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Means End Chains
Means End Chains
Means End Chains
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ABSTRACT
Means end chain theory proposes that knowledge held in
consumers memory is organized in a hierarchy with concrete
thoughts linked to more abstract thoughts in a sequence progressing
from means (i.e., product features), to psychological and social
consequences, and finally to ends (i.e., fulfillment of personal values).
This article proposes several advances in the theory. First, specific
buying and consumption situations serve as frames of reference
when consumers are thinking about products and alternative
features of products and brands. Second, states of psychological
imbalance may occur in consumers minds among linkages retrieved
automatically for features consequences and consequences values;
thus, Heiders balance theory informs means end chain theory and
research. The theoretical and practical usefulness of means end
research increases from asking consumers to name an acceptable
alternative to the product and brand used in a recent consumption
situation, as well as an unacceptable option, and to describe the
features consequences values of these options; consequently,
Fourniers alternative relationships of consumer brands (e.g., casual
friendships, marriages, enmities) become relevant for means end
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In consumer research on means end chains, the meanings that a consumer associates with a product, service, or specic brand are represented hierarchically. The lowest level depicts an objects attributes
those that are physical or concrete, and those that are abstract (e.g., a
brands image). The remaining levels are consumers outcomes including functional and psychosocial consequences, followed by consumers
instrumental and terminal values (see Gutman, 1997).
Laddering is a frequently used research method for electing means
end chains. Traditionally, laddering is a metaphor representing a respondents answers to a series of why probes, typically starting with
the attributes that distinguish more-desired from less-desired alternatives. Asking for successive elicitations creates a chain of elements leading from a products attributes to one or a few terminal values: Each
successive concept learned becomes a subgoal for the nal goal. Gutman
and Reynolds (1978) illustrate a resulting ladder elicited from a respondent in a study of breakfast cereal: crunchy : has body : stays with
me : avoid snack : aids weight loss : improves appearance : romance.
In the empirical research the present article describes, the questions,
what makes you say that? and what does that lead to? are used in
place of why probes. Becker (1998) emphasizes that why requires a
good answer, one that makes sense and can be defended. Such answers
are unlikely to reveal logical aws and inconsistencies.Becker recommends using How? questions.
When I asked them [such questions] gave people more leeway, were
less constraining, invited them to answer in any way that suited them,
to tell a story that included whatever they thought the story ought to
include in order to make sense. They didnt demand a right answer,
didnt seem to be trying to place responsibility for bad actions or outcomes anywhere. (Becker, 1998, p. 59)
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Figure 1. Extended original balanced state for Posner and VW case study.
example, direct questioning of how a cereal being crunchy aids a consumers love life may cause a scofng response from the consumer. Asking the consumer a sequence of probing questions is a form of auto driving (cf. Heisley & Levy, 1991) research that may enable the consumer
to surface unconscious thoughts that rarely enter conscious processing.
Surfacing unconscious processes may result in tension and stress because unbalanced associations occur among concepts now in a consumers working memory (cf. Heider, 1958). The thought, a Jewish couple buys a German car (see Figure 1 and Woodside & Chebat, 2001)
implies an example of such stress resulting from a surfacing of negatively valued concepts and images some held unconsciously with the
positive experiences associating with buying a car highly prized for its
design features. Advancing Heiders balance theory to person, brand,
and attribute (and attribute-to-benet-to-instrumental and terminal
values) enables more robust means end chain laddering research because the resulting ladders may uncover and display stress and stress
resolution, as well as harmonious associations.
Pieters, Baumgartner, and Allen (1988) advocate following an alternative empirical method for means end chains versus the more wellknown laddering approach that Gutman and Reynolds (1978) demonstrate. Peiters et al. (1988) elicit peoples reasons for wanting to do
something or to pursue a goal rather to than to name concrete features
that they associate with a product. Bagozzi and Dabholkar (2000) apply
the approach of Peiters et al. approach for mapping persons cognitive
schemas regarding a specic target, President Clinton. Whereas the Pieters et al. (1998) and Bagozzi and Dabholkar (2000) renements are
useful for describing how specic schemas accurately predict attitudes
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Figure 2. Means end laddering research: Updating the theory and data collection
method.
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action to occur. From this prior event there must be some sort of recognition, or immediate feelings or thoughts that act as drivers to act.
Stemming from the driver is the action itself, or the product usage. The
consumer describes of the product (what it was, how much was consumed, and what brand), and provides a brief description of the situation (when and where the action occurred, others present at the time).
From these steps the entire MEC develops and builds up to the terminal
values.
