Technical Aspects of Site Investigation Volume 2

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF SITE INVESTIGATION.
VOLUME II (OF II)

TEXT SUPPLEMENTS
Research and Development

Technical Report
P5-065/TR
Technical Aspects of Site Investigation. Vol II (of II)

Text Supplements
R&D Technical Report P5-065/TR
J E Steeds, N J Slade, M W Reed
Research Contractor:
WS Atkins
Publishing Organisation
Environment Agency, Rio House, Waterside Drive, Aztec West, Almondsbury,
BRISTOL, BS32 4UD.
Tel: 01454 624400
Fax: 01454 624409
Website: www.environment-agency.gov.uk
Environment Agency 2000

ISBN: 1 85705 545 4
All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise without the prior permission of the Environment Agency.
The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those of the Environment Agency.
Its officers, servants or agents accept no liability whatsoever for any loss or damage arising
from the interpretation or use of the information, or reliance upon views contained herein.
Dissemination Status
Internal:
Released to Regions
External:
Released to Public Domain
Statement of Use
This document provides guidance to Environment Agency staff, research contractors and
external agencies, on technical issues relating to site investigation, in relation to land
contamination.
Research Contractor
This document was produced under the Land Quality Function R&D Project P5-065/TR by:
WS Atkins, Woodcote Grove, Ashley Road, Epsom, Surrey, KT18 5BW
Environment Agencys Project Manager

The Environment Agencys Project Manager for Project P5-065/TR was:
Ms Jane Morris, Environment Agency, Head Office
Further copies of this report are available from:
Environment Agency R&D Dissemination Centre, c/o
WRc, Frankland Road, Swindon, Wilts SN5 8YF
tel: 01793-865000 fax: 01793-514562 e-mail: publications@wrcplc.co.uk
CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
GOOD PRACTICE OVERVIEW
2.1 - Investigation planning major issues
2.2 - Investigation planning checklist additional issues
2.3 - Investigation design checklist
2.4 - Summary of desk study information sources
2.5 - Typical target information available from a desk study
2.6 - Site reconnaissance information checklist
2.7 - Example of a site visit record sheet
10
2.8 - Selection of specialist advisors and contractors
11
2.9 - Definitions of professional and technical staff
11
2.10 - Audit trails and record keeping - issues on which confidence may be required
12
2.11 - Further Reading
13
3.
19
SITE CHARACTERISATION RECORDS AND DATA MANAGEMENT
3.1 - Example of a daily site diary
20
21
4.
22
INTRUSIVE AND NON-INTRUSIVE INVESTIGATION METHODS
4.1 - Investigation method summary sheets
23
4.2 - Selected photographs of investigation methods
82
4.3 - Choosing an intrusive investigation method
87
4.4 - Worked Example
90
4.5 Site Investigation Preparation and Implementation Checklist
91
94
5.
95
SAMPLING
5.1 - Checklist of major issues to be considered in preparation for and when sampling
96
5.2 - Labelling samples information needed
98
5.3 - Type and amount of samples (Table A5 from Environment Agency R&D
Technical Report Number P5-066/TR Secondary Model Procedure for the
Development of Appropriate Soil Sampling Strategies (in preparation))
99
5.4 - Field techniques used in soil sampling (Table A7 from Environment Agency
R&D Technical Report Number P5-066/TR Secondary Model Procedure for the
Development of Appropriate Soil Sampling Strategies (in preparation))
100
5.5 - Sample chain of custody record
101
102
6.
ON-SITE MEASUREMENTS
104
6.1 - Portable instruments commonly used for site investigations
105
6.2 - Groundwater field sampling installations commonly used for site investigations
108
6.3 - Groundwater sample extraction methods commonly used for site investigations
109
6.4 - Soil gas sampling equipment commonly used for site investigations
110
111
7.
112
CROSS-CONTAMINATION
7.1 - Some ways in which cross-contamination can occur during a site investigation
113
7.2 - Examples of well and badly constructed trial pits
115
7.3 - Description of how to drill a borehole through an aquiclude into an aquifer
116
7.4 - Illustration of how to drill a borehole through an aquiclude into an aquifer
117
118
8.
119
ANALYTICAL STRATEGIES
8.1 - What do we mean by Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH)?
120
8.2 - Key questions to be considered in developing an analytical strategy
121
122
9.
123
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
9.1 - Example of topographic survey items/information needed
124
9.2 - Permanent ground marker types
125
9.3 - An illustration of the value of assimilating topographic survey data with historic
maps
126
9.4 - Suggested points of measurement on a borehole for the level
126
127
128
10.
129
SITE OBSTRUCTIONS AND GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
10.1 - Diagrammatic presentation of Section 6 of the Party Wall etc. Act 1996
Adjacent Excavation and Construction
130
131
11.
132
HEALTH AND SAFETY
11.1 - COSHH checklist
133
11.2 - CDM checklist
135
11.3 - Requirement flow chart for application of CDM Regulations
136
11.4 - Requirement flow-chart for notification to HSE11.5 British Drilling

Association site colour coded site characterisation system
137
11.5 British Drilling Association site colour coded site characterisation system
138
11.6 - Investigations and surveys safety checklist
139
11.7 - Site visit safety checklist
140
11.8 - Safety method statement checklist
141
142
12.
144
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
12.1 - Fauna species that are protected together with their resting place.
145
12.2 - Ecological evaluation checklist
146
12.3 - Possible mitigation measures
147
13.
150
OPERATIONAL SITES ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
13.1 - Checklist for working on operational sites

Appendix A
151
Standard format for a site investigation report
1.
Introduction
1.1
Background
1.2
Brief and limitations
1.3
Preliminary conceptual model and objectives
1.4
Information sources used
1.5
Report structure
2.
Site location and description
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Site location
2.3
Site description
2.4
Ecological survey information
2.5
Archaeological information
3.
Site geology, hydrogeology and hydrology
3.1
Introduction
3.2
Geology
3.3
Hydrogeology
3.4
Hydrology
4.
Site history
4.1
Introduction
4.2
History
4.3
Information from statutory authorities
4.4
Information from other parties
4.5
Potential contamination sources
5.
Previous site investigation information
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Findings and recommendations made
6.
Site investigation design and methodology
6.1
Background and site investigation design
6.2
Methodology
6.3
Analytical suites
7.
Factual results
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Summary of physical ground conditions
7.3
Made ground - physical conditions
7.4
Natural ground - physical conditions
7.5
Groundwater - physical conditions
7.6
Summary of chemical conditions
10
7.7
Made ground and natural ground chemical conditions
10
7.8
Perched water/groundwater chemical conditions
10
7.9
Gas or other monitoring/in situ test results
10
8.
Other report sections
11
FOREWORD
This document is one of a range of guidance documents published (and in preparation) by the
Environment Agency. Some of these are specific to the new contaminated land regime under
Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (EPA 1990), and others are of a more
generic nature and intended as guidance in a range of contexts. This document is the generic
type and should cover any occasion where guidance on technical issues relating to site
investigation is needed in relation to land contamination. It is a supporting technical
guidance document within the framework of guidance being produced for land
contamination (see below and Figure 1). An outline of where the document fits within this
hierarchy is provided below and in Figure 1.
The Model Procedures for the Management of Contaminated Land (2000 in preparation) have
been developed for the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions, and the
Environment Agency. These incorporate existing good technical practice, including the use
of risk assessment and risk management techniques, into a systematic process for making
decisions about and taking appropriate action to deal with contamination. The approach
contained in the Model Procedures is consistent with UK policy and legislative requirements.
Therefore the model procedures set out a recommended good practice approach to managing
land where contamination is, or may be, an issue.
The model procedures are part of a hierarchy of documents that provides a systematic
approach to managing ground and groundwater contamination. The guidance within the
documents increases in complexity and technical detail within each tier of the hierarchy. The
four main tiers are:
1
the process for managing ground and groundwater contamination describing the
overall approach and decision-making process within the UK legislative and policy
frameworks;
primary model procedures that describe the procedural approach for the main
technical activities involved in managing land contamination, namely:
risk assessment;
evaluation and selection of remedial measures;
implementation of risk management measures;
secondary model procedures that describe the procedural approach for specific
activities that support, or are part of, the three main technical activities covered by the
primary procedures;
4.
supporting technical guidance that describe technical aspects for specific activities
(or sets of activities) that are part of the activities covered by the primary and
secondary procedures.
This document is supporting technical guidance that is expected to be relevant to all parties
involved in the assessment and management of contaminated sites, and in a variety of
contexts. Users should establish a clear understanding of the purpose, context and
requirements of any site investigation before using this guidance.
ii
Figure 1 - Where this document fits in the overall scope of guidance on land contamination
Activity
Desk Study
Primary Model Procedures

CLR11 (DETR in preparation)
Volume MP1
Risk assessment
Phase 1A
Hazard Identification
Preliminary
risk
assessment
Site
investigation
Phase 1B
Hazard assessment
Phase 2
Risk estimation
evaluation
and
Risk
assessment
Remediation
Volume MP2
Evaluation
and
selection of remedial
measures
Volume MP3
Implementation of risk
management measures
General technical guidance
Specific technical
guidance areas
Guidance on preliminary site inspection DETR - CLR 2 (1994)

Documentary research on industrial sites DETR - CLR 3
(1994)
Prioritisation and categorisation procedure for sites which may
be contaminated DETR - CLR 6 (1995)
Guidance on the assessment and redevelopment of contaminated
land DETR - ICRCL 59/83 (1983 shortly to be superseded)
Industry profiles
DETR Contaminated Land Report (CLR) Series, Reports CLR 710, dealing with the programme of development of toxicological
data and guideline values for substances in soils (in preparation).
Technical aspects of site investigation Environment Agency
R&D Publication P5-065/TR(this document)
Code of practice: The investigation of potentially contaminated
sites British Standards Institute,BS10175, 2001
Sampling strategies for contaminated land DETR - CLR 4
(1994)
Secondary Model Procedure for the Development of Appropriate
Soil Sampling Strategies for Land Contamination Environment
Agency R&D Technical Report P5-066/TR
Selection of tools for risk assessment of land Environment
Agency R&D Technical ReportP260 (in preparation)
Guidance on the protection of housing on contaminated land Environment Agency R&D Publication 66 (2000)
Communicating understanding of contaminated land risks
SNIFFER Publication SR97(11)F (1999)
Risk assessment:
Human health
Controlled waters
Ecology
Buildings
Remedial treatment for contaminated land CIRIA Reports SP

101-112
Survey of remedial techniques for land contamination used in
England and Wales Environment Agency R&D Technical
Report 401 (2000)
A review of full scale treatment technologies for the remediation
of contaminated soil RCEP (1996)
Barriers, liners and cover systems for containment and control of
land contamination CIRIA Report SP 124 (1996)
Cost-benefit
i analysis in remediation of contaminated land
Environment Agency Technical Record No P316 (1999)
Engineering options
Methane
Part IIA inspection strategies
Part IIA Special Sites
Petroleum industry
Methane
Treatment options
Monitoring and verification
Methane
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Intent and scope of the technical guidance document
This two-volume document provides technical guidance on the investigation of contaminated

sites for use in a wide variety of contexts, including:
Part IIA of the EPA 1990;
the planning regime;
the Pollution Prevention and Control (PPC) regime; and
purchase/sale of land.
1.2
Target audience
The technical guidance document is intended to provide guidance principally to Environment

Agency staff who are involved in the management of site investigation projects. The readership
is expected to be wide ranging, including:
Environment Agency and local authority officers;
those who fall under the regulatory regime and need to understand the Environment
Agencys approach and requirements in relation to the investigation of contaminated
sites; and
consultants and contractors engaged in site investigation projects.
The document is intended, primarily, to provide the target audience with the specialist
technical information required when acting in a project management capacity dealing with
investigation of contaminated sites. The variation in the level of existing expertise of the
target audience has been recognised.
The document should also assist in the development of a nationally consistent approach to site
investigation projects in which the Environment Agency is involved by setting out what the
Environment Agency believes to be the key issues relating to good site investigation practice.
In particular, the report serves as a supplement to, and should be used in conjunction with,
other key guidance documents including:
Model Procedures for the Management of Contaminated Land (2000 in preparation);
Methodology for the derivation of remedial targets for soil and groundwater to protect
water resources. Environment Agency R&D Publication 20;
Environment Agency National Sampling Procedures Manual Quality Management

System for Environmental Sampling (internal Environment Agency guidance);
British Standard BS 10175:2001 Code of Practice for the Investigation of Potentially

Contaminated Sites;
British Standard BS 5930:1999 Code of Practice for Site Investigations;
Construction Industry Research and Information Association. Remedial treatment for

contaminated land. Special Publication SP101-112 (Volumes I to XII). CIRIA
(London), 1996.
1.3
What is and is not included in the technical guidance document
There is a considerable depth and range of published literature produced in respect of

investigation of contaminated sites, both within the UK and internationally. This includes a
broad range of technical guidance documents prepared by the Environment Agency for use in
the context of Part IIA, EPA 1990. The technical guidance document is not intended to
duplicate the other relevant guidance thus, it cross-refers to this where appropriate. A list of
the most relevant references and sources of further information is included in Volume II of
this document.
The technical guidance document includes an overview of good practice, technical
information on the many individual investigation activities and provides a standard format for
a site investigation report. The design/strategy aspects of site investigation are not dealt with in
any detail within this document.
The completed document provides the benefit of collective past experiences combined with
state of the art technical developments. It is relevant to the investigation of different
contaminant types in ground and groundwater on all sites where contamination investigation
is an issue.
This document addresses site investigation as required in Phase 1a/1b and 2 of the Model
Procedures, where the objectives of the investigation include:
monitoring performance/effectiveness of remediation;
verification testing; and
site investigation to develop detailed remediation strategies or pilot treatments.
Further guidance can be obtained from:
Guidance on Monitoring the Operations and Post-remediation Performance of

Remedial Treatments for Land Contamination (in preparation for the Environment
Agency);
Guidance on the Assessment and Monitoring of Natural Attenuation of Contaminants

in Groundwater, Environment Agency R&D Publication 95, 2000;
Verification of Remedial Techniques (in preparation for the Environment Agency).
1.4
How to use the supporting technical guidance document
The information is arranged and presented so that it can easily be drawn upon when using
other relevant guidance. It is split into two volumes:
Volume I
The main text with links to text supplements in Volume II;
Volume II
Text supplements that support Volume I (e.g. checklists, tables of

information, figures, photographs, technical information sheets, box
items, flowcharts, a standard reporting format for site investigations
etc).
Volume I begins with an overview of good practice and further sections describe key issues in
relation to the principal site investigation activities. The different chapters cross-refer to
others within the technical guidance document where relevant. The format adopted aims to
assist the reader in the practical use of the technical information by the strong links between
the text in Volume I and the supplementary material in Volume II.
2.
GOOD PRACTICE OVERVIEW
2.1 - Investigation Planning Major Issues

2.2 - Investigation Planning Additional Issues
2.3 - Investigation Design Checklist
2.4 - Summary of Desk Study Information Sources
2.5 - Typical target Information available from a desk study
2.6 - Site Reconnaissance Information Checklist
2.7 - Example of a Site Visit Record Sheet
2.8 - Selection of Specialist Advisors and Contractors
2.9 - Definitions of Professional and Technical Staff
2.10 - Audit Trails and Record Keeping Issues on which confidence may be required
2.1 - Investigation planning major issues

Issues
Tick
For more detail see
Objectives of the investigation
Chapter 2
Applicability of investigation techniques?
Chapter 4
Health and safety (investigation staff, other workers, neighbours)?
Chapter 11
Environmental impacts (water pollution, dust, vapours, waste

disposal etc.)?
Chapter 12
Communications and emergency plans?
Chapter 11
Sample type and quality requirements
Chapter 5
Analytical requirements
Chapter 8
Level of confidence required
Chapters 2&8
Integration with other data needs (e.g. geotechnical)
Chapter 10
Programme (How much time is needed? How much is available?)
Chapter 4
Costs/budget available?
Not covered
Access for investigation equipment?
Chapter 4
Site ownership?
Not covered
Consents/permits required?
Chapter 13
Availability of water and power supplies?
Not covered
Below or above ground services?
Chapter 10
Presence of obstructions?
Chapter 9
Site operational constraints?
Chapter 13
2.2 - Investigation planning checklist additional issues

Issues
Tick
For more detail see
Controlled waters (surface, groundwater, coastal)
Chapter 12
Ecology
Chapter 12
Archaeology
Chapter 12
Topographic survey considerations
Chapter 9
Audit trails and record keeping
Chapter 2
Special reinstatement requirements
Not covered
2.3 - Investigation design checklist

Issues
Tick
Exploratory investigations
number
type (boreholes, trial pits, groundwater wells etc.)
dimensions
locations
methods
Sample collection
media type (soils, liquids, gases)
numbers
size and type
locations
depths
storage and handling
In situ and on-site testing
media type
determinand/property
numbers
locations
duration
Laboratory testing
media type
sample preparation
determinand/property
analytical method
Health and Safety
procedures
protective equipment
Environmental protection
air quality
groundwater and surface waters
waste disposal
operating procedures/management systems
Source: CIRIA Special Publication 103
Comments
2.4 - Summary of desk study information sources

Historical and current land use information sources
Site records (e.g. drawings, process descriptions, construction records, incident records);
company records (e.g. archive materials, title deeds);
maps (including historical OS);
photographs (including historical aerial photographs);
trade directories (including Kelly Street Directories);
local historical information (e.g. published histories, museums, local history societies);
site personnel (e.g. long serving and former employees);
services drawing (e.g. for gas, electricity, water, telephone, cable, oil pipelines, sewers);
records of authorised discharges to sewer/controlled waters;
regulatory authorities (e.g. Environment Agency, SEPA, Local Authority, Petroleum Officer);
technical literature (e.g. DoE Industry Profiles).
Geological/hydrogeological information sources
geological maps, memoirs and reports;
Hydrogeological maps and memoirs;
source protection zones maps;
mine plans and surveys;
cave plans and surveys;
borehole records;
soil survey and geochemical atlas data;
geological SSSIs and RIGS (usually the County Museum);
water abstraction records;
meteorological information;
tide tables.
2.5 - Typical target information available from a desk study

Item of information
Examples
Site location
Address, location plan (with scale and orientation) and OS grid reference
Site layout (as built both current

and historic)
Plant components, building structures, drainage systems, process areas,

material storage areas, energy supply plant, effluent treatment plant, gas
treatment plant, waste disposal plant and areas, maintenance facilities,
laboratories, site services
Design/construction modifications
Site layout, process train, materials
Nature/quantities
handled on site
Feedstocks, intermediates, products, wastes, reagents, maintenance

materials
of
materials
Nature of surrounding land use
Residential, hospitals, schools, nurseries, commercial/industrial,

agricultural/horticultural, surface water/groundwater resources, ecology,
protected habitats, presence of public utilities, environmental consents
(e.g. IPPC authorisations, waste management licences etc.)
Physical features
Present and past topography, propensity for flooding
Previous history
Industrial use, incidence of major accidents (fires, spillages etc.), previous

mining activity, environmental enforcement records
Geology/hydrogeology/hydrology
Solid and drift geology, mine workings, natural cavities, presence/status of

surface and groundwater bodies and abstraction points, presence and
sensitivity of surface waters, abstraction points and consented discharges
Ecological/geological status
Presence of sensitive ecological systems on or near to the site

Presence of designated protected areas e.g. SSSIs
Archaeological status
Presence of sensitive or protected archaeological features
Source: CIRIA Special Publication 103
2.6 - Site reconnaissance information checklist

Features/characteristics/indicators
Tick
Current site uses

Previous site uses
Descriptions of buildings and ground cover
Location, type and condition of surface water/foul drainage
Name of adjacent roads/rivers/canals
Flow direction and appearance of streams and rivers, evidence of
groundwater (e.g. seeps etc.)
Location and type of tanks, underground storage tanks, bunds, pits,
walls, fences remaining buildings etc.
Evidence of previous investigations (boreholes, backfilled trial pits etc)
Level of ground in relation to adjacent areas and other parts of the site
Signs of ground settlement or subsidence
Geology/geomorphology/landscape/natural processes (landslips etc.)
Site access and any identifiable constraints for investigation of the site
(including overhead services)
Visibly contaminated areas or malodorous areas
Signs of vegetation stress
Visible evidence of foundations
Present day potentially contaminative activities
Any known contamination incidents
Presence of underground services
Site security
Access for investigation plant and equipment
Adjacent land condition, uses, and nature of any businesses/activities
Other observations
Comments
2.7 - Example of a site visit record sheet

Site name, address and telephone number:
Site owner:
Site size (ha)
Grid ref.:
General site Use
Job reference
Operational/disused/derelict
Visit by:
Position (s):
Visit accompanied by (include position):
Date and time:

Visit number:
Weather:
Subject
Information obtained
Follow-up action needed
by (date)
10
when completed
2.8 - Selection of specialist advisors and contractors
Demonstration of a breadth of suitable skills and experience;
familiarity with published guidance and regulation;
suitably qualified and experienced staff at a range of levels;
adequate volume of resources;
operation of a quality management system;
operation of a comprehensive health and safety management system and a demonstrable track record;
independent accreditation for testing procedures (contractors);
availability of adequate Professional Indemnity Insurance, Public Liability Insurance and other
insurances.
2.9 - Definitions of professional and technical staff

