, Vol. 30, No. 4, Wisdom,
Ignorance and Virtue: New Essays in Socratic Studies (December 1997), pp. 125-139
Published by: De Gruyter
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theGodsofSocrates
Recognizing
Mark L. McPherran

areoftenpuzzledbySocrates'defenseagainst
ReadersofPlato'sApology
theformalchargethathe does notrecognizethecivicgods ofAthens
Meletusinsteadof addressingthe
(26b-8a):why does he interrogate
Meletus'responseto thismoveis evenmorepuzzling,
chargedirectly?
forinsteadofpursuingSocrateson theseemingly
morestraightforward
and plausiblereadingof the chargeas one of heterodoxy,
Meletus
to
be
diverted
into
to
allow
himself
it
appears
interpreting to be a
one
of
atheism.
does
he
makethisswitch,and
global
Why
less-plausible
howmightSocrateshavedefendedhimself
againstthestraightforward
if
had
Meletus
not
allowed
himself
tobe 'diverted'?Thatis to
reading
Meletus
have
cited
say: might
plausibly
any of Socrates'beliefsor
thatwas true- ortruer- to
behaviorsin orderto obtaina conviction
thefacts?
briefpaperistosketchoutananswer
Myaiminthisnecessarily
to onlythislastquestion,asking- in essence- whether
Socrateswas
in
some
sense
of
the
guilty
nonrecognition
charge.
To investigate
thisissueis notsimplyan exerciseinimaginary
forensics:irrespective
of how Meletusmighthave reformulated
theinitial
the accusationof nonrecognition
chargeunderSocraticexamination,
wouldstandinthemindsofsomejurorsas stillrequiring
rebuttal.
Recall,
the
first
which
readers:
The
the
state
then,
(1)
charge,
gods
recognizes,
doesnotrecognize(oiSjivf|nXiqvojiei
ovojicov).'
[Socrates]
0ecn)
Thereis controversy
overthemeaningofthisphraseinpartbecauseof
theunclarity
ofthecrucialterm'oeovojieiv'.1
Does Socrates'alleged

1 See,e.g.,Brickhouse
andSmith(1989[30-4]);Fahr;andYunis(63-6).

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126 MarkL McPherran

thegods ofAthensmeanhe is charged

failure'to recognize'(vojieiv)
oftheAthenian
withnonconformance
to theexpectedreligiouspractices
of
the
civic
cult
exist?2
Thebest
with
not
that
the
or
believing
gods
polis
that
its
linkto
one
essential
on
is,
captures
gloss 'vojLiew' arguably,
bears
the
broad
that
'vjio'.Assuming linkage,'vojieiv'
meaning'to
and
should
be underas
so
or
'Geovo^eiv'
accept practice normal',3
that
stoodtomean'toacceptthegodsinthenormalfashion',
indicating
bothcustomaryreligiousbehaviorand the set of attitudesthatare
takento underliesuchbehaviormaybe implied.Howconventionally
ever,sinceSocratesneveraddressesthequestionof his cult-practice
and natureofhis beliefs
duringhis defensebutfocuseson theidentity
that
theprimaryaspectof
it
seems
and whathe purportedly
teaches,
is
its
in
the
case
of
Socrates
at
issue
attitudinal,
'0oi)
vojieiv'
cognitive
29al-4,35d2-5).4
(Ap26b8-d5,
component
ofthecivicgods
So,then,whatdoesitmeantobelieveintheexistence
ofAthens?Whatarethecorebeliefsonemusthaveinordertoconform
Ata miniofAthenianpoZ/s-religion?
to theeveryday'belief-demands'
mum,itis clearthatone mustbelieve(1) thatthereexistgods denoted
by thenames of thosegods who enjoypubliclyfundedcults for
that
these
and
Athena
Zeus
Polieus
Polias;(2)
godspayattenexample,
notice
of
oath
humans
affairs
of
tionto the
etc.),
breaking,
(e.g.,taking
of reciprocalexchangebetween
and (3) thatthereexistrelationships
humansand thesegodssuchthatthesegodsrecognizean obligation
(in
somesense)torespondtoprayersaccompaniedbysacrificial
offerings,
thatis,aregodswitha doutdescult.5Where,then,does Socratesstand
and thegodstheyimply?
inrespectofthesethreecommitments
condition
Itis likelythatSocratessatisfied
(1),believingthatin some
Athens
exist
of
the
civic
sense
(e.g.,thatthereexistsa
gods
genuine
therhetorical
'Athena
denoted
Polias').Forfirst,
by
being
supernatural
- 'before
26b8-9
at
leftin placeby Socrates'invocation Apology
effect
thegodsaboutwhomwe nowspeak' andhismanypositivereferences

