Yale University Department of Music

The Number Seven in the Theory of Intonation

Author(s): Eric Regener
Source: Journal of Music Theory, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Spring, 1975), pp. 140-153
Published by: Duke University Press on behalf of the Yale University Department of Music
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/843753
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140

THE

NUMBER

SEVEN

IN

1 Introduction
the number 7
of the senario of Zarlino,
Since the acceptance
In
has been the stepchild of intonation
theory textbooks
theory.
as
C is usually indicated
the seventh partial of the fundamental
"out of tune" or "slightly
footnote
Bb, with the disapproving
are not sure what names to
theorists
The best-known
flat."
the number 7. Hindemith
use for ratios involving
[1940, p. 105]
of the ratios
be
either
can
fourth
that
the
augmented
suggests
that the former ratio could be either an
7:5 or 10:7, implying
Barbour [1953, p. 129]
fifth.
fourth or a diminished
augmented
sixth (that is, the minor
of "the augmented
similarly,
speaks,
7:4)."
seventh,

141

THE

THEORY

OF

INTONATION

ERIC REGENER

One source of the theorists'

is a failure to dissociate
difficulties
from its now standard interpretation
in twelvepitch notation
tone tempered
intonation.
The enharmonic
of the
equivalence
diminished
second and the perfect prime is a unique feature of
this particular
intonation
and is not inherent in the nosystem
tation.
In talking about intonation
in general,
the assystems
that enharmonically
notes are the same is
sumption
equivalent
therefore bound to lead to confusion.
Such difficulties
are easily
overcome
and objective mathematical
by means of a consistent
framework
such as that of Regener
[1973], in which the product
of two frequency-ratios
to the sum of the
always corresponds
intervals
without enharmonic
and in
corresponding
"cheating,"
which the intervals
of the notation
are considered
as purely

142
abstract entities without any a priori assumption as to their
Such a framework imparts a new usefulpitch representation.
ness to the notation, since it frees the notes from an invidious
identification with any particular intonation system.
In a consistent system of just intonation, it is easy to determine
what notated interval corresponds to a given frequency-ratio,
provided the ratio contains only powers of 2, 3, and 5 as factors. For example, the ratio
9
5

4
3
3
'
'
2
5
2

corresponds to an interval of two fifths up, followed by a major

third down, or an upward minor seventh (see Figure la). The
ratio
16
-~-

2?

72
corresponds
(Figure Ic).

2
3

to the same interval

corresponds
125

3 *4'

(Figure lb); but the ratio

5

44

to an augmented

sixth and to no other

interval

Even in a consistent system, the number 7 poses areal dilemma. Given any ratio including 7 as a prime factor (and no
other prime factors other than 2, 3, and 5), the corresponding
interval will be uniquely determined, provided we can assign
an interval with certainty to any one ratio involving the number
7, say the ratio 7/4. The hesitancy of the theorists is based
due to the confusion
here on a real uncertainty, not necessarily
It is not clear, as it
engendered by enharmonic equivalence.
is with the more fundamental ratios 3/2 and 5/4, what interval
is "meant" by the ratio 7/4.
We propose to show that this dilemma is susceptible to a convincing abstract solution using only the simplest assumptions
The ratio 7/4 will be seen
as to the nature of just intonation.
to correspond best, in fact, to the interval of an augmented
we spend a section
Before assembling the evidence,
sixth.
developing the necessary mathematical background. This section is a digest of the relevant technical portions of Regener
[1973] with slight differences in symbolism and, in the author's
opinion, a considerable gain in clarity.

