Filtration

In the conventional water treatment process, filtration usually follows coagulation,

flocculation, and sedimentation (see Fig. 1.1). At present, filtration is not always used in
small water systems. However, recent regulatory requirements under EPAs Interim
Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) may make water filtering necessary
at most water supply systems.
Water filtration is a physical process of separating suspended and colloidal
particles from water by passing water through a granular material. The process of
filtration involves straining, settling, and adsorption. As floc passes into the filter, the
spaces between the filter grains become clogged, reducing this opening and increasing

FIG. 1.1 FILTRATION

removal.

Some material is removed merely because it settles on a media grain. One of the most
important processes is adsorption of the floc onto the surface of individual filter grains.
This helps collect the floc and reduces the size of the openings between the filter media
grains.
In addition to removing silt and sediment, floc, algae, insect larvae, and any other
large elements, filtration also contributes to the removal of bacteria and protozoans
such as Giardia lamblia And cryptosporidium. Some filtration processes are also used for
iron and manganese removal.

Types of Filter Technologies

The Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) specifies four filtration technologies, although
it also allows the use of alternate filtration technologies (e.g., cartridge filters). These
include slow sand filtration or rapid sand filtration, pressure filtration, diatomaceous
earth filtration, and direct filtration. Of these, all but rapid sand filtration are commonly
employed in small water systems that use filtration. Each type of filtration system has
advantages and disadvantages. Regardless of the type of filter, filtration involves the
processes of straining (where particles are captured in the small spaces between filter
media grains), sedimentation (where the particles land on top of the grains and stay
there), and adsorption (where a chemical attraction occurs between the particles and
the surface of the media grains).

Slow Sand Filters

The first slow sand filter was installed in London in 1829 and was used widely
throughout Europe, though not in the U.S. By 1900, rapid sand filtration began taking
over as the dominant filtration technology, and a few slow sand filters are in operation
today. However, with the advent of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and its
regulations (especially the Surface Water Treatment Rule) and the recognition of the
problems associated with Giardia lamblia and cryptosporidium in surface water, the
water industry is reexamining slow sand filters. This is because low technology
requirements may prevent many state water systems from using this type of equipment.
On the plus side, slow sand filtration is well suited for small water systems. It is a
proven, effective filtration process with relatively low construction costs and low
operating costs (it does not require constant operator attention). It is quite effective for
water systems as large as 5000 people; beyond that, surface area requirements and
manual labor required to recondition the filters make rapid sand filters more effective.
The filtration rate is generally in the range of 45 to 150 gal/d/ft 2.
Components making up a slow sand filter include the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

A covered structure to hold the filter media

An underdrain system
Graded rock that is placed around and just above the underdrain
The filter media, consisting of 30 to 55 in. of sand with a grain size of 0.25

to 0.35 mm
5. Inlet and outlet piping to convey the water to and from the filter, and the
means drain filtered water to waste

Flooding the area above the top of the sand layer with water to a depth of 3 to 5
ft and allowing it to trickle down through the sand operates slow sand filters. An
overflow device prevents excessive water depth. The filter must have provisions for
filling it from the bottom up. It must also be equipped with a loss-of-head gauge, a rateof-flow control device (e.g., an orifice or butterfly valve), a weir or effluent pipe that
assures that the water level cannot drop below the sand surface, and filtered waste
sample taps.
When the filter is first placed in service, the head loss through the media caused
by the resistance of the sand is about 0.2 ft (i.e., a layer of water 0.2 ft deep on top of
the filter will provide enough pressure to push the water downward through the filter).
As the filter operates, the media becomes clogged with the material being filtered out of
the water, and the head loss increases. When it reaches about 4 to 5 ft, the filter needs
to be cleaned.
For efficient operation of a slow sand filter, the water being filtered should have a
turbidity average less than 5 turbidity units (TU), with a maximum of 30 TU.
Slow sand filters are not backwashed the way conventional filtration units are.
The 1 to 2 in. of material must be removed on a periodic basis to keep the filter
operating.