2 See, e.g., Burnet(184).

3 Yunis (65); Dover (203); Fahr (15-17,107,138-9)
4 See also Yunis (39,63-6);Fahr(153-7);Brickhouseand Smith(1989 [31]); Connor(50,
n. 10); Versnel(125); Derenne (217-23),and Reeve (78).
5 Yunis (42-5,50-8)

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theGodsofSocrates 127
Recognizing

to 'the god' who speaks throughthePythiaat Delphi (viz.,Delphic

Apollo)who has orderedhimto philosophizewiththeAthenianstowhomhe thinkswouldconvicthimofreligiousnoncondisobedience
(29a) providegoodprimafacieevidencethatSocrateswould
formity
totheexistence
ofthegodsof
an intellectual
commitment
acknowledge
28a2-4Socratesdeclaresthathe is 'notunjust
Athens.Next,at Apology
Thisis tantamount
to an
afterthesubstanceof Meletus'indictment/
ofthefirst
assertionthathe is innocentnotonlyof theinterpretation
butalso ofitsstraightforward
formalchargeas one ofglobalatheism,
of thegods ofAthens.Finally,
readingas a chargeofnonrecognition
Socrateswouldhavetakenanynumberofcivicoathsduringthecourse
theephebicoath,
ofhislife,all ofwhichcallthecivicgodsas witnesses:
thosetakenas a juror,as a memberoftheBoul(Mem1 1 18) and as a
and others
atthecvicpioi
ofhisowntrial.6
Theseobservations
litigant
ofthecivicgods.Theabove
all testify
toa Socraticbeliefintheexistence
also give good supportto his holdingtheview that(2) thegods pay
in somewaytohumanconduct.
attention
It is withthe finalcore beliefconcerningreciprocity
(3) thatwe
oftheviewthat
realdifficulties.
Besidespopularrecognition
encounter
retribution
onthosewho
thegodsprovidedmoralreciprocity
byvisiting
normsofbehavior,
thisreciprocity
was seen
violatedivinelysanctioned
of
human
and
divine
that
the
sort
'commerce'
to be exemplified
by
ofgoodswiththehopeorexpectation
ofmaintaininvolvesthesacrifice
But suchhopes and expectations
may
ing or obtainingdivinefavor.7
with
Socratic
sincethereis ampleevidence
to
conflict
morality,
appear
thatforSocratesthegodsareperfectly
withone
wise,hence,inharmony
and
so
in
anotherand perfectly
do
the
a
fashion
moral,
rightthing
sacrifice.
For
such
uninfluenced
by
clearly,although
scrupulousgods
itseemsa liveissuewhether
canserveas moralenforcers,
theycanalso
be squaredwiththe popularportraitof the gods as capriciousrule
to 'helpfriends
and harmenemies'by
breakerswho can be influenced
meansof materialsacrifice.
GregoryVlastos,forexample,holds that
ofthegodsamountstoa completerejection
Socrates'blanket-moralizing
thatwould outragealmostall Athenian
of theold myths,something

6 JACT(185); Mikalson (85,94); Rhodes (36); Yunis (26,43, 52); Watson (8). However,
see Kraut (1983 [152,n. 1]).
7 Lloyd-Jones(156-64)

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128 MarkL McPherran

citizens.8
Opposed to this,however,is theview championedby Tom
A.E.Taylor,and
whojoinJohnBurnet,
and NicholasSmith,
Brickhouse
ofskepticism
the
othersinholdingthatSocrates'confession
concerning
talesofconflict
contains'nothingto shockAtheniansentitraditional
ment/9
itfirst
needstobe emphasizedthatin
To begintoresolvethisconflict
Socrates'
viewofAthenian
practical,
legalguiltbefore
legalprocedures,
a matter
would
be
much
of
thecourton thenonrecognition
very
charge
themeaningeachjurorplacedonthephrase'godsofthestate'.IfSocrates
ofthegodsof
a beliefin theexistence
believesnothingthatcontradicts
Athens underthedescription
placedon themby theseindividualsthen he