143

FIGURE
1

iiT

:b
,
^ ^

+t-i
^
|

+L

"
^

iF

(~~~~~~~~~momumoo
^

144
2 Background
as a sum of k upward
can be described
Any notated interval
octaves and q upwardperfect
fifths, where k and q are integers
a downward
For example,
(which may be negative).
major
4 downward)
and -4 upward (i.e.,
third is the sum of 2 octaves
and 4
fifths, and anupward major third is the sum of -2 octaves
as an
to write these two numbers
It will be convenient
fifths.
For example,
the interval.
ordered
pair (k, q) representing
fifth (0, 1), an
an upward octave is (1, 0), an upward perfect
conIt is clear,
upward major third (-2, 4), and so forth.
a unique
of integers determines
that every orderedpair
versely,
interval:
interchangeably.
thus, we can use the two designations
function of an interval
An important
span" ds(i), defined as
ds(k,

i = (k, q) is its

"diatonic

q) = 7k + 4q.

that ds(i) is the number of lines and spaces

It is easily verified
the two notes of any reprebetween
(diatonic steps) traversed
if the second
on the staff; it is positive
of the interval
sentation
if below, and zero if the internote is above the first, negative
val is a perfect
primes
prime (0, 0) or a sum of augmented
intervals
(k, q) and (1, r)
(-4, 7). The sum of two arbitrary
is defined in the obvious way:
(k, q) + (1, r) = (k + 1, q + r).
Note that the representation
not (k, q) but (d, q), where
The former representation
the mathematics.

in Regener
of an interval
[1973] is
d = ds(k, q) is its diatonic
span.
is chosen here since it simplifies

a unique freis a function

An "intonation
assigning
system"
in such a way that the sum of
to every interval,
quency-ratio
to the product of their fretwo intervals
always corresponds
in which the octave has
intonation
An
system
quency-ratios.
to
It is convenient
2 is called "regular".
the frequency-ratio
is then a
to the base 2: an intonation
system
take logarithms
always
function,
say "lf", such that the sum of two intervals
to the sum of their log frequency-ratios.
corresponds
(1)

lf(il

and such

+ i2)

lf(il)

that the octave

+ lf(i2),
has log frequency-ratio

1:

145
(2)

0) = 1.

lf(l,

that a regular
is
[1973,
proves
Regener
pp. 90-93]
system
the log frequency-ratio
determined
of
completely
by specifying
is called the
this log frequency-ratio
the upward perfect fifth:
c. For example,
constant"
in ordinary
twelve"determining
tone intonation
the fifth comprises
7 out of 12 equal steps whose
sum is the octave (log frequency-ratio
1), and the determining
constant of this system
is therefore
To derive the ex7/12.
for the log frequency-ratio
of any interval
(k, q), we
pression
and fifth-components:
split it into its octaveq) = lf(k,

lf(k,

= k

0) + lf(O,
lf(l,

q)

0) + q-

lf(,

1),

both by (1); then by (2) and the definition

(3)

of c, we have

q) = k + qc.

lf(k,

of just intonation,
The system
as ordinarily
defined
(without
the number 7), consists
of a set of rational ratios
of
(quotients
what notated interval
integers)
together with a rule specifying
to a given ratio.
The ratios
used are
corresponds
ordinarily
all those which involve only the numbers
2, 3, and 5 as factors,
that is, all ratios of the form
2u 3v 5W,
where u, v, and w are integers
(which may be positive,
negaWe shall designate
the set of all ratios of this
tive, or zero).
form by the symbolQ5.
The rule, based on the harmonic
serthat the ratio 2/1 (u = 1, v = w = 0) corresies,
specifies
the ratio 3/2 = 2-1 * 3 to the perfect fifth,
ponds to the octave,
and the ratio 5/4 = 2-2
5 to the major third, and that the
to the sum of the two corresproduct of two ratios corresponds
"int" to be the function which asponding intervals.
Defining
the interval
(k, q) to a frequency-ratio
signs
belonging
toQ5,
we can write the given rules in mathematical
terms as follows:
= (1, 0),

the upward

octave;

int(3/2)

= (0, 1),

the upward

perfect

int(5/4)

= (-2,

int(2)

and the "rule

int(r

4),

the upward

of consistency",

? s) = int(r)

+ int(s).

major

fifth;
third;

146
for the notated interval
We derive the general expression
in Q5 by finding out what
to a frequency-ratio
corresponding
interval corresponds to the ratios 3 and 5 (that for 2 is given),
using the rule of consistency:
int(3)

= int(3/2)

+ int(2)

= (1,

int(5)

= int(5/4)

+ int(2)

+ int(2)

Therefore
tency, is

1);
= (0, 4).

again by the rule of consis-

the general expression,

int(2u 3V 5W) = int(2u) + int (3V) + int(5W)

= u ? int(2)

+ v

int(3)

+ w

int(5)

= (u, 0) + (v, v) + (0, 4w) or

(4)

int(2u

3v 5w)

the interval

For example,
int(9/8)

= (u + v, v + 4w).