Rapid Sand Filters

The rapid sand filter, which is similar in some ways to slow sand filter, is one of the most
widely used filtration units. The major difference is in the principle of operation the
speed or rate at which water passes through the media. In operation, water passes
downward through a sand bed that removes the suspended particles. The suspended
particles consist of the coagulated matter remaining in the water after sedimentation, as
well as a small amount of uncoagulated suspended matter.
Some significant differences exist in construction, control, and operation between
slow sand filters and rapid sand filters. Because of the construction and operation of the
rapid sand filtration with its higher filtration, the land area needed to filter the same
quantity of water is reduced.
The rapid sand filter structure and equipment includes the following:
1. Structure to house media
2. Filter media

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Gravel media support layer

Underdrain system
Valves and piping system
Filter backwash system
Waste disposal system

Usually 2 to 3 ft deep, the filter media is supported by approximately 1 ft of

gravel. The media may be fine sand or a combination of sand, anthracite coal, and coal
(dual-multimedia filter).
Water is applied to a rapid sand filter at a rate of 1.5 to gal/min/ft2 of filter media
surface. When the rate is between 4 and 6 gal/min/ft2, the filter is referred to as a highrate filter; when the rate is over gal/min/ft2, the filter is called ultra-high-rate. These
rates compare to the slow sand filtration rate of 45 to 150 gal/d/ft2. High-rate and ultrahigh-rate filters must meet additional conditions to assure proper operation.
Generally, raw water turbidity is not that high. However, even if raw water
turbidity values exceed 1000 TU, properly operated rapid sand filters can produce
filtered water with a turbidity or well under 0.5 TU. The time the filter is in operation
between cleanings (filter runs) usually lasts from 12 to 72 h, depending on the quality of
the raw water; the end of the run is indicated by the head loss approaching 6 to 8 ft.
Filter breakthrough (when filtered material is pulled through the filter into the effluent)
can occur if the head loss becomes too great. Operation with head loss too high can also
cause air binding (which blocks part of the filter with air bubbles), increasing the flow
rate through the remaining filter area.
Rapid sand filters have the advantage of lower land requirement, and have other
advantages as well. For example, rapid sand filters cost less, are less labor-intensive to
clean, and offer higher efficiency with highly turbid waters. On the downside, operation
and maintenance costs of rapid sand filters are much higher because of the increased
complexity of the filter controls and backwashing system.
In backwashing a rapid sand filter, cleaning the filter is accomplished by passing
treated water backwards (upwards) through the filter media and agitating the top of the
media. The need for backwashing is determined by a combination of filter run time (i.e.,
the length of time since the last backwashing), effluent turbidity, and head loss through
the filter. Depending on the raw water quality, the run time varies from one filtration
plant to another (and may even vary from one filter to another in the same plant).

Note: Backwashing usually requires 3 to 7% of the water produced by

the plant.

Pressure Filter Systems

When raw water is pumped or piped from the source to a gravity filter, the head
(pressure) is lost as the water enters the floc basin. When this occurs, pumping the
water from the plant clearwell to the reservoir is usually necessary. One way to reduce
pumping is to place the plant components into pressure vessels, maintaining the head.
This type of arrangement is called a pressure filter system. Pressure filters are also quite
popular for iron and manganese removal and for filtration of water from wells. They may
be placed directly in the pipeline from the well or pump with little head loss. Most
pressure filters operate at a rate of about 3 gal/min/ft2.
Operationally the same as and consisting of components similar to those of a
rapid sand filter, the main difference between a rapid sand filtration system and a
pressure filtration system is that the entire pressure filter is contained within a pressure
vessel. These units are often highly automated and are usually purchased as selfcontained units with all necessary piping, controls, and equipment contained in a single
unit. They are backwashed in much the same manner as the rapid sand filter.
The major advantage of the pressure filter is its low initial cost. They are usually
prefabricated, with standardized designs. A major disadvantage is that the operator is
unable to observe the filter in the pressure filter and determine the condition of the
media. Unless the unit has an automatic shutdown feature on high effluent turbidity,
driving filtered material through the filter is possible.