Principal Scientist / Engineer
A graduate scientist / engineer with at least 10 years relevant

experience since graduation and with chartered status from a relevant
professional body.
Senior Scientist / Engineer
A graduate scientist / engineer with at least 5 years of relevant

experience since graduation and preferably chartered status from a
relevant professional body.
Scientist / Engineer
A graduate scientist / engineer with at least 3 years of relevant

experience since graduation.
Assistant Scientist / Engineer
A graduate scientist / engineer who is receiving formal training and

guidance in the practice of geoenvironmental matters and is
supervised by one or more of the above ranked professionals.
Technician
An individual with specific training and experience and procedures

for sampling, field testing and monitoring.
11
2.10 - Audit trails and record keeping - issues on which confidence may be required
Issues
Possible requirement
Whether samples were taken from the specified site
Ensure appropriate supervision during the sampling

exercise with logging and photographs
Survey locations and provide the uncertainty
associated with survey of the sampling location.
Consider whether sampling uncertainty needs to be
addressed explicitly by repeat sampling to allow
statistical analysis
QC methodology for the sampling procedures to
include labelling
Employ trip blanks and field blanks. Employ chain
of custody so that samples are signed for at each
stage in the chain. Employ pre-selected courier or
laboratorys own courier service
Arrange for laboratory to measure temperature on
arrival as appropriate.
Provide refrigerated
transport.
Use laboratory with accredited procedures
applicable to the tests being carried out and that
appropriate preservatives are provided for the
required test. Ensure that QC data (control charts,
etc) are reported and examine QC data provided.
Ensure that laboratory reports include details of
when samples were received and when analysed.
The precise locations from which samples were

taken
Whether samples were properly and unambiguously

labelled
Whether samples could have been contaminated on
site, during transport or in the laboratory
Whether samples have been stored at an appropriate

temperature after collection and during transit
Whether all aspects of the sample preservation,
preparation and analysis are satisfactory
12

British Standard Institution (London) (1999) Code of Practice for Site Investigations. British Standard
BS5930.
Cairney, T.C. (1995) Risk of attack on construction materials. The Re-use of Contaminated Land. Wiley
(Chichester).
Charles, J.A. (1993) Building on fill: geotechnical aspects. BRE Report BR230 (out of print).
Construction Industry Research and Information Association. Remedial treatment for contaminated land.
Volumes 1 to 12. Special Publications SP101-112. CIRIA (London).
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (1995). Methane investigation strategies. Report
150. CIRIA (London).
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (1995). Risk assessment for methane and other
gases from the ground. Report 152. CIRIA (London).
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (1993). The measurement of methane and other
gases from the ground. Report 131. CIRIA (London).
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (1993). Methane investigation strategies. A
report in CIRIAs research programme methane and associated hazards to construction. Funder report CP/14.
CIRIA (London).
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (1995). Interpreting measurements of gas in the
ground. Report 151. CIRIA (London).
Construction of new buildings on gas-contaminated land (1991) BRE Report BR212.
Crowhurst, D., Beever, P.F. (1987) Fire and Explosion Hazards Associated with the Redevelopment of
Contaminated Land. Fire Research Station. BRE Information Paper IP2/87.
Department of the Environment (1990)
(PPG14).
Planning Policy Guidance:
Development on Unstable Land
Department of the Environment (1991) Policy Appraisal and the Environment: A Guide for Government
Departments. HMSO.
Department of the Environment (1994) CLR 1. A framework for assessing the impact of contaminated land
on groundwater and surface water. Volumes 1 and 2.
Department of the Environment (1994) CLR 2. Guidance on preliminary site inspection of contaminated
land. Report by Applied Environmental Research Centre Ltd. Volumes 1 and 2.
Department of the Environment (1994) CLR 3. Documentary research on industrial sites. Report by RPS
Group.
Department of the Environment (1994) CLR 4. Sampling strategies for contaminated land. Report by The
Centre for Research into the Built Environment, The Nottingham Trent University.
Department of the Environment (1994) CLR 5. Information systems for land contamination. Report by
Meta Generics Ltd.
13
Department of the Environment (1995) CLR 6. Prioritisation and categorisation procedure for sites which
may be contaminated. Report by M J Carter Associates.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. CLR 11. Handbook of Model Procedures for the
Management of Contaminated Land. Contaminated Land Research Report (in preparation).
Department of the Environment (1997) CLR 12. A quality approach for contaminated land consultancy.
Report by the Environmental Industries Commission in association with the Laboratory of the Government
Chemist.
Department of the Environment (1994)
(PPG23).
Planning Policy Guidance:
Planning and Pollution Control
Department of the Environment (1995) Workshop 1. Professional standards, April 1994 (superseded by CLR
12 see below).
Department of the Environment (1995) Guide to Risk Assessment and Risk Management for Environmental
Protection.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (1998) CLR Research Report. Research into the
Impact of Contaminated Land on the Water Environment. Prepared by Sir William Halcrow & Partners
Ltd.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (1998) CLR Research Report. Modelling the
Impact of Contaminated Land on Water Quality using the MIKE SHE model. Prepared by WS Atkins
Consultants Ltd.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (1998) CLR Research Report. International
review of the state of the art in Contaminated Land Treatment Technology Research and a Framework
for Treatment Process Technology Research in the UK. Prepared by The Centre for Research into the Built
Environment, The Nottingham Trent University.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (1998) CLR Research Report. Active
Containment: Combined Treatment and Containment Systems. Prepared by Golder Associates (UK) Ltd.
Department of the Environment (1995) Workshop 3. Risk assessment and the use of guidelines, July 1994.
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile. Profile of miscellaneous industries, incorporating
charcoal works, dry-cleaners, fibreglass resins, glass, photographic processing, printing and bookbinding
works.
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile. Waste recycling, treatment and disposal sites:
solvent recovery works.
landfills and other waste treatment or waste disposal sites.
hazardous waste treatment plants.
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile. Waste recycling, treatment and disposal sites: drum
and tank cleaning and recycling plants.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Timber products manufacturing works.
14
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile. Textile works and dye works.
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile. Road vehicle fuelling, service and repair: transport
and haulage centres.
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile. Road vehicle fuelling, service and repair: garages
and filling stations.
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile. Pulp and paper manufacturing works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Oil refineries and bulk storage of crude oil and
petroleum products.
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile. Metal manufacturing, refining and finishing works:
non-ferrous metal works (excluding lead works).
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Engineering works: vehicle manufacturing works.
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile. Engineering works: electrical and electronic
equipment manufacturing works (including works manufacturing equipment containing PCBs).
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Engineering works: aircraft manufacturing works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Dockyards and dockland.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Timber products manufacturing works.
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile. Chemical works: mastics, sealants, adhesives and
roofing felt manufacturing works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Chemical works: linoleum, vinyl and bitumenbased floor covering manufacturing works.
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile.
manufacturing works.
Chemical works:
inorganic chemicals
Department of the Environment (1996) Industry profile. Chemical works: fertiliser manufacturing works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Chemical works: disinfectants manufacturing
works.
Chemical works:
cosmetics and toiletries
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Chemical works: coatings (paints and printing inks)
works.
Ceramics, cement and asphalt manufacturing
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Airports.

Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Timber treatment works.
15
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Sewage works and sewage farms.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Power stations (excluding nuclear power stations).
iron and steelworks.
precious metal recovery works.
electroplating and other metal finishing works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Engineering works:
shipbreaking (including naval shipyards).
shipbuilding, repair and
Chemical works:
soap and detergent
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Chemical works: organic chemicals manufacturing
works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Chemical works: pesticides manufacturing works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Engineering works: railway engineering works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Railway land.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Animal and animal products processing works.
pyrotechnics.
Chemical works:
explosives, propellants and
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Chemical works: pharmaceuticals manufacturing
works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Chemical works: fine chemicals manufacturing
works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Chemical works:
(including works manufacturing tyres or other rubber products).
rubber processing works
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Engineering works: mechanical engineering and
ordnance works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Gas works, coke works and other coal carbonisation
plants.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Asbestos manufacturing works.
lead works.
Department of the Environment (1995) Industry profile. Waste recycling, treatment and disposal sites: metal
16
recycling sites.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. Potential Contaminants for the Assessment of
Land. Report by Consultants in Environmental Science (in preparation).
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions SP99. Guidance on the sale and transfer of land
which may be affected by contamination. Report by Parkman Environment, Andrew Bryce and Co. and
Clifford Chance (in preparation).
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions/Environment Agency/NHBC. Guidance for the
Development of Housing on Land affected by Contamination. R&D Publication 66 2000.
Department of the Environment.
Sustainable use of soil. HMSO.
Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (Nineteenth Report),
Environment Agency (2000 in preparation) Model Procedures for the Management of Contaminated Land.
Environment Agency. Methodology for the derivation of remedial targets for soil and groundwater to
protect water resources. Environment Agency R&D Publication 20;
Environment Agency. National Sampling Procedures Manual Quality Management System for
Environmental Sampling (internal Environment Agency guidance);
Garston, CRC (1998) Contaminated Land: a review of research at BRE. BRE Report reference number
BR346. Published only on the CD-ROM BRE Reports on CD, number 10 (1998).
Harris, M.R. and Herbert, S.M. (1994) Contaminated land: investigation, assessment and remediation. ICE
Design Guide, Thomas Telford (London).
Health and Safety Executive (1991) Protection of workers and the general public during development of
contaminated land. HS(G)66.
ICRCL 59.83. Guidance on the assessment and redevelopment of contaminated land. 2nd Edition, July
1987.
ISO FDIS 10381-1 Soil quality Part 1 Guidance on the design of sampling programmes.
ISO FDIS 10381-2 Soil quality Part 2 Guidance on sampling techniques.
ISO FDIS 10381-3 Soil quality Part 3 Guidance on safety.
ISO FDIS 10381-4 Soil quality Part 5 Guidance on the procedure for the investigation of soil contamination
of urban and industrial sites.
Paul, V. (1995) Bibliography of Case Studies on Contaminated Land: investigation, remediation and
redevelopment. BRE Report BR291.
British Standard Institution, BS 10175:2001. Code of Practice for the Investigation of Potentially
Contaminated Sites.
Risks of Contaminated Land to Buildings, Building Materials and Services a literature review. Report by
BRE for the Environment Agency, R&D Technical Report P331, 2000.
Scottish Enterprise. How to investigate contaminated land. SE (Glasgow), revised.
17
Uff J F and Clayton C R I. Role and responsibility in site investigation. Special Publication 73. CIRIA, 1991
Warren Spring Laboratory (1994)
remediation. Report LR 1003.
An evaluation of the constraints to effective contaminated land
18
3.
SITE CHARACTERISATION RECORDS AND DATA

MANAGEMENT

3.2 - Further reading
19

Site owner:
Contract details
Grid ref.:
Consultant:
Job reference
Principal contractor and sub-contractor(s):
Recorded by:
Position:
Weather:
Date and time:

Visit number:
Activities being undertaken on site:
Plant on site and condition:
Personnel on site and contact details:
Time
Activity
Additional comments
Follow-up action needed
by (date)
20
when completed

Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists. Electronic Transfer of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Data (3rd Edition) 1999.
British Geological Society and Environment Agency 2000. Some guidance on the use of digital
environmental data. BGS Technical Report WE/99/14, NGWCLC Technical report NC/06/32.
British Standard Institution (London) (1999) Code of Practice for Site Investigations. British Standard
BS5930.
Burrough and McDonnell (1998) Principles of geographic information systems, Oxford University ISBN 0 19
823366 3.
Meta Generics Ltd.
Environment Agency R&D Technical Report P241, 1999, Recommendations for the Processing and
Presentation of Groundwater Quality Data.
Gilbert, R.O. (1987) Statistical Methods for Environmental Pollution Monitoring. John Wiley & Sons.
Contaminated Sites.
21
4.
INTRUSIVE AND NON-INTRUSIVE INVESTIGATION

METHODS

4.4 - Worked example
4.5 - Site Investigation Preparation and Implementation Checklist
22

Summary sheets are included for the following intrusive and non-intrusive methods.
Intrusive methods
trial pits (trial holes, trial trenches, test pits and test holes - hand dug and
mechanically excavated)
auger drilling (CFA/HSA);
cable percussion drilling ( shell and auger)
rotary coring
rotary drilling ( rock roller/tricone)
down the hole hammer drilling (DTH, DTHH and rotary percussive)
window sampling
probing ( e.g. geoprobe)
hand augering and associated methods
In preparing the summary sheets for intrusive methods, the contribution of Chris Jeffries of
Environmental Sampling Ltd is gratefully acknowledged.
Non-intrusive methods
seismic
gravity
electrical
electromagnetic
magnetic
ground penetrating radar (GPR)
In preparing the summary sheets for non-intrusive methods, the contribution of John Arthur of
Top-hole Site Studies Ltd is gratefully acknowledged.
23
INVESTIGATION METHOD SUMMARY SHEET TRIAL PITS

Related techniques and names:
trial holes/trial trenches/test pits/test holes
BASIC DESCRIPTION OF METHOD

Trial pits are exploratory holes excavated into the ground by hand or by mechanical excavator. Compared to
boreholes, trial pits allow faster inspection of a larger proportion of the groundmass and are a means of obtaining
larger quantities of soil samples. Trial pits can be used to obtain groundwater samples if conditions are such that
sufficient can collect in the base of the pit in the time available, without risk of ground instability and if samples
obtained in this way are technically suitable for the purposes of the investigation. Trial pits can also provide a
means of installing rudimentary gas monitoring standpipes to supplement ones constructed in boreholes.
Trial pits can be excavated to a variety of sizes to suit the requirements of the investigation e.g. narrow and very
deep to investigate within a landfill or a series of shallow and long trial trenches to establish the extent of an
infilled area. However the typical size of a trial pit is around 2 m long by 0.5 m 1m wide by up to 5 deep. Trial
pits can be hand dug to 1.2 m, but the usual method is to use hired mechanical plant with a skilled operator. The
plant most commonly used is a wheeled backhoe loader (using the backactor arm) which is frequently referred to
as a JCB, irrespective of the actual make. With a conventional digging arm these can achieve depths of around
3.5 m and with an extendable arm they can achieve depths around 5 m. Other types of excavators can be used to
suit certain situations. For example, a slew boom hydraulic excavator may gain access to areas too constrained
for a backhoe loader. Where there is a high risk that the ground surface will cause puncture to vehicle tyres (for
which the hirer pays) then tracked, rather than wheeled, excavators may be more suitable. Tracked vehicles can
also be useful where it is desirable to spread weight on soft ground. However, these vehicles have to be brought
to site on a low-loader. Very large machines can be hired to excavate pits deeper than 5 m. The condition of
machines varies considerably and old machines and those that have been used for more than an average amount
of breaker work (for breaking through concrete and other hard layers) may be considerably slower and risk of
break down is greatly increased. This can seriously impact on a site investigation programme.
The width of a mechanically excavated trial pit is dictated by the size of excavator used. Wider buckets (around 1
m) allow inspection of a larger proportion of the ground but generate very large volumes of spoil and, where
concrete is present on the ground surface, require more time to be spent breaking through. Narrow buckets
(around 0.5 m) create less ground disturbance but it can be difficult to see the pit walls at depths below around 4
m. A bucket size between these two extremes is usually appropriate. Breaker units vary in size and, particularly,
in condition. It is usual to specify precise requirements to the plant hire company.
The operating arm and connecting parts of all excavators need considerable lubrication during the working day.
An awareness of this on the part of the supervising scientist/engineer is necessary, particularly during sampling
activities. In addition, it is common practice for finished tubes of lubricant to be discarded on the ground or even
into trial pits before backfilling. The unacceptability of this may need to be stressed to the excavator driver at the
outset of the investigation.
Sequence of events:
an appropriate location (clear of underground services etc) for the trial pit is chosen and a before
photograph may be taken. It may be necessary to protect the ground surface from contaminated arisings
using plastic sheeting, wooden boards etc. and to use sand-bags or other methods to contain water as the pit
is dug;
the excavator driver manoeuvres the excavator into a suitable position for the trial pit location, taking into
account factors such as the position of the sun/other bright lights (good visibility is essential) and wind
direction (in relation to vehicle exhaust fumes, ground gases, odours etc). Any surface concrete/other hard
cover is broken out to a suitable size and the excavator changes from breaker to bucket. As the trial pit is
dug, the scientist/engineer directs the speed/depth of excavation and also maintains a constant look out for
anything that may affect safety of the trial pitting exercise. Under no circumstances should anyone enter a
trial pit;
as the trial pit progresses, the spoil is segregated in such a way that it can be used to backfill the pit in
roughly the same order that it was removed. Photographs, depth measurements and samples are taken as
required (during this time the excavator stands still with the bucket on the ground i.e. hydraulics at rest).
Anyone approaching a trial pit should do so on the short side opposite the excavator and all the time with an
awareness of the pits stability and the surrounding ground conditions. (see section below on practical safety
and environmental protection measures about safe distances for placement of excavated spoil, safe working
near trial pits etc.).
once the desired depth or limit of the machine is reached, final measurements and photographs are taken (the
driver should not be asked to hold the photograph identification board). The trial pit is then backfilled using
the original spoil which is emplaced in roughly the same order to the original (alternatively, clean sand/gravel
may be used). A gas monitoring standpipe may be installed in the trial pit. When backfilling is completed, an
after photograph may be taken;
re-instatement works that are needed are carried out (arrangements for this should be made before starting
the investigation). Irrespective of whether formal re-instatement works are to be carried out, it is important
that the backfilled trial pit and surrounding affected area are left in a safe condition. Open trial pits should
NEVER be left unattended unless securely fenced off (safety issues are covered below).
24
KEY APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS

Applications
Trial pits can be excavated in all but the densest ground conditions.
A large proportion of the groundmass can be inspected and large quantities of soil for samples can be taken.
Allows flexibility during investigation as trial pits can often be moved slightly, rather than re-started, if obstructions
are encountered.
Rudimentary gas monitoring probes can be installed.
Limitations
Ground instability can cause pit walls to collapse repeatedly so that the excavator ends up merely digging this
material out rather than deepening the pit. This occurs frequently with soil types such as ashy granular made
ground and loose sands/gravels. Groundwater flowing rapidly into the pit through the sides of the pit can
exacerbate unstable conditions.
Compacted or hard layers can be difficult to dig through and it may be necessary for a breaker unit to be used
intermittently.
All trial pits cause considerable ground disturbance and it can be difficult to restore the surface completely.
Depending on the make-up of the groundmass, a slight mounding or dip in the surface will remain. On many
derelict or redevelopment sites this will not matter but on operational sites this may be unacceptable and formal
re-instatement works may be required. These can be expensive and may require the general area to be fenced off
for the surface to settle first. In some parts of operational sites, the disturbance caused by trial pits is wholly
unacceptable e.g. access roads, inside buildings, airport runways, close to rail lines, close to pipe/cable runs.
KEY COST FACTORS AND PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS

Key cost factors
Nature of the ground conditions;
depth of excavation needed;
surface cover conditions the hourly hire rate is greater for an excavator with a breaker unit than for one
without and breaking through concrete is a time consuming activity;
re-instatement requirements;
sampling rate;
need for additional Health & Safety measures and working methods to address hazardous contaminants.
Personnel requirements
Trial pitting should be carried out only by an experienced scientist/engineer, working in partnership with an
experienced excavator operator. On average, around five trial pits to 5 m per day (no surface concrete) should be
achieved per trial pitting team although the precise number will vary according to the factors listed in the section
key cost factors.
Excavators with skilled operators are widely available but the experience of the driver needs to be assured prior to
hire to ensure the success of the trial pitting exercise.
KEY OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS
Access to the site and within the site (for a backhoe loader allow 2.7 m width for access through gates and
more for larger machines check with the plant hire company);
overhead clearance (allow 6.5 m for a backhoe loader and more for larger machines);
available working area (allow an area of minimum 15 m X 15 m for a backhoe loader and more for larger
machines);
availability of washdown facilities, with power and freshwater supply, for the excavator bucket that can be
accessed by the excavator;
ability of ground to support weight of plant (a backhoe loader weighs around 9 tonnes while larger machines
can weigh 45 tonnes).
25
PRACTICAL SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTON ISSUES

The usual approach to assessing and managing the risks presented by working on contaminated sites should be
adopted. In addition, the following should be noted:
A trial pit should not be left unattended at any time during excavation. If it is necessary to leave a trial pit open,
secure fencing and warning signs must be used to encircle the hole, the spoil stockpiles and a suitable margin
around this that could be affected if the pit walls collapse.
The utmost care should be taken by personnel working alongside trial pits. The risks presented by entering trial
pits are very real. Bearing in mind the weight of a relatively small volume of soil, the forces operating on the sides
of a gradually deepening pit as spoil is piled above are immense. Collapse, particularly on the long side of a
rectangular pit, can be sudden and catastrophic. As a rule of thumb, if an average table were piled high with soil,
this amount would weigh around two tonnes and a relatively small volume of soil can quickly crush and asphyxiate
a person.
To reduce the risk of collapse, spoil should be placed away from the side of a trial pit at a distance equivalent to
the trial pit depth. When trial pitting close to buildings or on sloping sites, account will need to be taken of the
additional loading to the ground applied by the building/uphill side of the pit. Whilst the short ends of a trial pit
are usually more stable than the long sides, the individual digging styles of excavator drivers vary and some will
undercut the short sides. Any unsupported excavation will be safe without support only if its sides are battered
back sufficiently, or if it is in sound rock. The HSE document listed below in Selected Further Reading provides
typical safe slope angles for battering back the sides of an excavation and also provides guidance on stepping
excavation sides as an alternative. However, in practice neither of these techniques are likely to have practical
application for trial pitting exercises and an awareness of the risks and extreme caution will be needed by all on
site.
Legislation used to prohibit anyone entering an unshored trial pit greater than 1.2 m depth. This prohibition was
withdrawn by the Construction Health and Safety and Welfare Regulations (1996). These stated that there was no
depth limit for entry by personnel but that the safety of an excavation, whatever its depth, should be judged
individually before entry be permitted. Some trial pits shallower than 1.2 m are unstable, particularly when
excavated into made ground. In addition the presence of contaminants will make many stable pits unsafe for
entry. Thus, it is appropriate that a total ban on personnel entry into trial pits is imposed for ground
contamination investigations whatever their depth. If someone falls into a trial pit, the emergency services
should be called.
If unmanageable materials (e.g. unexpected friable asbestos) or unexpected conditions (e.g. ground
gases/odours/dust) are encountered the pit should be aborted and backfilled and the method of investigation and
health and safety arrangements re-appraised. If large amounts of contaminated materials or dusty/odorous
conditions etc are present, trial pits may be an inappropriate method for investigation.
During backfilling, any gases/vapours can be forced out of the pit. Thus, supervising and other personnel should
stand well clear of the backfilling exercise.
Trial pits should never be used to penetrate through a low permeability horizon into an aquifer. Where a low
permeability horizon separates contaminated ground and an underlying aquifer, trial pits should be executed
extremely carefully to avoid penetration into the low permeability horizon: if it is reached, the trial pit should be
terminated immediately.
Great care needs to be taken when manoeuvring excavators near overhead services, site structures etc and when
excavating in the vicinity of services, near walls, fences, buildings, archaeological remains etc. to avoid damage.
If structures are close by, this can occur some time later if the trial pit is not backfilled properly and settlement
occurs.
Similarly, care needs to be taken to avoid damage to flora and fauna, especially protected species. Considerable
harm can be done to trees if knocked by an excavator or if roots are severed, even if damage is not readily visible
at the time.
After backfilling, the pit and affected ground around must be left safe e.g. sloppy pits will need to be fenced or
coned off for an appropriate period of time, any broken reinforcing bars need to be bent down and any exposed
contaminated material covered with clean arisings. Surplus arisings need to be properly managed. It may be
necessary to make a return trip to site to carry out re-instatement works.
SELECTED FURTHER READING

British Standard Institution, BS
10175:2001. Code of Practice for
the Investigation of Potentially
Contaminated Sites.
HSE (1999) Health and Safety in

Excavations Be Safe and Shore
HS(G)185
26
Guidance Document for Combined

Geoenvironmental and Geotechnical
Investigation AGS (2000)
INVESTIGATION METHOD SUMMARY SHEET

AUGER DRILLING
Solid stem auger, solid stem continuous flight auger (CFA)

hollow stem auger (HSA).

