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Biology Context
Biology Context
CHAPTER
1
Contextual outline
1.1
Adaptations
Take a look at yourself; you are a well adapted organism.You have jointed legs, which allow you to move, to
walk, to leap and to run. Consider your hands. They are
marvellous instruments capable of delicate work,
manipulating objects, grasping, catching, turning. You
have adaptations that help you to keep warm. You
shiver and dress in warm clothes. You have a digestive
system, which enables you to eat and get nutrients
from a variety of foods.You are a well adapted creature.
You have lungs, which allow you to breathe. Yet
humans live in such a variety of environments that it is
difficult to argue that you are adapted best for a
particular land environment. Certainly you have many
adaptations for a life on land and are poorly adapted for
life in water. Certainly you would find it easier to
survive in a mild temperate environment that is rich in
resources, but your kind survives in every land environment. Humans even successfully venture into seemingly impossible habitats for short periods of time,
under the sea and in space. In these habitats we take
artificial environments with us; we live within a
capsule, submarine or space station. A human, however, is a little peculiar. What allows you to do this? Your
most extraordinary adaptation, your braina brain
unlike that of other animals because you have few
innate behaviours. Your brain is capable of learning
throughout your lifetime. This is your greatest adaptation because it allows you to survive in a changing
world and in many habitats. But what is an adaptation?
It is easy to identify some adaptations. The hair on
our head keeps our head warm. It is an adaptation.
When we are cold our hands turn blue as our blood
vessels leading to our extremities such as our feet, nose
and hands contract to reduce the flow of blood to these
areas. This reduces heat loss and it is an adaptation.
When we are hot we may sit in the shade to cool down;
this is also an adaptation. Adaptations are characteristics of organisms that help the species to survive.
Figure 1.1.1
Bacteria on skin
Varied adaptations
Many species of plants and animals have adaptations in
which they mimic features of other organisms. Some
plants attract flies, as pollinators, by smelling like
rotting flesh. Needless to say such foul smelling plants
are not often favoured by home gardeners. These types
of chemical mimicry are less common than visual forms
of mimicry. The Australian ichnumen orchid, for
example, is shaped like a large female wasp, and males
try to mate with the flower. In attempting to mate, they
spread pollen from one flower to another. You have
probably noticed large spots on the wings of some
butterflies, which mimic the eyes of a larger organism.
It is thought that these may be an adaptation to
frighten their predator. While such a display may work
for some species, others are adapted to be difficult to
see. Some insects are shaped so like a leaf or twig that
they are almost impossible to see.
Defining adaptation
Organisms live in and are part of an environment.
Adaptations can be defined as characteristics that make
an organism suited to its environment. This view of
adaptation is useful to a biologist questioning whether
a certain characteristic helps an organism to survive.
The biologist needs to study the organisms environment to see how the adaptation is suited to this
environment. Sometimes there is a clear match
between the characteristic and the environment. The
stick insect is well camouflaged so that it can lie hidden
among the dead twigs of trees it inhabits. The
centipedes flat body shape and many legs allow it to
push through the soil and leaf litter as it hunts small
prey. However, it is not always easy to infer that a
characteristic has evolved as an adaptation to a
particular habitat. Organisms are products of evolution.
This means that a present-day organisms characteristics are the products of millions of years of change.
During these millions of years, the ancestors of
present-day organisms have survived in different
habitats to which they were adapted. Hence the
characteristics of organisms are not all adaptations to
their current environments but may have been inherited from ancestors. This is most obvious among
organisms that have drastically changed their habitats
over their evolutionary history. Dolphins and whales,
for example, are thought to have evolved from landdwelling mammals that gradually became adapted to
The environment
In this unit you have seen how organisms are adapted
to their environment. The organisms environment
includes both the living things with which it shares its
environment, such as the predators and prey, and also
includes its non-living surroundings, such as the
quality of the soil and the frequency of bush fires. The
environment is a product of the interactions between
the many organisms and the non-living aspects of the
environment that exist together. In the next unit, we
begin the study of these relationships so that
environments and the organisms that inhabit them can
be better understood. In Chapters 2, 4 and 5 more
adaptations of a variety of Australian organisms to their
environment are discussed in detail.
Summary 1.1
Adaptations are inherited characteristics of organisms
that increase the chance of survival of the species.
Adaptations are also often described as characteristics of organisms that are suited to the organisms
habitats.
It is sometimes difficult to infer that the characteristic of an organism is an adaptation to its particular
habitat because:
the organism may be observed outside the
habitat in which it evolved, for example, in a
suburban garden
the characteristic may provide no particular
advantage in a particular habitat but has been
inherited from ancestral organisms that
inhabited different habitats
it may simply be difficult to be certain how a
particular characteristic helps a species to
survive.
Questions 1.1
1 What is an adaptation?
2 Give an example of an adaptation you possess. Explain why this is an
adaptation.
3 Name one organism that can be found in your home. Identify one of its
adaptations.
4 Describe three adaptations of animals from this unit. Identify each as
structural, behavioural or physiological.
5 Describe three adaptations of plants from this unit. How does each
increase the chance of survival?
6 Figure 1.1.2 shows a cup-moth caterpillar. Cup-moth caterpillars live
on eucalyptus. When disturbed, the cup-moth caterpillar sends out
bunches of poisonous spikes, which give a severe sting. From the
information provided, list two adaptations of the cup-moth caterpillar.
Why is it advantageous for the cup-moth caterpillar to be brightly
coloured?
Figure 1.1.2
Figure 1.1.3
A cup-moth caterpillar
Ecosystems
years before coming out of the ground to change form and mate. During
summer males produce a spectacular drumming noise. Two students
thought that the drumming was an adaptation. Look carefully at the
cicada shown and use your knowledge from observations of cicadas to
answer the following:
(a) One student inferred that the drumming noise was used to scare
away birds and other predators. Another student thought it might
be to attract other cicadas.
(i) Why do you think cicadas drum? Explain your reasoning.
(ii) How would you test these different ideas?
(b) Most cicadas come out of their holes at night when they change
from their underground form to their flying, tree-dwelling form.
Why do you think they do this at night?
(c) One type of cicada, commonly called a double drummer, comes
out in the day-time but usually in great numbers at the same time.
How might this be an adaptation?
(d) A cicada has a thin pointed tube, going from the mouth region
along the centre at the front of the body, which is visible outside
the body. Cicadas feed on trees and when underground on tree
roots. Why might this tube be a feeding adaptation?
(e) Suggest three other adaptations cicadas have.
Figure 1.1.4
1.2
Ecosystems: environments,
ecology and communities
clouds
sun
rain
shrubs
grasses
eucalypts
grasses
sedges
ferns
shrubs
grasses
eucalypts
Farmland
ecosystem
Figure 1.2.1
Forest
ecosystem
Woodland
ecosystem
Heath
ecosystem
Summary 1.2
Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with
other organisms and their physical surroundings.
The non-living aspects of the environment are
called the physical or abiotic components.
The organisms or living things in the environment
are the biological or biotic components of the
environment.
An ecosystem is the basic unit of study in ecology.
An ecosystem is a self-sustaining group of organisms interacting with its environment.
An ecosystem consists of the biotic (living) and
abiotic (non-living) components of an area.
Ecosystems vary in size and complexity.
The interacting organisms within an ecosystem are
called a community.
Communities are made up of different plants and
animals.
A specific community or ecosystem is often named
by stating its dominant species and its vegetation
structure (e.g. blue gum forest community and blue
gum forest ecosystem).
Ecosystems
Questions 1.2
1 Name two plants and two animals, other than humans, that are part of
your environment.
2 On a map that shows your school or home, identify at least two ecosystems.
3 Use a common name to identify an ecosystem near where you live or
near your school that you could study.
4 What are each of the following:
(a) ecology
(b) ecosystem
(c) community?
5 What are the two components that make up an ecosystem?
6 What two groups of components make up an organisms environment?
7 Give one example from this unit and one example from your own
experience for each of the following:
(a) an interaction between organisms
(b) an interaction between organisms and their physical surroundings.
8 What is the basic unit of study in ecology?
9 Is mainland Australia one ecosystem or many? Explain.
10 What two features of a community or ecosystem are often included in
their name?
Key:
grass
Figure 1.2.2
1.3
Distribution
The distribution of an organism usually shows the
locations in which it can be found. Distributions on a
large scale, such as the distribution of an organism in
Australia, can be determined by such methods as
trapping, personal sightings, the observation of tracks
or traces, etc. The data are collected and the distribution
is then often shown on a map (see Figure 1.3.1).