Diatomaceous Earth Filters

Diatomaceous earth is a white material made from the skeletal remains of diatoms. The
skeletons are microscopic, and in most cases, porous. There are different grades of
diatomaceous earth, and the grade is selected based on filtration requirements.
These diatoms are mixed in water slurry and fed onto a fine screen called a
septum, usually of stainless steel, nylon, or plastic. The slurry is fed at a rate of 0.2 lb/ft2
of filter area. The diatoms collect in a pre-coat over the septum, forming an extremely
fine screen. Diatoms are fed continuously with the raw water, causing the buildup of a
filter cake approximately 1/8 to 1/5 in. thick. The openings are so small that the fine
particles that cause turbidity are trapped on the screen. Coating the septum with

diatoms gives it the ability to filter out very small microscopic material. The fine screen
and the buildup of filtered particles cause a high head loss through the filter. When the
head loss reaches a maximum level (30 psi on a pressure-type filter or 15 inHg on a
vacuum-type filter), the filter cake must be removed by backwashing.
The slurry of diatoms is fed with raw water during filtration in a process called
body feed. The body feed prevents premature clogging of the septum cake. These
diatoms are caught on the septum, increasing the head loss and preventing the cake
from clogging too rapidly by the particles being filtered. While the body feed increases
head loss, head loss increases are more gradual than if body feed were not use.
Although diatomaceous earth filters are relatively low in cost to construct, they
have high operating costs and can give frequent operating problems if not properly
operated and maintained. They can be used to filter raw surface waters or surfaceinfluenced groundwaters, with low turbidity (<5 nephelometric turbidity units [NTU]),
low coliform concentrations (no more than 50-coliforms/100 mL). They may also be used
for iron and manganese removal following oxidation. Filtration rates are between 1.0 and
1.5 gal/min/ft2.

Direct Filtration
The term direct filtration refers to a treatment scheme that omits the flocculation and
sedimentation steps prior to filtration. Coagulant chemicals are added, and the water is
passed directly onto the filter. All solids removal takes place on the filter, which can lead
to much shorter filter runs, more frequent backwashing, and a greater percentage of
finished water used for backwashing. The lack of a flocculation process and
sedimentation basin reduces construction cost, but increases the requirement for skilled
operators and high quality instrumentation. Direct filtration must be used only where the
water flow rate and raw water quality are fairly consistent and where the incoming
turbidity is low.

Alternate Filters
A cartridge filter system can be employed as an alternate filtering system to reduce
turbidity and remove giardia. A cartridge filter is made of a synthetic media contained in
a plastic or metal housing. These systems are normally installed in a series of three or
four filters. Each filter contains a media that is successively smaller than the previous
filter. The media sizes typically range from 50 to 5 or less. The filter arrangement is
dependent on the quality of the water, the capability of the filter, and the quantity of

water needed. EPA and state agencies have established criteria for the selection and use
of cartridge filters. Generally, cartridge filter systems are regulated in the same manner
as other filtration systems.
Because of new regulatory requirements and the need to provide more efficient
removal of pathogenic protozoa (e.g., giardia and cryptosporidium) from water supplies,
membrane filtration systems are finding increased application in water treatment
systems. A membrane is a thin film separating two different phases of a material that
acts as a selective barrier to the transport of matter operated by some driving force.
Simply, a membrane can be regarded as a sieve with very small pores. Membrane
filtration processes are typically pressure, electrically, vacuum, or thermally driven. The
types

of

drinking

water

membrane

filtration

systems

include

microfiltration,

ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis. In a typical membrane filtration

process, there is one input and two outputs. Membrane performance is largely a function
of the properties of the materials to be separated and can vary throughout operation.

Common Filter Problems

Two common types of filter problems occur: (1) those caused by filter runs that are too
long (infrequent backwash), and (2) those caused by inefficient backwash (cleaning).
Too long a filter run can cause breakthrough (the pushing of debris removed from
the water through the media and into the effluent) and air binding (the trapping of air
and other dissolved gases in the filter media).
Air binding occurs when the rate at which water exits the bottom of the filter
exceeds the rate at which the water penetrates the top of the filter. When this happens,
a void and partial vacuum occur inside the filter media. The vacuum causes gases to
escape from the water and fill the void. When the filter is backwashed, the release of
these gases may cause a violent upheaval in the media and destroy the layering of the
media bed, gravel, or underdrain.
Two solutions to the problems are as follows: (1) check the filtration rates to
assure they are within the design specifications, and (2) remove the top 1 in. of media
and replace with new media. This keeps the top of the media from collecting the floc and
sealing the entrance into the filter media.
Another common filtration problem is associated with poor backwashing
practices: the formation of mud balls that get trapped in the filter media. In severe