Identifying a specic lived consumption experience and situation provides theoretical ground for developing means end chains based on the
proposition that the consumption of a specic product and brand is acceptable in only certain situations. In fact, the same brand and product
form may associate positively to one situation and negatively to alternative situations for the same consumer. Also, different attributes and
benets may come to mind for consumers of the same brand, depending
on the usage situation that the consumer is thinking about (cf. Bearden
& Woodside, 1978; Belk, 1974). Consequently, resulting means end
chains may be expected to vary contingent on the focal situations being
described in consumers lived experiences.
From the description of the product and the situation comes the three
distinct series of the extended MEC. On the left is the reject alternative
and on the right is the alternative that would be considered. The center
of the model focuses on the product that was actually used or consumed.
The separate attributes of the product or brand are laid out in order to
get an idea of the benets or consequences of each. This same questioning process is used to collect information for the alternative and reject
products. After the benets of the attributes is where the MEC begins
to probe for the instrumental beliefs and values of the respondent. These
beliefs are often unconsciously stored thoughts that the consumer may
not connect but that actually play a role in their decision-making process. Some benets may lead to the same values, and benets from the
alternative and the reject products can also tie into these same values.
The model shows that the alternative and reject products may tie in
with the entire means end chain, which is why they should be considered when one is looking at the unconscious thinking of consumers. Finally, the chain concludes with terminal values or their core values and
beliefs in the Ss life.
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FINDINGS
Beverage Consumed on Monday Morning
For this situation each respondent answered questions about the rst
beverage they consumed on the day that the interviews took place. Eric
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Figure 3. Means end chain laddering ndings for Erics rst beverage on Monday
morning, 2 10 February 2003.
went to bed around 1:00 a.m. and did not have anything to drink before
going to sleep. After waking up at 10:00 a.m. on Monday morning with
a dry mouth and morning breath he went down to the kitchen in his
apartment and poured a 16 oz. glass of Tropicana orange juice. Eric
proceeded to have another glass of orange juice while he ate a bagel
alone at the table. The attributes that he associates with Tropicana
orange juice are that it tastes sweet, kills morning breath, and contains
vitamin C (see Figure 3).
No benet was linked with the sweet taste, but sweet taste is an
attribute that Eric remarked that he prefers. The benet of killing
morning breath was having better breath throughout the day, which
was also a benet that he did not believe any alternative drinks offered.
Eric explained that he had always been told by his mother that he
should drink a lot of orange juice to prevent getting a cold, which is the
benet of the product containing vitamin C. By preventing illness he
believes that he would not have to visit the doctor, which was a positive
relationship because he does not like paying the extra money or dealing
with doctors in general. As an alternative Eric suggested that he also
likes to drink Gatorade because it quenches his thirst and keeps him
hydrated. Again, by staying hydrated he believes that he will be able to
stay in better shape and remain healthier, which ties in with the benets of the vitamin C in orange juice.
Having good breath is important for Eric because one of his main
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Figure 4. Means end chain laddering ndings for Peters rst beverage on Monday
morning, 2 10 February 2003.
but it did not turn out that their core values were also the same. There
was the similarity of staying healthy but that is one of the only similarities. Also each respondent had a different relationship with their
brand of choice. Using the relationships developed by Fournier (1998),
Eric is in a committed partnership with the Tropicana brand, whereas
Peter is a casual friend/buddy with his brand of orange juice. Eric is
in a long-term, voluntary union with Tropicana even though it is higher
priced, because it is a brand that he knows and trusts. Peter buys more
based on price, so as long as a certain brand is the cheapest he will
continue to purchase it, but if a competitor suddenly becomes cheaper
he will now buy that brand. There is no long-term commitment in the
brand relationship.
Beverage Consumed Last Friday Night between 8:00 P.M.
and Midnight
Both Eric and Peter describe themselves as heavy drinkers, drinking 10
beers on average four or ve nights a week. This consumption has increased somewhat over the last couple of years but all throughout they
have been beer drinkers. Erics situation on Friday night began when
he invited friends over for pizza and to watch the game on TV (Figure
5). He had gone out earlier and bought two 30-packs of Busch Light for
the evening, and his friends were expecting to drink when they arrived.
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Figure 5. Means end chain laddering ndings for Erics beverage consumption on
Friday night, 2 7 February 2003.
As the night progressed the group began to play drinking games and
consume even greater amounts of beer. By midnight Eric recalls having
about 12 cans of beer before going to sleep.