= int(2-3

an upward major
have
int(10/9)

corresponding

3-2 51)

= (1 - 2,

9/8 is

2),

to the ratio 10/9 we

-2 + 4) = (-1,

two intervals

2),

is the

. 9 81 2-4 34 5-1
1-0 2Any power of this ratio corresponds

the "syntonic comma".

to the notated
(5)

to the ratio

= (-3 + 2, 2) = (-1,

The quotient of these

the same interval.

ratio
9

32 50)

second;

= int(21

corresponding

interval

int(81r/80r)

of a perfect
34r

= int(2-4
= (-4r

+ 4r,

prime:

5r)
4r

- 4r)

= (0, 0),

for any integer r.

in Q5 whose quotient is a
Clearly, any two frequency-ratios
power of the syntonic comma will correspond to the same interval. The ordinary theory of just intonation specifies, roughly, that the more "musically useful" of two such ratios is that

147
For exnumbers when in lowest terms.
the lowest
involving
to the
5/4, and 100/81 all correspond
ample, the ratios 81/64,
of the ratios 729/640,
major third, but 5/4 is the most useful;
all of which correspond
to the major
9/8, 10/9, and 800/729,
9/8 and 10/9 are the most useful.
second,
of musical context
[1974] shows that, if considerations
Regener
are excluded,
to define which is the most musiit is possible
of all the frequency-ratios
in this sense,
correscally useful,
(k, q). If the ratios are close to
ponding to the same interval
1, the most useful,
roughly
speaking
again, is one of the two
ratios whose value is closest
to
2k 5q/4
This is the frequency-ratio
for the interval
(k, q) in strict
meantone
it can be verified
that the frequency-ratio
intonation;
for the major third (-2, 4) is precisely
Meantone intona5/4.
tion is a regular
intonation
system in which the determining
= (log2 5)/4.
constant c = log2 5/4
Let us defineQ7
to be the set of all rational ratios
having no
than 7. Our task will be to investigate
prime factor greater
the possible
the explicit
beways of extending
correspondence
tween rational ratios and notated intervals
to Q7: that
fromQ5
of the prime number 7 as well
is, to ratios
powers
involving
as of 2, 3, and 5. As our standard of ambiguity
in distinguishratios we shall use the syntonic comma:
this deing different
cision deliberately
excludes
and psychological
facperceptual
tors from what is meant to be a purely
abstract
discussion.

3 Intervals

to the ratio

corresponding

We want to choose a notated

ponds to the ratio 7:
int(7)

interval

7
(k, q) which

best

corres-

= (k, q).

The rule of consistency

that this choice will determine
implies
the interval corresponding
to any ratio inQ7 by the obvious extension of (4):
(6)

int(2u

3v 5w 7x) = (u + v + kx, v + 4w + qx)

for any integers

u, v, w,

and x.

148
to a frequency-ratio
But the interval (k, q) already corresponds
to a class of such ratios whose
In fact, it corresponds
in Q5.
are powers of the syntonic comma.
Suppose that s is
quotients
that is, s is a ratio in Q5 such that
one of these ratios:
int(s)
This
(7)

implies
int(s/7)

the perfect
comma.