Auger drilling utilises a helical (spiral) tool to convey material to the ground surface. An auger is essentially a
conveyor that has a drill head and cutting bit which shears the formation and conveys the cut material upwards
along the helix. It is a purely mechanical method that does not require the use of circulation/flush fluids.
Solid stem continuous flight auger (CFA) and hollow stem auger (HSA) are the two main methods of auger drilling.
An auger rig is usually capable of operating both types of augers. CFA and HSA methods, equipment, personnel
etc. are similar in many ways with the main difference being their applicability to ground contamination
investigation work and different geological conditions. Essentially, CFA is suited to consolidated conditions only
and where it is not necessary to take soil samples from precise depths. CFA may be useful where it is necessary
to drill quickly and where cross-contamination is not an issue (e.g. where drilling within only one horizon).
Otherwise, where it is necessary to avoid connecting two aquifers, careful sealing off of different horizons
(described later in this section) would be needed. HSA is suited to both consolidated and unconsolidated soils, has
technical advantages in collecting samples and accessing ground at specific depths with the risk of cross
contamination minimised. Neither method is suitable for highly consolidated rocks.
Rigs used on environmental projects tend to have been built specifically for environmental work and hence are
relatively modern, compact purpose built machines. Many of these are versatile assemblies e.g. able to core
surface concrete and also able to deploy other drilling techniques such as rotary and window sampling.
The augers of CFA have solid stems with diameters generally ranging between 100 mm and 250 mm (measured
across the full flight). Each section is generally 1.0 m or 1.5 m in length. A cutting head slightly larger than the
flight is fitted to the leading section and, as the bit rotates, the cuttings are brought to the surface with the flights
acting as a screw conveyor. A conventional CFA is known by the nominal diameter of the drill head which is
approximately 10 % greater than the actual diameter of the following augers and it is this diameter which
determines the diameter of the borehole.
The augers of HSA, as their name suggests, are hollow and the flights are built up around a tubular central shaft
that is unobstructed from the ground surface to the lead bit. A removable central pilot bit is fitted within the
auger head and, when removed, can be replaced with a sampling tool that samples in advance of the cutter head.
In such instances, the HSA sections act as temporary casings while cores or other samples are obtained. In
addition, once the desired depth is achieved, the augers continue to act as casings as the groundwater/gas
monitoring installation is constructed through the hollow stem. Unlike with CFA, the augers of HSA are specified
by the inside diameter of the hollow stem, not by the hole size drilled (although it is possible to specify the size of
the hole required too). This can be a source of much confusion and it is necessary to be clear about the precise
requirements for borehole diameter and installation diameter in dialogue with the drilling contractor.
When drilling to avoid connecting two aquifers, the upper layer needs to be sealed off using a sufficiently large
diameter system to allow continued drilling through the first drill system. This can be achieved with CFA, or HSA,
or a combination of the two as appropriate for the specific conditions. For example, in stable conditions in both
aquifers it would be best to CFA to the top of the natural seal, withdraw, place and rehydrate a bentonite seal,
position temporary casing and then continue with a narrower diameter CFA to the lower stratum. Where upper
conditions are unconsolidated (unstable) and lower conditions are stable however, it would be best to HSA at large
diameter to the top of the natural seal, pull back slightly, install a bentonite seal and, after this has rehydrated redrill slightly. Once this has been done it will be possible to continue drilling using a smaller diameter CFA without
groundwater entering from the upper formation.
Down-hole geophysical logging can be used to examine the subsurface properties of both the groundwater and the
rock, extending a few or tens of centimetres into the rock matrix. A sonde (instrumental probe) is lowered into
the borehole at a known velocity to produce a log. The following are the down-hole logging techniques most
usually carried out. Some of these (marked with an asterisk) can be used in an installed borehole while others will
be most successful in a clean hole where the formation is unobstructed:
*temperature and conductivity to examine changes in the groundwater composition with depth and to
identify flow horizons;
calliper (to determine the borehole diameter and the identify presence of fractures);
resistivity (to measure the resistance of the groundwater and the rock);
*natural gamma radiation (to determine the radioactive properties of the rock);
*neutron (to measure the porosity of the rock and the properties of the groundwater);
*gamma gamma radiation (to determine the bulk density of the rock).
If down-hole logging is required, the specific technical requirements of the method (e.g. borehole diameter,
casings etc) should be checked with a geophysics specialist before drilling work is commissioned.
27
Sequence of events:
an appropriate location for the borehole is chosen and a before photograph may be taken. Any surface
concrete is broken or cored through. It may be necessary to protect the ground surface from contaminated
arisings using plastic sheeting, wooden boards etc. and to use sand-bags or other methods to contain water as
the borehole is drilled and arisings extracted;
the general requirements for drilling, sampling, in situ tests and the design of the groundwater/gas monitoring
installation (if needed) etc. are confirmed before the borehole is started. It is usually desirable, however for
some flexibility to be maintained as the borehole is drilled and the conditions emerge;
the rig is positioned over the borehole location by the Drill Supervisor and the appropriate type of lead auger
is fitted and the borehole is started. As the hole deepens and the auger spirals into the ground, the material
being conveyed up the auger helix emerges at the ground surface and is moved clear of the top auger.
Depending on the specific requirements of the project and whether CFA or HSA is the method used, samples
of this conveyed material may be taken although this only permits an approximate depth to be ascribed to the
sample. Alternatively (and only applicable to HSA), a sampler may be inserted down through the hollow stem
to retrieve a soil sample from a specific depth;
as the borehole develops the scientist/engineer liaises with the drilling crew on precise sampling and
groundwater measurement requirements, but stands a safe distance back from and avoids obstructing the
actual drilling process. Anyone approaching the rig, aside from the drilling crew, should do so only after
indicating to the Drilling Supervisor of this intention as it may be necessary to stop the drilling mechanism.
When approaching the rig, this must be done with an awareness of the safety of the rig itself, the equipment
in the vicinity and the condition of the ground surface. All personnel maintain a look out for anything that
may affect the safety of the drilling exercise;
where there is need to construct the borehole in such a way as to protect, for example, an underlying aquifer
the precise design is refined to reflect the emerging conditions;
as the borehole progresses, any retrieved spoil that is not required for samples is either stockpiled temporarily
close to the borehole or placed directly into bags. Whichever method is chosen, the arisings are stored in
such a way that any that are suitable can be used as backfill material at the appropriate time, while those that
are not may be disposed of appropriately;
once the desired depth is reached, final measurements of the depth of the hole and groundwater level are
taken. If a groundwater/gas monitoring installation is required, this is constructed carefully by the drilling
crew and the top of the borehole fitted with an appropriate cover;
Re-instatement works that are needed are carried out (arrangements for this should be made before starting
that the borehole and surrounding area are left in a safe condition. Open boreholes and drilling equipment
should not be left unattended unless securely roped, coned or fenced off (safety issues are covered below).

Applications
Auger drilling is suitable for all but the most consolidated ground conditions. CFA, in particular, is a fast method of
drilling suitable for self supporting conditions (particularly where there is a high clay content). HSA is suitable for
both consolidated and unconsolidated conditions as the flights are self-casing.
Auger drilling has a high success rate in landfill sites.
By using core barrels down through the centre of the hollow stem, it is possible to measure, precisely, the depth
from which soil samples have been obtained. With all techniques, quantities of soil that are usually adequate for
most investigations of contaminated sites can be taken.
Robust groundwater and gas monitoring installations can be established.
Augering is a relatively clean drilling process as no additives (water, foam etc.) are required to aid drilling or
flushing purposes. As such, this system is particularly favoured for environmental projects.
Limitations
It can be time-consuming to re-locate boreholes that have hit shallow obstructions.
Water may need to be added to the borehole to assist in the withdrawal of the lead auger when boring is complete.
this is particularly the case in sandy conditions as sand can lodge and prevent the lead auger being withdrawn.
If samples of conveyed soil are taken from the top of the auger flights, it is difficult to be sure of which depth this
has come from and considerable reliance has to be placed on the skill of the Drill Supervisor. Similarly it is not
always possible to be precise about the intersection between different geological strata.
28

Key cost factors
nature of the ground conditions and depth of boring needed;
surface cover/re-instatement requirements;
sampling and In situ testing requirements;
spoil storage/disposal.
There are a small number of specialist environmental drilling companies that have developed HSA/CFA rigs for use
in ground contamination investigation.
On average, around 30 m to 50 m per day (no surface concrete) should be achieved by CFA per drilling rig/crew
although the precise meterage will vary according to the factors listed in the section key cost factors. On
average, around 15 m to 20 m per day (no surface concrete) should be achieved by HSA per drilling rig/crew and,
again, the precise meterage will vary according to the key cost factors.
access to and within the site many of these rigs have been specifically designed for environmental
investigation and are much smaller than most other types of rig. Consequently, these are able to be used in
areas that may be inaccessible for other drilling methods (allow 2 m width and 5 m length);
overhead clearance similarly, the mast height tends to be less than for many other rig types (allow 3.5 m for
a rig when the mast is at full height;
available working area (allow an area of minimum 2 m X 6 m for the rig and working area around). Take into
account the fact that the rig may be noisy and generate diesel fumes which may be a problem in areas
confined between buildings, near public walkways etc.;
availability of washdown facilities, with power and freshwater supply, for washing of the augers etc. that can
be accessed by the towing vehicle.

An auger rig with associated equipment and open borehole present a wide range of hazards. Boreholes can
usually be completed in one day but occasionally, may take more than one day to drill, install and complete. In
these instances, the general area should be made safe and consideration should be given to the use of secure
fencing particularly in areas accessible to the public.
Personnel working alongside an operational rig should take the utmost care the augers, when turning, present
considerable physical hazard. Ear defenders may be needed in the vicinity of the rig.
With careful borehole design and construction, HSA and CFA may be used to drill through an aquiclude/low
permeability horizon into an aquifer. See basic description of method for details.
Great care needs to be taken when manoeuvring rigs near overhead services, site structures etc and when
If structures are close by, this can occur some time later if settlement occurs.
Similarly, care needs to be taken to avoid damage to flora and fauna, especially protected species by careful siting
of the borehole, rig and arisings. When working under trees, consider the rigs height and avoid damaging the
canopy.
If unmanageable materials (e.g. unexpected friable asbestos) or unexpected conditions (e.g. gases/strong odours)
are encountered, drilling should be halted (leaving augers in the ground), the hole covered with a sheet, board or
otherwise and method of investigation and health and safety arrangements re-appraised.
Once the borehole is completed, the general area must be left safe e.g. disturbed ground should be made good,
any exposed contaminated material covered with clean and surplus arisings need to be properly managed.
29

Contaminated Sites.
Guidance For The Safe

Investigation By Drilling Of Landfills
And Contaminated Land Site
Investigation Steering Group (1993)
Thomas Telford, London

Guidance Notes for the Safe

Drilling of Landfill and Contaminated
Land British Drilling Association
(Operations) Ltd, Essex
30
Practical Handbook of GroundWater Monitoring edited by David

M Nielsen (1991), Lewis Publishers,
Michigan, USA (Chapters 6 and 7)

CABLE PERCUSSION DRILLING
Shell and Auger, Cable-tool percussion.

Cable percussive drilling is the oldest and simplest form of drilling where advancement of the borehole is by
hammering (percussion) a tool into the formation by cutting a hole or by bailing out the material. It is the most
common form of drilling in the UK.
The type of rig is usually an A frame type which arrives on site pulled by a four-wheel drive vehicle. Some cable
percussion rigs are fitted to lorry bases and these may offer rotary drilling as well. This system of drilling is very
common for geotechnical investigations but is widely used on environmental projects as well. This technique is
used mainly for boring into and sampling superficial deposits rather than bedrock. The boring equipment is simple
in design and comprises a cable passing from a winch, over a pulley at the top of the rigs mast to the boring tools.
The tools are lifted and dropped successively and, as they advance and the borehole is deepened, more cable is
fed from the winch drum.
The boring tools are robust steel tubes with a solid weight fitted above them, around 1500 mm long and of
diameters ranging from 140 mm to 300 mm. They are designed to sample the ground in that, as the open end
hits the formation on the down stroke, material is forced inside and retrieved when the tool is withdrawn at the
surface. Water is sometimes added to the borehole to assist in this. Different boring tools are available to suit
different types of ground conditions. A shell (a round cylinder with a flap valve) is used in non-cohesive materials
while a claycutter (with windows in its sides) is used in cohesive materials. When the ground contains layers of
cobbles or boulders that inhibit the boring tools, a chisel can be used instead to break through and then boring
resumes below.
As this technique is used mainly in soft ground conditions, the borehole may need to be lined with casing that is
advanced at the same rate as the boring tools to maintain stability and minimise the entry of unwanted
groundwater into the deepening borehole. In some circumstances, it may be necessary to use several different
strings of casing and the more formations that there are requiring sealing-off, the larger the diameter of casing
that will be needed to start the borehole. Casings of 250 mm, 200 mm and 150 mm are conventional and it is the
150 mm diameter casing that is most commonly used.
The technique may be used when there is a need to drill through an aquiclude into an aquifer. In these cases, the
borehole is drilled in stages and at each change in casing diameter, a robust bentonite seal is placed at the base
and allowed to rehydrate prior to further advancement of the borehole at the narrower diameter.
Soil samples can be taken for environmental and geotechnical purposes. Bulk disturbed samples can be taken
from the drill cuttings and undisturbed samples can be taken using U38 or U100 sample tubes (denoting 38 mm
and 100 mm diameters respectively with the latter also called U4 denoting 4 inch). In situ geotechnical tests such
as SPT (Standard Penetration Tests) can also be carried out during drilling if required.
Cable percussion drilling is generally used for depths less than 40 m and typical drilling depths for ground
contamination investigations are 5 m to 20 m. Significantly greater depths can be achieved from the rarer, very
heavy duty, rigs.
A frame cable percussion rigs are fairly manoeuvrable as they are light but the length of the frame (6 m)
prevents access to tight locations. Many contractors have cut-down mast rigs for access and operation in limited
headroom locations if required. The method can generate considerable mess, particularly in soft clays and when
shelling out sands and silts.
31
Sequence of events:
an appropriate location for the borehole is chosen and a before photograph may be taken. It may be
necessary to protect the ground surface from contaminated arisings using plastic sheeting, wooden boards
etc. and to use sand-bags or other methods to contain water as the borehole is drilled and arisings extracted;
any surface concrete is broken or cored through and a hand-dug starter pit may be required (e.g. to check
that there are no pipes/cables etc at the drilling location). The Drill Supervisor or Second Man manoeuvres
the drilling rig into position and the legs of the mast are locked into position using cross-bars at above head
height. The general requirements for drilling, sampling, in situ tests and the design of the groundwater/gas
monitoring installation (if needed) etc. are confirmed before the borehole is started. It is usually desirable,
however for some flexibility to be maintained as the borehole is drilled and the conditions emerge;
a suitable boring tool is used to cut the start of the borehole and, at a suitable depth (usually less than 1 m),
the first length of casing is established to which others are attached and progressively advanced as the
borehole deepens;
groundwater measurement requirements and any in situ tests that are needed, but stands a safe distance
back from and avoids obstructing the actual drilling process. Anyone approaching the rig, aside from the
drilling crew, should do so only when the cable tools are at rest on the ground and all the time with an
awareness of the safety of the rig itself, the equipment in the vicinity and the condition of the ground surface.
All personnel should maintain a look out for anything that may affect the safety of the drilling exercise;
as the borehole progresses, any retrieved spoil that is not required for samples is either stockpiled temporarily
close to the borehole or placed directly into bags. Whichever method is chosen, the arisings are stored in
such a way that any that are suitable can be used as backfill material at the appropriate time, while those that
are not, are stored temporarily in a skip on the site and then disposed of appropriately;
crew under instruction from the scientist/engineer and the top of the borehole fitted with an appropriate
cover. Re-instatement works that are needed are carried out (arrangements for this should be made before
starting the investigation);
irrespective of whether formal re-instatement works are to be carried out, it is important that the borehole
and surrounding area are left in a safe condition. Open boreholes and drilling equipment should not be left
unattended unless securely roped, coned or fenced off (safety issues are covered below).

Applications
Primarily suitable for geotechnical investigations but is widely used on environmental projects.
Cable percussive boring is suitable for all but the densest ground conditions/unweathered bedrock. Can be used in
made ground (but not for very coarse fill e.g. containing tyres, compact paper, a large proportion of metal
artefacts, timber etc.).
Suitable for sites where access is unrestricted.
Large quantities of soil for samples can be taken and it is possible to measure, fairly precisely, the depth from
which soil samples have been obtained.
The larger diameter boring tools allow inspection of a larger proportion of the groundmass compared to most of
the other drilling techniques widely available for investigation of contaminated sites.
Robust groundwater and gas monitoring installations can be established. Nested installations may be achievable if
a borehole is drilled at wide diameter and good bentonite seals are constructed carefully.
Limitations
Not suitable for very small or confined sites.
Considerable quantities of water may need to be added to the borehole during drilling to enable collection of sands
and gravels.
Hard layers can be difficult and take long periods of time to chisel through.
The sections of casing may be of different lengths and these need to be checked as they are inserted if a record of
the depth of casing used (a costed item) is to be kept independently of the Drill Supervisor.
Cable percussive boring can cause a significant amount of mess if the containment of arisings (both solid and
liquid) is not planned for carefully. These can slow down the drilling operations slightly.
32

Key cost factors
a wide range of unexpected situations can cause drilling to halt and drillers to go on standing time;
nature of the ground conditions;
depth of boring needed;
need for containment measures in relation to solid and liquid arisings;
drill spoil storage/disposal;
NB cable percussive drilling is usually charged by the metre with additional costs applied to sampling, in situ
testing, standing time etc. Many cable percussive drillers prefer straightforward drilling into clean ground with
minimal sampling, testing etc. as it is that which gives the greatest financial return. It may be necessary,
sometimes, to slow down the rate of drilling to maintain control over the quality of sampling, measurements
taken etc.
Supervision of a cable percussive drilling contractor should be carried out only by an experienced
scientist/engineer that is familiar with this method of drilling and the way cable percussive drilling crews operate.
One such scientist/engineer should be allocated to each rig and should be prepared to carry out or supervise
closely, the majority of the hands on sampling of soils.
A drilling crew should be used that is BDA (British Drilling Association) accredited for cable percussive work, has
experience of working on a wide range of contaminated sites and is prepared to be flexible in terms of responding
to the emerging conditions, sampling requirements, borehole design etc. Many cable percussive drilling crews
prefer clean geotechnical work and it is essential that the nature of the ground conditions and the approach to
safe working is clearly specified at the time of the initial enquiry about availability for hire. There may be a need
to re-state the need for particular personal protective equipment, safe working practices etc. throughout the
duration of an investigation of a contaminated site, particularly where drillers are more familiar with
uncontaminated conditions.
It is important that the supervising scientist/engineer double checks each measurement of borehole depth, gravel
pack, bentonite seals etc.
On average, around 15 m to 20 m per day (no surface concrete) should be achieved per cable percussive drilling
rig/crew although the precise meterage will vary according to the factors listed in the section key cost factors.
Access within the site (for a towed drilling rig allow 2 m width and 12 m length;
overhead clearance (allow 6.5 m for a rig when raised);
available working area (allow an area of minimum 2.5 m X 6 m for the rig and the towing vehicle (usually a
large four-wheel drive vehicle) will also need to have access. A general working area around the rig of is also
desirable). Take into account the fact that the rig will be noisy and generate diesel fumes which may be a
problem in areas confined between buildings, near public walkways etc.;
availability of washdown facilities, with power and freshwater supply, for washing of the casing, boring tools
etc. that can be accessed by the towing vehicle;
a skip will be needed for storage and disposal of arisings.
33

An operating drilling rig with associated equipment and open borehole present a wide range of hazards. Cable
percussive boreholes may take more than one day to drill, install and complete and, when unattended, the general
area should be made safe and consideration should be given to the use of secure fencing particularly in areas
accessible to the public.
The drill rig cable, shackles etc. must be in good condition. It is circumspect for the supervising scientist/engineer
to require that a copy of a recent test certificate on the cable is provided. The rig must only be operated with the
cross-bars on the tripod legs properly locked into position. If this were not the case, there would be risk of rig
collapse.
Personnel working alongside an operational rig should take the utmost care the boring tools attached to the
cable, in particular, present considerable physical hazards. Ear defenders may be needed in the vicinity of the rig.
With careful borehole design and construction, cable percussion may be used to drill through an aquiclude/low
permeability horizon into an aquifer. See basic description of method for details.
of the borehole, rig and arisings. When working under trees, consider the rigs height and avoid damaging the
canopy.
are encountered, drilling should be halted, the hole covered with a sheet, board or otherwise and method of
investigation and health and safety arrangements re-appraised.