takenby
butifhe disbelieveskeyattributes
oughttobe foundinnocent,
heis guiltyofthecharge(so construed).
them
tobe referentially
essential,
thatmostGreekswere
On theotherhand,we also need to remember
thanmanylater,beliefofwhatwe wouldcallheterodoxy
moretolerant
with
thestatusofa Bible
focusedreligionists,
havingno revealedtexts
A
doctrines
enforced
andno systematic
bya trained,
organizedclergy.10
Pindarcouldspeakplainlyof'Homer'slies,'{Nem7 23) withoutincurand we have no evidenceofanyonebeingproseringlegalsanctions,
cuted fordisbelievingthe storiesof Homer or Hesiod.11For most
oftheendofthefifth
Athenians
century,
anyway,itwouldhavebeenno
denialconcerning
doubt
or outright
of
to
hear
shock
expressions
great
or
divine
tales
of
thepoets'
Theyhad been
capriciousness immorality.
suchas Solon,Xenoforyearsby thinkers
exposedto suchcriticisms
and Euripides,noneofwhomappearto have sufphanes,Heraclitus,
basedpersecution.12
feredfromreligiously
Socratesinitiallyappearsto be in the
Giventheseconsiderations,
onemust
tohismoraltheory
fromhistheology
clear.However,turning
lex talionis
to thetraditional
notethathis insistencethat- contrary

8 Vlastos (1991), 165-7;Tate (3-5),Nilsson (275); Beckman(41)

9 Brickhouseand Smith(1989 [125-6,and n. 23]), (1994 [Ch. 6.2]); Burnet(115); A.E.
Taylor(158-9);Reeve (84, n. 14)
10 Burkert(8); Dodds (1973), 140-4;Lloyd-Jones(134); Taylor(1911), 15-16
11 Lloyd-Jones(134); Burnet(114); Dodds (1973), 141-3;Kerferd(167); Momigliano
(566); Taylor(1926), 147; Yunis (39)
12 Lloyd-Jones(130)

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theGodsofSocrates 129
Recognizing

evilon anotherortoaid
ofjustice- itis neverjusttoinflict
conception
meansthatthenegativesideofretributive
thecauseofinjustice,
justice
tojustice
('evilforevil')andtheuse ofbarteroffavors(doutdes)contrary
featuresoftruejustice.13
mustbe rejectedas coherent
Thus,and since
to eventhegods,his
Socrates'principlesofjusticeextenduniversally
'socratizecT
recognizable
way,
godsarenotsimplyjustina traditionally
retribution
fromexactinglextalionis
butare also forbidden
againstone
sacrifice
another
andhumans,andcannotrespondtodoutdespetitionary
irrespective
ofthedemandsofSocraticjustice.So, then,althoughthereare

indivineenmity
noreasonstothinkthatSocrates'disbelief
perse would
in
the
even
as
him
at
disbelief
civic
risk
of
gods
popularlyunderput
with
I
that
his
of
the
want
to
stood,
rejection
negativeside ofthe
argue
doutdesmotivations
and someofthepropitiatory
lextalionis
underlying
traditional
cult,Socrates'doctrineofdivinejusticepresentsa genuine
threat
tothecivicreligionofAthens.
versionofthisthreat
Vlastos,again,providestheextreme
byportrayof
and
Socrates'
onlythatwe
conceptions piety justiceas demanding
ing
ofoursouls,godswho areby
servethegods thoughtheimprovement
As he
beneficent'
sincecompletely
theirverynature'relentlessly
good.14
bulk
undermined
the
of
Greek
seesit,thisthoroughly
popular
religion,
foundedas itwas on thenotionthatthegodscanbe 'bribed'witha gift
to do some'good whichwithoutthatgifttheirownwillfor
ofsacrifice
theextent
good wouldnothavepromptedthemto do.'15To determine
to whichthisaccurately
capturesSocrates'relationto traditional
religious practicewe need to ask,then,theextentto whichitscorepresupincludedthenotionthatthegods can be
positionofdivinereciprocity
- and reliablyinfluenced
- to do ourwillsforbothgood
influenced
and ill.
As withso muchofGreekreligion,
theevidenceseemscontradictory,
that
the
Greeks
were
of
two
mindsconcerning
thesusceptisuggesting
the
to
sacrifice.
On
the
one
hand
of
there
arepieces
gods petitionary
bility
oftextthatsupporttheidea thatthegods can simplybe countedon to
sacrificial
ofthejustice
respondto material,
requests,evenirrespective