= (k, q).
that
= (0, 0),
prime,

in analogy

to the relation

(5) for the syntonic

for any ratio of the

We shall use the name "seven-comma"
form s/7, where s is a rational ratio involving
only the numbers 2, 3, and 5 as prime factors.
Making a seven-comma
as in (7),
of the perfect
to the interval
prime,
s/7 correspond
that
implies
automatically
int(7)

= int(s).

int(7) deWe shall now see that a useful choice of the interval
of the "class" of seven-commas
s/7
pends on the properties
ratio.
than on any particular
rather
for which int(7) = int(s),
of intervals,
of ambiguity
in the recognition
For a minimum
close to 1 (that is, zero cents):
we want s/7 to be relatively
by
it should not be much further from 1
our earlier
assumption,
Musical usefulness
the syntonic comma.
than 81/80,
requires
as low as posin addition that the ratio itself involve numbers
sible.
that s must be among the most
condition
The latter
implies
the seven-comma
For example,
useful ratios of its class.
14348907/14336000

= 2-14

315

5-3/7

= 1.558

cents

comma of 21. 506 cents.

to 1 than the syntonic
is much closer
is (-14 + 15, 15 - (4 ? 3)) = (1, 3),
interval
The corresponding
for which the ratio involving
a major sixth plus two octaves,
thus the most useful
is 4 - 5/3 = 20/3:
numbers
the lowest
This
is 20/21.
to this interval
seven-comma
corresponding
-84.467
about
is
cents,
it
involves
smallnumbers,
ratio, though
is not one
It will turn out that this interval
almost a semitone.
for int(7).
of the best choices

149
In order to see just what the desirable choices are, we spread
our net relatively wide.
We ask for all the seven-commas
smaller than a quarter-tone (+50 cents) and involving numbers
of less than six figures. A computer search reveals the possir = s/7 are
bilities listed in Table 1. The seven-commas
given in fractional form, in cents (1,200 times the\base-2 logarithms; u, v, and w are the powers of 2, 3, and 5 appearing in
s = 2u 3v 5w; k and q are the octave - and fifth-components of the
interval int(s) (k, q). The columns headed d and int display the
diatonic span ds(int)s/4)) and the name of the interval int(s/4)
obtained by subtracting two octaves from int(s); if s/ 7 is equated
The
to a perfect prime as in (6), this interval is int(7/4).
ratios corresponding to the same interval are grouped together.
The last column, headed "meantone,"
in cents for each interval, where

presents

the values t/7

t = 2k 5q/4

is the frequency-ratio
in meantone intonation corresponding to
the interval (k, q). Recalling that the most useful ratios s
corresponding to this interval are roughly those whose values
r = s/7 involving
are nearest t, we see that the seven-commas
the lowest numbers are those near t/7. The quantity t/7 therefore shows where these lowest-numbered
seven-commas
are
to be found, even if they exceed a quarter-tone and therefore
do not appear in the table. It shows, for example, that the
ratio 65536/65625 is the most useful of the seven-commas
s/7
for which int(s/4) is a triply diminished octave, while 2187/
2240 is far from being the most useful of those corresponding
to a major sixth (cf. the example above). We are using the
word "useful" here in its defined sense of "involving the lowest
numbers," of course: the most "useful" is not necessarily the
most useful for all purposes.
4 Superiority

of the augmented sixth

Table 1 shows seven intervals which, within rather wide limits,

could be taken to correspond to the ratio 7/4.
Considering
this ratio rather than 7 simplifies naming the intervals without
To be precise, if a given sevenchanging the relationships.
comma r = s/7 is taken to correspond to the perfect prime,
then the interval i on the same line corresponds both to 7/4
and to s/4, where the latter ratio is in Q5. The best intervals
i have ratios s/4 involving low numbers and close to 7/4. The
column headed "r (cents)" in fact displays the difference in
cents between s/4 and 7/4, since

150
s

s/4

7/4'

We now examine

in the table on their merits.

the intervals

Though the ratio for the triply diminished

to 7/4 and involves the lowest numbers of
the highest numbers of all the ratios in
three intervals possessing one ratio apiece
large numbers with considerable wideness

octave is quite close

its class, it involves
the table. The other
combine undesirably
of the mark.