Contaminated Sites.



34


ROTARY CORING
diamond core drilling

Rotary core drilling is a method in which a drill string, comprising a drill pipe with an attached steel core barrel and
coring bit, is rotated continuously against the formation with a steady load. The method can be used in virtually
any stable geological formation, particularly consolidated rocks. Rotation speed can be slow to fast (10-2000 rpm)
depending on the formation being drilled and the specific rig used.
Most commonly used for exploration uses, this system can also be used on environmental projects. Coring is very
useful in sandstone, limestone and chalk where contamination may have penetrated the weathered zone, or
travelled through the formation or fractures. Air flush can be used to aid drilling although additives such as water
and foam may be needed and these are generally undesirable for ground contamination investigations.
The core bit contains diamond or tungsten cutting teeth/chips (hence the alternative name of diamond core
drilling) and these break only a small portion of the borehole face. The remainder is left intact inside the core
barrel as it moves down, providing a continuous sample of the ground penetrated. At intervals, this is brought to
the surface. Circulation fluid is pumped through the drill rods and barrel to flush the fine fragments from the thin
annular ring and to cool the cutting face. Fluids are also often used to help maintain the stability of the borehole
wall, although for the depth and nature of drilling typically carried out during investigation of contaminated sites,
stability is usually achieved by inserting casings.
It is appropriate to request that these additives are
biodegradable or based on natural products.
The round trip of: (i) drilling the length of the core barrel; (ii) removing the drill string;(iii) emptying the barrel;
(iv) returning the barrel and drill string to the borehole; and (v) re-commencing drilling can be time consuming.
To reduce this, a method of rotary core drilling called wire line coring has been developed. With this technique
the inner tube and its core may be recovered without removing the entire drill string from the borehole via a
system of locking/releasing mechanisms attached to the core barrel.
The simplest core barrels comprise a single tube and coring bit which are suitable only for coring hard rocks. A
double tube core barrel is used in less cohesive rocks i.e. an inner liner is added to the core barrel. With very soft
materials, a second inner liner may be used which reduces disturbance to it as it is handled at the surface. The
diameter of the core barrels and cores vary widely (core barrels generally between 36 mm and 200 mm and cores
of between 21 mm and 165 mm). Boreholes to many hundreds of metres depth can be achieved i.e. much greater
than that likely to be needed for investigation of contaminated sites.
Rotary core drilling is typically accomplished with vehicle mounted rigs (4X4, truck, track or trailer) that carry their
own pumps, and operating components. Many are relatively small rigs but some rigs are large complex
assemblies that require a considerable amount of space in which to operate.
It is possible to rotary core into an aquifer protected by an aquiclude. However, it is not a straightforward
operation and the exact approach will need to be thought through carefully and tailored to the specific site
geology, sampling requirements etc. In some cases it may be necessary to start the borehole using a different
method e.g. cable percussive (although modern rotary rigs are versatile and able to drill through a range of
conditions). Where drilling into an aquifer, the borehole will need to be drilled at wide diameter to the aquiclude
stratum. A good bentonite plug (around 1-2 m) will be needed at the base with the casings left in place above (if
used in stable conditions casings may not be necessary) and the bentonite left to hydrate. The borehole can
then be re-drilled by rotary coring at a narrower diameter down through the cased hole, the seal and into the rock
formation below.
35
Sequence of events:
concrete is broken or cored through. It is virtually impossible to protect the ground surface completely from
contaminated arisings due to the volume of flush water/formation water and arisings that are ejected from the
borehole intermittently (see limitations below). Nevertheless, the use of plastic sheeting, wooden boards
sand-bags or other methods to contain these may reduce the extent of the area that is affected.
if a different drilling method, e.g. cable percussive, is to be used to drill the upper part of the borehole to
avoid causing cross-contamination into an aquifer (see above), this is completed and the rig removed. The
Drill Supervisor or Second Man then manoeuvres the rotary coring rig into position and progresses the
borehole. If only rotary coring is to be used for the whole borehole, the rig is similarly set up from the outset;
drilling commences and, at a suitable depth (usually less than 1 m), the first length of casing is established to
which others are attached and progressively advanced as the borehole deepens;
drilling crew, should do so only after indicating to the Drill Supervisor of this intention as it may be necessary
to stop the drilling mechanism. At certain times e.g. when running in/out the drill rods, the Drill Supervisor
will not permit non-drilling personnel to approach. When approaching the rig, this must be done with an
awareness of the safety of the rig itself, the equipment in the vicinity and the condition of the ground surface.
All personnel maintain a look out for anything that may affect the safety of the drilling exercise;
as the borehole progresses, the core samples will be placed in special core boxes for recording of the depths
that the run came from, logging on site or to be sent for analysis/storage. The fragments of drilled
formation that are flushed out of the deepening borehole gradually form a carpet around the top of the hole.
Any unwanted arisings are disposed of appropriately but the total volume of these arisings is usually relatively
small;

Applications
Rotary coring is suitable for virtually all stable ground conditions particularly highly consolidated rocks and some
modern rigs have equipment that can be used in unconsolidated conditions.
This form of drilling is capable of achieving considerable depths.
It is possible to measure, very precisely, the depth from which samples have been obtained.
The method allows retrieval of cores for inspection and laboratory analysis, although fines and weathered zones
may be washed out.
Limitations
It can be time-consuming to re-locate boreholes that have hit shallow obstructions. However, this drilling method
will probably be capable of drilling through most shallow obstructions.
Flush medium and water may need to be added to the borehole.
Some rotary coring rigs are too big for flexible use on small and/or operational sites.
Rotary coring can generate a great deal of flushed water and arisings when working below the groundwater level
and this is a considerable disadvantage of this drilling method. Even where this is uncontaminated water/slurry,
the general mess that can result, even with use of sandbags, plastic sheeting etc can be unacceptable on many
(e.g. operational) sites. In contaminated conditions, the potential for spreading contaminated water/arisings on
the ground surface may preclude the use of this method.
36

Key cost factors
the possible need for an alternative drilling method to be used for the upper section of the borehole and
establish a seal and protect an underlying aquifer;
the possible need to install multiple casing strings;
well design;
NB rotary coring usually proves to be one of the most expensive drilling methods as rates tend to be higher than
for most other methods, but offers the best recovery of consolidated rock of all systems.
Supervision of a rotary core drilling contractor should be carried out only by an experienced scientist/engineer that
is familiar with this method of drilling. One such scientist/engineer should be allocated to each rig.
A drilling crew should be used that has experience of working on a wide range of contaminated sites and is
prepared to be flexible in terms of responding to the emerging conditions, sampling requirements, borehole design
etc. Most rotary coring contractors do exploration or geotechnical work and it is essential that the nature of the
ground conditions and the approach to safe working is clearly specified at the time of the initial enquiry about
availability for hire.
On average, around 15 m to 20 m per day (no surface concrete) should be achieved per rotary core drilling
rig/crew although the precise meterage will vary according to the factors listed in the section key cost factors.

Some rigs offering this system are middle to large rigs mounted on lorries and capable of deep oil and water well
drilling. Smaller rig versions are available, which may be mounted on smaller vehicles, tracks or trailer. It is
always advisable to check with the driller on space requirements prior to appointment and to be familiar with what
is available on site.
Rigs vary greatly in size - as an indication, the largest rig will be 2.5 m wide, 12 m long and be 5 m high when
travelling. When working the mast could be 15 m high although some 4X4 mounted rigs have a maximum mast
height of 5-6 m. A working area of twice the rig is recommended as a minimum. Any access, space, weight or
height restrictions should be discussed fully with the driller in advance.
Noise, diesel fumes and drill returns may be a problem on some sites and a particular problem in areas confined
between buildings, near public walkways etc.
Washdown facilities, with power and freshwater supply that can be accessed by the rig/vehicle will be needed.

A rotary coring rig with associated equipment and open borehole present a wide range of hazards. Boreholes may
take more than one day to drill, install and complete. When unattended, the general area should be made safe
and consideration should be given to the use of secure fencing particularly in areas accessible to the public.
Personnel in the vicinity of an operational rig should take the utmost care and the Drill Supervisor should be
consulted before approaching close to the working area. Ear defenders may be needed in the vicinity of the rig.
It is usually wise to agree with the Drilling Supervisor, the drilling, sampling and other requirements at the outset
and for the Drill Supervisor to report on the conditions encountered at agreed intervals. The work will progress
most smoothly and safely if the supervising scientist/engineer then interferes as little as possible with the drilling
operations and observes from an agreed position a few metres away from the drilling rig and equipment. This
location can be where the extracted cores are placed for inspection.
With careful borehole design and construction, it is possible to drill through an aquiclude/low permeability horizon
into an aquifer using rotary coring although it will often be necessary to start the borehole using a different
method. See basic description of method for details.
37
of the borehole, rig and arisings. When working under trees, consider mast height and avoid damaging the
canopy. Considerable harm can be done to trees if knocked by this type of rig, even if damage is not readily
visible at the time.

Contaminated Sites.



38
Practical Handbook of Groundwater

Monitoring edited by David M
Nielsen (1991), Lewis Publishers,

ROTARY DRILLING
rock roller, drag bit

This drilling method can be used in soft to hard formations, consolidated and some unconsolidated conditions. This
is a very common form of drilling but it is not often used in ground contamination site investigation projects,
particularly as soils samples are of poor quality. However, it has application where conditions are unsuitable for
other drilling methods.
The drilling rigs used may be the same as for Rotary Coring and for Down the Hole Hammer. The drilling action is
produced by rotating a drill bit with downward pressure and flush of either air, water, mud (or polymer) or foam.
The drill heads can be a solid body drag bit with tungsten inserts for soft conditions or a variety of rock roller or
tricone bits used on hard rock. The drag bit has a shearing or scraping action. The rock roller is a series of cones
(usually three) that rotates against the formation. Each cone turns on its axis offering new cutting teeth to the
formation. The cones are shaped so that pressure is applied to different points across the borehole face. Some
cones have hardened steel teeth while others have tungsten button bits.
The use of flushing agent is to remove drill cuttings and to cool the drill bit. The use of foam or mud has the
additional function of stabilising the borehole where collapse of the formation is possible. It would be usual to
recirculate the water or mud through a series of settling tanks allowing the drill cuttings to settle out before reuse.
In the case of foam and polymers, biodegradable products are available and the mud used is a natural product of
bentonite (Fullers Earth). The use of mud/polymer has the disadvantage that it may be forced into the formation
requiring significant development if the borehole is to be a well on completion. In reality, the use of foam and
mud flush in drilling boreholes for ground contamination site investigations will become less as better alternatives
become available. If a compressor is being used this can also be a source of oil into the air stream if the
equipment has not been properly serviced. On particularly sensitive projects it is advisable to sample additives
introduced into the borehole and have it analysed for the contaminants being tested for at the same time as the
soil/groundwater tests.
This method of drilling is an open hole system but supportive casing can be installed if required. Drill diameters
readily available will be in the order of 75 mm to 300 mm but smaller and significantly larger diameter bits can be
used. Drill depths of several hundred metres can be achieved using the rock roller and a suitable drilling set up
but it is unlikely that ground contamination investigations will require drilling to the maximum depths achievable.
Soil samples are of poor quality and it can be difficult to log the borehole. Drill returns will be a constant flow of
fine sand to medium gravel size chippings depending on the hardness and type of formation being drilled mixed
with the flush agent. Accurate logging is particularly difficult in unstable and fill conditions which can change
rapidly.
Where loose material is present at the surface such as gravel or cobble, a different method of drilling will be
required in order to case the borehole first.
It is possible to use this method to drill into an aquifer protected by an aquiclude. However, it is not a
straightforward operation and the exact approach will need to be thought through carefully and tailored to the
specific site geology, sampling requirements etc. In some cases it may be necessary to start the borehole using a
different method e.g. cable percussive (although modern rotary rigs are versatile and able to drill through a range
of conditions). Where drilling into an aquifer, the borehole will need to be drilled at wide diameter to the aquiclude
stratum. A good bentonite plug (around 1-2 m) will be needed at the base with the casings left in place above (if
used in stable conditions casings may not be necessary) and the bentonite left to hydrate. The borehole can
then be re-drilled by rotary drilling at a narrower diameter down through the cased hole, the seal and into the rock
formation below.
Rock rolling is a drilling technique that is offered by a wide range of contractors using rigs that are more frequently
used for alternative methods. For example the large rigs that are more commonly used for rotary coring can also
do rotary drilling. Some specialist environmental drillers that have developed small auger rigs for ground
contamination investigations may also be able to offer rotary drilling using the same small rigs. Essentially, the
larger rigs will achieve greater depths but may actually be too big for the work in hand and the site.
39
Sequence of events
concrete is broken or cored through. It is virtually impossible to protect the ground surface completely from
contaminated arisings due to the volume of flush water/formation water and arisings that are ejected from the
borehole intermittently. Nevertheless, the use of plastic sheeting, wooden boards sand-bags or other
methods to contain these may reduce the extent of the area that is affected.
if a different drilling method, e.g. cable percussive, is to be used to drill the upper part of the borehole to
avoid causing cross-contamination into an aquifer (see above), this is completed and the rig removed. The
drill team then manoeuvres the rotary coring rig into position and progresses the borehole. If only rotary
coring is to be used for the whole borehole, the rig is similarly set up from the outset;
drilling commences and at a suitable depth it is usual to install a short length of temporary casing to keep the
borehole straight, to prevent collapse, prevent wash-out of material in the upper surface and in the case of
water/mud flush, to help channel the flow for recirculation.
as the borehole deepens, the scientist/engineer liaises with the drilling crew on precise sampling and
to stop the drilling mechanism. At certain times e.g. when drilled arisings are being flushed out, the Drill
Supervisor will not permit non-drilling personnel to approach. When approaching the rig, this must be done
with an awareness of the safety of the rig itself, the equipment in the vicinity and the condition of the ground
surface. All personnel maintain a look out for anything that may affect the safety of the drilling exercise;
as the borehole progresses, the samples will be bagged for inspection on site or to be sent to the laboratory.
The fragments of drilled formation that are flushed out of the deepening borehole gradually form a carpet
around the top of the borehole. Any unwanted arisings are disposed of appropriately;
re-instatement works that are needed are carried out (arrangements for this should be made before starting the
investigation). Irrespective of whether formal re-instatement works are to be carried out, it is important that the
borehole and surrounding area are left in a safe condition. Open boreholes and drilling equipment should not be
left unattended unless securely roped, coned or fenced off (safety issues are covered below).
40

Applications
Rotary drilling can be used in most ground conditions but is not suited to loose material such as sand or gravel.
Cobbles or other obstructions can easily deflect the borehole in the upper zone.
Limitations
Where the flush returns are constant; samples can be taken from precise depths, however, in all cases the quality
of sample for environmental project is poor. This limits the suitability of this method of drilling when soil sampling
is an objective.
It can be time-consuming to re-locate boreholes that have hit shallow obstructions.
Considerable quantities of flush medium will need to be added to the borehole.
Some rig assemblies may be too big for flexible use on small operational sites.
Rotary drilling can generate a great deal of flushed water and arisings when working below the groundwater level
and this is a considerable disadvantage of this drilling method. Even where this is uncontaminated water/slurry,
the general mess that can result, even with use of sandbags, plastic sheeting etc can be unacceptable on many
(e.g. operational) sites. In contaminated conditions, the potential for spreading contaminated water/arisings on
the ground surface may preclude the use of this method.

Key cost factors
the possible need for an alternative drilling method to be used for the upper section of the borehole and
establish a seal and protect an underlying aquifer;
Supervision of a rotary drilling contractor should be carried out only by an experienced scientist/engineer that is
familiar with this method of drilling. One such scientist/engineer should be allocated to each rig.
A drilling crew should be used that has experience of working on a wide range of contaminated sites and is
prepared to be flexible in terms of responding to the emerging conditions, sampling requirements, borehole design
etc. Most contractors do mainly exploratory or geotechnical work and it is essential that the nature of the ground
conditions and the approach to safe working is clearly specified at the time of the initial enquiry about availability
for hire.
The meterage achievable will vary widely (15 m to 100 m per day) according to the factors listed in the section
key cost factors above.

Some rigs offering this system are middle to large rigs mounted on lorries and capable of deep oil and water well
drilling. Smaller rig versions are available, which may be mounted on smaller vehicles, tracks or trailer. It is
always advisable to check with the driller on space requirements prior to appointment and to be familiar with what
is available on site.
As an indication, the largest rig will be 2.5 m wide, 12 m long and be 5 m high when travelling. When working the
mast could be 15 m high although some 4X4 mounted rigs have a maximum mast height of 5-6 m. A working
area of twice that of the rig is recommended as a minimum. Any access, space, weight or height restrictions
should be discussed fully with the driller in advance. The smallest type of rig available would be about the size of
a large 4WD vehicle.
41

Rotary rolling equipment, the drilling rig and an open borehole present a wide range of hazards. Boreholes may
take more than one day to drill, install and complete. When unattended, the general area should be made safe
and consideration should be given to the use of secure fencing particularly in areas accessible to the public.
It is usually wise to agree with the Drill Supervisor, the drilling, sampling and other requirements at the outset and
for the Drill Supervisor to report on the conditions encountered at agreed intervals. The work will progress most
smoothly and safely if the supervising scientist/engineer then interferes as little as possible with the drilling
location can be where the extracted cores are placed for inspection.
into an aquifer using rotary drilling although it will be necessary to start the borehole using a different method.
See basic description of method for details.
canopy. Considerable harm can be done to trees by the larger rigs, in particular, if knocked even if damage is not
readily visible at the time.

Contaminated Sites.



42


DOWN THE HOLE HAMMER DRILLING
none. The acronym DTTH or partial acronym DTH are frequently used.