13 See Vlastos (1991 [Ch. 7]).

14 Vlastos (1991), 176
15 Ibid.

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130 MarkLMcPherran
forexample,PhoenixassuresAchillesthat
ofthetalio.AtIliadIX497-501,
thegods'wrathcanbe diverted
Likewise,Medea
bymeansofsacrifice.
withGod's help,'(E
thatshe can exact'justrepayment
feelsconfident
for
Med803)againstJason,eventhoughthatmeanshisjust'repayment'
livestaken'impiously'(796).Next,atRepublic
is threeinnocent
infidelity
364b-cwe learnthattherewerewanderingpriestswho promisedto
ortoharmenemies- justlyornot- bymeans
expiatepastwrongdoing
and thefollowing
section(364e-6b)indicatesthatthereare
ofsacrifice;
somewhomightbelievethosepoetswhoholdthatthegodscanevenbe
a 'cutoftheirill-got'swerved'frompunishing
wrong-doers
bygetting
tentake'.Alongthesame linesthereis thementionat Laws885b-eof
thosemanypeoplewho requireproofthatthegods are'toogood tobe
divertedfromthepathofjustice'by gifts(cf.888a-d,908e-9d),which
At948b-ePlato's
suggeststhatsuchrequestswerecommon.16
strongly
is that
Athenianevenclaimsthatthecreedofthemajority
inthewayofsacrifice
andflattery,
ifthey
they[the
paythegodsa trifle
all
in
and
deliver
the
sinner
from
will
vast
frauds
lend
their
help
gods]
sorts
ofheavypenalties.
(948c4-7)
dating
Againstthisview,however,one mustalso set thetradition
fromat leastHesiodwhichemphasizedthatthesize and splendorofa
is onlyofuse in displayingand advancingone's socialstatus
sacrifice
Itis also important
tonotethat
irrelevant
tothegods.17
andis thoroughly
was notaimedso muchat obtaining
a good deal ofsacrificial
activity
an ordered
specificgoods or evils as it was forsimplymaintaining
and
their
with
the
will,a will
good
ensuring
general
relationship
gods
influenced
that- itwas oftenagreed- couldnotbe reliably
by such
activity.18
is a sensethatthere
consideration
So whatemergesfromthistoo-brief
withthemoreamoral,mercantile
existedside-by-side
aspectsofGreek
innermotivathe
that
strand
another
worshiper's
emphasized
religion

16 Note also theprayercitedin Parker(258).

17 Burkert(274); Mikalson (100-102);Parker(259); Yunis (51); Hes Erga336; quoted in
Mem 1 3 3; cf.AlcibiadesII 149b;EN 1164b5ff.
18 Mikalson (89); Parker(259)

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theGodsofSocrates 131
Recognizing

tocarryoutthetraditional
ritesina timely
tion,hisorherdetermination
and scrupulousmanner,and so a reciprocity
based on one's inner
In viewofthehuman
and justice,noton one'spocketbook.19
propriety
in almosteverytoward
self-assertion
(and surelyGreek)propensity
this
nonmercantile
attitude
was
in
all
likelihoodan
thing,however,
For
most
mostof the
intermittent,
Athenians,
minority
phenomenon.
who
exist
but
who
do
not
and
in
some
concrete
time,gods
eventually
'to
sacrifices
fulfilled
or
oaths
forsworn'
fashionrespond
and sometimeswithouta strictregardforjustice(especiallywhenconceivedof
are 'no gods at all.'20To whatextent,then,do Socrates'
Socratically)
thenotionofreciprocity
inbothmercantile
viewssupportorundermine
and non-mercantile
senses?
Itseemstome thattheevidenceindicatesthatSocratesis committed
to a rejection
ofthepurely
mercantile
sensesofsacrificial
cult:his gods
cannotcareaboutanymaterialsacrifice
and
se,
per
Socratically-unjust
areclearlyineffective
on hisaccount.He is,however,able
imprecations
toretaintheinternal,
non-mercantile
dimension
ofthetradition,
emphathe
over
his
or
herparticular
sizing petitioner's
intentionality
requests
ormaterial
between
Thus,Socratescanadmitofreciprocity
gift-offering.
ourrequesting
ofthegodsthatourand
gods and humans,sanctioning
others'goodbe furthered,
thesegodsin some
demandingthatwe honor
andwitha divineresponsequitepossible(see,e.g.,Mem4 3 13),
fashion,
whilenotmakingita strict
ofpietythatthehonoring
involve
requirement
a material
sacrifice.
He alsorevolutionizes
thetraditional
notionsofpiety
and 'honoring',
themin termsthatemphasizethepriority
of
recasting
and
in
'soul
over
actingjustly engaging philosophical
therapy' petitionSocratesis thusnot- contraVlastos- a
aryprayerand sacrifice.21
wholesale
threatto theactualpractice
of cult,but to theinner,narrow
motivations
of
thosewho
self-aggrandizing
manyofitspractitioners:
material
in
to
sacrifice thecauseofparticular
givepriority
external-good
- self-examination
gain and neglectthe formof 'belief-sacrifice'
mandatedby Apollo.Forcertainjurorsthen jurorswho could not
embracea religiouslifeinformed
by motivations
quitebeyondtheir