When studying a smaller ecosystem, the distribution of a particular organism is sometimes described
on maps of the area (see Figure 1.3.2). The method
used to determine the distribution usually depends on
the nature of the ecosystem itself, the characteristics of
the organism under study, and the resources available
to the researcher. The methods used to study the distribution of feral cats in a city like Sydney, for example,
might differ considerably from the method used to
study the distribution of banksias in a coastal reserve.
Figure 1.3.1
1 km
residential
ek
cre
residential
oval
Estimating abundance
industry
key:
eucalypts
tea-tree
privet
grass
lantana
Figure 1.3.2
Transects
The distribution of plants can generally be determined
by identifying individual plants and describing their
location in an area. This is usually done by marking out
a straight line across an area, noting the types of plants
present, and plotting their position along this line on a
diagram. This indicates the distribution of plants along
a cross-section of the ecosystem. This cross-section is
called a transect (see Figures 1.2.1 and 1.3.3). Although
plants are most often the subject of transect studies, the
distribution of animals that tend to stay in the same
place, such as those on a rock platform, can be
examined with the aid of transects.
On a transect, it is common practice to sketch the
topography of the cross-section as a single line and
Quadrats
The abundance of a species in an ecosystem is usually
found by taking small samples of the community and
using the data obtained from them to estimate the
population in the ecosystem as a whole. As with distribution, it is generally easier to find the abundance of a
plant than of an animal. The abundance of a plant
species is usually determined by marking out a number
of small, randomly selected square areas in the
ecosystem. These squares are called quadrats. The
individuals within the quadrats are counted. The
average number per area (density) is calculated and
80
key:
Height (m)
60
grasses
lantana
40
privet
eucalypts
20
tea-tree
0
50
Figure 1.3.3
100
150
200
250
Distance (m)
300
350
400
450
Ecosystems
Key:
density = 13 Christmas bells 500 m 2,
i.e. 2.6/100 m 2
heathland
10 m
quadrats
10 m
Christmas bells
Figure 1.3.4
10
Capture (nI)
Number caught
Number marked
Abundance =
i.e.
Recapture (n2)
15
10
5 (m2)
Number captured x Number recaptured
Number marked in recapture
n1 x n 2
m2
15 x 10
5
30
they get when first trapped and seem only too willing to
be recaptured. Other animals may be badly frightened
by the experience and avoid the traps in future. This
problem results in the capturemarkingrecapture
technique sometimes producing unreliable data.
(c) Feral camels and donkeys are thought to be damaging the ecosystem by destabilising sand dunes and feeding on saltbush.
Suggest one way in which the extent of their impact could be
measured.
Summary 1.3
The distribution of an organism is the region that it
inhabits.
The distribution of an organism on a large scale is
usually described by plotting on a map the places in
which it is found.
Transects are often used to determine the distribution of plants.
A diagram of a transect is often used to show the
distribution of plants.
The distribution of animals can often be determined
by personal sightings, trapping, or the observation
of tracks and droppings.
The population of an organism is the group of
individuals of the same species in an area.
The abundance of plants and some animals can be
estimated by counting the number of individuals in
randomly selected quadrats.
The abundance of animals can sometimes be estimated by the capturemarkingrecapture technique.
It is usually easier to determine the distribution and
abundance of plants than of animals because
animals move and may hide.
Estimates are usually used to determine the
abundance and distribution of organisms because it
is too difficult or too expensive to find every organism in an environment.
Figure 1.3.5
Questions 1.3
1 Distinguish between the terms population and distribution.
2 Describe how you could determine the distribution of plants in an
ecosystem.
3 How could you estimate the number of weeds in a local area, for
example your garden or backyard, a local park or pasture?
4 How could you estimate the population of an animal in your local area,
for example the population of cockroaches in your kitchen, snails in
your garden, dogs in your street or barnacles on a rock platform?
5 Describe how the information in Figure 1.3.5 on the distribution of
koalas might have been determined.
6 Describe how you would estimate the abundance of tea-trees on a
coastal sand dune.
7 What factors would influence the size and number of quadrats that
would be used to estimate the abundance of an organism?
8 Describe in detail how the abundance of wombats in an ecosystem
could be estimated.
9 Figure 1.3.6 shows the distribution of saltbush shrubs in an arid ecosystem. Using quadrats, answer the following questions.
(a) Estimate the saltbush abundance.
(b) What is the saltbush density per 100 square metres?
key:
Figure 1.3.6
saltbush
Scale: 1 cm = 10 mm
Day
1 (capture)
2 (recapture)
Capture
Number marked
Released
8
6
8
3
8
6
Ecosystems
11
1.4
Factors determining
distribution and abundance
Table 1.4.1
Abiotic factor
Measurement*
light intensity
air temperature
daily temperature range
relative humidity
rainfall
wind
soil temperature
soil depth
soil moisture
soil porosity
humus
light meter
thermometer
max./min. thermometer
wet and dry bulb thermometer
rain gauge
anemometer
soil thermometer
digging to expose soil profile and measuring
comparison of wet and dry weights
rate of water flow through sample
estimating leaf litter depth and comparing
burnt and unburnt soil weights
indicator and pH chart
soil test kit
pH
soil mineral nutrient
Abiotic factors
12
Resources
Anything an organism uses is a resource. Plants have a
fundamental role in the community as a resource for
animals. Resource needs of animals include such things
as food, living space, shelter, nesting sites, nesting
materials, oxygen, and water. The availability of these
can play a critical role in the abundance and distribution of organisms.
Sometimes the availability of a single resource may
be the single factor that determines the maximum
population of a particular species in an area. Such a
factor is called a limiting factor (see Figure 1.4.1). For
example, many Australian birds, bats, possums and
gliders nest on roofs in the hollow branches of
eucalypts. These hollows typically begin to occur in the
dead branches of trees that are about 100 years old.
Large hollows suitable for the possums and parrots
may not develop until trees are 150 to 200 years old.
additional nesting
boxes provided
no additional
nesting boxes
Abundance
Time
Summary 1.4
The distribution and abundance of organisms can
be affected by a variety of factors including abiotic
environmental factors, availability of resources,
other members of the same species, organisms of
different species.
An examination of variations in these factors within
an ecosystem can often provide an explanation for
the distribution and abundance of organisms within
that ecosystem.
The distribution and abundance of a particular
organism is usually determined by a number of
interacting factors.
A resource is anything that is used by an organism.
When a single resource, such as breeding sites or
food, is the factor that limits the abundance of an
organism, it is called a limiting factor.
Questions 1.4
1 List the four main interrelationships that influence the distribution and
abundance of organisms.
2 List some of the main abiotic factors that may influence the distribution
and abundance of an organism.
3 Explain why it can be said that the physical environment ultimately
determines the distribution and abundance of organisms.
4 (a) Describe the distribution of one plant and animal in your local area.
For both the plant and animal answer the following questions:
(b) Why do you think it is found in the areas shown?
(c) Is it more common in some places than others? Explain.
5 Carnivorous plants, which capture and digest insects, often dominate
impoverished, water-logged soils but are rare where soils are rich and
well drained.
(a) What factors influence their distribution?
(b) Why can they survive in soils where few other plants can?
6 In terms of the abundance of organisms, what is meant by a limiting
factor? Is there a single limiting factor controlling the abundance of any
organisms in your area?
7 Suggest the main abiotic factors you would examine in a terrestrial
ecosystem and state briefly how you could measure them.
8 Suggest some of the main abiotic factors you would examine in an
aquatic ecosystem.
1.5
Physical characteristics
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of how difficult it is to move
through a substance. For example, lets compare the
viscosity of water and honey. If you dropped a ballbearing into a glass of honey and a glass of water, the
ball-bearing would fall much more slowly through the
honey than through the water. Honey is more viscous
than water. If we extend the experiment a little further
by dropping the ball-bearing into a glass containing air,
then the ball will fall faster through the air than
through the water. Water is more viscous than air.
Viscosity is an important feature of the aquatic and
terrestrial environments and it is one area in which a
terrestrial existence provides an advantage over the
aquatic environment. It is much easier for animals to
move through air than through water. Many aquatic
animals have a streamlined shape, which allows them
to move more easily in water.
Buoyancy
Buoyancy is a measure of a substances ability to
support or hold up an object. For example, if you place
a cork in water it is easily supported by the water, but
the same cork falls through air. Water provides greater
buoyancy than air. Air appears to offer no support at all.
However, this is not true because air does provide some
support. If you drop a sheet of paper, the buoyancy
provided by air can be observed, but highly specialised
adaptations, such as wings, are required to make any
use of it.