Down the Hole Hammer (DTH) is a method of rotary percussion drilling that, as its name implies, combines
percussion with some aspects of rotary drilling. Together, these result in increased penetration speed. Also,
compared to rotary and percussion techniques undertaken separately, DTH is more successful in harder and more
consolidated formations. DTH is also capable of great drilling depths as the hammer action is directly above the
drill bit i.e. impact efficiency is high as the blow energy is exactly where it will be most effective. The depth
limitation is from the power of the compressor, the head of water being displaced and the lifting capability of the
drill rig compared to the weight of the drill string.
While this drilling method can be used to establish robust groundwater and gas monitoring installations, it is not
generally recommended for ground contamination investigations unless there is no better alternative. This is
because soil samples are of poor quality, it can be difficult to log the horizons and internal lubrication by means of
in-line additives is needed.
The method works as compressed air is forced down the drill string and into the hammer unit where the air powers
a piston in an upwards and downwards motion (which may be as frequent as 25 strokes per second). A drill stem
to the surface provides very slow rotation (15 rpm to 25 rpm) and sufficient feed or retract force for proper
operation of the hammer and to assist the cutting action of the bit. On each downward stroke, shock wave energy
passes down the bit and, providing the bit is in contact with the borehole face, passes directly to the formation.
Air that has operated the piston passes onwards through the hammer, exits across the bit face to scavenge the
cuttings and cool the bit. The air and cuttings return to the surface, carried by the velocity of the air flow.
Reverse Circulation DTH drilling employs a dual walled drill string and the rock chippings are passed back up the
annular space between the dual walls.
Normally the volume of air will have an adequate up-hole velocity to clear the annulus of cuttings but sometimes
conditions within the borehole will develop that cause the DTH hammer to lose efficiency and flushing ability. This
is usually caused by either the production of too many cuttings during rapid penetration or groundwater entering
the hole that exerts back pressure on the DTH hammer. While excess cuttings can easily be cleared by lifting the
bit from the base of the borehole slightly, the ingress of groundwater may be sufficient to stop the action of the
hammer and drilling cannot continue.
The hammer requires internal lubrication by means of in-line oilers. Oil is passed at a very low dose into the air
flow and down the drill rods. This oil is typically a hydrocarbon oil as this is most readily available and cheap.
Other, synthetic, biodegradable or vegetable oil based products are available. The compressor can also be a
source of oil into the air stream if the equipment has not been properly serviced. On particularly sensitive projects
it is advisable to sample additives introduced into the borehole and have it analysed for the contaminants being
tested for at the same time as the soil/groundwater tests.
The DTH system is used to good effect to drill rapidly in medium to hard rock formations such as sandstone,
limestone, metamorphic and igneous rocks that are stable formations. This system may also be used in less stable
conditions for example interbedded clays/limestone or boulder conditions. The less stable the conditions, the
higher the risk of trapping (expensive) equipment down the hole.
In conditions that are considered unstable or where the upper layer is unstable, then a Duplex System can be
used i.e. simultaneous cased system in conjunction with the DTH. All hammer suppliers offer their own system
with their own trade name such as Simcas/Odex. This system operates a conventional hammer with a drill bit that
has a part that swings out on rotation so that the hole is drilled at large enough diameter to receive the following
casing. On completion the eccentric part of the hammer slides in and the hammer can be removed. Once in
stable conditions and intending to drill deeper, it would be normal to switch to the standard DTH system.
With the above system, the one rig can be used to drill into an aquifer through an aquiclude (and any made
ground and superficial deposits. A bentonite seal is placed at the bottom of the casing and once hydrated, drilling
at a smaller DTH diameter can continue into the bedrock. This system is relatively common and available from
most drilling companies.
Most hammers in use would be to drill diameters in the range 100 mm to 300 mm but smaller and significantly
larger hammers are available. Soil samples are of poor quality for ground contamination investigations and it can
be difficult to log the borehole. Drill returns will be a constant flow of fine to medium sand to medium gravel size
chippings depending on the hardness and type of formation being drilled. Accurate logging is particularly difficult
in unstable and fill conditions where these change rapidly.
43
Sequence of events:
concrete is broken or cored through. It may be necessary to protect the ground surface from contaminated
arisings using plastic sheeting, wooden boards etc. and to use sand-bags or other methods to contain water as
the borehole is drilled and arisings extracted. Property in the vicinity may also need protecting from the dust
and chippings generated;
the drill team then manoeuvres the auger rig into position, the appropriate type of bit is fitted and the
borehole is started. In uncohesive conditions, a simultaneous casing system will be used;
to stop the drilling mechanism. At certain times e.g. when drilled arisings are being flushed out, the Drilling
Supervisor will not permit non-drilling personnel to approach. When approaching the rig, this must be done
with an awareness of the safety of the rig itself, the equipment in the vicinity and the condition of the ground
surface. All personnel maintain a look out for anything that may affect the safety of the drilling exercise;
as the borehole progresses, the samples will be bagged for inspection on site or to be sent to a laboratory.
The fragments of drilled formation that are flushed out of the deepening borehole gradually form a carpet
around the top of the hole. Any unwanted arisings are disposed of appropriately;

Applications
DTH is best suited to drilling in stable formations, particularly those rocks rated as medium to very hard.
Penetration in hard formations can be very rapid.
The method can be used for drilling boreholes up to and beyond the sizes usually needed for ground contamination
investigations e.g. up to about 600 mm diameter and to depths of 1000 m.
Robust groundwater and gas monitoring installations can be established.
DTH using simultaneous casing can be used in a wide variety of situations.
DTH can be used to drill through most conditions.
44
Limitations
DTH is not recommended for ground contamination investigations unless there is no better alternative because soil
samples are of poor quality, it can be difficult to log the horizons and internal lubrication by means of in-line
additives is needed.
DTH is inefficient at drilling through superficial deposits and other unconsolidated formations, unless a
simultaneous casing is used.
Performs poorly in sticky formations (e.g. soft clays) where returns can be poor and clogging can occur.
Requires a large amount of fuel and a powerful compressor.
Requires oils to be used for lubrication.
DTH can drill through most conditions but fill with metal, rubber and paper can be problematic.
DTH can cause a significant amount of mess, particularly air-borne dust in unsaturated rock zones. On many
derelict or redevelopment sites this will not matter but on operational sites this may be unacceptable and
containment measures will needs to be planned carefully. These can slow down the drilling operations slightly.
The compressor needed is powerful and can be particularly noisy. In some situations, vibration can be sufficient to
damage nearby pipes, foundations etc.

Key cost factors
the possible need to install multiple casing strings;
The DTH and simultaneous casing system should be commonly available. Rigs tend to be relatively large (see
below) but small rigs may also offer this drilling method.
For ground contamination investigations, daily meterage in the order of 20 m to 80 m would be expected,
depending on the drilling conditions (for exploratory purposes, greater meterage can be achieved).

Most rigs offering this system tend to be middle to large rigs mounted on lorries and capable of water well drilling.
Smaller rig versions are available which may be mounted on smaller vehicles, tracks or trailer. It is always
advisable to check with the driller on space requirements prior to appointment and to be familiar with what is
available on site.
As an indication, the largest rig will be 2.5 m wide, 12 m long and be 5 m high when travelling. When working the
mast could be 15 m high and a working area of twice the rig is recommended as a minimum. Any access, space,
weight or height restrictions should be discussed fully with the driller in advance. The smallest type of rig available
would be about the size of a large 4WD vehicle.
45

A DTH rig, associated equipment and open borehole present a wide range of hazards. Boreholes can usually be
completed in one day but occasionally, may take more than one day to drill, install and complete. In these
instances, the general area should be made safe and consideration should be given to the use of secure fencing
particularly in areas accessible to the public.
It is usually wise to agree with the Drill Supervisor, the drilling, sampling and other requirements at the outset and
for the Drill Supervisor to report on the conditions encountered at agreed intervals. The work will progress most
smoothly and safely if the supervising scientist/engineer then interferes as little as possible with the drilling
location can be where the samples are placed for inspection.
into an aquifer using DTH. See basic description of method for details.
canopy. Considerable harm can be done to trees if knocked by this type of rig, even if damage is not readily
visible at the time.

Contaminated Sites.



46


WINDOW SAMPLING
none

Window sampling is essentially a percussive method of creating small diameter boreholes. Mostly the technique is
achieved using hand-held equipment but some small drilling rigs have the capacity for window-sampling and the
power of the rig enables window samplers to be driven to, and extracted from, greater depths compared to the
manual technique.
A window sampler is a high tensile steel tube with a hardened cutting shoe to penetrate hard materials. Each
sampler is usually 1 m or 2 m long with a series of windows or slots cut in the wall of the tube through which to
view or extract soil samples. Samplers are driven down into the ground using a percussive hammer. A full set of
window samplers usually consists of around four samplers ranging in diameter from 80 mm down to 35 mm.
These are used systematically, starting with the widest and subsequently at reducing diameter to the required
depth or limit of the technique. The depth limit tends to be around 8 m to 10 m although the technique is usually
used to a maximum depth of around 5 m. In practice, the limiting factor tends not to be how deep the samplers
can be driven in but rather whether the ground conditions are such that they may then be pulled back out. Coarse
dense gravels, in particular, can grip the samplers and make extraction extremely difficult. The Drill Supervisor
will assess the conditions at each location individually.
The start diameter is dictated by the ground conditions i.e. the softer the conditions, the wider the sampler set
that can be driven in. Typically, however, a 60 mm to 80 mm diameter start sampler will be used, reducing to
around 35 mm by around 4 m to 5 m depth. The full samplers are either jacked out manually or pulled from the
hole using a hydraulic jacking system.
A full sampler will reveal a complete or partial ground profile although guidance from the Drill Supervisor will be
needed on any compression that may have occurred and resulted in, for example, a 1.5 m sample occupying a 1 m
space in the sampler. With some window sampling systems, samples can be recovered in a thin walled
transparent liner placed inside the steel tubes. The liner is removed for visual inspection or capped at each end for
transporting to the laboratory. Whatever system is used, the quantity of soil within the sampler is small and,
particularly where the analytical suite is extensive, a sample may have to be taken from a 0.5 m or so section to
ensure sufficient quantity. The advantage, however, is that once soil is taken for samples and backfilling
purposes, there is rarely any excess requiring disposal.
Narrow diameter groundwater/gas monitoring installations can be constructed in the borehole once all samplers
are withdrawn. Whilst the diameter of the standpipe is ultimately dictated by the diameter of the smallest (and
lowest positioned) sampler, in practice it is usually possible to install a 19 mm or 35 mm standpipe with a fine
gravel pack surround. With some systems, it is possible to drive a water well in through unsampled ground using
the hammer unit.
This method is not suitable where there is a need to drill through an aquiclude into an aquifer as there is no way of
protecting the aquifer from downwards migration of any contaminants from the ground above the aquiclude during
drilling.
The equipment is generally brought to site in a van or four-wheel drive vehicle and from then on, it can be carried
by hand around the site. In many circumstances the fact that this is largely a manual method is its advantage
over even the smallest drilling rigs. Window sampling causes minimal disturbance to the ground surface (e.g.
useful for investigations inside buildings, in a landscaped car park or between the sleepers of rail lines. The
method can be used where access is very restricted (e.g. small operational sites and in gardens). It can also
achieve rapid coverage to shallow depth (e.g. useful for establishing the thickness of a landfill cap over a large
area).
Sequence of events:
an appropriate location for the window sampler borehole (the borehole) is chosen and a before photograph
may be taken. Any surface concrete is broken or cored through. It is usually unnecessary to protect the
ground surface as the method generates hardly any mess. However, if needed, samplers can be placed on
plastic sheeting during sampling to protect particularly sensitive ground surfaces.
47
the first, and widest, sampler is driven fully into the ground and withdrawn. The next narrower one is pushed
through the open hole to its base and then driven, in turn, into the soil at the bottom. This sequence is
repeated using progressively smaller diameter samplers down to the required depth or limit of the technique
in the particular ground conditions encountered;
groundwater measurement requirements, but avoids obstructing the actual drilling and jacking out processes.
All personnel maintain a look out for anything that may affect the safety of the drilling exercise;
if there is spoil in excess of that needed for sampling/backfilling purposes, this is placed directly into bags and
stored in such a way that they may be disposed of appropriately once the investigation has finished;
once the desired depth is reached, a groundwater/gas monitoring installation is constructed carefully by the
drilling crew (if required) and the top of the borehole fitted with an appropriate cover. If an installation is not
needed, the hole is backfilled with clean suitable material. This can be any spoil in excess of that required for
sampling (if suitable), clean sand/gravel (if appropriate) or bentonite to prevent future downward migration of
contaminants through the hole;
On many sites it is unlikely that any re-instatement works will be needed. If they are (e.g. concrete/tarmac
repair), these are carried out (arrangements for this should be made before starting the investigation). The
borehole and surrounding area must be left in a safe condition. Drilling equipment should not be left
unattended, not least due to its portability (safety issues are covered below).

Applications
Window sampling is most suitable for clay, sand, glacial tills and some made ground.
It is possible to measure, fairly precisely, the depth from which soil samples have been obtained although the
advice of the Drill Supervisor should be sought on whether the sample has been compressed within the sampler.
The method is fast, particularly where only the shallow ground needs to be drilled.
If obstructions are encountered, it is usually an easy and quick exercise to re-locate elsewhere.
Virtually no mess is created.
Window sampling is, under controlled conditions, suitable for investigations into ground known to contain difficult
to manage materials such as asbestos and highly odorous wastes as only very small quantities are brought to the
surface, very little ground is opened up and excess spoil requiring specialist disposal can be avoided.
The engine on the hand-held equipment generates noise similar to a lawn-mower and this can mean that it is
particularly suitable for sensitive investigations in, for example, householders gardens where larger rigs may
prove intimidating and cause alarm.
Relatively inexpensive groundwater and gas monitoring installations can be established.
Window sampling is a relatively clean drilling process as no additives (water, foam etc.) are required to aid drilling.
As such, this system is particularly favoured for environmental projects.
The equipment is easy to clean between locations and a drilling crew will usually carry several complete sets of
samplers.
Limitations
Compacted/hard layers and buried concrete can be difficult to progress through.
The method does not work well in some fill materials that includes large quantities of paper, rubber, wood and
metal.
While some contractors will claim that depths to 20 m can be achieved, this method should really be viewed as one
most successful in shallow depths. In practice, depths of around 5 m are typical with depths of around 8 m to
10 m achievable in only very favourable conditions. At greater depths, the diameter of the samplers will be much
reduced and consequently only small soil samples can be retrieved.
Dense gravels can grip onto the samplers and make extraction difficult.
The method is not suitable in spark-risk situations.
48

Key cost factors
distance between sampling locations (equipment can easily be carried but, if the distance between location
exceeds more than about 200 m, it may prove quicker to use a vehicle;
presence of fences/walls/steep inclines/dense vegetation etc. that may inhibit transport of equipment between
locations by hand;
surface cover (need for concrete to be broken through);
sampling and In situ testing requirements.
There are an increasing number of specialist environmental drilling companies that offer window sampling for
ground contamination investigations.
On average, around 20 m to 30 m per day (no surface concrete) should be achieved (no installations constructed
i.e. all drilled boreholes backfilled). If all boreholes are installed, around 20 m to 25 m per day (no surface
concrete) should be achieved. In both cases, the precise meterage will vary according to the key cost factors.
access to and within the site window sampling is a method that is particularly suited to sites where access is
very constrained and inaccessible for other drilling methods. Essentially, a window sampler borehole can be
drilled if there is space for two people and equipment the size of a small suitcase held initially just above head
height. In exceptionally small spaces, the equipment can be operated by one person but this is not ideal;
overhead clearance - similarly, the overall height of the equipment tends to be less than for many other
drilling methods (allow 2.5 m);
available working area -see notes above (while a borehole can be drilled very small spaces, if possible, allow a
working area of around 2 m by 3 m to accommodate the drilling operations, the samplers on the ground and
ancillary equipment). The hammer unit will generate noise similar to that of lawnmower and this should be
considered when working in locations close to members of the general public;
availability of washdown facilities, with power and freshwater supply, for washing of the samplers etc. (can be
accessed on foot);
knowledge of the location of buried services is essential for the safety of the drilling crew.

When used properly, window sampling equipment present few hazards.
Some of the equipment (the jacking system for example) is heavy and should only be carried by those who are
familiar with its handling. The equipment should not be left unattended although the risks are more in relation to
theft and tampering (with consequential impact on programme) rather than any physical harm presented.
Personnel working alongside a drilling crew installing and jacking out window samplers should avoid obstructing
the operations. All personnel in the immediate vicinity should wear ear defenders when the hammer unit is being
used to install the samplers into the ground.
Window sampling should not be used to penetrate through an aquiclude/low permeability horizon into an aquifer.
Great care needs to be taken when drilling in
this is a percussive method applying a great
penetrate cables, pipes etc. While care should
most unlikely that the size of borehole created
via later settlement.
the vicinity of services and archaeological remains, particularly as

deal of force onto a small cutting shoe and samplers can easily
always be taken when drilling near walls, fences and buildings, it is
by window sampling will cause significant damage during drilling or
49
Care needs to be taken to avoid damage to flora and fauna, especially protected species by careful siting of the
borehole and operational area where samplers etc. are placed. When working under trees, consider the height of
the hammer unit when drilling and avoid damaging the canopy.
If unexpected and unmanageable materials (e.g. friable asbestos) are encountered, drilling should be halted, the
hole covered with a sheet, board or otherwise and method of investigation and health and safety arrangements reappraised.
Once the borehole is completed, the general area must be left safe e.g. the small area of disturbed ground should
be made good.

Contaminated Sites.


50


SOIL PROBING
direct push, probing, probe-holes, geoprobe

For environmental site investigations, direct push probeholes are usually inserted using hydraulically-powered
percussion/probing machines that rely on a small amount of static (vehicle) weight acting on a hammer unit as the
energy for advancement of a tool string made up of 1 m long rods. The vehicle used is often a small van that has
a series of hydraulic rams that allow the sampling hammer to be unfolded from its rear. This permits sampling to
be carried out close to buildings and site boundaries.
Tools are available for sampling soil, water and soil gas and many of these are US EPA approved. Depending on
the diameter of the sampling tool, permanent installations can also be constructed once sampling is completed.
Narrow diameter groundwater/gas monitoring installations can be constructed in the borehole once all samplers
are withdrawn. It is usually possible to install a 19 mm or 35 mm standpipe with a fine gravel pack surround.
This method is not suitable where there is a need to drill through an aquiclude into an aquifer as there is no way of
protecting the aquifer from downwards migration of any contaminants from the ground above the aquiclude during
drilling.
Soil Sampling
Sampling tools for soil sampling are rugged, designed to avoid cross-contamination between samples and contain
liners that vary in diameter between 25 mm and 40 mm (the smaller diameter tools avoid the generation of excess
spoil). The tool assembly contains a releasable piston system to prevent the ingress of soil and liquids into the
sample liner as the tool is driven into the ground. At the required sampling depth, the piston is released and the
tool pushed further, thus filling the liner. A new sample line is used for each sample taken. Typical sampling
depths of 10 m to 15 m are routinely achieved in UK soil conditions. Once soil is taken for sampling purposes,
there is rarely any excess requiring disposal.
Soil Gas and ground water sampling
Similar to soil sampling, the soil gas and groundwater sampling tools are driven to the required depth with the
sampling port closed. However, at the required sampling depth, a sample line is installed inside the drive rods and
this connects to the back of the sample port. The line is pulled back which opens the sampling port and the onboard pump is used to obtain a sample by drawing it into the sampler. Some companies also offer tools that are
able to measure, in situ, the presence of semi-volatile or volatile organic compounds in soil and groundwater as
well as the measurement of soil type and strength. Typical sampling depths of 10 m to 25 m are routinely
achieved in the UK.
The depth limit tends to be around 8 m to 10 m although the technique is usually used to a maximum depth of
around 5 m. The Drill Supervisor will assess the conditions at each location individually.
Sequence of events:
an appropriate location for the probehole is chosen and a before photograph may be taken. Any surface
concrete is broken or cored through. It is usually unnecessary to protect the ground surface as the method
generates little mess. However, if needed, samplers and other tools can be placed on plastic sheeting during
sampling to protect particularly sensitive ground surfaces.
some flexibility to be maintained as work progresses and the conditions emerge;
the vehicle driver manoeuvres the vehicle over the location and unfolds the hammer sampling mast;
as the probehole develops the scientist/engineer liaises with the drilling crew on precise sampling and other
requirements. All personnel maintain a look out for anything that may affect the safety of the drilling
exercise;
if there is spoil in excess of that needed for sampling purposes, this is placed directly into bags and stored in
such a way that it may be disposed of appropriately once the investigation has finished;
once sampling is finished, a groundwater/gas monitoring installation is constructed carefully by the drilling
crew (if required) and the top of the borehole fitted with an appropriate cover. If an installation is not needed,
the hole is backfilled with clean suitable material. This can be any spoil in excess of that required for sampling
(if suitable), clean sand/gravel (if appropriate) or bentonite to prevent future downward migration of
contaminants through the hole;
51
On many sites it is unlikely that any re-instatement works will be needed. If they are (e.g. concrete/tarmac
borehole and surrounding area must be left in a safe condition. Equipment should not be left unattended
(safety issues are covered below).

Applications
Probe holes can be carried out in most UK soil conditions but may meet refusal in gravel deposits.
It is possible to measure, fairly precisely, the depth from which soil samples have been obtained although the
advice of the Drill Supervisor should be sought on whether the sample has been compressed.
The method is relatively fast, particularly where only the shallow ground needs to be drilled.
If obstructions are encountered, it is usually an easy and quick exercise to re-locate elsewhere.
Virtually no mess is created.
It is a relatively clean drilling process as no additives (water, foam etc.) are required to aid drilling. As such, this
system is particularly favoured for environmental projects.
The equipment is easy to clean between locations and a drilling crew will usually carry several complete sets.
Limitations
Compacted/hard layers can be difficult to progress through.
The method does not work well in some fill materials that includes large quantities of paper, rubber, wood and
metal.
While some contractors will claim that depths to 30 m can be achieved, this method should really be viewed as one
most successful in shallow depths. In practice, depths of around 5 m are typical with depths of around 8 m to
10 m achievable in only very favourable conditions.
Dense gravels can grip onto the rods make extraction difficult.

Key cost factors
sampling and In situ testing requirements.
There are an increasing number of specialist companies that offer this technique for ground contamination
investigations.
On average, around 7 probe holes to around 6 m per day (no surface concrete and continuous sampling) should be
achieved (no installations constructed i.e. all drilled boreholes backfilled). If all boreholes are installed, around 5
per day (no surface concrete) should be achieved. In both cases, the precise meterage will vary according to the
key cost factors.
access to and within the site this equipment is vehicle-deployed and access requirements will depend on the
size of the vehicle. Generally, allow 2 m width and 5 m length;
overhead clearance - similarly, this will depend on the vehicle deploying the technique. Generally, allow 3 m
the mast at full height;
available working area (allow an area of minimum 2 m X 6 m for the vehicle and a working area around).
Take into account the fact that the equipment may generate fumes which may be a problem in areas confined
between buildings, near public walkways etc;
availability of washdown facilities, with power and freshwater supply, for washing of the equipment that can
be accessed by the vehicle.
52

The equipment presents a range of hazards. Personnel working alongside operational equipment should take the
utmost care. All personnel in the immediate vicinity should wear ear defenders when samplers/tools are being
driven into the ground. Personnel working alongside a crew operating probing equipment should avoid obstructing
the operations.
Probing should not be used to penetrate through an aquiclude/low permeability horizon into an aquifer.
Great care needs to be taken when drilling in the vicinity of services and archaeological remains, particularly as
this is a percussive method applying a great deal of force onto a small area and samplers can easily penetrate
cables, pipes etc. While care should always be taken when drilling near walls, fences and buildings, it is most
unlikely that the size of borehole created by probing will cause significant damage via later settlement.
of the vehicle and equipment. When working under trees, consider the mast height and avoid damaging the
canopy.

Contaminated Sites.



In preparing this text, the contribution of Fugro Geotechnics is gratefully acknowledged.
53

HAND AUGERS AND ASSOCIATED METHODS
none.