19 Yunis(54-5)
20 Yunis (43; 54, n. 35); cf.Vlastos (1991 [166]); Connor (56).
21 See McPherran(1985).

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132 MarkL McPherran

usual ones- Socratescouldhavebeenrecognized(bythosewitheyes

conceived
tosee) as a genuinethreattocultas they
ofit.Letme elaborate
on theseclaims.
to
toSocrates,fromperfectly
good godswe havenothing
According
fear(Mem4 3 5-7)andmanygoodstheywillsimplygivetous attheright
15bl-2;Mem
moment,
requestedforornot(Ap41c8-d2;Euthphr
actively
withthedemands
andwhenitis consistent
1 4 5-18,4 3 3-17).Moreover,
toourdevelofSocraticjustice,theymayrewardand aid us inresponse
that
can
be
fostered
in
our
of
souls,something
byengagopment justice
Socrates'
and virtue-requesting
prayerand sacrifice.
ing in honorific
and
since
from
us
need
of
13c),
(see,e.g.,Euthphr
nothing
gods, course,
or
with
cannot
be
with
one
another
be
at
odds
cannot
justice,they
they
lex
talionis
toserveas vengeful
helpers,especially
magicallyinfluenced
ofSocraticinjustices(cf.Rep
whenour plans involvethecommission
364a-c;Laws905e).22It shouldbe clear,then,thatwiththedeitiesof
for
deals to strike:
Socrateswe have fewspecificormaterially
rewarding
in
that
one
be
aided
the
sincere,
pursuing
generalimprecation
beyond
ornot- that
therearefewrequests- accompanied
virtue,
bysacrifices
all-wisedeitiescanbe expectedtorespondto,sincewecanneverknow
and sincethegods have
ifa particular
requestwouldbe virtue-aiding
no use forand no need ofmaterialthings(see,e.g.,Mem13 2). Surely
attherootofsome
cutsstraight
thisimplication
ofSocrates'moraltheory
motivations
ofthepopulartraditional
underlying
manycultpractices.
ofthatcentral
assessment
the
Socratic
consider
To expandonthisworry,
curseimprecation.
ofGreekreligion,
feature
in thetimeofSocratestookitfor
It is relatively
clearthatAthenians
meansofcausingothersharmgrantedthatcurseswerean effective
ofpain,illness,and death,and theloss of
harmssuchas theinfliction
materialgoods - and thata good numberhad few qualms about
Now causingothersthesekindsofharmsmightbe
them.23
employing
someinstancesfora trueSocratic.Athenianlaw
in
at
least
acceptable
as a wayofpromoting
curses
justice,Socratesseems
recognized
formally

andthegodsmere
22 Otherwise,
14e6-7,
acopia ofEuthphr
pietywouldbetherejected
cf.Reeve(68).
'evilmoneylenders/
(AleII 149e4-5);
wisdom
23 See Watson(Ch.1,esp. 1 7),whonotesthatitwas a pieceofconventional
thatcurseswereinevitably
fulfilled;
cf.,e.g.,A Ch692,Th655,Pr910-11;Hes Erga
242ff.See alsoBurkert
{75).

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theGodsofSocrates 133
Recognizing