Ecosystems
13
Temperature variation
The terrestrial environment can experience huge variations in temperature in very short periods. Within a
single day, variations of 15 to 20C are not uncommon,
and far greater temperature fluctuations occur, in desert
environments. Even in relatively small bodies of water,
such temperature variations do not occur. Water temperatures change much more slowly and this can be very
frustrating for early summer beach-goers who swelter
in high temperatures on land but find the water still too
cold for anything more than a quick dip.
Except at the very edges, the temperature of the
oceans remains constant from year to year. Indeed, any
slight variation in oceanic temperature could have quite
disastrous effects. For example, an increase in ocean
temperatures of only a few degrees could change global
weather patterns, melt Arctic and Antarctic ice, and
expand the volume of the ocean, enough to flood
coastal cities.
Since it is much easier to adapt to a constant
environment than to varying conditions, the constant
temperatures of the aquatic environment are much
more conducive to life than the varied temperatures
experienced on land.
Diffusion of gases
The movement of gases through water and air can be
influenced by wind and currents, but their movement
into and out of cells depends on diffusion. The
diffusion of gases is about 10 000 times faster through
air than through water. As a consequence, air provides a
tremendous advantage for the rapid movement of
gases. However, to gain entry to cells, they must dissolve
in water to pass through the cell membrane. This is why
any surface used for gas exchange must be moist.
cell wall
A
Freshwater
cell membrane
Conduction of heat
Although temperatures remain more constant in water
than on land, organisms tend to lose heat more rapidly
in water. This is because water conducts heat better
than air. People lost at sea probably die more often from
heat loss (hypothermia) than drowning because heat
is so quickly lost to the surrounding water. Aquatic
birds and mammals whose body temperatures are
higher than that of the water they inhabit must be
adapted to prevent this heat loss by conduction.
water in
water out
More water enters the cell by osmosis than leaves the cell
the concentration of substances is greater inside the cell than outside
Salt water
cell wall
cell membrane
Availability of gases
Organisms need oxygen for respiration, and plants
need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. As almost
20 per cent of air is oxygen, it is available in abundance
on land except at very high altitudes. Much less carbon
dioxide is available since only about .03 per cent of air
is carbon dioxide, but this appears to adequately
provide the needs of photosynthesis in plants.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve in water.
Where water is in close contact with the air, both are
readily available. In particular, these gases are most
14
water out
water in
water diffuses in and out of the
cell across the cell membrane
More water leaves the cell by osmosis than enters the cell
the concentration of substances is greater outside the cell than inside
Figure 1.5.1
Availability of water
On land, water is at a premium. It is quickly lost from
organisms by evaporation and must be replaced constantly. In an aquatic environment, water surrounds
organisms and yet it may not be as readily available as
you might imagine. In a freshwater environment, water
tends to constantly diffuse into organisms. This is
because cells contain more ions and organic substances
than the surrounding water. This causes a net movement of water into the cells. By contrast, in the marine
environment, cells often have a lower concentration of
salts than the surrounding water. Under these conditions, there is a net movement of water out of the cell
(see Figure 1.5.1). (For more information about this
movement of water into and out of cells see Unit 2.5)
Light
On land, light is available in abundance. It is generally
only scarce on the floors of dense forests and caves. In
water, light is often at a premium. The surface of water
reflects light. This means that only about 70 per cent of
the light that strikes the surface penetrates. Furthermore, water absorbs light. Therefore as depth increases,
light availability decreases. On the ocean floors, there is
no light for photosynthesis or vision and both plants
and animals have become adapted to cope with the
difficulties this presents (see Figure 1.5.2).
Availability of ions
On land, ions (salts) are available in soil water. Plants
absorb these through their roots and animals obtain
them when they feed off plants or other animals. Some
soils lack essential ions and few plants will grow under
such conditions. Conversely, some soils, particularly in
Western Australia and Victoria, contain excessive salts
and this prevents plant growth because water diffuses
from the roots into the soil rather than from the soil
into the plant. In the marine environment, most ions
are available in abundance. Just as convection currents
carry oxygen and carbon dioxide to the ocean depths,
so, too, these same currents return ions from decomposed organisms to the surface. Nevertheless,
light
light reflected
Pressure variations
On land, there are frequent fluctuations in pressure.
Typically, these are measured regularly and included in
daily weather reports. However, these variations are
small and have little direct impact on organisms. In
water, by contrast, although pressures do not fluctuate,
there is considerable variation. As water depth
increases, pressure increases (see Figure 1.5.2).
Pressures are so great on the floors of the deepest
oceans that they can crush submarines. Yet despite the
tremendous pressures, specially adapted animals do
inhabit the ocean depths.
These organisms were first studied by dragging nets
gases dissolve
light penetrates
Surface
waters
low pressure
gases
abundant
light absorbed
ions
abundant
ions
from dead
organisms
no light
Deep waters
high pressure
Deep
waters
Figure 1.5.2
Ecosystems
15
Summary 1.5
Life probably first evolved in water. Water provides
an environment in which it is easier for life to exist
than on land.
Water is more viscous than air. Therefore it is more
difficult to move through water than through air.
Water is more buoyant than air. Therefore water
provides greater support for organisms than air.
Temperatures vary less in water than on land.
Ocean temperatures are fairly constant. Constant
temperatures are easier to adapt to than varying
temperatures.
Water is a better conductor of heat than air. Therefore a body immersed in water will rapidly lose heat
to its surroundings.
Gases (e.g. oxygen and carbon dioxide) are available
in greater abundance on land than in water.
The availability of gases decreases with altitude on
land and decreases with depth in water.
Gases diffuse more quickly through air than
through water.
Water can be lost quickly by evaporation from
exposed surfaces on land.
In the freshwater environment, the concentration
gradient favours the movement of water out of most
cells.
In the marine environment, most ions (salts) are
readily available. In freshwater ions are in very low
concentrations. On land, most ions are readily
available in solution in soil water, though some soils
contain an excess of salts while others contain too
little.
Light availability in water decreases with depth.
On land, air pressure may fluctuate quickly but it
has little direct effect on organisms.
Air pressure decreases with altitude. Water pressure
increases with depth.
Questions 1.5
1 List three advantages and three disadvantages for life in the terrestrial
and aquatic environments that are related to their abiotic characteristics.
2 Why do most fish have a streamlined body shape?
3 Why do land animals need larger muscles and bones for support than
aquatic animals?
16
4 Why is the concentration of oxygen higher near the surface than on the
bottom of the oceans?
5 Why is the salt, calcium carbonate, in high demand in the marine
environment?
6 (a) Why do both marine and terrestrial organisms need to be adapted
to avoid excessive water loss?
(b) Why dont freshwater organisms require similar adaptations?
7 Why is it eternally dark on the ocean floor?
8 Why dont many aquatic organisms require mechanisms to regulate
their body temperatures?
9 The terrestrial environment is sometimes described as a two-phase
environment whereas the aquatic habitat is sometimes said to consist
of a single phase.
(a) Explain what is meant by this statement.
(b) To what extent do you agree?
1.6
Light in water
Light provides the energy requirements of virtually all
living things. On land, it is generally readily available in
abundance. In water, useful amounts of light are only
available to a depth of about 100 m depending on the
water clarity. The lack of light is brought about by two
factors: firstly, about 30 per cent of the light that strikes
the waters surface is reflected and, secondly, water
absorbs light.
eters)
anom
ngth (n
le
Wave
infrared
10
Sea s
urfac
300
400
500
700
600
inc
rea
00
gd
sin
1m
only 1% remains at
100 metres
th
ep
10 m
red nge
ora low
yel en
gre e
blu let
vio
100 m
Absorbance
water
(5 m deep)
phycoerythrin
chlorophyll-a
fucoxanthin
violet
blue
green
yellow
orange
red
Light
Animal adaptations
The lack of light in deep water also presents major
difficulties for aquatic animals. We humans rely heavily
on sight as our main means of obtaining information
about our surroundings, but this is not true of all
animals. Dogs, for example, live largely in a world of
smells because they rely mainly on their sense of smell.
Since sight may be of little consequence to them, the
lack of light in the ocean depths poses few problems for
the animals that dwell there.
Many aquatic animals rely heavily on smell and
sound rather than sight. A few even produce their own
light, which is called bioluminescence. This may help
them attract a mate or lure unsuspecting smaller
animals to a predators wide-set jaws. In this blind
world, some animals use senses that humans do not
possess. Electric eels, for example, are sensitive to the
minute electrical impulses given off by the nerves in the
muscles of other animals. The platypuss bill is similarly
sensitive and it detects prey, such as yabbies, in the
same way. Such adaptations are not only advantageous
in deep oceans but may be equally useful in shallow,
murky freshwater.