There are a number of small, simple investigation tools that can be operated by hand to sample quickly to shallow
depths (commonly around 1.25 m), without the need for circulation/flush fluids and with minimal ground
disturbance, mess and noise. Depending on the ground conditions and the tool used it is possible to install shallow
rudimentary groundwater/gas monitoring installations.
The wide range of hand operated investigation tools are frequently subsumed under the title hand auger even
though a number of these do not actually use an auger method. The main types are described below. When
choosing between these, consideration should be given to the need to avoid cross contamination, the types/sizes
of samples needed etc.
Hand auger
A true hand auger comprises a helical (spiral) plane that, when screwed into the ground, shears the formation and
either captures it on a blade or in jaws at the bottom or, where the flight is continuous to the surface, conveys
material along the helix to the ground surface. If a groundwater/gas monitoring installation is not needed, hand
augering can be used in both consolidated and unconsolidated soils to obtain samples. The method can be used to
sample and create a hole for a shallow groundwater/gas monitoring installation in only consolidated conditions.
The method is not suitable for use in highly consolidated rocks. This type of auger can create holes ranging in
diameters between 70 mm and 200 mm to depths varying widely with ground conditions e.g. 1. m in consolidated
conditions to greater than 8 m in soft conditions.
Stony soil auger
A tool used in soils with a large gravel content. The auger bits are bent outward and capture stones between them
as the auger is removed from the hole while the tubular design ensures that finer particles remain in the jaws of
the auger. Samples are retrieved from the auger after it is removed from the hole. These are available in
diameters between 70 mm and 140 mm and can be used to depths around 2.25 m.
Riverside auger
This has with sharp points used for sampling stiff soils and those containing a lot of fine gravel, both above and
below the water level. Samples are retrieved from the auger after it is removed from the hole. These are
available in diameters between 50 mm and 140 mm and can be used to depths around 1.25 m.
Soft soil auger
The soil is held between two blades in a conical shape joining at a point. The soft soil moves between the narrow
entrance and is held. A sharp tap allows the soil to be removed. This tool is for sampling very soft soils (and
liable to damage if used in stiffer ground). These are available in only one size i.e. 70 mm diameter which can be
used to depths around 1.25 m.
Spiral auger
A hand auger rarely used in the UK. It is effectively a large corkscrew able to penetrate hard layers. Samples
may either be taken from the material conveyed to the ground surface or, if the auger is extracted from the hole
carefully and contains some cohesive properties, they can be peeled away from the flights themselves. This is
available in only one diameter i.e. 70 mm although extension rods can be used to allow sampling down to X m in
favourable conditions.
Post hole borer
Similar to a conventional flighted auger but available in a wide range of diameters (75 mm to 200 mm). As its
name suggests, this equipment is intended for creating holes to take fence and other posts. It is available as a
hand held system with a short length of flights or from a mechanically operated system with conventional drilling
augers. This equipment is useful for ground contamination investigations in a wide range of soil conditions and
depths. The hand held post-hole borer could achieve 1.25 m and the mechanical system significantly deeper,
dependent on the conditions encountered.
54
Hand-held piston sampler

Used for sampling of less cohesive layers (fine sand, very soft clay and mud) below the groundwater table, soft
sediments in rivers, channels and ditches etc. Other augers are often used initially to reach an appropriate
stratum for the piston sampler. The normal diameter is 40 mm and a full sampler set will allow sampling in
suitable conditions to a depth of 5 m.
Gouge auger
A narrow diameter auger (30 mm) used to take undisturbed samples down to a depth of 1 m in soils of minimal
compaction (not widely used in ground contamination investigations).
Choice of equipment
When commissioning hand auger work from a contractor, it is necessary to be clear about the ground conditions
expected, the type and quantity of samples needed and any requirements for groundwater/gas monitoring
installations. In practice, a contractor will usually bring a range of auger types to allow some flexibility to respond
to the emerging conditions.
Sequence of events:
concrete is broken or cored through. It is usually unnecessary to protect the ground surface as these methods
generates hardly any mess. However, if needed, samplers can be placed on plastic sheeting during sampling
to protect particularly sensitive ground surfaces. If using a piston sampler to sample sediments in a river,
lagoon etc, an appropriate boat, raft or otherwise will be needed that can be stabilised at the appropriate
location;
the general requirements for drilling, sampling, and the design of any (necessarily shallow) groundwater/gas
monitoring installation needed etc. are confirmed before the borehole is started. It is usually desirable,
however for some flexibility to be maintained as the borehole is drilled and the conditions emerge;
groundwater measurement requirements, but avoids obstructing the actual processes. All personnel maintain
a look out for anything that may affect the safety of the drilling exercise;
it is rare for there to be spoil in excess of that needed for sampling/backfilling purposes but any that is spare
is placed directly into bags and stored in such a way that they may be disposed of appropriately once the
investigation has finished;
once the desired depth is reached, the hole is either backfilled with bentonite/spoil or, in some circumstances,
left to collapse in. Leaving the hole open will only be acceptable if (i) the site conditions are appropriate and
(ii) very small diameter augers have been used. Where a shallow groundwater/gas monitoring installation is
required, this is constructed carefully by the drilling crew and the top of the borehole fitted with an
appropriate cover. It is most unlikely that any spoil in excess of that needed for sampling backfilling will
remain but, if any does, this is bagged and disposed of appropriately;
On many sites, it is unlikely that any re-instatement works will be needed. If they are (e.g. concrete/tarmac
borehole and surrounding area must be left in a safe condition. Drilling equipment should not be left
unattended, not least due to its portability (safety issues are covered below).

Applications
Hand held drilling tools are available that are suitable for all but the most compacted ground conditions.
It is possible to measure, fairly precisely, the depth from which soil samples have been obtained with all of these
systems.
Shallow (around 1.25 m) groundwater and gas monitoring installations can be established quickly and relatively
cheaply.
These methods are, under controlled conditions, suitable for investigations into ground known to contain difficult to
manage materials such as asbestos and highly odorous wastes. This is because only very small quantities are
brought to the surface, very little ground is opened up and excess spoil requiring specialist disposal can be
avoided.
Hand-held equipment generates virtually no noise and this can mean that it is particularly suitable for sensitive
investigations in, for example, householders gardens and near noise-sensitive livestock.
These methods are relatively clean as no additives (water, foam etc.) are required to aid drilling.
The equipment is easy to clean between locations.
55
Limitations
The method is not suitable for collapsing conditions or coarse gravels.
Many of the hand held tools can be used to only very shallow depths (generally around 1.25 m). The exceptions
are the Piston Sampler (5 m), the Spiral Auger (varies greatly in UK conditions and rarely used) and the Post Hole
Borer (possibly up to 10 m if used in conjunction with a tripod).
With most of the most commonly used hand augers, the diameter of the equipment means that only small
quantities of soil samples can be obtained.
Compacted or hard layers can be difficult to progress through.
Dense gravels can grip onto the equipment in the ground and make extraction difficult.

Key cost factors
distance between sampling locations (equipment can easily be carried but, if the distance between location
exceeds more than about 200 m, it may prove quicker to use a vehicle;
presence of fences/walls/steep inclines/dense vegetation etc. that may inhibit transport of equipment between
locations by hand;
sampling requirements.
Many contractors offer a range of these hand-operated methods alongside other drilling methods.
The daily meterage that can be achieved with hand augers varies markedly with the ground conditions and
operating context. Between around 20 m to 100 m per day (no surface concrete) could be achieved (no
installations constructed i.e. all drilled boreholes backfilled). If all boreholes are installed, around 10 m m to 30 m
per day (no surface concrete) should be achieved. In both cases, the precise meterage will vary according to the
key cost factors.
access to and within the site these methods are particularly suited to sites where access is very constrained
and inaccessible for other drilling methods. Essentially, a small borehole can be drilled if there is space for
one person and equipment that takes up the space of one other. General access for the vehicle bringing the
equipment to site/general drilling location will also be needed;
overhead clearance similarly overhead clearance is rarely an issue with these methods as equipment is not
generally used above head height);
available working area -see notes above (while a borehole can be drilled in very small spaces, if possible allow
a working area of around 2 m by 3 m to accommodate the drilling operations, the samplers on the ground and
ancillary equipment);
availability of washdown facilities, with power and freshwater supply, for washing of the augers and ancillary
equipment etc. (can be accessed on foot).

When used properly, these types of hand held equipment present few hazards.
The equipment should not be left unattended although the risks are more in relation to theft and tampering (with
consequential impact on programme) rather than any physical harm presented.
Personnel working alongside a drilling crew operating these types of equipment should avoid obstructing the
operations.
These methods should not be used to drill through an aquiclude/low permeability horizon into an aquifer.
Care needs to be taken when drilling in the vicinity of services and archaeological remains. While care should
always be taken when drilling near walls, fences and buildings, it is most unlikely that the size of borehole created
by these methods will cause significant damage during drilling or via later settlement.
Care needs to be taken to avoid damage to flora and fauna, especially protected species by careful siting of the
borehole and operational area where samplers etc. are placed.
56
If unexpected and unmanageable materials (e.g. friable asbestos) are encountered, drilling should be halted, the
hole covered with a sheet, board or otherwise and method of investigation and health and safety arrangements reappraised.
Once the borehole is completed, the general area must be left safe e.g. the small area of disturbed ground should
be made good.

Contaminated Sites.


57


GRAVITY SURVEYING
microgravity, gravitational sounding, gravity vertical gradient, high

precision gravity survey

Gravity surveying is a geophysical method that determines sub-surface changes in density. Gravitational
attraction is directly proportional to mass and it is this relationship that is central to the way this method works.
It is a technique that has been utilised for investigation of industrial sites for several years to , for example, detect
buried tanks and voids. Traditional gravity surveying as used in the oil and mineral industries has now been given
greater resolution by the development of instruments with greater precision. These require great care to be
exercised in acquiring and processing the field data. With modern equipment and careful field procedures it is now
possible to measure gravitational changes as small as one part in 1,000 million. This enables the detection, not
only of underground voids, (both natural and man made) but also the monitoring of fluid levels in, for example,
aquifer recharge and discharge.
The gravity at any point on the earth is the cumulative effect of many influences and in order for the method to be
applied, these have to be compensated for. For example, at the poles, gravity is more than at the equator because
the polar regions are 21 km closer to the centre of the earth. Mountain tops can be up to 8km further from the
centre of the earth than the oceans, and these too experience less gravity. Between them, the sun and moon
produce two tides a day which cause the earth to bulge. Geological formations vary vertically (and also laterally)
in their density and therefore mass.
The removal of positional (latitude/elevation), tidal and regional gravity effects enables the plotting of what is
known as the Bouguer Anomaly. This is also known as a residual gravity map and enables specific local density
changes in the subsurface to be identified (depth achieved dependent on their size versus depth). Nevertheless,
the likely change in gravitational attraction due to a subsurface change may be very small or masked by other
features.
A typical field survey might comprise 60-80 stations per day; additional time is required to process and analyse
the data set.
Sequence of events
A modelling exercise is ideally carried out offsite as a preliminary stage to determine whether the suspected
feature is theoretically discernible. This enables the limit of detectability to be calculated for a given site.
Models may be simple two dimensional along a profile across the site or a three-dimensional model plotted as
a map of expected gravitational change over an area.
If the modelling exercise indicates that a survey could be successful, a field team is mobilised to conduct a
series of acquisition procedures to ensure that accuracy is achieved in both gravity and topographic
observations over a grid of points (or along a profile or series of profiles). This can be accomplished in an
urban environment, inside or outside buildings, as well as in a brownfield or greenfield site.
The equipment is light and easily transported in a car or van. However if the site is away from levelled tracks
or roads an off-road vehicle should be provided to enable access to the survey area. In remote areas, if data
are to be processed simultaneously with acquisition, a local site hut may be desirable.
It is usual for the Contractor to carry out field work supported by a dedicated assistant working in the local
office carrying out data reduction. Field plots (station location and non-terrain corrected Bouguer anomaly
contour maps and profiles) are produced and are often available for inspection on a daily basis.
Unless existing ground levels are already available to an accuracy of +/-0.01 m, it will be necessary for the
survey team (usually two persons) not only to mark out on the ground (by pegs or biodegradable paint) but
also to undertake a levelling exercise to an accuracy of 0.01 m to obtain corrected heights for each gravity
station. The modelling exercise will have determined what spacing of stations is required; 1 m to 2.5 m grids
are appropriate for environmental type investigations. Approximately 60-80 stations (which includes base
readings and repeats) is achievable each day depending on grid size and accessibility.
58
A model D LaCoste & Romberg Land Gravity Microgal meter has a high precision with readings that can be
repeated to 0.005 mGal (milligal) = 5 Gal. An automated levelling/recording system, the Scintrex CG-3 is
also available. Contractor should demonstrate that gravity meters have been calibrated within the last three
months. Otherwise a calibration will need to be carried out along approved BGS, or an equivalent, calibration
range prior to commencement of survey. Prior to the surveying exercise, the instruments will usually require
a settling period of 24 hours.
For a large area of survey a local gravity base net will be established and tied to National Gravity Reference
Net. Local base stations should not be located within the sphere of cultural effects, these being any manmade object capable of generating and transmitting vibrations to the ground, e.g. dwellings, roads, pylons and
their associated effects. For both base station and field readings it may be necessary to stipulate more than
one reading be taken until repeatability is achieved. Modern instruments can sample tens to 100s of readings
per station to provide a standard deviation within acceptable limits.
All gravity measurements require to be corrected for tidal effects and meter drift. This is accomplished by
making repeat readings throughout the overall period of field observations at a local sub-base station that is
allocated for each day's operations. Readings are made at the local base station before and after each day's
operation and at the sub-base station at 2 hourly intervals throughout the surveying.
Depending on the timing criticality of the survey two meters of the same make may need to be provided to
ensure no break in survey due to meter malfunction. Duplicate readings with both meters should be taken at
the first and last station point to determine comparability of operational meter and spare.
Daily production may be displayed on a simple Bouguer anomaly plot and elevation plot. Together with the
field readings these can be used to identify specific station readings that may be in error or indicate a local
anomaly, although this can prove costly. These readings should be repeated the following day together with
adjacent stations to ensure data will fit in with the set.
Terrain corrections" need to be estimated because the gravity values are also affected by lateral changes in
mass (e.g. local humps and/or hollows). Very local changes should be recorded by the instrument observer.
A digital terrain model based on estimates of mean elevations, with the degree of sensitivity decreasing with
distance, can be used for more distant effects.
Data should be supplied digitally. The data would include station ID, positional information, Bouguer density,
observed gravity value, free air anomaly, terrain correction, the Bouguer gravity anomaly latitude correction,
regional gravity gradient.
Having acquired the data it is necessary to undertake an evaluation of the results in order for example, to
reveal hitherto unknown voids or suspected underground tanks. This work element could be accomplished by
the acquisition contractor or by an alternative specialist. This may be qualitative or quantitative and should
always be followed by careful intrusive investigation to establish ground truth. If such investigation is not
feasible then further modelling exercises may be initiated on each of the perceived discrete anomalies to
estimate the depth to the causative body (or cavity).

Applications
Location of man-made voids such as cellars, tanks and water cisterns with or without contents.
Studies of landfill sites to determine depth, extent and compaction.
Thickness of made ground/fill
Monitoring of fluid level in oil, geothermal and water reservoirs.
Karst collapses in the Carboniferous, in the Chalk and in Tertiary limestones.
Sub-surface bridged, open and partially backfilled or semi collapsed mine shafts
Shallow galleries and partially collapsed mine workings.
Endoscopic microgravity for detailed archaeological investigations.
Evaluation of the success of grouting of cavities/mine workings.
Stress relaxation in tunnels (time series measurements);
Mapping of evaporite dissolution.
Lateral discontinuities and faulting.
To a lesser extent: Ice and permafrost thickness, ice lenses within permafrost, slope stability, ground failure and
volcano eruption prediction e.g. small changes in flanks.
59
Limitations
Measurement of such small variations requires a very sensitive instrument. This is therefore sensitive to
microseisms and man-made vibrations that may occur on an active industrial site. If severe these may preclude
measurements being obtainable.
To be effective there needs to be a density contrast between the desired target and host rock/soil or variations in
density within the geological structure within which the target is expected; absence of density contrast means no
gravity anomaly will exist.
If strong local topographic variations are present it may be impracticable to assess the terrain corrections required
to fully correct gravity observations.

Key cost factors
Openness of site and foot access to areas to be surveyed.
topographic variation and/or density of vegetation.
size of area/number of profiles to be surveyed.
grid/station spacing to achieve useable/interpretable data set.
ambient weather - high winds can affect ability to make readings.
ambient vibration - prevalence of microseisms and/or machinery, vehicles, pedestrians, livestock close by.
degree of pre and post modelling required.
Design, fieldwork and at least initial interpretations are usually best undertaken by a specialist geophysical
contractor/consultant.
A typical geophysics team carrying out a gravity survey will comprise between one and three experienced
personnel carrying out the following activities:
service design -
one geophysical advisor and access to computing facilities and modelling

software.
field measurements -
one geophysicist and one surveyor or surveying assistant.
data processing -
one geophysicist in addition to above if data to be reduced simultaneously with

acquisition.
geophysical interpretation -
one geophysical specialist with access to computing and software modelling

facilities.
environmental assessment -
one geophysical advisor
It is not usually necessary for the survey team to be accompanied full time by the commissioning organisation. It
will, however, be necessary for a technical representative from the commissioning organisation, familiar with the
overall aims of the investigation, to be present on the first day and then to maintain contact thereafter.

the presence of unstable ground, such as potential shallow old workings, mine shafts or marshy environment.
the existence of farm stock, which potentially could be hostile or consume/remove pegs.
site may extend across busy highways and railway lines or rivers; adequate precautions should be made to
ensure safety of personnel.
all physical survey markers to be removed on completion of survey (to avoid ingestion by stock).
60

Contaminated Sites.
Engineering Geophysics QJEG Vol.

21 pp. 207-271
Civil Engineering Applications of

Geophysical Investigation
Techniques (CIRIA project report in
production)
Reynolds, J. M. An Introduction to
Applied
and
Environmental
Geophysics. Wiley
Applied Geophysics. Telford,

Geldart, Sheriff and Keys,
Cambridge University Press
Applied
Geophysics
Code
of
Practice, Ministere de l'Industrie
(SQUALPI) with BRGM, CGG,CGGF
and LCPC, France
Institute of Civil Engineers (1999)

Geophysics for Civil Engineers an
Introduction
English Heritage (1995) Geophysical

Survey in Archaeological Field
Evaluation. Research and
Professional Services Guideline
No. 1
Reynolds, J. M. (1996) Some basic

guidelines for the procurement and
interpretation
of
geophysical
surveys
in
environmental
investigations. In Forde, M. C. (ed.),
Proceedings
of
the
Fourth
International Conference on Re-Use
of Contaminated Land and Landfills,
2-4 July 1996, Brunel University,
London.
Engineering Technics
Press, pp. 57-64.
61

SEISMIC SURVEYING
seismic refraction, seismic reflection, high resolution seismic, 2D

seismic, 3D seismic; surface wave seismic.