The attributes suggested for Busch Light beer are a smooth taste, it
contains alcohol, and that it contains calories. The fact that the beverage
contained alcohol seemed to be the most prominent reason for consuming the beer. The benet of the alcohol is that it gets the person drunk,
which makes it easier to socialize, but much like the calories in the beer
the alcohol is also not healthy. The calories lead to getting fat and being
less attractive to females. The alternative product to drink on a Friday
night for Eric was vodka. Vodka was an alternative because it was
stronger than beer, which would get him drunker, but this leads to having a hangover. The negative consequence of being so very drunk leads
to being unattractive to females and conict with the core values of
feeling good both physically and emotionally.
The rejected product for Eric was wine, no specic brand, just wine
in general. He reports not liking the taste of wine and he also perceives
wine as a girly drink. The bitter taste of the wine causes him to feel
sick to his stomach, which has a negative relation to the core value of
feeling good physically. The alcohol in beer, which makes it easier to
socialize, has a positive relationship with the value of having fun. Eric
stressed that at his age he was more concerned with having a good time
than with worrying about too many responsibilities, but he did see this
mentality changing in the near future because of graduation.
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Figure 6. Means end chain laddering ndings for Peters beverage consumption on
Friday night, 2 7 February 2003.
The situation for Peter was different because of the setting but for
the most part the MEC looked similar to that of Eric (see Figure 6).
Peter had taken a test earlier in the afternoon that he did not believe
had gone very well. After the test he went down to the local bar, Mary
Anns, for happy hour. He met up with friend at the bar and they began
to drink beer. By 8:00 p.m. Peter was still at the bar and he was still
drinking bottles of Busch Light beer. He had about eight beers between
8:00 p.m. and the time he left the bar at 10:00 p.m.
The attributes that Peter describes in Busch Light beer are that it is
carbonated, and that it contains alcohol and calories. He could not explain what he thought the benets of carbonation are, but this could be
investigated in a follow-up interview if one was performed. Alcohol was
the major attribute that Peter described in beer. The alcohol led to getting drunk and acting immature, which was negatively related to his
core value of thinking rationally and responsibly. Peter mentioned rum
as the rejected beverage because of a bad experience that he had in the
past. Due to this bad experience he cannot drink any rum because it
makes him vomit.
Calories were not a major concern for Peter, but he did acknowledge
that they are not healthy. Because of this he would need to work out to
be more attractive to females. Wine was given as an alternative to beer
as a beverage to consume on a Friday night. Peter felt that wine is more
of a sophisticated drink and makes him look more mature. He felt that
this would make him more attractive to females in this case, one of
his core values.
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The brand relationships for both Peter and Eric are about the same
for Busch Light beer. Both respondents remarked that Busch Light beer
was popular with them because it was cheaper than most beers but that
it was not the cheapest. This is a casual friendship/buddy type of relationship because there is not a long-term commitment with the brand.
The consumers are loyal but they do buy other brands and will likely
not stay with this brand after graduation because of their increased
nancial situation. Another brand relationship can be seen between Peter and rum. This is an enmities relationship because he has a desire
to avoid the product due to its negative effects.
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Level 3 thinking includes surfacing thoughts that are mostly not under
conscious control. Level 4 thinking represents unconscious thinking between two or more persons. Level 5 thinking represents unconscious
processing, including spreading activation of relationships among concepts that the individual is unaware are occurring.
Other empirical ndings (see Bargh, 2002; Wegner, 2002) support a
core proposition about how the mind thinks: The most processing occurs
unconsciously (indicated by the thicker line 5 in Figure 7). Such unconscious thinking inuences consumers actions in ways mostly unknown
to the consumers themselves.
Such observations are likely to cause stress among consumer researchers who mainly apply the currently (early 21st century) dominating logic of asking xed-point (e.g., 7-point scale items) questions
because such questioning mostly reaches only Level 1 processing, that
is, verbalized thoughts (cf. Zaltman, 2003). Some deeper form of questioning is necessary to reach into Level 2 5 mental processing. The
advances in means end chain laddering research that this article has
proposed may help achieve this objective.
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REFERENCES
Bagozzi, R. P., & Dabholkar, P. A. (2000). Discursive psychology: An alternative
conceptual foundation to means end chain theory. Psychology & Marketing,
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Bargh, J. A. (2002). Losing consciousness: Automatic inuences on consumer
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Bearden, W. O., & Woodside, A. (1978). Consumption occasion inuence on
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Becker, H. S. (1998). Tricks of the trade: How to think about your research
while youre doing it. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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The data collection by Eric Goodwin, Boston College, of the four cases this
article describes is gratefully acknowledged. The helpful comments of the P&M
reviewers, Fran Hruska, and Rajan Nataraajan on earlier drafts of this article
are also gratefully acknowledged.
Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to: Arch G. Woodside,
Carroll School of Management, Boston College, 450 Fulton Hall, 140 Commonwealth Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467 (woodsiar@bc.edu).
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