Finally, the problems related to lack of light are not
limited to aquatic habitats. At night, there is little light
in the terrestrial environment. Yet many animals are
nocturnal. In Australia the vast majority of mammals
are most active at night. Many bats, with the exception
of flying foxes, see poorly and yet they are one of the
most successful mammals. In short, it is only our
peculiar human perspective that makes us see darkness
and dim light as a hostile environment. Had this
chapter been written by a bat, it may have discussed
adaptations to cope with the bright light of day!
In this unit, the adaptations of organisms to one
abiotic factor, light, have been considered and the way
in which light availability influences the distribution of
algae described.Variations in many other abiotic factors
also influence the distribution of organisms in aquatic
environments. These include:
the salt concentration of the water, ranging from the
extremely salty Dead Sea to freshwater with almost
no salt
Ecosystems
17
Summary 1.6
Light provides the energy needs of virtually all
organisms.
Water reflects and absorbs light. Therefore as depth
increases, the amount of available light decreases.
The colours of light absorbed most by water are
similar to those absorbed most by chlorophyll (see
Figure 1.6.1). The wavelengths needed for photosynthesis are quickly absorbed by water.
Red and brown algae contain red and brown pigments, which absorb the light that penetrates to the
greatest depth.
Red and brown algae are more abundant in deeper
water than green algae.
Algae are distributed near the water surface and not
at great depths in water.
Life is abundant near hot gas outlets on the ocean
floor where chemosynthetic bacteria are the
producers.
Questions 1.6
1 Why is light generally more abundant on land than in water?
2 Describe the main problems for photosynthesis in water that are
related to light.
3 Why do objects collected under water sometimes have a different
colour when they are brought to the surface?
4 (a) Explain why red and brown algae can survive at greater depths of
water than green algae.
(b) How does this explain the distribution of redbrown and green
algae on a rock platform?
5 Do red and brown algae contain chlorophyll? Explain. How does light
influence distribution and abundance on land?
6 What is the advantage for a terrestrial plant in growing tall?
7 Describe how aquatic animals are adapted to environments with no
light. How does light influence their distribution and abundance?
8 Use library resources to investigate how abiotic factors influence the
distribution and adaptations of organisms in an aquatic environment.
Two of the most interesting ecosystems you could investigate include:
(a) coral reefs, such as the Great Barrier Reef
(b) ecosystems found near hot-gas outlets and near mid-ocean
ridges on the ocean floor.
18
1.7
light energy
chlorophyll
photosynthesis
transported
throughout
the plant
glucose
respiration
energy
for cell
processes
Figure 1.7.1
plant
eaten by animal
carbohydrates
digested to
glucose
respiration
energy
for animal cell
processes
converted into
other
substances
Figure 1.7.2
Ecosystems
19
death
and
decay
salts
water
plants
carbon
dioxide
Figure 1.7.3
urine
animals
respiration
Summary 1.7
Light energy from the sun provides the original
source of energy for ecosystems.
Plants convert light energy to chemical energy in
glucose through photosynthesis.
Animals obtain energy in the form of chemical
energy in food. This is mainly in the form of carbohydrates.
The chemical energy in glucose is made available to
plant and animal cells through cellular respiration.
Organisms never obtain all the energy available in
their food source because energy is constantly being
used and lost by organisms as waste heat; and
energy is lost in every energy transfer.
oxygen used in
burning
animals
respire
plants
respire
photosynthesis
uses carbon dioxide
to make sugar
and releases
oxygen
eaten by
animals
bacteria respire
decay of
dead plants
and animals
Figure 1.7.4
20
faeces
burning fuels:
wood, coal, gas and petrol are used
in these processesthey are the
remains of plants and animals
which lived millions of years ago.
nitrogen gas
in the air
lightning
produces
nitrates
animals eat plants,
obtaining protein
animal
protein
dead animals
and plants
animal
waste
denitrifying bacteria
in waterlogged soil
nitrifying bacteria
plant protein
made with nitrates
and absorbed
by-plant roots
nitrogen-fixing
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in
bacteria in root
the soil
nodules of acacias
peas, beans
and clover
nitrates in
the soil
Figure 1.7.5
evaporation
from rivers
evaporation
from plants and
animals
evaporation
from land
evaporation
from lakes
rain
evaporation
from the sea
und water
undergro
Figure 1.7.6
Ecosystems
21
Questions 1.7
1 What is the original source of energy in ecosystems?
2 (a) In what form do cells obtain energy for use in cellular processes?
(b) By what process is light energy converted into this?
(c) By what process is the energy made available within cells?
3 What substances in plants are the main source of energy for animals?
4 When an animal eats plants, it never obtains all the energy in the plants
it eats. Why?
5 In the physical environment, what substances provide the initial source
of material for living things?
6 (a) What substances in plants provide the main sources of materials
for animals?
(b) How do plants obtain these substances?
7 How do plants and animals release matter to the physical environment?
8 What eventually happens to all the matter in a community?
9 People sometimes remove dead logs from forests for use in fire places,
and leaf litter for use as garden mulch. Explain the long-term consequences of these actions in relation to the flow of matter and energy
within the ecosystem.
10 When areas of natural vegetation are cleared for agriculture, the land
sometimes turns out to be impoverished and inadequate for crops.
(a) Where have all the nutrients gone?
(b) How was the original ecosystem maintained?
11 A group of people are isolated and have only grain and chickens as
food sources. Should they
(a) feed the grain to the chickens and eat the chickens?
(b) feed the grain to the chickens and eat the eggs the chickens lay?
(c) eat the grain and the chickens?
Explain your answer.
1.8
22
Mutualism
A relationship between two organisms in which both
benefit is called mutualism. Examples of mutualism
include the alga and fungus that make up a lichen, the
alga and polyp that make up coral acacias with their
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and the bacteria in the digestive
systems of many herbivores that digest cellulose.
No large animals can digest cellulose. All grazing
animals must rely on symbiotic bacteria or protozoa in
their digestive systems to break down cellulose.
Kangaroos have an additional stomach near the
beginning of the digestive tract. This contains the
bacteria and protozoa that break down the cellulose in
grass. Both the kangaroo and the bacteria benefit from
the relationship. The kangaroo obtains access to an
additional food source and the bacteria have a habitat
with a constant environment and an ample supply of
food. All herbivores have symbiotic protozoa and
bacteria in the gut, but few can match the efficiency of
the kangaroos digestion.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms in which only one benefits and the other is
unaffected. Some examples of commensalism include
the anemone fish and the sea anemone, and the
remora fish and the shark. The anemone fish lives
among the tentacles of sea anemones, gaining protection from predators. The anemone appears to receive
no benefit. The remora hitches a ride on sharks. It gains
a free ride and feeds on scraps from the sharksfood but
appears to provide no service to the sharks.
Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism
lives in or on another organism and feeds from it. The
organism in, on or off which a parasite lives is called its
host. Well adapted parasites cause little harm to their
host. Their host remains healthy and able to provide
them with a habitat and food. Many tapeworms live
attached to the lining of the digestive system of their
host animal and absorb digested food without causing
any serious harm. Some less well adapted parasites
cause discomfort, which irritates the host and triggers
responses aimed at getting rid of the parasite. Ticks and
fleas, for example, feed off dogs, who scratch and gnaw
at their coats in an attempt to remove them. Some
parasites, such as disease-causing bacteria, bring about
illness and can kill their host. These disease-causing
parasites are called pathogens.
Allelopathy
Competition
Competition is a relationship in which two organisms
compete for a limited resource. Competition between
organisms in the same place for the same set of resources
usually results in the elimination of the less successful
one. The introduction of dingoes and, more recently, feral
cats and foxes has been blamed for the reduced population of some native carnivores in parts of Australia.
Sometimes organisms are fairly evenly matched in
their competition for resources. Such organisms may coexist indefinitely. In rainforest, for example, the availability of light is often at a premium for seedlings. Therefore there is constant competition for light. Nevertheless,
no single species dominates and the rainforest remains
an exceptionally diverse community. Competition is most
intense within a single species population because all the
individuals require the same resources.
Occasionally one species is more successful than
another and yet both continue to coexist. On the rock
platform, the black periwinkle (Nerita) competes for food
with the limpet (Cellana). Both feed on the algae growing
on the rocks. The periwinkle moves faster, but feeds less
Predation
A relationship in which one organism eats another is
called a predator/prey relationship, or predation.