Seismic surveying may be used in two specific modes to determine sub-surface structural conditions that may
control the movement of fluids. Both methods rely on measuring the time taken for a seismic signal, artificially
generated on or close beneath the ground, to travel to a subsurface and return to a series of receivers
(geophones) that are coupled to a seismic recorder. The method is based on the fact that soils and rocks vary in
their elastic properties enabling them to be differentiated along a two-dimensional vertical section.
Seismic refraction has been used for many years to identify surfaces below ground at which a signal has been
critically refracted, usually at a sub-surface exhibiting an increase of seismic wave velocity with depth such as
rockhead. Depths to such surfaces can be calculated by timing the arrival at the ground surface of the returning
signal generated by the head wave travelling along the seismic interface. Both P-wave and S-wave energy sources
can be used.
Reflection Surveying has more recently become available for shallow investigations as the technology has refined
to allow detail within the zone of interest to be revealed. With this approach the seismic signal is recorded at
comparatively shorter horizontal offsets from the source than refraction. The reflected energy is gathered from all
discrete sub-surface interfaces within the depth to which the source can transmit energy.
Data are gathered along traverses and therefore spatial coverage depends on line spacing. A typical refraction
survey might take four days per hectare at 10 m line spacing depending on the target depth and resolution
required and number of shots per spread. Reflection surveying, requiring more shots per spread, could take
significantly longer. Whilst time is required to pick seismic arrivals on the refraction records and analyse the data
set, additional time is required to process the reflection seismic data before a record is available for interpretation.
A recent development utilises the ground response to varying frequencies of surface seismic (Rayleigh) waves to
investigate the shallow geotechnical properties.
Sequence of events
Whilst pre-survey modelling exercises can be carried out off-site for the refraction to determine whether the
particular feature is theoretically discernible, it is more usual to undertake an initial trial. This enables the
operating parameters to be established for a given site and provides positive proof of the efficacy, or
otherwise, of the method. Where specific details of the subsurface are known, a simple two dimensional
model along a profile across the site can provide an early view of the potential value of the approach.
It is particularly important that the objectives of the survey are discussed and agreed with the contractor
during the modelling or trial stage. If the modelling exercise or trial indicates that a survey could be successful,
then a full field team may be mobilised to lay out geophones along a profile or series of profiles. Whilst the
method can be utilised in an urban environment, the higher ambient noise levels mean that disused sites are
more likely to produce more noisy data than on greenfield sites.
The recording equipment is light and easily transported in a van. However if the site is away from levelled
tracks or roads an off-road vehicle should be provided to enable access to the survey area. In remote areas, if
data are to be processed simultaneously with acquisition, a local site hut plus computing facilities in airconditioned accommodation would be needed and for ground contamination investigations, post-processing in
an office is normal.
office carrying out data reduction for refraction surveys. Reflection data requires a processing unit and, whilst
this can be provided in the field, it is more usual to process data at a processing centre.
62
For a survey of large size it will be necessary to arrange access, wayleaves and permitting in advance to
ensure no hold up to the survey crew. The laying out of geophone spreads, particularly where these are
alongside roads, and the use of seismic sources that are audible to the general public (and which in some cases
can cause ground damage), may require compensation to be paid.
Prior to the geophysical acquisition it will be necessary for the survey team (which may be independent of the
seismic crew), to mark out on the ground (by pegs or biodegradable paint) the positions of the geophones and
seismic source points. Unless existing ground levels are already available, a levelling exercise to obtain
corrected heights for each position will also be required. Permanent reference stations should be established
off the area that may be disturbed during remediation or construction.
Geophone spacing will depend on the specific targets and detail required. 1 m to 5 m separations are
appropriate for shallow environmental type investigations for refraction and spreads usually contain 12 or 24
detectors. Shot positions depend on source strength, likely depth to refractor and ground resolution required.
Shots will be undertaken at both ends of spread and maybe also be within and/or at spread-length distances off
the end of the spread. Approximately 4 to 6 spreads might be achievable each day depending on station
spacing and accessibility.
Contractor should bring to site a range of source types. Shallow refraction targets can be addressed by short
spreads and a sledgehammer. Deeper targets may require a weight drop (which may by accelerated) or a land
airgun. In open country, especially for longer spreads, it may be appropriate to use detonators, a proprietary
shot gun or small explosive charges set in shallow augered holes.
The most appropriate surface energy source should be selected having in mind the objectives of the survey,
access to the survey site, the proximity of dwellings, services, potential sources of noise and safety issues.
Previous examples demonstrating the suitability of the proposed source should be provided.
Reflection spreads are usually longer and may contain up to 120 channels. Geophones may be placed as close
as 1m with receiving positions being selected at the recording unit to avoid or diminish unwanted shot noise or
refracted arrivals at far range.
Where it has been decided to utilise energy sources placed in shot holes it may be necessary to employ a
drilling rig if ground conditions are too hard for hand auger drilling. It is inevitable that some ground
disturbance will be experienced and the air blast may be offensive (and potentially dangerous) to local
residents. Adequate arrangements, approved by the police if necessary, must be made prior to arrival on site
for the supply and storage of explosives and detonators.
Reflection seismic surveys require sufficient experienced personnel to carry out the works in a timely and
efficient manner. Where geophone spreads are left on line overnight security along the line, particularly with
regard to pre-loaded holes, must be maintained and line guards should be provided for this purpose.
A micro-processor based field office processing system using industry standard software may be an efficient
way to keep up with seismic reflection data acquisition for a large survey. An experienced operator familiar
with the basic principles of data processing and use of the system and software will be required. Two tapedrives, fully compatible with the field format to enable copying of field tapes and an electrostatic plotter capable
of quality are integral parts of the system for large high-volume surveys.
The field processing system can be used for producing analytical displays and print-outs, filtered displays of
field records to facilitate rapid assessment of the relationship between shot depth and record quality and
preliminary displays (brute stacks). It may be used not only for assessing the quality of acquired data, but
producing a final record. It can also be used to make copies of field tapes before despatch to main processing
contractor.
Land survey data should be supplied digitally. The data would include station ID, positional information,
geophone and shot location elevations to an agreed datum. Field seismic reflection data will be retained in shot
record form and passed to the field or office based processing centre in digital form. These data will be
reassembled into Constant Mid-Point form through a processing sequence.
determine the nature of the geology along each 2D section or to build a 3D image. This work element could be
accomplished by the acquisition or processing contractors or more usually by a specialist in seismic
interpretation. This interpretation may be qualitative but more usually is quantitative and should provided
depths to specific horizons of interest to the environmentalist. It should be followed by careful intrusive
investigation to establish ground truth and relate specific sub-surface horizons to events on the seismic record.
63

Applications
Studies of landfill sites to determine depth and extent.
Thickness of made ground/fill/overburden above bedrock.
Monitoring of fluid level in oil, geothermal and water reservoirs.
Structural characteristics of rock types and their ability to be excavated.
Identification of shallow galleries and partially collapsed mine workings.
Mapping of evaporites and salts beds subject to dissolution.
Detection of gas pockets (in certain situations check with your geophysical specialist).
Lateral discontinuities and faulting where bedding structures are evident.
Investigation of underground waste sites and estimation of safety factors.
Soil strength parameters.
Limitations
Measurement of acoustic signals requires a quiet environment. The methods are sensitive to microseisms and
man-made vibrations that may occur on an active industrial site. If severe these may preclude measurements
being obtainable.
To be effective there needs to be a contrast in acoustic impedance between the desired target and host rock/soil,
or variations in impedance within the geological structure within which the target is expected. Absence of
impedance contrast means no surface will be detected.
For refraction the soil/rock seismic velocity must increase with depth for a refractor to be identified.
If strong local bedding dips are present it may be impracticable to image the structure.

Key cost factors
openness of site and foot access to areas to be surveyed.
ambient weather - high winds can generate noise on geophones.
ambient vibration prevalence of microseisms and/or machinery operating close by, pedestrians, traffic, fast
flowing rivers, surf noise on beaches, trees etc.
degree of processing required.
64
A typical geophysics team carrying out a seismic survey will comprise between two (for refraction) and up to four
(for reflection) experienced personnel plus helpers carrying out the following activities:
service design -
one geophysical advisor and, for refraction, access to computing facilities and
modelling software.
one geophysicist (party chief), one instrument operator, one surveyor, one
licensed blaster/source operator, plus a number of geophone installers/
surveying assistants.
data processing -
one geophysicist specialised in processing in addition to above if data to be

reduced simultaneously with acquisition.
one geophysical specialist.
It is usual for reflection seismic survey teams to be accompanied full time by a technical representative from the
commissioning organisation. He should be familiar with the overall aims of the investigation, present at the
contractor briefing and available on the crew when it mobilises and thereafter. There may also be the need to
supervise the data processing especially if the company is not familiar with environmental/engineering type data.

Access to the site perimeter at least for the recording vehicle and on-line for a small drilling rig or a seismic source
unit.
Access within the site and along the survey lines for a man carrying units the size of a medium suitcase.
Ability of ground to support the weight of a man and (if necessary) drilling equipment.
Ease of laying out a grid of stations with appropriate markers (e.g. flags in corn field)

all physical survey markers to be removed on completion of survey (to avoid ingestion by stock);
HSE guidelines on use of seismic sources should be followed.

Contaminated Sites.

21 pp. 207-271

production)
Applied
and
Environmental
Geophysics. Wiley

Applied
Geophysics
Code
of
and LCPC, France

Introduction

No. 1

interpretation
of
geophysical
surveys
in
environmental
Proceedings
of
the
Fourth
London.
Press, pp. 57-64.
65

RESISTIVITY SURVEYING
A) electrical sounding, electric drilling, Schlumberger sounding, Wenner

sounding, vertical electrical sounding (VES). B) electrical impedance
tomography, sub-surface imaging, electrical imaging, resistivity
pseudosection. C) resistivity profiling, constant separation traversing,
electrical resistivity traversing, electric mapping or trenching, D) pulled
array continuous electrical profiling/VES.

All resistivity methods employ an artificial source of direct or low frequency current that is introduced into the
ground through point electrodes, flat contacts or less frequently, porous pots. The resulting electrical potential
changes in the sub-surface are measured between two other electrodes in the vicinity of the current flow. In
most cases the current is noted as well. It is then possible to determine the apparent resistivity of the subsurface
which may then be converted to true resistivity versus depth.
For the static systems two general approaches are used for taking resistivity measurements in the field. With the
first type of measurement, the centre of the electrode spread remains fixed but the separation of electrodes is
progressively increased until the maximum desired depth of penetration is reached. This method locates
horizontal discontinuities in conductivity and makes it possible to determine their depth. Recent advances in data
logging and analysis using personal computers has enable larger quantities of data to be acquired and processed
(inverted) in a given time enabling this method to gain popularity for environmental purposes. Large arrays of
electrodes can be laid out in line or on a grid and sampled under computer control.
In the second method, the current and potential electrode spacings are fixed and the array of electrodes is moved
along the line of spread with constant separation from one place to another, the apparent resistivities being plotted
at the mid-points. These data are contoured over the area of interest. Any body having anomalous conductivity
that is shallower than the depth of maximum effective penetration should be identified as an anomaly.
Continuous profiling systems have been developed by the Danes (PA-CEP/VES), French (CORIM) and most recently
the Canadians (Ohm-Mapper), which can be coupled behind a mini-tractor or golf buggy to greatly improve speed
of data acquisition.
There are three geometrical configurations commonly in use for Environmental and Engineering surveys, Wenner,
Schlumberger and Dipole-Dipole with varying benefits (See Reynolds, p433). A typical field survey might take
three to seven days per hectare depending on the configuration; if ground conditions were suitable for the towed
system a day might be adequate. Additional time is required to process and analyse the data set.
Sequence of events
A modelling exercise is optionally carried out offsite as a preliminary stage to determine whether the
suspected feature/s is/are theoretically discernible and which geometrical configuration will be most suitable.
It is also necessary to evaluate the resistivity contrasts. Models may be simple one dimensional at a point or
two dimensional along a profile. In the absence of modelling a field trial is usually undertaken.
If the conditions appear to be satisfactory for using this approach a field team is mobilised to conduct a series
of acquisition procedures at either selected sounding positions, along a profile or series of profiles or over a
grid of points (with base current electrodes in place).
is to be processed simultaneously with acquisition, a local site hut may be desirable.
office carrying out data reduction. Field plots (station location and non-terrain corrected anomaly contour
maps and profiles) may be produced and are often available for inspection on a daily basis.
Unless existing ground levels are already available, it may be necessary for the survey team (usually a
minimum of two persons) not only to mark out on the ground (by pegs or biodegradable paint) but also to
undertake a levelling exercise to obtain corrected heights for each station.
66
Electrodes can be in the form of steel rods, steel plates with bentonite, tin or aluminium foil or, less
frequently, porous pots. Plates or foil are used when sufficient penetration of a steel rod cannot be achieved
and/or when high contact resistances are experienced. The foil is placed in a hole filled with water or copper
sulphate solution and covered with soil soaked with copper sulphate solution. The current electrodes are
generally but not always placed on the outside of the potential electrodes, although the opposite layout is
theoretically equivalent. NB Galvanic versus capacitative electrode systems.
The most common electrode set-up is the Wenner arrangement. Each potential electrode is separated from
the adjacent current electrode by a distance a which is one-third the separation of the current electrodes. For
depth exploration using the Wenner spread the electrodes are expanded about a fixed centre, increasing the
spacing a in steps. For mapping the spacing remains constant and all four electrodes are moved along the
line. The apparent resistivity for each array position is then plotted using the centre of the spread.
In the Schlumberger configuration, the linear electrode spacing is expanded by increasing the distance
between current electrodes a or that between potential electrodes b, but only one at a time, during the course
of a measurement. The potential electrodes are assumed to be an infinitesimal distance apart, and observed
values of potential are adjusted by extrapolation to fit this assumption. In depth probing the potential
electrodes remain fixed while the current electrode spacing is expanded symmetrically about the centre of the
spread.
Resistivity mapping may be conducted by using a very large fixed separation of the current electrodes (100s
of metres) and the potential pair moved between them, also with a fixed spacing. Apparent resistivity is
plotted at the mid-point of the potential electrodes.
Dipole-dipole arrays are the most expensive of the arrays to run, since all four electrodes are moving along
the line, but have several advantages. The foremost of these is that all four electrodes are in the local area of
the station measured and therefore spurious effects that relate to a distant electrode placement are absent.
The current electrodes are usually well separated from the potential electrodes. Usually the separations a and
b are equal and the distance between the respective pairs is r.
Where deep soundings or widely spaced current electrodes are required (and especially in arid conditions) it
will be necessary to utilise a generator to provide adequate power for the transmitter. In these surveys a
separate receiver may be employed. Smaller surveys in the moist European environment usually use a single
unit.
For traversing, apparent resistivity may be displayed on a lap-top computer to identify lateral changes in the
subsurface for given potential electrode spacings (not necessarily the same depth due to lateral changes in
conductivity). For soundings a curve of increasing apparent resistivity with depth is produced. Where data
show single anomalous values in relation to adjacent readings these may have to be rejected or the particular
reading for that position (any one of the four electrode may have a poor contact) repeated before the data
accepted.
Field data should be supplied digitally. The data would include station ID, positional information, electrode
configuration and apparent resistivity. This data requires processing and analysis in order to assess the true
ground conditions. This work element could be accomplished by the acquisition contractor, but preferably by
an alternative specialist.
Resistivity sounding curves may be interpreted by computer curve matching (there may be more than one
solution). Computer inversion has been developed to enable inversion of Sub-Surface Imaging apparent
resistivity pseudo-sections is now standard.
Evaluation should always be followed by careful intrusive investigation to establish ground truth. If such
investigation is not feasible then further modelling exercises may be initiated on each of the perceived discrete
anomalies to estimate depth and nature of the variations established in the sub-surface or a particular
causative body.
67

Applications
Location of natural voids, such as in karst environment, partially fluid filled with sediment and/or liquid.
Studies of landfill sites to determine depth and extent and differences in waste types.
Thickness of made ground, fill, overburden or weathering.
Mapping of perched water tables, depth to ground water and extent of aquifers.
Mapping natural saline wedges, lagoon discharges and contaminated zones (e.g. landfill leachates).
Lateral discontinuities, fissuring and fractured fault zones.
To a lesser extent: Ice and permafrost thickness, ice lenses within permafrost, slope stability and ground failure.
Limitations
To be effective there needs to be a resistivity contrast between the desired target and host rock/soil and variations
in resistivity within the geological structure within which the target is expected; absence of contrast means no
detectable anomaly will exist.
Analysis generally assumes a horizontally layered host medium. Extreme lateral variation in ground surface or
subsurface may preclude meaningful soundings being obtainable.
If strong local topographic variations are present current paths may be so complex that the sub-surface structure
may not be resolvable by Sub-Surface Imaging.
Natural or artificial electrical sources may cause interference.
High voltage cables or other buried cables, water mains or metal pipes may locally preclude valid observations.

Key cost factors
openness of site (especially for towed arrays) and foot access to areas to be surveyed.
degree of man-made obstructions present
station spacing to achieve useable/interpretable data set and depth penetration.
ambient weather heavy rain or standing water can affect ability to make readings.
degree of analysis and post modelling required.
A typical geophysics team carrying out a resistivity survey will comprise between one and three experienced
personnel plus helpers carrying out the following activities:
service design -
one geophysical advisor and access to computing facilities and modelling

software.
one geophysicist and one surveyor or surveying assistant
data processing -
one geophysicist in addition to above if data to be reduced simultaneously with

acquisition.

facilities.
one geophysical advisor.
Depending on changes to the field configurations resulting from the initial results that may be required it may be
necessary for the survey team to be accompanied full time by a representative of the commissioning organisation.
In all cases, it is recommended that a technical representative from the commissioning organisation, familiar with
the overall aims of the investigation, is present on the first day and then to maintain contact thereafter.
68

Access to the site and within the site for a person carrying units the size of a medium suitcase.
Ability of ground to support the weight of a person.
Ease of implanting electrodes to ensure good electrical contact and managing extensive electrical cabling.
Ease of laying out a line of stations or grid with appropriate markers.
Ability to avoid laying cables close to or parallel with high voltage power lines due to risk of induction effects.

the existence of farm stock, which potentially could be hostile, consume/remove pegs or be harmed by
contact with live electrodes.
survey markers to be removed on completion of survey (to avoid ingestion by stock).
the use of a generator for powering a transmitter may mean that there is a danger of electrocution. Caution
is required when working with high power electrical equipment.

Contaminated Sites.

21 pp. 207-271

production)
Applied
and
Environmental
Geophysics. Wiley

Applied
Geophysics
Code
of
and LCPC, France

Introduction

No. 1

interpretation
of
geophysical
surveys
in
environmental
Proceedings
of
the
Fourth
London.
Press, pp. 57-64.
69

MAGNETIC SURVEYING
ground magnetometry, total magnetic field, magnetic gradiometry,

magnetic susceptibility.

Magnetic surveying is a geophysical method that has been utilised by the environmental profession for many years
to locate sub-surface ferro-metallic objects such as tanks and unexploded ordnance as well as features that modify
the natural earths magnetic field. The technique has been refined to reveal small local anomalies in the earths
magnetic field that result from the contrasting levels of magnetic susceptibility that exist between infilled features
or structures and the local substrate or bedrock. This effect is principally due to the varying iron content in the soil
and rock forming minerals
Traditional total-field magnetic surveying, as used in the exploration industries for structural geology and mineral
prospecting, has now been given greater resolution by the development of high resolution of very sensitive
instruments. Units are often coupled to Differential Global Positioning System units and automatic logging devices
that enable data to be acquired rapidly on foot and down loaded to lap-top computers for visual presentation.
Processing the field data enables extremely subtle features to be identified and the removal of unwanted noise.
With modern equipment and careful field procedures it is now possible to measure the magnetic field changes as
small as one part in 10-11. This enables the detection, not only of small, buried man-made objects, but also subtle
features of archaeological significance.
A typical field survey might cover up to ten line Km per day on foot; additional time is required to process and
analyse the data set.
Sequence of events
A modelling exercise may be carried out off-site as a preliminary stage to determine whether the suspected
feature with a particular magnetic susceptibility is theoretically discernible. This enables the limit of
detectability to be calculated for a given site. Models may be simple two dimensional along a profile across
the site or a three-dimensional model plotted as a map of expected magnetic change over an area.
If the modelling exercise indicates that a survey could be successful, a field team is mobilised to acquire over
a grid of points (or along a profile or series of profiles). This can be accomplished in an urban environment, as
well as in a brownfield or greenfield site.
or roads an off-road vehicle should be provided to enable access to the survey area.
office carrying out data reduction. Field plots (station location and non-terrain corrected anomaly contour
maps and profiles) are produced and are often available for inspection on a daily basis.
It is not usually necessary for the survey team to undertake a levelling exercise as the surveys are generally
only concerned with the position of subsurface features. If an automatic positioning system is being used
there may also be no need to mark out stations on the ground (by non-magnetic pegs or biodegradable paint)
although some form of visual location will be required. Survey observations may be as close as 0.25 m on
lines at 1m interval and 40,000 readings can be accomplished in a day for such archaeological survey
coverage with an auto-recording system depending on grid size and accessibility. 1 m to 2.5 m grids are
appropriate for environmental type investigations.
Various types of magnetometer are available, the earlier Fluxgate and Caesium vapour (10 readings/sec)
being most usual for environmental and archaeological work. For detail surveys it is usual to use two units,
one above the other, to measure the vertical gradient. In this case no base readings are required as the
gradient is independent of diurnal variation.
70
For a large area of survey where total field is being recorded a local base station should be established. This
should be located away from magnetic targets or magnetic noise (e.g. pylons) and where the local field
gradient is relatively flat. As the survey progresses the base station is re-occupied every 30 or 45 minutes to
compile a diurnal curve for later correction of field readings against time of observation. Alternatively a
separate continuous recording unit may be installed on the base station.
Daily production may be displayed on a simple anomaly plot and used to identify specific station readings
which may be in error or indicate a local anomaly. These readings should be repeated the following day
together with adjacent stations to check that data will fit in with the set.
Terrain corrections" may need to be estimated when the ground over which the survey is conducted is both
magnetically and topographically rough. If the rough terrain is made up largely of low-susceptibility
sedimentary rocks there will be little or no distortion of the earths magnetic field.
Field data should be supplied digitally. The data would include station ID, positional information, total
magnetic field for each given sensor and magnetic gradient. Data may require processing in order to remove
high frequency noise and remove diurnal variation.
Results should be evaluated to identify features of potential concern. This could either be accomplished by the
acquisition contractor or, preferably, by an alternative specialist. This may be qualitative or quantitative and
should always be followed by careful intrusive investigation to establish ground truth. If such investigation is not
feasible then further modelling exercises may be initiated on each of the perceived discrete anomalies to estimate
the depth to the causative body. The intensity and direction of any permanent (natural remanent) magnetisation
will affect the validity of the model which is produced.

Applications
Location of man-made ferro-magnetic objects such as tanks with or without contents and underground metal pipes
(and their joints).
Studies of landfill sites to assess history and extent.
Location of unexploded ordnance (bombs and shells)
Karst collapses in the Carboniferous; clay infilled depressions in the Chalk topography.
Sub-surface bridged and partially backfilled or semi-collapsed mine shafts
Identification of buried steel drums.
Lateral geological discontinuities (such as dikes) and faulting in specific circumstances.
Limitations
Measurements are not possible during periods of intense sunspot activity when magnetic storms occur.
Due to the sensitivity to all ferro-metallic objects, on brownfield sites it will be necessary to set the sensor at a
suitable height above ground to limit sensitivity to likely noise.
High voltage cables, fences, armouring or proximity to metal framed buildings with their attendant magnetic fields
may preclude meaningful measurements being obtainable.
To be effective there needs to be a magnetic susceptibility contrast between the desired target and host rock/soil
or variations within the geological structure within which the target is expected.
Absence of magnetic
susceptibility contrast may mean no anomaly will exist unless a specific target has its own remnant magnetism.
If strong local topographic variations are present and sub-surface is highly magnetic it may be impracticable to
assess the terrain corrections required to fully correct the observations.
71

Key cost factors
degree of post-survey modelling required.
Personnel Requirements
A typical geophysics team carrying out a magnetic survey will comprise between one and three experienced
personnel carrying out the following activities:
service design -
one geophysical advisor with access to computing and software modelling

facilities if necessary.
one observer and one surveyor or surveying assistant
data processing -
one geophysicist in addition to above with access to computing and software

facilities if data to be reduced simultaneously with acquisition.

facilities.
It is not usually necessary for the survey team to be accompanied full time by the commissioning organisation. It
overall aims of the investigation, to be present on the first day and then to maintain contact thereafter.