should'pay the
to acceptAthenianlaw and theidea thatwrong-doers
and
never
Socrates
we
see
8d-e),
explicitly
objectto
penalty/(Euthphr
even
were
often
charse,
per
thoughthey
pofe-authorized
punishments
acterizedas cases oflegal 'harmto enemies'and eventhoughhe ends
In fact,manycursesseemprimafacie
himself.24
up facingpunishment
in
this
werecomacceptable
way,sincesuchmaledictions
Socratically
a
to workby informinggod ofsomeinjustice,
monlythought
enrolling
25
the god in one's cause; e.g., the curseof Amyntorat II IX 444-61.
a preference
forseekingthehelpofthe
Althoughtherewas,apparently,
of
the
Underworld
when
maledictions
making
gods
(e.g.,Hades,Hecate,
and
the
even
withciviccultwere
Persephone, [esp.] Erinyes)
Olympians
in
to
be
involved
the
task
cursecentrally-importantoffulfilling
thought
Ph
Th
Zeus
Demeter
or
all
the
(Ar 295-305),
imprecations: (S 1183),
gods
one's retaliatory
aims.26
But
(S OT 269) couldbe calledupon to fulfill
a
is
first
Socrates'
here,clearly,
incompatibility:
gods(esp.Zeus Polieus)
have no need to be made awareofinjusticessincetheyalreadyknow
(see,e.g.,Mem1 1 19) and - beingperfectly
everything
just- haveno
need tobe 'enrolled'in anyjustcause.Secondly,thejusticemostcomtalio;forexammonlyappealedtois thatofthenegative,
particularized
a
those
who
killed
me
meet
like
O
fate,
Zeus,
ple,'may
god ofguests,'27
and Socratesrejectsthiskindof'evil-for-evil'
edupayback(preferring
cationtophysicalharms)and sanctionstheuse ofphysicalharmsonly
whenitis clearthatthisis notevilitself,
butbeneficially
just.Moreover,
itseemsclearthatthetalioinvokedinmanycursesis ofthatparticularly
objectionablesortwhichconfusespersonalrevengemotivatedby a
desireto humiliatewithjusticeconceivedofas a rectification
ofdebt,
and wheretheretribution
includes
often
harms,
envisaged
gratuitous
harms,toinnocents
(e.g.,an enemy'schildrenoran opponent'schariot

24 See Watson(Ch.1,esp. 1 7,1 11),whonotes,e.g.,theprovisional

curseat thestart
oftheAssemblyagainstpotential
deceivers(8) and Plato'smention
of'cursesin
accordance
withthelaws'atLaws871b(21).Onlegal'harmtoenemies',
seeBlundell
(Ch.2,esp.53-7).
25 Watson(Ch.1)
26 See Watson(Ch.1,esp. 1 14);ZaidmanandPantel(41-5).
27 Watson(44);see herCh. 1 12 forfurther
on theprominence
ofthelex
exposition
talionis
connection
withcursing.

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134 MarkL. McPherran

ifnotan
Socrates,
then,seemsboundtotakeatleasta skeptical
driver).28
outragedviewofmanyconventionally
'just'curses.Thefinalincompatibilityis moreobvious:manycurseswere consideredby even their
makersto be cases ofseekingan unfairadvantageoveran opponent,
someaimingto procureSocraticharms(causingsomeoneto be worse
offin theirsoul by deprivingthemof theirreason),and mightbe
altogether
unprovoked.
SurelySocrates- forwhomunjustactionspose
harmsforbothagentand object(e.g.,Ap 30c-d)- mustrejectthe
ofthegods in suchimprecations.29
collaboration
then,this
Altogether,
centralpracticeofGreekreligionseemsextremely
hardto squarewith
Socraticmoraltheology.
It shouldbe clearby thispoint,then,thatSocrateshad in essence
reformations
oftraditional
proposedimportant
religion:takeawaythe
conflicts
ofthemythsand you defusetheirpsychological
power,take
material
and
the
of
rewards
expectations particular
away
physicalproincult,andyoudisconnect
thereligionofeveryday
tections
lifefromits
and as ifthatweren'tenoughofa challenge,
roots.Moreover,
Socrates
also raisedthestakesforlivinga lifeofpietyconsiderably
bymakingits
finalmeasurethestateofone'sphilosophically
soul:30
he thus
purified

was oftentreatedas legalized

28 See Blundell(50-1,54-5),who notesthatlitigation
to clashwithothermoralnorms(e.g.,
and thatthetaliowas recognized
revenge,
Watson(Ch. 1),notesthe
othersas a favortofriends
[Rhet1373al6ff.]);
wronging
infliction
ofpainsome
thegratuitous
and/ordisproportionate
effects
oninnocents,
a contract
cursescalledfor(e.g.,one'sentire
[cf.Ar
lineagewipedoutforbreaking
andtheefficacy
ofevenunprovoked
Th349ff.;Laws908e-9d]),
curses;seeesp.11-12,
32-6,and41-2.
andsoothsayers'
tothebeliefthatcertain
whichtestifies
29 See,e.g.,Rep364b-c,
'priests
thegodstohelpa personharmhisenemyunjustly
canuse theirspellstoconstrain
thatheis struck
ofHippolytus
(cf.Laws933c-e);seealsothecomplaint
byan unjust
whonotestheuse
curse(E Hipp1347-9).
See alsoWatson(Ch.1,esp.1 3-4,1 11-14),
ofadversaries
toimpairthementalfaculties
ofcurse-tablets
(defixiones)
bylitigants
hardtobelievethatSocrates
(42);cf.Blundell(50);Pal 18;andRep364c.Itis,finally,
inmostprovisional
curses(Watson[50])- that
couldendorsetheidea- present
in
would
evoketheangerofthe
out
the
curse
theviolationofa condition
spelled
withlackofwisdom
isassociated
bySocrates
gods,sincegivingwaytothatemotion
and connected
7b-c;Phd113e-14b)
(Prt352a-c;cf.Ap 34b-d;Euthphr
byhimwith
nonsocratic
7b).
gods(Euthphr
Euthyphro's
quarreling,
a preoccupation
30 Cf.Parker(254),whonotesthatGreekdiscouraged
individualism,
mattermorethanactions.
withinnerstates,and thebeliefthatintentions