The term is usually only applied to relationships in
which one animal eats another. Dingoes and wallabies,
lions and zebras, orb spinner spiders and beetles are all
examples of predator/prey relationships.
Predator/prey relationships often have a major
impact on the abundance of organisms. Indeed, prey
and predator populations are sometimes so closely
related that graphs of their abundance may look very
similar. Figure 1.8.1 shows the effects of a predator/prey
relationship between two mites that were studied
under laboratory conditions.
The shape of the graphs can be explained in the
following way: The predator mite eats the mite of a
1200
25
800
20
prey
600
15
400
10
predator
200
Predator abundance
Prey abundance
1000
0
1
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Time (weeks)
Figure 1.8.1
Ecosystems
23
Consequences of competition
When two species compete for the same resources, one
of the species usually loses. In the short term, this
results in a decrease in the abundance of one of the
species. The effects of competition on the population of
organisms can be observed under laboratory conditions. In such experiments, the grain beetle Calandra
is more successful than Rhizopeatha. Where they coexist, this results in a decrease in the Rhizopeatha population. If competition between species continues in an
ecosystem, one of the species can be eliminated from
the area. In the long term, this can result in the extinction of the less successful species.
Over long periods, organisms evolve and adapt to
their environment. Competition is one pressure in the
environment that influences the evolution of organisms. Partly as a result of competition, organisms evolve
to occupy a particular niche within each ecosystem. An
organisms niche in an ecosystem results from a
combination of the abiotic and biotic factors the species
uses in its habitat. As a result of competition and evolution, organisms of different species do not occupy the
same niche in the same ecosystem. The black periwinkle (Nerita) and the limpet (Callana) feed on the
same food resource and share the same environment in
the same ecosystem but they occupy different niches
because they feed in different ways.
Summary 1.8
The distribution and abundance of organisms is
influenced by a range of factors, which include the
abiotic environment; the availability of resources;
interaction with other species; and interaction with
members of the same species.
An examination of variations in these factors within
Table 1.8.1
24
Questions 1.8
1 List the four main interrelationships that influence the distribution and
abundance of organisms.
2 State two types of relationship in which the organisms are not harmed
and give an example of each.
3 State two types of relationship in which an organism is harmed and
give an example of each.
4 Use two specific examples to explain how relationships within species
can influence their distribution and abundance.
5 In some predator/prey relationships, predators tend to prey more
heavily on the young, weak and sick than on the strong and healthy.
How might such a relationship benefit the prey in the long-term?
6 State whether the situations described below are
(i) allelopathy
(ii) mutualism
(iii) commensalism
(iv) competition
(v) parasitism
(vi) predator/prey relationships.
(More than one answer may be chosen.)
(a) The pollination of orchids by bees as they search for nectar.
(b) The killing of lyre birds by feral cats.
(c) The digestion of wood in the gut of termites by microorganisms.
(d) The infection of humans by the malaria plasmodium.
(e) The building of nests in trees by magpies.
(f) Water moccasin snakes dwelling beneath trees where herons
nest, eating fledglings that fall from the nests but preventing
egg-eating predators from climbing the trees to raid the
nests.
Relationships
Descriptions
Example
mutualism
commensalism
predation
parasitism
competition
allelopathy
lichen (fungus/alga)
anemone fish/anemone
dingo eats wallaby
tick on dog
periwinkle/limpet compete for algae
lantana secretions inhibit native plants
140
120
Abundance
100
80
P. aurelia
Separate
cultures
P. caudatum
Combined
cultures
P. aurelia
P. caudatum
Figure 1.8.4
8 10
Days
12
14 16
12 Two types of barnacles often live in the same ecosystem. These are the
brown barnacle (Chthamalus) and the grey barnacle (Balanus).
Figure 1.8.5 shows a typical distribution of these barnacles on rocks.
The grey barnacle is thought to be unable to survive as high on rocks
as the brown barnacle because it is less tolerant of dry conditions.
Develop a hypothesis to explain the distribution of the barnacles shown.
Suggest one way in which you could test this hypothesis.
60
Distribution of the
grey barnacle in the
absence of the brown
barnacle
Time (weeks)
Figure 1.8.2
high tide
40
grey
barnacles
ocean
low tide
a
high tide
Abundance
b
x
Distribution of the
brown barnacle in the
absence of the grey
barnacle
brown
barnacles
ocean
d
low tide
Time
high tide
brown
barnacles
balanus
chthamalus
Figure 1.8.3
ocean
grey
barnacles
low tide
Figure 1.8.5
Distribution of barnacles
Ecosystems
25
1.9
Food webs
hawk
fox
emu wren
honey-eater
insects
mouse
shrubs
Figure 1.9.2
rabbit
sheep
grass
Food chains
Figure 1.9.1
26
human
producer
first-order
consumer
second-order
consumer
grass
wallaby
dingo
Biomass pyramids
Just as the flow of energy through an ecosystem is an
important aspect of an ecological study, so too is the
transfer of matter within an ecosystem. The total
amount of mass in a community is called its biomass.
Since matter is lost from the community at each trophic
level, the biomass of the producers is usually greater
than that of the first-order consumers and their biomass is, in turn, greater than that of the second-order
consumers, and so on. This trend can be readily seen in
biomass pyramids, which show the biomass of the
organisms at each trophic level. The biomass of organisms is usually expressed as a percentage of the
communitys total biomass (see Figure 1.9.3).
This allows us to compare the amounts of matter at
each trophic level and indicates the efficiency with
stable
unstable
unstable
Key:
carnivores
herbivores
producers
Figure 1.9.3
unstable
human
corn
beans
wheat
apples
human
B
Energy
pyramid of
human as
carnivore
cattle
corn
sheep
pigs
wheat
chicken
grass
Ecosystems
27
Energy pyramids
Energy pyramids show the amount of energy at each
trophic level in a community. They are similar to biomass pyramids because energy is transferred throughout a community as food. The lower the organism on a
food chain the more energy it has available to it. Figure
1.9.4 compares the energy pyramid of a human who is
a vegetarian (A) with a human whose diet consists only
of meat (B). As at least 10 per cent of the energy is lost
at each trophic level, the vegetarian human makes
much more efficient use of the energy available in the
ecosystem than the human carnivore. Note that the
human carnivore requires approximately 10 times the
energy in producers as the human as vegetarian. This
has implications for the population of humans on
Earth. The human population that can be supported on
Earth is very much affected by human diet. If humans
were to consume more plants and less meat, then the
Earth could provide food for a larger human
population.
(d) herbivore
(e) carnivore
(f) omnivore
(g) biomass.
2 State whether the organisms listed below are (i) producers,
(ii) consumers, (iii) decomposers, (iv) herbivores, (v) carnivores or
(vi) omnivores:
(a) sheep
(b) grass
(c) carrot
(d) human
(e) wattle
(f) Tasmanian devil
(g) bread mould
(h) kangaroo
(i) mushroom
(j) worm.
3 Draw a simple food chain for a human who only eats beef.
4 Which of the following biomass pyramids is most likely to represent the
biomass in a stable ecosystem (see Figure 1.9.5)?
Summary 1.9
Plants are producers. Producers make the organic
materials on which all other organisms depend for
food.
Animals are consumers. Consumers obtain food
from other organisms. They obtain energy and
matter from the organisms they eat.
Organisms that break down dead organisms and
the waste products of organisms are decomposers.
Many bacteria and fungi are decomposers.
Decomposers are consumers.
A food chain or web is a flow chart showing the
feeding patterns within a community.
Food chains and food webs show the flow of energy
and matter through a community.
A food web is made up of a set of interconnecting
food chains.
Food webs can be used to explain and predict
changes in the community
Biomass pyramids usually indicate the relative
amount of matter in the organisms of a community
Energy pyramids indicate the relative amount of
energy transferred to each trophic level.
In a stable community, biomass and energy
decrease rapidly as the trophic level increases.
Biomass and energy pyramids can be used to
predict and explain changes in a community.
Questions 1.9
1 Define the following terms:
(a) producer
(b) consumer
(c) decomposer
28
Figure 1.9.5
Food pyramids
to the bottom. Foxes and quolls were not sighted, but their droppings were
collected and found to contain the following:
Fox droppingsbeetle exoskeletons and wings, yabbie shells,
house mouse and Antechinus fur.
Quoll droppingsparrot feathers and house mouse fur.
