The petrographic microscope

A petrographic microscope is used to observe a series of characteristics in a mi

neral which reflect its properties and allow us to identify it.
The petrographic microscope is a compound microscope which can work with plane p
olarised light, meaning that it has some peculiarities.
This is always done with transmitted plane polarised light, meaning that the pol
ariser must be inserted.
The type of illumination varies according to the feature to be studied, and may
be orthoscopic (parallel, without the condenser) or conoscopic (convergent, with
the condenser incorporated).
The size of minerals that allows for optical identification is not samaller than
0.010 mm. Identification of cryptocrystalline and amorpous materials can be ach
ieved using submicroscopic techniques such as a scanning electron microscope.
--------Eyepieces
This is a system of lenses fitted to the top of the microscope and whose functio
n is to form a virtual and amplified image from the real image created by the ob
jective.
The eyepiece assembly contains two cross-hairs, and is slotted into the microsco
pe tube so that the cross-hairs are orientated E-W and N-S, i.e. parallel to the
vibration directions of the polariser and analyser.
Most eyepieces have a magnification of x8 or x10.
The focal plane of the new image is about 25cm from the upper lens, the normal d
istance of vision of the human eye.
--------Amici Bertrand lens
This is found immediately below the ocular. It may be incorporated (1) or remove
d (2) at will. It can only be used when convergent light is used to observe the
property called the Interference figure (3).
The Bertrand lens magnifies and focusses interference figures but the Bertrand l
ens does not produce the interference figure but modifies the focal plane of the
image formed by the objective to allow it to be focussed and amplified by the o
cular.
An alternative means of viewing interference figures is to remove the eyepiece a
nd look down the microscope tube at the highe-power objetive lens, preferably wi
yh the aid of a pin-hole stop inserted at the top of the tube.
-----------Stand
This is the physical support to the other elements of the microscope.
Attached to it are the mechanisms which move the stage and focus the sample.
Other accessories are also joined to it by the same bracket as the stage, such a
s the condenser and the polariser.
-----Illumination system

This is in the base of the stand at the foot of the microscope. In research micr
oscopes, it is made up of a Light source (1), a set of Lenses (2) which allow a
parallel beam of light to be obtained to avoid the loss of intensity by dispersi
on, an anti-thermic filter (3) which prevents the other elements from overheatin
g, a set of chromatic filters (4) which allow the chromatic characteristics of t
he light to be modified, a mirror (5) to orient the light beam in the correct di
rection and an iris diaphragm (6) to regulate the light intensity and breadth of
the beam.
--Polariser
This is situated immediately above the illumination system and below the condens
er, although it is connected to the stage and the condenser by the same upright
bracket.
Its function is to convert the natural light from the illumination system into p
lane polarised light.
The plane of vibration of the light in the polariser can be turned in some kinds
of microscopes but in normal working conditions it is always fixed at 0, often c
oinciding with what could be called the "East-West" direction.
The polariser is always positioned in the pathways of the light rays for the stu
dy of any optical property.
Polarised light is produced by the polariser and analyser, both of which in mode
rn microscopes consist of a sheet of plastic (polaroid) which absobs all light e
xcept that vibrating in one direction. Older microscopes employed an ingeneous c
ombination of calcite prism to produce polarised light (described first by W. Ni
col and known as Nicol prisms).
--------Condenser

Situated between the polariser and the object, it has a removable lens (1) in su
ch a way that when it is fitted in the "ON" position it makes the light rays con
verge onto the thin section placed on the stage of the microscope. In this situa
tion one speaks of convergent light or, more normally, conoscopic illumination.
By contrast, when the convergent light lens is in the "OFF" position, the light
rays no longer incide convergently but rather folow an approximately parallel pa
th and all of them incide perpendicularly on the slide. In this situation one sp
eaks of parallel light or, to be more correct, orthoscopic illumination.
An iris diaphragm allows the illuminated area to be varied (known as the apertur
e diaphragm). For observing relief and Becke line it is usually necessary to par
tially close this diaphragm.
---------Stage

This serves as a support to the thin section (1) which is to be studied. It may
be heightened or lowered (2) to allow the object to be focussed.

It is round and can be rotated on a vertical axis which passes through its centr

e.
It is graduated and on the outside it has a fixed goniometer (3) which allows th
e value of the angles turned to be measured accurately.
-----Objetives
These are the lens used for magnifying the specimen on the stage. Four or five a
re normally supplied (x4, x10, x25, x50).
This allows a real and inverted image to be obtained of the object under examina
tion.
It lets the polarised light pass through without affecting the polarisation plan
e.
Objectives are often mounted on a revolving objective holder (1), which allows q
uick and easy change of magnification.
When the stage is rotated, the axis of rotation should coincide with the centre
of the field of view (the axis of the microscope). This is achieved on some micr
oscopes by adjusting a collar on the barrel of each objective (2)
To centre a microscope, the point about which an object is seen to rotate when t
he stage is rotated must be brought to the centre of the cross-hairs by adjustin
g the centring screws.
-----Slot for inserting compensators
This is immediately below the analyser and its greatest dimension forms an angle
of 45 with the direction of vibration of the Nicols (polariser and analyser).
The main directions of vibration of the compensating plate and those of the pola
riser and analyser are situated at 45.
-------Compensators
These are plates of anisotropic substances, whose planes of vibration coincide w
ith their two dimensions, length and width.
Accessory plates consist of mineral sections of a thickness such that they produ
ce a known amount of retardation.

They may be wedge-shaped so that retardation (and thus colour) will depend on th
e thickness acting at any moment in time.

The effects that these compensators introduce are superimposed on the effects th
at the minerals on the microscope stage introduce.
They are used for studying interference figures and the retardation produced by
mineral specimens.
When required, they are inserted into the microscope tube in a slot between the
objetives and the analyser.
---------Analyser

This is above the objective, and is made up of a polarising plate, whose height
may be adjusted at will, using a graduated dial (1).

Unlike the polariser, the analyser does not always have a part to play in the pa
ssage of the light rays and can be installed or removed at will. It is used to s
tudy certain properties but is not necesary for others.

The polarising plane is generally N-S, and it is always perpendicular to the pol
ariser, such that if there is no object in the way, no light passes and Extincti
on occurs.
Below it is a slot where compensating plates can be inserted.

When only the polariser (1) is being used, a normal image is observed, but when
the analyser is in place (2), an extinction of light occurs.
If an anisotropic substance is in the light's path, the light splits into two ra
ys which vibrate perpendicularly and do not necessarily coincide with the direct
ions of the polariser or analyser. When these rays reach the analyser, two compo
nents come into being which vibrate, one on the plane of the analyser and the ot
her on aperpendicular one. The former is responsible for the grain being seen, w
hilst the latter is annulled. A false colour appears, known as an interference c
olour (3).
---adjustment knobs
One function of the coarse adjustment knob is to put an object under a microscop
e into focus. The adjustment knob moves the objective lens vertically to put a s
lide into focus. This will only give a rough estimate of the focus for the objec
t; you must then use the fine adjustment knob to focus a clear image. You'll als
o use the coarse adjustment knob when changing objective lenses. The focus point
of a new lens will be slightly different than the previous lens.