cases, mud balls can completely clog a filter. Poor agitation of the surface of the filter
can form a crust on top of the filter; the crust later cracks under the water pressure,
causing uneven distribution of water through the filter media. Filter cracking can be
corrected by removing the top 1-in. of the filter media, increasing the backwash rate, or
checking the effectiveness of the surface wash (if installed). Backwashing at too high a
rate can cause the filter media to wash out of the filter over the effluent troughs and
may damage the filter underdrain system.
Two possible solutions are as follows: (1) check the backwash rate to be sure that
it meets the design criteria, and (2) check the surface wash (if installed) for proper
operation.

Secondary Treatment Filtration System

The main purpose of secondary treatment (sometimes referred to as biological
treatment) is to provide BOD removal beyond what is achievable by primary treatment.
There are three commonly used approaches, and all take advantage of the ability of
microorganisms to convert organic wastes (via biological treatment) into stabilized, lowenergy compounds. Two of these approaches, the trickling filter (and its variation, the
RBC) and the activated sludge process, sequentially follow normal primary treatment.
The third, ponds (oxidation ponds or lagoons), can provide equivalent results without
preliminary treatment.

Trickling Filters
Trickling filters have been used to treat wastewater since the 1890s. It was found that if
settled wastewater was passed over rock surfaces, slime grew on the rocks and the
water became cleaner. Today we still use this principle, but in many installations we use
plastic media instead of rocks.
In most wastewater treatment systems, the trickling filter follows primary
treatment and includes a secondary settling tank or clarifier as shown in Figure 1.2.
Trickling filters are widely used for the treatment of domestic and industrial wastes. The
process is a fixed film biological treatment method designed to remove BOD and
suspended solids.
A trickling filter consists of a rotating distribution arm that sprays and evenly
distributes liquid wastewater over a circular bed of fist-sized rocks, other coarse
materials, or synthetic media (see Figure 18.5). The spaces between the media allow air

to circulate easily so that aerobic conditions can be maintained. The spaces also allow
wastewater to trickle down through, around, and over the media. A layer of biological
slime that absorbs and consumes the wastes trickling through the bed covers the media
material. The organisms aerobically decompose the solids and produce more organisms
and stable wastes that either become part of the slime or are discharged back into the
wastewater flowing over the media. This slime consists mainly of bacteria, but it may
also include algae, protozoa, worms, snails, fungi, and insect larvae. The accumulating
slime occasionally sloughs off (sloughings) individual media materials (see Figure 18.6)
and is collected at the bottom of the filter, along with the treated wastewater, and
passed on to the secondary settling tank where it is removed.
The overall performance of the trickling filter is dependent on hydraulic and
organic loading, temperature, and recirculation.
Trickling Filter Definition
To clearly understand the correct operation of the trickling filter, the operator must be
familiar with certain terms. The following list of terms applies to the trickling filter
process. We assume that other terms related to other units within the treatment system
(plant) are already familiar to operators:
Biological towers a type of trickling filter that is very deep (10 to 20 ft). Filled with a
lightweight synthetic media, these towers are also know as oxidation or roughing
towers or (because of their extremely high hydraulic loading) superrate trickling
filters.
Biomass the total mass of organisms attached to the media. Similar to solids inventory
in the activated sludge process, it is sometimes referred to as the zoogleal slime.
Distribution arm the device most widely used to apply wastewater evenly over the
entire surface of the media. In most cases, the force of the wastewater being
sprayed through the orifices moves the arm.
Filter underdrain the open space provided under the media to collect the liquid
(wastewater and sloughings) and to allow air to enter the filter. It has a sloped
floor to collect the flow to a central channel for removal.
Hydraulic loading the amount of wastewater flow applied to the surface of the trickling
filter media. It can be expressed in several ways: flow per square foot of surface