8 From the information in the food web from question 7
(a) name the producers
(b) state the consumer level of the house mouse
(c) name an organism that occupies more than one trophic level
(d) state one short-term consequence of poisoning the insects
(e) state which organisms would have the highest biomass
(f) state which organisms in the food web would be at the greatest
risk from biomagnification of poisons.
9 Draw a possible biomass pyramid for the community described in
question 6.
10 In a lake, for every 1000 kilojoules (kJ) of light energy converted into
carbohydrate by algae, small aquatic animals obtain about 150 kJ of
energy. Of this 150 kJ, 30 kJ is transferred to smelt. Trout feeding on
smelt obtain about 6 kJ of energy. If you eat the trout, you obtain only
1.2 kJ of energy from the trout.
(a) Draw a food chain for this community.
(b) Draw an energy pyramid for this community.
1.10
diversity
complexity/stability
energy input
energy use
matter recycling
Urban
Agricultural
Natural
great
complex/stable
light only
efficient,recycled
Ecosystems
29
Energy use
key:
Figure 1.10.1
very high
moderate
high
low
ment. Most waste is often not recycled within the ecosystem but is typically dumped into natural ecosystems. In Sydney, most of the waste sewage is
dumped into the ocean, where it damages beaches and
aquatic ecosystems before being decomposed.
Even the air is imported into urban ecosystems from
natural and agricultural systems because there are too
few plants in cities to recycle the oxygen from the
carbon dioxide produced by the animals and the
burning of fossil fuels. Indeed, in recent times the
production of carbon dioxide has outstripped the ability
of the constantly decreasing natural ecosystems to
convert the carbon dioxide into oxygen. This imbalance
Table 1.10.2
Air pollution
Pollutant
sulfur dioxide
carbon monoxide
nitrogen oxides
ozone
hydrocarbon vapours
lead compounds
radioactive materials
peroxacetyl nitrate (PAN)
30
algal bloom
(cyanobacteria)
irrigation may
mobilise salt and
lead to salinisation
of rivers (and soil)
Figure 1.10.2
Sources of water pollution. Research two of the problems identified to outline the cause, effects and possible solutions
Ecosystems
31
Pollution
Human activities produce a variety of wastes that can
contaminate ecosystems. These wastes pollute the
environment and may degrade the habitat of other
species and humans themselves.
Most pollution is caused by humans from
developed countries. Pollution is the result of our consumption of goods. Agriculture, which provides our
food and the bleaching of the paper on which you
write, for example, can contaminate rivers and streams.
The industries that supply you with the things you
want, such as a car, also pollute the environment. These
contaminants may pollute the water systems, the air
and soil. The sources and types of water and air
pollution are many. Some of these are shown in Table
1.10.2 and Figure 1.10.2. If you look carefully at the data
in Table 1.10.2 you will see that transport is a major
cause of air pollution. If you travelled by bus or car to
school you contributed to this pollution. Even if you
went to school by train, the electricity used to drive the
train may have been produced by burning coal, which
pollutes the air.
Biomagnification
Food webs can be used to predict the flow and possible
long-term effects of contaminants that pollute an
ecosystem. The concentrations of some pesticides,
such as DDT, and heavy metals, like lead, mercury and
cadmium, increase along the food chain. That is, higher
order consumers tend to have higher concentrations of
these substances in their tissues than lower order
consumers. This occurs for two reasons. Firstly, these
substances are only broken down very slowly and
therefore accumulate in an organisms body tissues
over its lifetime. Secondly, the transfer of energy from
one organism to the next by feeding is inefficient.
Therefore a predator must eat large quantities of prey
to supply its energy and material needs.
While the energy transfer is such that the predator
might only obtain 20 per cent of the energy available in
its food, it unfortunately accumulates almost all the
DDT and heavy metals that were taken in by its prey. In
this way the concentration of these substances is
magnified along the food chain. This is known as
biomagnification.
This biomagnification of DDT has resulted in a
decline in the number of offspring produced by some
birds of prey, including herring gulls, falcons, eagles
and ospreys. These birds are high-order consumers.
The concentration of DDT in these birds may be 250
times that of the non-living surroundings. Such high
concentrations of DDT seem to prevent the formation
32
Summary 1.10
Humans have had a range of impacts on ecosystems. These include the destruction of ecosystems (e.g. clearing forests and estuaries), introduction of species that compete with or prey on
native species, and pollution of ecosystems with
contaminants that affect the survival of organisms.
The use of energy and matter in most humandominated ecosystems in developed countries is
not sustainable.
A variety of strategies can be used to balance
human activities and needs in ecosystems to conserve, maintain and protect the quality of the
environment, but these are difficult to implement
due to economic, cultural and political pressures.
Energy use and flow in undisturbed ecosystems is
more efficient than energy flow through disturbed
ecosystems (e.g. agricultural and urban ecosystems).
Matter recycling in undisturbed ecosystems is more
efficient than matter recycling through disturbed
ecosystems (e.g. agricultural and urban ecosystems).
Questions 1.10
Country
Population
(millions)
Bangladesh
Nigeria
India
Indonesia
Brazil
China
Turkey
Japan
Germany
United States
116.6
99.1
859.2
181.4
163.3
1 151.3
58.5
123.8
79.5
252.8
2
6
9
10
23
23
30
140
187
320
Briefly comment on any trend you can infer from the graph.
Is human impact on ecosystems mainly a result of over-population?
Suggest one other factor that seems to influence human energy
consumption.
9 Some poisons used to kill insect pests in lawns are sprayed at night
because they break down quickly when exposed to light. These poisons
are extremely toxic and can kill birds even in small concentrations.
When used correctly, why might these very toxic poisons often cause
less damage to the community than less poisonous substances such as
DDT and heavy metals? Explain.
10 Research one agreement, activity or event to reduce detrimental
human impact at the following levels:
international
national
local area or local government
individual.
Ecosystems
33
Investigations
Investigation 1
Measuring physical characteristics of an
ecosystem, and observing incidence of human
impact
Information
An examination of the physical characteristics of an
ecosystem can provide a basis for understanding the
interrelationships that exist within an ecosystem. In
particular, it can help to explain the existence and
extent of the ecosystem as well as the distribution and
abundance of organisms within it.
The aims of this exercise are to provide experience in
the use of a wide range of procedures that can be used in
your field work to study physical environmental factors,
and to use the data collected to explain the distribution
of organisms in the ecosystems studied.
Ideally, these abiotic factors should be measured
over a long period of time. Brief visits to ecosystems can
sometimes provide very misleading data. Climatic
factors in particular are best measured over many years
or at least over the seasons. If it is not possible to visit
your study area regularly throughout the year, additional data can sometimes be obtained from students
who have studied the ecosystem in previous years.
Recording data
Students:
observe and measure a variety of abiotic
characteristics in ecosystems and relate
them to the distribution of organisms
tabulate data, calculate means, graph
changes against time, evaluate the variability
in measurements
identify the impact of humans in the
ecosystems studied.
35
woodland
bare rock
closed heath
woodland
closed forest
Key:
Height (m)
30
woodland
eucalypt
25
forest
eucalypt
20
shrubs
15
ferns
3
grass
10
1,2,3,4,5
sites
for data
collection
5
0
5
Figure I1.1
34
10
15
Vegetation transect
20
25
30
35
40
45
Distance (m)
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
Table I1.1
Date
Time
Temperature (C)
maximum
minimum
1/6/04
2/6/04
3/6/04
4/6/04
9 a.m.
9 a.m.
9 a.m.
9 a.m.
20
20
15
10
8
11
7
4
Part A Temperature
Questions
1 Were there differences in the temperature recorded in the ecosystem?
2 Would it be more difficult for an organism to adapt to an ecosystem
with a varied temperature or to one with a fairly constant temperature?
Why?
3 How does temperature influence water availability?
4 How does temperature influence the water requirements of organisms?
5 Did the soil temperature vary as much as the atmospheric temperature?
6 Why do some animals live in burrows?
Temperature range
Materials
a maximum/minimum thermometer
Materials
Method
1 Use a maximum/minimum thermometer to measure
the maximum and minimum temperature each day.
2 Collect data at a set time each day (e.g. 9 a.m.) and
reset for the following day.
3 Record temperature range for each day and month.
4 Calculate an average maximum and minimum
temperature for each month for which have data.
5 Use a graph to present maximum and minimum
temperature data.
Atmospheric temperature
Materials
a thermometer
Method
1 Use a thermometer to measure the temperature at
regular intervals throughout the day in the shade
and in full sun.
a light meter
Method
1 Use a light meter to measure the light intensity at a
range of heights above the ground (e.g. ground level,
hip level and eye level).