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theGodsofSocrates 135
Recognizing

a significant
challengeto a crucialaspect of traditional
represented
tothoseunprepared
tounderstand
lifeand a dangerousthreat
Athenian
In a limitedsense,then,itis truethattheethicaltransformaorchange.31
tothedestructionoftheold godswrought
bySocrateswas 'tantamount
tionoftheold gods,thecreationofnewones/32
especiallyinthewayhe
and warrants.
features
leftreligiousritualwithoutall itsformer
Ifthisis right,
how
could
Socrates
have
affirmed
theexistence
though,
ofthegodsofthestate?Can Socratesacknowledgethese
godsand at the
cultic
sametimerejectthestoriesofconflict,
justice-indifferent 'bribery',
connected
and curse-enforcement
up withthem?I thinkwe cananswer
intheaffirmative.
Socrateshas theconceptualresourcesto maintainthatsuchpopular
to theview of the mistakenmanyallegationsdo not - contrary
ofthereal'godsofthestate'.To thosewho
specify
anyessentialfeatures
that
know
full
well
ofwhatgods theyspeak,Socratescan
protest they
holdin typicalfashionthattheysimplydo notfullyunderstand
themselvesand theirbeliefs(e.g.,Grg482a-c).Rather,theyharborcommitthewisdomofthegods)that- iftimeonly
ments(e.g.,thoseaffirming
allowed- he could use to elicitotherbeliefsthatwould elenctically
demonstrate
thatthey'do notagreewiththemselves',
butratherwith
and
in
do
so
fact
the
same
as
Socrates.
him,
acknowledge
gods
motivates
thisanswer,butthereis also a piece
Philosophical
charity
of textthatindicatesthatthisis Socrates'own understanding
of his
situation.
At theveryend ofhis defensespeech,justwherewe should
ofhis innocence,
Socratesinforms
the
expectto see a finalaffirmation
if
that
he
were
to
irrelevant
and/ordeceptivethat
jury
say anything
would lead themto acquithimcontrary
to whatthelaw demandsdespitethatbeingthecorrectthingto do - he would be convicting
himself
ofimpietyand unbeliefin 'thegods',and would also be guilty
of enticingthejurorsinto impiousbehaviouras well (34b-5d).He
concludes:

31 I therefore
andSmith(1994
agreewithKraut(1995),whoobservesthatBrickhouse
[Ch. 6 2]), do notacknowledgetheway in whichSocraticpietyput traditional
intodoubt.
cult-practices
32 Vlastos(1991[166]);cf.Connor(56).

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136 MarkL McPherran

So do notdeemthatI ... shouldpracticesuchthingsbeforeyouwhich
I hold to be neither
noblenorjustnorpious,and certainly,
by Zeus,
I
forimpiety
aboveallnotwhen ambeingprosecuted
byMeletushere!
Forplainly,ifI shouldpersuadeand forceyoubybegging,afteryou
I wouldbe teaching
arenogods,
haveswornanoath,
youtoholdthatthere
and inmakingmydefensespeechI wouldsimplybe accusingmyself
of notbelievingin gods.But thatis farfrombeing so. For I do recognize

do.(35c7-d7;
West
them
...as none
[vouco]
adaptedfrom
ofmyaccusers
andWesttranslation;
myemphasis)