per day, flow per acre per day, or flow per acre-foot per day. The hydraulic
loading includes all flow entering the filter.
High-rate trickling filters a classification (see Table 1.1) in which the organic loading
is in the range of 25 to 100 lb BOD/1000 ft3 of media/d. The standard rate filter
may also produce a highly nitrified effluent.
Media an inert substance placed in the filter to provide a surface for the microorganism
to grow on. The media can be field stone, crushed stone, slag, plastic, or redwood
slats.
Organic loading the amount of BOD or COD applied to a given volume of filter media.
It does not include the BOD or COD contributed to any recirculated flow and is
commonly expressed as pounds of BOD or COD per 1000 ft3 of media.
Recirculation the return of filter effluent back to the head of the trickling filter. It can
level flow variations and assist in solving operational problems such as ponding,
filter flies, and odors.
Roughing filters a classification of trickling filters (see Table 1.1) in which the organic
is in excess of 200 lb BOD/1000 ft3 of media/d. A roughing filter is used to reduce
the loading on other biological treatment processes to produce an industrial
discharge that can be safely treated in a municipal treatment facility.
Sloughing the process in which the excess growths break away from the media and
wash through the filter to the underdrains with the wastewater. These sloughings
must be removed from the flow by settling.
Staging the practice of operating two or more trickling filters in series. The effluent of
one filter is used as the influent of the next. This practice can produce a higher
quality effluent by removing additional BOD or COD.

1.1

Trickling Filter Equipment

The trickling filter distribution system is designed to spread wastewater evenly over the
surface of the entire media. The most common system is the rotary distributor, which
moves above the surface of the media and sprays the wastewater on the surface. The
force of the water leaving the orifices drives the rotary system. The distributor arms
usually have small plates below each orifice to spread the wastewater into a fan-shaped
distribution system. The second type of distributor is the fixed nozzle system. In this
system, the nozzles are fixed in place above the media and are designed to spray the
wastewater over a fixed portion of the media. This system is used frequently with deep
bed synthetic media filters.
Note: Trickling filters that use ordinary rock are normally only about 3 m in
depth because of structural problems caused by the weight of rocks, which
also requires the construction of beds that are quite wide (in many
applications, up to 60 ft in diameter). When synthetic media is used, the bed
can be much deeper.
No matter which type of media is selected, the primary consideration is that it
must be capable of providing the desired film location for the development of the

biomass. Depending on the type of media used and the filter classification, the media
may be 3 to 20 or more ft in depth.
The underdrains are designed to support the media, collect the wastewater and
sloughings and carry them out of the filter, and provide ventilation to the filter.
Note: In order to ensure sufficient airflow to the filter, the underdrains should
never be allowed to flow more than 50% full of wastewater.
The effluent channel is designed to carry the flow from the trickling filter to the
secondary settling tank.
The secondary settling tank provides 2 to 4 h of detention time to separate the
sloughing materials from the treated wastewater. Design, construction, and operation
are similar to the primary settling tanks. Longer detention times are provided because
the sloughing materials are lighter and settle more slowly.
Recirculation pumps and piping are designed to recirculate (and thus improve the
performance of the trickling filter or settling tank) a portion of the effluent back to be
mixed with the filter influent. When recirculation is used, pumps and metering devices
must be provided.
Filter Classifications
Trickling filters are classified by hydraulic and organic loading. The expected
performance and the construction of the trickling filter are also determined by the filter
classification. Filter classifications include: standard rate, intermediate rate, high rate,
super high rate (plastic media), and roughing rate types. Standard rate, high rate, and
roughing rate are the filter types most commonly used.
The standard rate filter has a hydraulic loading of 25 to 90 gal/d/ft 3 and a
seasonal sloughing frequency. It does not employ recirculation and typically has a 80
85% BOD removal rate and 80 to 85% TSS removal rate.
The high rate filter has a hydraulic loading of 230 to 900 gal/d/ft3 and a
continuous sloughing frequency. It always employs recirculation and typically has a 65 to
80% BOD removal rate and 65 to 80% TSS removal rate.