2 Repeat at set times in the morning, at midday and
in the afternoon.
3 Rate the light intensity as very high, high, moderate,
or very low.
Questions
1 Was the amount of cloud cover similar when the measurements were
made?
2 (a) Were there differences between the light readings in the ecosystem?
(b) How can you account for the differences?
3 Was there less light available at ground or hip level than at eye level?
How might this influence the growth of shrubs and grasses?
Soil temperature
Materials
Method
Method
1 Use a wet and dry bulb thermometer and the conversion chart to measure the relative humidity at
regular intervals throughout the day.
2 Measure the humidity at different heights above the
ground.
Questions
1 (a) Were there differences between the humidity readings in the
ecosystem?
(b) Were some areas generally more humid than the other areas?
2 How might humidity affect the rate of water loss from organisms?
3 Use a graph to record humidity for the period of your study.
Ecosystems
35
Part D Rainfall
Wind exposure
Materials
Method
a rain gauge
Method
1 Use a rain gauge to measure rainfall each day.
2 Collect the data at a set time each day (e.g. 9 a.m.)
and empty for the following day.
Questions
1 Were there differences in the rainfall in the ecosystem?
2 How might rainfall affect other abiotic factors such as humidity and soil
moisture?
3 How might rainfall influence the organisms in the ecosystem?
4 Research the mean annual rainfall and monthly or seasonal rainfall in
the ecosystems you studied. Graph these data to show the rainfall
pattern over the year.
Part E Wind
Wind speed
Part F Soil
Materials
Soil pH
Materials
Table I1.2
Observation
Rating
very low
low
moderate
high
very high
Method
1 Use an anemometer to measure wind speed at
regular intervals throughout the day.
2 Measure the windspeed at different heights above the
ground (e.g. ground level, hip level, and eye level).
3 Note high and low readings if the wind is occurring
in gusts.
4 Rate the wind speed as very high, high, moderate,
low, or very low.
Wind direction
Materials
a thin piece of cloth on a stick
a compass
Method
Use a compass and a thin piece of cloth on a stick to
determine the wind direction.
36
Questions
Method
1 Collect a small sample of soil and place it on a Petri
dish.
2 Sprinkle a layer of talcum powder (or barium
sulfate) on the soil.
3 Add a few drops of universal indicator to the talc.
4 Observe the colour and compare it with a colour
chart to find the pH.
Soil humus
Materials
a trowel
a 30 cm ruler.
Method
1 Carefully dig a hole in the soil.
2 Use a ruler to measure the depth of the darkcoloured topsoil layer.
3 Observe the depth of the leaf litter and humus on top
of the soil.
4 Rate the humus content as very high, high, moderate,
low, or very low.
Soil moisture
(Use either materials and methods 1 or 2.)
Materials 1
Materials
Method 1
Method
1 Follow the instructions given in the soil test kit.
2 For each mineral, rate the soil as good, moderate, or
poor.
Materials 2
Materials
Method 2
Collect a small soil sample.
Place the sample in a plastic bag and seal it.
In the laboratory, find the weight of the soil sample.
Place it in an oven on low heat until it has dried out
completely.
5 Reweigh the soil. (The difference between the weight
before and after heating provides a measure of the
water content.)
1
2
3
4
Soil porosity
Materials
a Petri dish
a filter funnel
glass wool
a 25 mL graduated measuring cylinder
a beater or jar for water marked at 100 mL
Method
1 Collect a sample of soil and thoroughly dry it on the
dish in the sun or in an oven on low heat.
2 Pack a small amount of glass wool into the filter
funnel.
3 Gently pack some of the soil into the filter funnel on
top of the glass wool.
4 Place the funnel over the graduated measuring
cylinder.
5 Add 50100 mL of water and time how long it takes
for 10 mL of water to collect in the measuring
cylinder. More water can be used if too little water
passes through the soil.
(If you are going to compare soils from different
sites, ensure that the same quantity of soil and
water is used for each test.)
6 Rate the soil porosity as very high, high, moderate,
low, or very low.
Method
1 Place a sample of soil in a beaker of water and note
the rate at which air bubbles from the soil.
2 When comparing different soils, use the same
volume of soil.
3 Rate the soil air content as very high, high,
moderate, low, or very low.
Questions
1 Were there differences in the characteristics of the soils in the
ecosystem? Describe any differences.
2 (a) Briefly explain how each of the soil characteristics studied might
influence the organisms in the ecosystem.
(b) Was there any evidence that soil type influenced the distribution of
the vegetation types in the ecosystem?
3 How might soil porosity influence soil moisture content?
4 (a) Was there evidence of rotting organic matter in the soil?
(b) How might this contribute to soil quality?
5 You have measured many different abiotic factors in your study. Others
studying the same area might obtain data different from yours. How
could you account for this variability in data? Consider a range of
abiotic factors in your answer. Are some methods of measuring abiotic
factors more accurate than others? Explain with examples.
Question
How might human impact influence the substainability of the ecosystem
studied?
Ecosystems
37
Method
Investigation 2
Using a transect to study the
distribution of plants
Students:
construct a transect to record data
describe and analyse the distribution of
plants in an ecosystem
design a study to investigate factors influencing
the distribution of plants in an ecosystem.
Information
It is usually too time-consuming to show the position
of every plant in an ecosystem on a map. However, it is
relatively easy to show the distribution of the plants
within a section of the ecosystem. One way of doing
this is to record the plants along a cross-section or profile of the ecosystem. The line through the area along
which this cross-section is taken is called a transect.
Materials
a length of string marked with coloured adhesive
tape at 5 m intervals (the string should be long
enough to cross the area to be studied)
a compass
a metre ruler
a small stake (optional)
Table I2.1
24
13
23
54%
24
13
55%
moderate
SW
extreme
Sites
3
24
13
23
59%
24
13
23
58%
24
13
23
82%
moderate
SW
high
moderate
SW
high
moderate
SW
high
minimal
moderate
moderate
low
very high
very high
very high
very high
very high
very low
moderate
moderate
very low
low
low
very low
6
shallow
dry
low
moderate
none
very low
5
shallow
soggy
moderate
very low
7
shallow
damp
moderate
moderate
7
deep
damp
high
moderate
poor
moderate
moderate
moderate
poor
poor
moderate
moderate
poor
moderate
moderate
moderate
good
good
good
moderate
temperature (C)
max.
min.
soil
relative humidity
wind
speed
direction
exposure
light intensity
eye level
hip level
group level
soil
pH
depth
moisture
humus
air
nutrients
nitrates
phosphates
sulfates
potassium
38
Questions
1 Describe any variation in plant distribution you observed.
2 Try to explain these variations in plant distribution in terms of
(a) variations in physical environmental factors
(b) interrelationships between organisms.
3 How might the variations in plant distribution influence the distribution
of animals? (For example, would tree- or grass-dwelling animals be
able to inhabit all areas of the transect equally?)
4 Design an investigation to determine the factors that influence the
distribution of one of the plants identified in the transect.
Investigation 3
Using quadrats to measure the abundance of
plants in an ecosystem
Students:
use quadrats to study species abundance
describe and analyse the abundance of
plants in an ecosystem
design a study to investigate factors
influencing the abundance of plants in an
ecosystem.
Information
The aim of this exercise is to measure the abundance of
a plant species within an ecosystem. Use either method
1 or method 2.
Materials
a tape measure or string marked at regular intervals
with adhesive tape
a metre ruler
Method 1
1 Select the plant species the abundances of which
you want to measure.
2 Choose a quadrat size suitable for the plant being
studied. (A tree may require quadrats of 10 m by
10 m or more. Grass may require quadrats of less
than 1 m by 1 m.)
3 Note the size of the quadrat to be used.
Table I3.1
4 Use string with adhesive tape attached at appropriate intervals, or a tape measure, to mark out a
square quadrat.
5 Count the plants that are members of the species
under study.
6 Record the data in a table (see Table I3.1).
7 Repeat steps 4 to 6 at a number of randomly selected
sites throughout the ecosystem or at sites along a
transect.
8 Estimate the total area of the ecosystem.
9 Calculate the average number of plants per square metre.
10 To find the abundance, multiply the average number
of plants per square metre by the number of square
metres in the whole ecosystem.
OR
Method 2
1 Use the transect from Investigation 2.
2 In each 5 m interval along the transect, count the
number of plants of the species under study that are
not more than 1 m away from one side of the string.
3 Record the data for each 1 m x 5 m rectangle (see
e.g. Table I3.1).
4 Calculate the average.
5 Estimate the total area of the ecosystem.
6 Calculate the average number of plants per square
metre.