In context,
all thatSocratesneeds to offerhereto defendhimself
that
reformulated
Meletus'
chargeofatheismis an affirmation
against
he believesthatgodsofsomesortexist.Andthishe does,withboththe
ofhisvigorousdenialthathe teachesatheismand his
effect
rhetorical
toan assertion
that'I do recognizethem'amounting
remark
that,inhis
alsorhetorically
inthiscontext
ownview,godsdo exist.Butsuchremarks
ofthegods'ofwhomwe'vebeenspeaking'
implybeliefintheexistence
is also
(26b8-9)- thatis,thegodsoftheAthenian
polis.Thisimplication
to
Zeus
and
the
reference
of
Zeus
mention
Socrates'
reinforced
explicit
by
to thejurorsof
Horkios(Zeus ofOaths)implicitin Socrates'reminder
at thetime
betweenoathbreakingand atheism.Jurors
theconnection
tookan oathto judge accordingto thenomoiofAthens,and Socrates'
audiencewillbe fullyawarethatthesesanctionand supportthecivic
religionand thatitis theZeusofthecivicreligionwho is chargedwith
To encouragesomeonetobreaksuchan oath
oathbreakers.33
punishing
inthegodssanctioned
wouldbe toencouragedisbelief
therefore
bythe
ZeusHorkiosandPolieus.So whenSocrates
andespecially
civicreligion,
todo that,theobviousimplication
saysthathe is 'far'fromattempting
so clearthatSocrates,
tobe drawnbyeachjuror- an implication
given
couldnotallowtostandifhe didnothold
hisconcerntotellonlytruths,
himself- is thatSocratesbelievesin theexistenceof
theimplication
Zeus Polieusand theothercivicgods.
his
Noticetoo thatalthoughSocrateshas thoroughly
accomplished
them
'I
do
totheatheismchargeoncehe says
aimofreplying
recognize

but... judge
33 Theoathboundthejurorsto'holdno grudgesandnotbe influenced,
tothelaws/(seeAndMyst91);MacDowell(43-4).
according

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theGodsofSocrates 137
Recognizing

his position
[thegods]/he doesn'tstopthere,but goes on to contrast
withthatoftheoppositionbyclaimingthathe recognizesthegodsin a
way(s) superiorto thatofhis accusers.Now Socratescannotmeanto
assertthathis accusersare insincerewhen theyprofessbeliefin the
understoodorthegods ofthestate
existenceofeithergods generically
thatphrase.34
So themostplausibleinterpretation
as they
understand
of
Socrates'remarkis to see itas claimingthathisaccusersdo notbelieve
inandbytheirprosecution
inrespect
do notactconsistently
consistently
referred
to onlywhen
of therealcivicgods,gods thatget accurately
and responsestojusticereferences
totheirallegedenmities,
ignorance,
indifferent
materialcultare omittedfromthemeaningone intendsby
'I recognizethegods ofthestate/It is suchthoroughly
moral
asserting
and
all
and
that
Socrates
believes
his
beliefs
actions
in,
gods
concerning
consistent
withone another;
whereasMeletus- as
themareseemingly
- ispronetoentertaining
Socratesdemonstrates
contradictory
theologiinthegodsbypersuadingthejurorsto
cal notions,
encouragesdisbelief
judgewithout
regardforthefactsofhiscase,andfailstopursuethetruly
task
of
toSocrates,itis
Hence,and in contrast
pious
doingphilosophy.
Meletuswhomustbe saidtonotreallyoradequatelybelieveinthegods
ofAthens!
therewasa threatto theciviccultin Socrates,evenif
Nevertheless,
fewofthejurorsdetectedit.Hence,Socrateswas guiltyas chargedof
in a sense- thepopularsense- ofwhatit meansto
nonrecognition
'notrecognizethegods' ifonetunesthatchargefinely
enoughso thatit
concernsthe motivationsfor and expectationssurroundingcult.
Whether
suchformulations
would have stillproduceda conviction
is,
ofcourse,a puzzle forthoseskilledat theanalysisofcounterfactuals.
Whatremains,I trust,is therecognition
thattheconceptualchanges
had theological
Socratesinstituted
ramifications
whoseeffects
notonly

34 And surelySocratesis notsayingthathe sacrifices

morescrupulously
thanhis
prosecutors.
I thankmycommentator
attheArizonaColloquiumonSocrates,
AsliGocer,and
as well,fortheircomments
on an earlierversion
myfellowconference
participants
ofthispaper.I am also grateful
to NickSmithforhis helpfulcommentary
on a
pre-Arizonaversionof the paper,presentedto theWorkshopon Reasonand
ofTexas,Austin,September,
1996.A
Greece,University
Religionin Fifth-Century
revisedversionofthispaperhas,finally,
beenincorporated
intosection3.4ofmy
book, TheReligionofSocrates.

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138 MarkLMcPherran
butthrough
onPlatoandtheotherSocratics,
them,
profoundly
impinged
and thehistory
ofWestern
religiousthought.
shapedantiquity
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