The roughing filter has a hydraulic loading of >900 gal/d/ft3 and a continuous
sloughing frequency. It does not normally include recirculation and typically has a 40 to
65% BOD removal rate and 40 to 65% TSS removal rate.
General Process Description
The trickling filter process involves spraying wastewater over a solid media such as rock,
plastic, or redwood slats (or laths). As the wastewater trickles over the surface of the
media, a growth of microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae, helminthes or
worms, and larvae) develops. This growth is visible as a shiny slime very similar to the
slime found on rocks in a stream. As the wastewater passes over this slime, the slime
adsorbs the organic (food) matter. This organic matter is used for food by the
microorganisms. At the same time, air moving through the open spaces in the filter
transfers oxygen to the wastewater. This oxygen is then transferred to the slime to keep
the outer layer aerobic. As the microorganisms use the food and oxygen, they produce
more organisms, carbon dioxide, sulfates, nitrates, and other stable by-products; these
materials are then discarded from the slime back into the wastewater flow and are
carried out of the filter. The process is shown in the following equation:
Organics + Organisms + O2 = More Organisms + CO2 + Solid Wastes
The growth of the microorganisms and the buildup of solid wastes in the slime
make it thicker and heavier. When this slime becomes too thick, the wastewater flow
breaks off parts of the slime. These must be removed in the final settling tank.
In some trickling filters, a portion of the filter effluent is returned to the head of
the trickling filter to level out variations in flow and improves operations (recirculation).
Overview and Brief Summary of Trickling Filter Process
The following list provides an overview of the trickling filter process:
1. A trickling filter consists of a bed of coarse media, usually rocks or plastic,
covered with microorganisms.
2. The wastewater is applied to the media at a controlled rate, using a rotating
distributor arm or fixed nozzles. Organic material is removed by contact with the
microorganisms as the wastewater trickles down through the media openings.
The treated wastewater is collected by an underdrain system.
3. The trickling filter is usually built into a tank that contains the media. The filter
may be square, rectangular, or circular.

4. The trickling filter does not provide any actual filtration. The filter media provides
a large amount of surface area that the microorganisms can cling to and grow in a
slime that forms on the media as they feed on the organic material in the
wastewater.
5. The slime growth on the trickling filter media periodically sloughs off and is
settled and removed in a secondary clarifier that follows the filter.
6. Key factors in trickling filter operation include the following concepts:
A. Hydraulic loading rate
B. Organic loading rate

C. Recirculation
D. Total Flow
If the recirculated flow rate is given, total flow is:
Total Flow (MGD) = Influent Flow (MGD) + Recirculation Flow (MGD)
Total Flow (gal/d) = Total Flow (MGD) x 1,000,000 gal/MG
Note: The total flow to the tricking filter includes the influent flow and the
recirculated flow. This can be determined using the recirculation ratio:
Total Flow (MGD) = Influent Flow + (Recirculation Rate + 1.0)

Process Calculations
1. Calculating the Rate of Filtration
In waterworks operation (and to an increasing degree in wastewater treatment), the rate
of flow through filters is an important operational parameter. While flow rate can be
controlled by various means or may proceed at a variable declining rate, the important
point is that with flow suspended matter continuously builds up within the filter bed,
affecting the rate of filtration.
Problem:
A filter box is 20 30 ft (also the sand area). If the influent value is shut, the
water drops 3 in./min. What is the rate of filtration in MGD?
Solution:
Given:
Filter box = 20 x 30 ft
Water drops = 3 in./min
Required: Find the volume of water passing through the filter
Equations:
v=AxH
A=WxL
Step 1: Calculate the area; convert 3 in. to feet, and divide 3 by 12 to find feet:
A = 20 ft x 30 ft = 600 ft2
3.0 /12 = 0.25 ft
v = 600 ft2 x 0.25 ft
= 150 ft3 of H2O passing through the filter in 1 minute
Step 2: Convert ft3 to gallon
150 ft3/min x 7.48 gal/ft3 = 1122 gal/min

Step 3: The problem asks for the rate of filtration in MGD. To find MGD,
multiply the number of gallons per minute by the number of minutes per
day.
1122 gal/min x 1440 min/day = 1.62 MGD