7 To find the abundance, multiply the average number
of plants per square metre by the number of square
metres in the whole ecosystem.
Questions
1 Explain why the quadrat size chosen was appropriate.
2 How could more accurate data be obtained?
3 Would the same procedure be suitable for estimating the abundance of
bush rats in the ecosystem? Explain.
4 (a) Did each quadrat contain a similar number of plants?
(b) How even does the distribution of these plants appear to be?
(c) If the abundance in each quadrat is very different,
(i) how can these differences be explained?
(ii) how should you report the abundance data in the ecosystem?
5 Design an investigation to determine the factors that influence the distribution of the plant species studied in this exercise.
density/25 m2
4
13
5
10
10
Ecosystems
39
Investigation 4
Distribution and abundance of animals
Students:
use tables to record field data
describe and analyse the abundance and
distribution of animals in an ecosystem
Information
The distribution of animals within an ecosystem can be
determined in a variety of ways. The distribution of
invertebrates can often involve the trapping and killing
of organisms such as insects. The aim of this exercise is
to determine the distribution and abundance of a
variety of animals with minimum disturbance of the
ecosystem.
The procedures below can be carried out at a
number of sites throughout the ecosystem. If they are
carried out at regular intervals along a transect (see
Investigation 2), you may be able to use data collected
along the transect to help you to explain the distribution of animals. It may be necessary to move some
distance from the transect line to avoid excessive disturbance of the area.
Materials
a trowel
a pair of gardening gloves
a large sheet of white paper or cardboard
an open tin can or small soil auger
a sweep net
a metal spatula or blunt knife
Method
Note any evidence of feeding patterns observed
throughout this exercise, for use in Investigation 5.
WARNING: Take care to avoid snakes, spiders and any
insects that may sting or bite.
Site
Animals observed
1
2
3
4
Number observed
skink
spider A
spider B
amphipods
native cockroach
white grub
bull ant
seed ant
slater
2
1
1
7
1
1
3
many
2
5
Total
Comments
One skink lost its tail when disturbed.
The amphipods were difficult to count because they jumped about
very quickly.
The white grub appeared to be an insect larva.
The seed ants were moving very rapidly along a single line in great
numbers. A nest was found nearby.
The slaters appeared to be dead.
Part B Soil
1 Remove the leaf litter from a small area.
2 Press an empty tin can into the soil.
3 Remove the can, lifting out the soil. If the soil does
not come out with the can, gently dig it out with a
trowel.
4 Spread the soil on a sheet of white paper.
5 Count and identify organisms in general terms.
6 Record the data in a table.
40
Method
Part E Bark
1 Use a metal spatula to lift small pieces of bark on
shrubs and trees.
2 Count and identify the organisms in general terms.
3 Record the data in a table.
Questions
1 How could animal distribution and abundance be measured more
accurately?
2 Many native mammals are nocturnal. How could these be observed?
3 Were the animals evenly distributed across the different sites?
4 Try to explain the variation in distribution of at least two animals.
5 With reference to a specific animal, suggest how each of the following
might have influenced its distribution and abundance:
(a) The availability of a resource.
(b) A physical environmental factor.
(c) An interrelationship with another organism.
6 Design an investigation to determine the factors that influence the distribution and abundance of an animal studied in this exercise.
Investigation 5
Food webs
Questions
1 List the types of food sources of which you would not be able to find any
evidence in animal droppings.
2 List the types of materials that can be found in animal droppings.
3 Do animal droppings give an accurate view of the food sources of
animals? Explain.
Students:
describe two trophic interactions found
between organisms in the area studied
construct food chains and food webs to
illustrate the relationships between member
species in an ecosystem.
Information
When ecologists construct food webs, they often make
detailed observations of organisms in the field over a
long period of time, examine the stomach contents of
dead animals and study animal droppings. With
adequate reference materials, fur, feather and seed
samples in stomach contents and droppings can
usually be traced to the specific species of mammal,
bird or plant that was eaten.
The aim of this exercise is to construct a simplified
food web. The exercise is best carried out while completing Investigations 1, 2 and 3.
Materials
Ecosystems
41
Multiple choice
1 The area of an ecosystem where members of a species are found is
known as their:
(a) distribution
(b) biomass
(c) habitat
(d) abundance.
2 Coral polyps often contain algae living within their tissues, which contribute to their spectacular colours. The algae generally do not survive
outside the polyp and the coral grows more slowly if the algae are not
present. This association could be best described as:
(a) competition
(b) commensalism
(c) allelopathy
(d) mutualism.
3 The collective name for the members of a particular species living in
an ecosystem is a:
(a) population
(b) habitat
(c) family
(d) community.
4 The map in Figure E1.1 shows the distribution of the common brushtail
possum. From this distribution map, you could conclude that:
(a) the abundance of the common brushtail possum is greater on the
mainland than in Tasmania
(b) the common brushtail possum is not evenly distributed throughout
its range
(c) changes in vegetation patterns have isolated populations of the
common brushtail possum
(d) none of the conclusions A, B or C are correct.
40
35
fly larva
Evaporation rate
(mg/cm2/h)
30
small
lizard
25
20
small
crustacean
15
adult
beetle
10
5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Temperature (C)
Figure E1.2
42
Grass
Suckers
Cold ash
Hot ash
Fire
Bird Species
dingo
fox
possum
sheep
rabbit
tree
grass
black kite
woodswallow
tree martin
pied butcherbird
grey butcherbird
kookaburra
red-backed kingfisher
forest kingfisher
torresian crow
whistling kite
black falcon
brown falcon
B
owl
night jar
magpie-lark
dingo fox
straw-necked ibis
Figure E1.3
More than
4 weeks
34 weeks
13 weeks
13 days
13 min
Figure E1.4
Ecosystems
43
3000
Bass Strait
Lakes Entrance
Jervis Bay
3500
4000
4500
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1950
Figure E1.5
Table E1.1
1960
1970
Year
1980
1990
9 The graph shown in Figure E1.5 illustrates the annual Australian catch
of scallops. The arrows indicate the opening of new fishing grounds.
(a) Describe one trend you can infer from the data.
(b) Assume you have been asked to manage the catch of scallops.
Suggest one strategy you would implement to ensure the catch
could be sustained. Briefly state how you would determine
whether your strategy was successful.
10 Use the information presented in Figure E1.6 and Table E1.1 to account
for the distribution of forest and heath.
11 Give an example of mutualism and explain how it is different from
commensalism.
12 During an investigation of an ecosystem you studied evidence of
human impact.
Describe one example of human impact on an ecosystem, and explain
how this impact has affected:
- the diversity of species in the ecosystem
- the sustainability of the ecosystem.
13 The graph shown in Figure E1.7 compares the rates of photosynthesis
and respiration in a pond on a sunny day. Water plants and one species
of fresh water fish live in the pond.
24
13
23
54%
24
13
55%
moderate
SW
extreme
Sites
3
24
13
23
59%
24
13
23
58%
24
13
23
82%
moderate
SW
high
moderate
SW
high
moderate
SW
high
minimal
moderate
moderate
low
very high
very high
very high
very high
very high
very low
moderate
moderate
very low
low
low
very low
6
shallow
dry
low
moderate
none
very low
5
shallow
soggy
moderate
very low
7
shallow
damp
moderate
moderate
7
deep
damp
high
moderate
poor
moderate
moderate
moderate
poor
poor
moderate
moderate
poor
moderate
moderate
moderate
good
good
good
moderate
temperature (C)
max.
min.
soil
relative humidity
wind
speed
direction
exposure
light intensity
eye level
hip level
group level
soil
pH
depth
moisture
humus
air
nutrients
nitrates
phosphates
sulfates
potassium
44
35
woodland
bare rock
closed heath
woodland
closed forest
Key:
Height (m)
30
woodland
eucalypt
25
forest
eucalypt
20
shrubs
15
ferns
3
grass
10
1,2,3,4,5
sites
for data
collection
5
0
5
Figure E1.6
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Distance (m)
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
Vegetation transect
photosynthesis
rate of reaction
respiration
0
sunrise
Figure E1.7
noon
sunset
sunrise
(a) Explain why the rate of photosynthesis drops to zero at night, but
the rate of respiration remains fairly constant.
(b) Estimate the times at which the most and least amounts of
dissolved oxygen would be found in the pond.
(c) More fish were added to the pond. A short time later the same
number of fish died. Moreover, the fish died just before sunrise.
Explain how this could be related to the rates of photosynthesis
and respiration in the pond.
Ecosystems
45