The diminished and the minor seventh are both more reasonable
While their most useful seven-commas
candidates.
(512/525
and 36/35, respectively)are
nearly as large as a quarter-tone,
each possesses
another seven-comma
(864/875 and 64/63,
respectively) which involves numbers of comparable size and
which is closer to zero cents (though still at least slightly
Of these, the minor seventh
larger than the syntonic comma).
seems preferable because the numbers involved in its most
useful seven-commas
(64/63 and 36/35) are even smaller than
those of the syntonic comma.
for the augmented sixth,
Of the two most useful seven-commas
This
one (125/126) is less than 1 and one (225/224) is greater.
means that the corresponding
125/72 and 225/128,
ratios,
bracket the value 7/4. In fact, as the last column shows, the
meantone value for the augmented sixth is different from 7/4
by only just over three cents. The numbers involved are quite
comsmall as well, considering that no other seven-comma
parably close to 1 involves numbers less than 4,000. It seems
therefore, to consider the augmented sixth as the
reasonable,
best interval to represent the ratio 7/4 in an extended system
of just intonation.
Since for this choice we have
int(7)

the interval
to be
(7)

int(2u

= (-3,

10),

corresponding

to any ratio in Q7 is shown by (6)

3v 5w 7x) = (u + v - 3x,

v + 4w + lOx)

for any integers u, v, w, and x. This function produces some

interesting small-number ratios for intervals with a relatively
For example,
wide span in fifths.

151

TABLE
1
r

r(cents)

log2

65536/65625

-2.34948

-.00195789

16

-1

-5

Ratio

512/525

-43.40834

-.03617361

-1

-2

864/875

-21.90205

-.01825170

-3

-.39576

-.00032979

-4

4374/4375

5.75780

.00479817

10

-6

64/63

27.26409

.02272008

-2

36/35

48.77038

.04064198

-1

-6

-1

5120/5103

2187/2240
5000/5103
125/126

-41.45461

-.03454551

-35.30106

-.02941755

-6

-13. 79477

-.01149564

-1

-2

int

15 -21

ddd8

-9

d7

-38.03177

-2

m7

38.01723

M6

-79.09062

-3

10

A6

-3.04163

AA6

73.00737

.00642627

-5

3645/3584

29.21781

.02434817

-9

15625/15309

35.37137

.02947614

-7

-7

17

28125/28672

-33.34734

-10

22

4AAA5

-.02778945

-12

3.02709

7.71152

225/224

meantone
(cents)

-44.10048

152
int(12/7)

= (6,

-9),

int(14/9)

= (-4,

8),

an augmented

fifth;

int(7/5)

= (-3,

6),

an augmented

fourth.

Svensson

[1950]

gives

a diminished

a diminished

seventh;

fifth for the last

ratio.

of small-number
It is easily
that the class
verified
ratios in
to a given interval
has a much narrower
Q7 corresponding
(6) than under the analogous
equations
range under equation
derived from any of the other possibilities
in Table 1. In fact,
of all the small-number
ratios in Q7 (up to a
an examination
intervals
and their corresponding
turns up an
certain
limit)
which willbe
with 31-tone
intonation,
relationship
interesting
at least,
that the
We may remark,
pursued in a later article.
intonation
sixth has a ratio in 31-tone
remarkly
augmented
or roughly
0.80645161
is 25/31,
its logarithm
close
to'7/4:
(968.82591
(967.74194 cents), while log2 (7/4)is about 0.80735492
is only 0.00090331
the difference
(1.08397 cents),
cents):
very
nearly too small to be noticeable.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

of Grant
the assistance
The author gratefully
acknowledges
from the Canada Council for the Arts,
#S72-0087 and #S73-1210
of conversations
with Bengt Hambraeus
and the stimulation
and John Rea,
to Svensson)
the reference
(who kindly provided
both of McGill University.

153

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J. Murray.
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Barbour,
East Lansing,
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Michigan:
Michigan
Hindemith,

Paul.

UNTERWEISUNG

IM TONSATZ.

A HISTORICAL

Mainz:

B. Schott's

Eric.
PITCH NOTATION
AND EQUAL TEMPERAMENT:
Regener,
STUDY.
Occasional
No. 6: Music.
Papers,
Berkeley:
University
1973.
Press,
Regener,

Eric.

"A 'Lucky'

System

of Intonation.

Sven E.
och
Svensson,
"Vart Tonssystem
SKRIFT FOR MUSIKFORSKNING
32:150-186.

dess

SURVEY.

Sohne,

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SVENSK TID-