2. Filter Backwash
In filter backwashing, one of the most important operational parameters to be
determined is the amount of water in gallons required for each backwash. This amount
depends on the design of the filter and the quality of the water being filtered. The actual
washing typically lasts 5 to 10 min and uses amounts of 1 to 5% of the flow produced.
Problem:
A filter has the following dimensions:
L = 30 ft
W = 20 ft
Depth of filter media = 24 in.
Assuming a backwash rate of 15 gal/ft2/min per minute is recommended,
and 10 minutes of backwash is required, calculate the amount of water in
gallons required for each backwash.
Solution:
Given:
L = 30 ft
W = 20 ft
Depth of filter media = 24 in.
Rate = 15 gal/ft2/min
Backwash time = 10 min

Required: Find the amount of water in gallons required

Step 1: Calculate the area of the filter:
30 ft x 20 ft = 600 ft2
Step 2: Calculate the gallons of H2O used per square foot of filter:
15 gal/ft2/min x 10 min = 90,000 gal required for backwash

3. Trickling Filter Total Flow

Problem:
The trickling filter is currently operating with a recirculation rate of 1.5. What is
the total flow applied to the filter when the influent flow rate is 3.65 MGD?
Solution:
Total Flow (MGD) = 3.65 MG x (1.5 + 1.0)
= 9.13 MGD

4. Trickling Filter Hydraulic Loading

Problem:
A trickling filter 90-ft in diameter is operated with a primary effluent of 0.488
MGD and a recirculated effluent flow rate of 0.566 MGD. Calculate the hydraulic
loading rate on the filter in units gallons per day per square foot.
Solution:
The primary effluent and recirculated trickling filter effluent are applied together
across the surface of the filter, therefore:
0.488 MGD + 0.566 MGD = 1.054 MGD
= 1,054,000 gal/d

Circular surface area = 0.785 x (Diameter)2

= 0.785 x (90 ft)2
= 6359 ft2
(1,054,000 gal/d) / 6359 ft2 = 165.7 gal/d/ft2

5. Trickling Filter Organic Loading

As mentioned earlier, trickling filters are sometimes classified by the organic loading
rate applied. The organic loading rate is expressed as a certain amount of BOD applied
to a certain volume of media.
Problem:
A trickling filter, 50 ft in diameter, receives a primary effluent flow rate of 0.445
MGD. Calculate the organic loading rate in units of pounds of BOD applied per day
per 900 ft3 of media volume. The primary effluent BOD concentration is 85 mg/L.
The media depth is 9 ft.
Solution:
0.445 MGD x 85 mg/L x 8.34 lb/gal = 315.5 BOD applied/d
Surface Area = 0.785 x (Diameter)2
= 0.785 x (50 ft)2
= 1962.5 ft2
AxD=v
1962.5 ft2 x 9 ft2 = 17,662.5 (Trickling filter volume)
To determine the pounds of BOD/1000 ft 3 in a volume of thousands of cubic feet, we
must set up the equation as shown below:

Regrouping the numbers and the units together:

= 17.9 lb BOD/d/1000ft3

Coarse Solids Reduction

As an alternative to coarse bar screens or fine screens, comminutors and macerators
can be used to intercept coarse solids and grind or shred them in the screen channel.
High-speed grinders are used in conjunction with mechanically cleaned screens to grind
and shreds screening that are remove from wastewater. The solids are cut up into a
smaller, more uniform size for return to the flow stream for subsequent removal by
downstream treatment operations and processes. Comminutors, macerators and
grinders can theoretically can eliminate the messy and offensive task off screening
handling and disposal. The use of comminutors and macerators is particularly
advantageous in a pumping station to protect the pumps against clogging by rags and
large objects and to eliminate the need to handle and dispose of screenings. They are
particularly useful in cold climates where collected in screening are subject to freezing.
There is a wide divergence of views, however, on the suitability of using devices
that grind and shred screenings at wastewater-treatment plants. One school of thought
maintains that once coarse solids have been removed from wastewater, they should not
be returned, regardless of the form. The other school thought maintains that once cut
up, the solids are more easily handled in the downstream process. Shredded solids often
present downstream problems, particularly with rags and plastic bags, as they tend to
form rope like strands. Rag and plastic strands can have a number of adverse impacts,
such as clogging pump impellers, sludge pipelines, and heat exchangers, and
accumulating

on

air

diffusers

and

clarifier

mechanisms.

Plastics

and

other

nonbiodegradable material may also adversely affect the equality of biosolids that are to
be beneficially reused.
Approaches to using comminutors, macerators, and grinders are applicable in
many retrofit situation. Example of retrofit applications include plants where a spare
channel has been provided for the future installation of a duplicate unit or in very deep
influent pumping stations where the removal of screenings may be too difficult or costly
to achieve. Alternative approaches may also be possible, such as using chopper pumps
at pumping station or installing grinders ahead of sludge pumps.

Comminutors
Comminutors are used most commonly in small wastewater-treatment plants, less than
0.2m3/s (5Mgal/d). Comminutors are installed in a wastewater flow channel to screen
and shred material to sizes 6 to 20mm (0.25 to 0.77 in) without removing the shredded
solids from the flow stream. A typical comminutor uses a stationary horizontal screen to
intercept the flow and a rotating oscillating arm that contains cutting teeth to mesh with
the screen. The cutting teeth and the shear bars cut coarse material. The small sheared
particles pass through the screen and into the downstream channel. Comminutors may
create a string of material, namely, rags that can collect on downstream treatment
equipment. Because of operating problems and high maintenance with comminutors,
newer installations generally use a screen or a macerator described below.

Macerators
Macerators are slow-speed grinder that typically consist of two sets of counter rotating
assemblies with blades. The assemblies are mounted vertically in the flow channel. The
blades or teeth on the rotating assemblies have a close tolerance that effectively chops
material as it passes through the unit. The chopping action reduces the potential for
producing ropes of rags or plastic that can collect on downstream equipment.
Macerators can be used in pipeline installations to shred solids, particularly ahead of
wastewater and sludge pumps, or in channels at wastewater-treatment plants. Sizes for
pipelines applications range from 100 to 400mm (40 to 16 in) in diameter. Another type
of macerator used in channel application is a moving linked screen that allow
wastewater to pass through the screen while diverting screening to a grinder located at
one side of the channel. Standard size of this device are available for use in large
channels ranging from widths of 750mm to1800mm (30 to 72in) and depths of 750 to
2500mm (30 to 100in). The headloss is lower than that of the units counter rotating
blades.

Grinders
High-speed grinders, typically referred to as hammermills, receive screened materials
from bar screens. The materials are pulverized by a high-speed rotating assembly that
cuts the materials passing through the unit. The cutting or knife blades force screenings
trough stationary grid or louver that encloses the rotating assembly. Washwater is
typically used to keep the unit clean and to help transport material back to the
wastewater stream. Discharge from the grinder can be located either upstream or
downstream of the bar screen.

Design Consideration
Comminuting and macerating devices may be preceded by grit chambers to prolong the
life of the equipment and to reduce the wear on the cutting surfaces. Comminutors
should be constructed with a bypass arrangement so that a manual bar screen is used in
case flowrates exceeds the capacity of the comminutor or when there is a power or
mechanical failure. Stop gates provisions for dewatering the channel should also be
included to facilitate maintenance. Headloss through a comminutor usually ranges from
0.1 to 0.3m (4 to 12 in), and can approach 0.9m (3ft) in large units at maximum
flowrates.
In cases where a comminutor or macerator precedes grit chambers, the cutting
teeth are subject to high wear and require frequent sharpening or replacement. Units
that use cutting mechanism ahead of the screen grid should be provided with rock traps
in the channel upstream of the comminutor to collect material that could jam the cutting
blade.
Because these units are complete in themselves, no detailed

design

is

necessary. Manufacturers data and rating tables for these units should be consulted for
recommended

channel

dimension,

capacity

ranges,

headloss,

upstream

and

downstream submergence, and power requirements. Because manufacturers capacity

ratings are usually based on clean water, the ratings should be decreased by
approximately 80 percent to account for partial clogging of the screen.