Access to the site and within the site for a man carrying a unit the size of a medium suitcase.
Ability of ground to support the weight of a man
Ease of laying out a grid of stations with appropriate markers.

tale care to avoid high sensor rods from touching overhead cables.
72

Contaminated Sites.

21 pp. 207-271

production)
Applied
and
Environmental
Geophysics. Wiley

Applied
Geophysics
Code
of
and LCPC, France

Introduction

No. 1

interpretation
of
geophysical
surveys
in
environmental
Proceedings
of
the
Fourth
London.
Press, pp. 57-64.
73

GROUND PENETRATING RADAR SURVEYING
radar, georadar, GPR, ground probing radar, sub-surface radar

Ground Penetrating Radar has developed rapidly in the last few years as a geophysical tool to identify very shallow
sub-surface structures on environmental, archaeological and engineering sites. The method utilises the fact that
objects or interfaces that have significantly contrasting electromagnetic properties will cause a partial reflection or
scattering of an impinging radiowave signal.
Whilst similar to echo-sounding or reflection seismic profiling the ground penetrating radar produces a
electromagnetic pulse that travels though a medium depending on its conductivity and is reflected at dielectric
permittivity changes. However there is a danger in making the comparison of radargrams to seismograms as the
vector nature of the former may be overlooked and incorrect assumptions made about the way that the
radiowaves behave in geologic media. Nevertheless seismic data processing can be used effectively in most cases
although the electromagnetic polarisable characteristics of the radiowaves are more analogous to seismic shear
waves than to pressure waves.
The electromagnetic properties of materials are related to their composition and water content, both of which exert
the main control over the speed of radiowave propagation and the attenuation of electromagnetic energy. Polar
ice and dry sand are virtually transparent to radiowaves. Other materials such as water-saturated clay and
seawater either absorb or reflect the signals to such an extent that they are virtually opaque. For geological
applications, where depth penetration is more important than very fine resolution, frequencies generally less than
200 MHz are used. For engineering applications or non-destructive testing, frequencies of 200 MHz to 1.5 GHz are
the norm. This range enables the detection of rock structure in solid rock to depths of greater than 20 m,
identification of underground voids (both natural and man made), definition of contamination plumes, fine details
of road surface de-lamination and within engineered structures.
A radar system comprises a signal generator, transmitting and receiving antennae and a recorder that may have
digital recording and/or hard copy output. The antennae are usually in contact with the ground and are moved
along a straight line to produce a continuous output of reflected signals from the subsurface. The data are
presented in real time as a two-dimensional record of two-way travel time against distance. Some advanced
instruments have additional computing capabilities that provide data processing facilities, both whilst acquiring
data in the field and post recording.
A typical field survey might comprise ten line Km per day; additional time is required to process and analyse the
data set.
Sequence of events
There are many manufacturers of radar equipment addressing different technical situations. Likewise there
has been a growth in companies offering ground radar surveys. The technology is advanced but because the
equipment can be hired easily and operated with only minimal training/understanding of the technique, the
quality of the results may not be high. To obtain appropriate results and for a full understanding of
constraints in the use of the technology it is wise to check the experience of the operator before engaging a
companys services.
Whilst modelling is not undertaken as a preliminary stage it is necessary to consider whether the site and
targets are amenable to investigation/location by GPR. In particular, if clay is present to any degree or if the
groundwater is likely to be conductive and at a shallow level then the chance of reasonable penetration is
slight. A small trial in selected parts of the site is recommended before the main acquisition commences.
If the trial indicates that a survey could be successful, a field team is mobilised to conduct a series of profiles.
This can be accomplished in an urban environment, inside or outside buildings, as well as in a brownfield or
greenfield site. An early decision is required as to which frequency of transmitter is to be used. This will
determine not only likely penetration but also degree of resolution.
74
Aside from field work, it is usual for the Contractor to provide draft data presentation (without elevations).
Processing of data will be required post-acquisition to improve the data quality, insert the elevation data and
produce a useable section.
Unless existing ground levels are already available, it will be necessary for the survey team, not only to mark
out way points on the ground (by pegs or biodegradable paint), but also to undertake a levelling exercise to
obtain corrected heights along each traverse. This will enable the data to be height corrected to remove the
ground variation distortion on final records.
For a large area of survey several units may be operated simultaneously. In these circumstances, although
the data may be recorded digitally enabling subsequent playback at modified outputs, it is recommended that
a uniform presentation style be adopted enabling field records to be directly compared and interpreted.
Signal transmission can usually be triggered at set distance or at regular time intervals Whilst the latter is
acceptable for reconnaissance in open, smooth sites, the former is preferred as the horizontal scale of printed
records is then uniform. The antennae are usually dragged or wheeled along a survey line with reference
marks being inserted by the operator, if necessary, for future correlation with site features. Record length is
set to encompass the depth to which reflections are achievable and the detail required.
Whilst units which combine transmitter and receiver antennae are preferable for profiling work there are also
systems which operate with separate units. These provide the opportunity to undertake wide angle reflection
and refraction (WARR) measurements that can be used in areas of flat lying reflectors to measure the velocity
of the electromagnetic wave. This information is needed to convert the time section to depth and should be
obtained at discrete points within a survey where changes in sub-structure have been observed.
Problems may be experienced in transmitting the signal into the ground in local parts of the site. A decision
will have to be made as to whether a change in antenna or acquisition parameters will improve this or whether
the survey will have to be abandoned. Where a change is dictated then readings should be repeated over the
original section for comparison and subsequent analysis.
Where data quality is good and reasonable penetration is obtainable, it is possible to operate ground radar in a
Common Mid-Point mode using multiple channels, as with reflection seismic. This should only be attempted
by a skilled geophysical team, as the geometry needs to be fully understood. The methodology has now been
extended to acquire three-dimensional data sets for full site assessment.
Data should be supplied digitally. The data would ideally include station ID, positional information and the
radar data. Data can be processed using specialist GPR processing software or using standard seismic
reflection processing software.
reveal hitherto unknown voids or suspected underground contamination. This work element could be
accomplished by the acquisition contractor or by an alternative specialist. This may be qualitative or
quantitative and should always be followed by careful intrusive investigation to establish ground truth.

Applications
Location of shallow man-made voids such as cellars, tanks and water cisterns.
Studies of existing landfill sites to determine depth of capping and extent.
Thickness of made ground/fill in uniform, non-clay deposits.
Mapping and monitoring of contaminants in groundwater.
Detection of natural cavities and fissures.
Sub-surface bridged, open and partially backfilled or semi-collapsed mine shafts
Mapping of superficial deposits and archaeological features.
75
Lateral discontinuities and faulting.

Ice and permafrost thickness, ice lenses within permafrost.
Location of buried fuel tanks and oil drums.
Limitations
The presence of clay or any other electrically conducting medium will severely preclude the recovery of useful
data. Metallic screen at ground level or close re-bars in concrete may prevent penetration, depending on antennae
frequencies.
Transmitters and receivers have limited directivity and therefore signals that are recovered out of the plane of the
intended section (overhead gantries, adjacent walls) may cause severe interference and subsequent problems in
interpretation. In constricted areas, shielded antennae should be used.
Multiple reflections between subsurface layers and interaction between the antennae and the immediate above
surface environment may produce ringing or an overlong pulse which obscures the required detail.
To be effective there needs to be a permitivity contrast between the desired target and host rock/soil or variations
in permittivity within the geological structure in which the target is expected. Absence of contrast means the
structure will not be resolved.
If strong local topographic variations are present along the survey line it may essential to input the elevations
before any attempt is made to interpret the data.
number of different frequency antennae to achieve useable/interpretable data set.
complex sub-surface may require slow profiling speed to resolve structure
degree of post-survey processing required.
A typical geophysics team carrying out a GPR survey will comprise between one and three experienced personnel
carrying out the following activities:
service design -
one geophysical advisor.
one qualified operator and optionally one surveyor or surveying assistant
data processing -
one geophysicist and second system if data to be processed

with acquisition.
one geophysical specialist with optional access to computing facilities.
simultaneously
It may not be necessary for the survey team to be accompanied full time by the commissioning organisation. It
overall aims of the investigation, to be present at the trial and on the first day of full survey and then to maintain
contact and view records regularly thereafter.

Access to the site and within the site for a man carrying a unit the size of a medium suitcase.
Ability of ground to support the weight of a man
76

when working within buildings the stability of the structure should be assessed.

Contaminated Sites.

21 pp. 207-271

Techniques (in production)
Applied
and
Environmental
Geophysics. Wiley

Applied
Geophysics
Code
of
and LCPC, France

Introduction

No. 1

interpretation
of
geophysical
surveys
in
environmental
Proceedings
of
the
Fourth
London.
Press, pp. 57-64.
77

ELECTROMAGNETIC SURVEYING
ground conductivity survey, frequency-domain EM survey, time-domain

(TDEM) survey, pulse-transient (TEM), very early time-domain (VETEM),
controlled-source audio magneto-telluric (CSAMT), very low frequency
(VLF) mapping

Electromagnetic surveying is a geophysical method that has been utilised by the environmental profession for
many years to locate hazardous materials by measuring changes in the ability of the sub-surface to modify an
applied electromagnetic field.
Traditional electromagnetic surveying as used in the mineral exploration industry has developed greatly in the last
10 years and has the broadest range of instruments in geophysical methods with a very wide range of
applications.
Highly portable instrumentation has been developed enabling reconnaissance surveys to be
conducted swiftly. These systems are of particular value for shallow depth environmental studies as the process of
induction does not generally require direct contact with the ground. This enables the detection, not only of
underground voids (both natural and man made) but also the monitoring of contaminants from waste lagoons and
leaking tanks, for example.
Frequency-domain instruments use either one or more frequencies.
Time-domain equipment makes
measurements as a function of time. Some systems use natural ground signals and are regarded as passive.
Active systems use an artificial transmitter which can either be at a considerable distance away from the site or in
immediate juxtaposition to the receiving unit.
Survey methods vary so widely that it is not possible to indicate how long a typical field survey might take.
However for the more usual portable reconnaissance systems 800-2,500 stations per day might be the norm;
additional time is required to process and analyse the data set.
Sequence of events:
For certain of the methods a modelling exercise may be optionally carried out offsite as a preliminary stage to
determine whether the suspected feature is theoretically discernible. This enables the limit of detectability to
be calculated for a given feature at a particular site. Models may be simple two dimensional along a profile
across the site or a three dimensional model plotted as a map of expected values over an area.
If the modelling exercise indicates that a survey could be successful, a field team is mobilised to conduct a
series of acquisition procedures as indicated below using one or a number of differing approaches to ensure
that sufficient data is acquired over a grid of points, along profiles or at a sounding location. In certain
circumstances this can be accomplished in an urban environment, as well as in a brownfield or greenfield site.
office carrying out data reduction. Computations for some of the sounding methods are complex and require
considerable computer time to produce an acceptable depth (inversion) result.
It will not usually be necessary for the survey team to undertake a levelling exercise although it should be
noted that VLF measurements can be adversely affected by topography. However the survey grid will need to
be marked out on the ground (by non-magnetic pegs or biodegradable paint). Specific requirements will
depend on the method adopted.
The most commonly-used frequency-domain EM surveying method in Environmental and engineering

geophysics is the moving-source dual-coil method. Two separate coils are connected by a reference cable;
one coils serves as a transmitter to generate the primary field and the other acts as a receiver. Differing
separations and coil orientations are used to penetrate to different depths with the mid-point being the plotted
point of the observation. Single man systems have the coils mounted on the ends of a 2 m boom and
surveying takes place using orthogonal positions of the boom at each location on a grid or along a profile.
78
For a time-domain sounding a large direct current is passed through a large ungrounded loop transmitter for a
period of 20 to 40 milliseconds. The applied current is then terminated and the presence of any surface currents
induced in the ground recorded by the transient voltage in the same or a separate loop at discrete time
intervals. As the surface currents dissipate a decreasing magnetic field is experienced and the resulting
decaying voltage is recorded. This is repeated many times at a given location with all the data being logged
automatically. Various types of time-decay plots are used to characterise the resulting sounding data for
environmental purposes using PC software. Up to 50 soundings of 25 50 m depth with high vertical resolution
can be achieved per day for environmental purposes.
Profiling surveys are accomplished with the time-domain approach by establishing a large ungrounded
transmitter loop with the long axis parallel to any geological strike. A small receiver coil is moved along
transects perpendicular to the long axis of the transmitter to obtain profiles of the measured parameters as a
function of distance. Data can be plotted as profiles or a grid developed utilising a loop size appropriate to the
depth being investigated.
The use of Very Low Frequency (VLF) military transmitters around the world for the reconnaissance of near
surface effects has been established for many years. The transmitters propagate powerful horizontal plane EM
waves which are modified by local conducting ground conditions that can therefore be specially mapped. Survey
profiles are conducted along the line of the magnetic vector for a given transmitter (of which there are currently
eleven); two orthogonal electric and magnetic sensors are used to measure the electrical (R) and magnetic (EM)
components which relate to the near-sub-surface site conditions (approximately 2 5 m).
The magneto-telluric (MT) method uses measurements of both the electric and magnetic components of the
natural time-variant fields generated as a consequence of the presence and fluctuation of the earths
magnetosphere. Natural-source MT method uses 0.001 to 19Hz frequencies, audio-frequency systems (AMT)
operate within 10Hz to 10kHz. A controlled-source system (CSAMT) operating from 0.1 to 10kHz has recently
been developed for geotechnical and environmental investigations. A loop or grounded dipole is used as a
transmitter off site with two orthogonal electric and three orthogonal magnetic sensors to measure the
horizontal electrical and total magnetic components and build sounding curves to depths of the order of 300 m.
Depending on the requirements of the survey it may be necessary to use two differing EM units. These will
need calibrating against each other to ensure that data can be merged from both units. Duplicate readings with
both should be taken on selected stations to determine comparability of systems at the same coil spacing.
Data should be supplied digitally. The data would include station ID, positional information, observed values
and topography (if recorded).
Having acquired the data it is necessary to undertake an evaluation of the results. This work element could be
accomplished by the acquisition contractor or by an alternative specialist.
This may be qualitative or
quantitative and should always be followed by careful intrusive investigation to establish ground truth. If such
investigation is not feasible then further modelling exercises may be initiated on each of the perceived discrete
anomalies to estimate the depth to the causative body (or cavity).

Applications
Location of man-made features such as cellars, tomb chambers, tanks and steel drums with or without contents.
Studies of landfill sites to determine depth, extent and leachate leakage.
Thickness of made ground/fill/overburden.
Monitoring migration and mapping extent of conductive contaminant plumes.
Identification of clay filled sinkholes (dolines) and other karst features in Carboniferous, Cretaceous and Tertiary
limestones.
Sub-surface bridged, open and partially backfilled or semi collapsed mine shafts
Mapping of shallow galleries and partially collapsed mine workings.
Mapping of brine contamination of aquifers.
Mapping of saline-freshwater interfaces in coastal regions.
Groundwater and geothermal resource investigations.
Locations of pipes and culverts.
79
Lateral sub-surface discontinuities and faulting.

Mapping extent of frozen and unfrozen ground and identifying massive ice within section.
Limitations
Ambient electrical noise from AC power cables and VLF transmitters
Live electrical cables that produce a signal at a specific frequency that may be removable.
Static cultural noise from pipes (if these are not the target), metal fences or other utilities.
Existence of metal structures above, around or beneath the ground (other than target)
In open environments wind may cause motion of magnetic field sensors within earths magnetic field.
Natural geomagnetic signals may cause interference at low frequencies (less than 1Hz); distant lightning discharges
produce sferics which interfere in the 6-10Hz band.
To be effective there needs to be a conductivity contrast between the desired target and host rock/soil or variations
in density within the geological structure within which the target is expected; absence of conductivity contrast
means no anomaly will exist.
If strong local topographic variations exist or the host sub-surface geology is not near horizontal, it may be
impossible to assess the effect or model the sounding to produce a reasonable interpretation.

Key cost factors
ambient weather excessive rain can affect ability to make readings as many instruments are not weatherproof.
degree of pre and post modelling required.
A typical geophysics team carrying out an electromagnetic survey will comprise between one and three experienced
personnel plus helpers carrying out the following activities:
service design -
one geophysical advisor and/or access to computing facilities and modelling

software.
one instrument operator or geophysicist and one surveyor or surveying assistant
data processing -
one geophysicist in addition to above with access to computing facilities and

software if data to be reduced simultaneously with acquisition.

facilities.
Depending on changes which may be required to the field configurations resulting from the initial results it may be
necessary for the survey team to be accompanied full time by the commissioning organisation. In all cases it is
recommended that a technical representative from the commissioning organisation, familiar with the overall aims of
the investigation, is present on the first day and then to maintain contact thereafter.
80

Access to the site and within the site for a man carrying a unit the size of a large suitcase.
Ability of ground to support the weight of a man.
Space to lay out large/medium size ground loops and location for transmitter in case of TEM method.

when working within buildings the stability of the structure should be assessed.
the use of a generator for powering a transmitter may mean that there is a danger of electrocution. caution is
required when working with high power electrical equipment.

Contaminated Sites.

21 pp. 207-271

Techniques (in production)
Applied
and
Environmental
Geophysics. Wiley

Applied
Geophysics
Code
of
and LCPC, France

Introduction

No. 1

interpretation
of
geophysical
surveys
in
environmental
Proceedings
of
the
Fourth
London.
Press, pp. 57-64.
81
Site investigation methods:
trial pits
Plate 1 - trial pits can be hand dug, but the usual method is to use hired
mechanical plant with a skilled operator. Plate 1 shows a backactor excavator
with an extendable arm capable of digging to around 5 m.
Plate 2 shows a slew boom excavator capable of greater depth, power and
manoeuvrability.
Note The utmost care should be taken by personnel working alongside trial pits as the forces operating on the sides of a
gradually deepening pit as spoil is piled above are immense and collapse can be sudden and catastrophic. In both of the cases
shown in Plates 1 and 2, the surface concrete and ground conditions were such that it was safe to approach the trial pit sides.
82
Site investigation methods: drilling techniques
Plate 3
Plates 3 and 4 show cable
percussive (shell and auger) rigs
with casings and associated
materials.
Plate 4
83
drilling techniques
Plates 5 and 6 show large rigs
employing rotary coring
together with associated plant
needed for their operation.
These rigs can usually also
offer rotary drilling and down
the hole hammer techniques.
They can also sometimes offer
auger drilling techniques,
depending on their precise
design.
Plate 5
Plate 6
84
Site investigation methods: drilling techniques
Plate 7 shows a small rig using a combination of hollow stem auger (HSA) and
continuous flight auger (CFA) techniques. Both CFA and HSA augers lie on the
ground nearby (CFA in operation).
Plate 8 shows CFA in operation and Plate 9 shows HSA in operation. These
small rigs can sometimes also offer rotary coring, rotary drilling and down the
hole hammer techniques, depending on their precise design.
85
drilling techniques
Plate 10 shows hand-held

window sampling equipment
the sampler has been driven
fully into the ground.
Plates 11 and 12 show rig
deployed window sampling.
86

instructions for using this table (see also Text Supplement 4.4 Worked example)
1 identify the site specific soil/rock conditions and the most appropriate intrusive methods;
2 identify any site specific special situations and the most appropriate intrusive methods;
3 identify any site specific operational issues and the most appropriate intrusive methods;
4 discuss your specific requirements with your chosen drilling contractor(s);
5 if no suitable methods remain, consider using non-intrusive methods (see Chapter 4 of Volume I) or modify the
investigation design (e.g. avoid penetrating through an aquiclude or move boreholes away from areas where overhead
clearance is restricted).
Intrusive methods
Rotary coring
Rotary drilling
CFA
HSA
Window sampling
Probing
Fine homogeneous fill/made ground
Unconsolidated gravels
Boulders and cobbles and boulder clays
Soft sedimentary (e.g. clay, marl, shale, sandy clays)
Medium sedimentary
Strong sedimentary (e.g. limestone, dolomite, grit)
Metamorphic (e.g. slate, marble, schist, gneiss, quartzite) and igneous

(e.g. gabbro, dolerite, basalt, granite)
Unconsolidated sands
87
Hand auger and

associated
methods
Cable percussive
boreholes
Down the hole

hammer
Trial pits
Coarse and/or heterogeneous fill/made ground
Site specific conditions/requirements
Soil/Rock conditions
method should be suitable

method may be suitable depending on working methods adopted
method is unlikely to be suitable
Intrusive methods
Rotary coring
Rotary drilling
CFA
HSA
Down the hole

hammer
Window sampling
Probing
Drilling into ground containing asbestos/highly odorous wastes/high

gas/vapour concentrations)
Sampling to USEPA protocols is needed
Robust groundwater/gas monitoring installations needed
Supplementary groundwater/gas monitoring installations are needed
Large quantities of soil/water samples are needed
Archaeological features
Sensitive ecological habitats
Access within the site is constrained by buildings, structures etc
Special situations
Site
specific
note that it may be necessary to use two drilling techniques in combination and also to use robust bentonite seals between horizons.
88
Hand auger and

associated
methods
Cable percussive
boreholes
Trial pits
Penetrating through an aquiclude into an aquifer.1

Intrusive methods
Cable percussive
boreholes
Rotary coring
Rotary drilling
CFA
HSA
Down the hole

hammer
Window sampling
Probing
Access within the site is constrained by dense non-protected vegetation
Investigation locations are close to temporary above ground structures

(e.g. vehicles, portacabins etc)
Investigation locations are close to permanent buildings/below ground

structures (e.g. footings of buildings/plant/services, archaeological
features etc)
Overhead clearance is restricted
Members of the general public are in the vicinity of investigation

locations (temporarily/permanently)
Investigation locations are close to livestock
Vehicles will need to pass over the finished installations (e.g.

operational sites/agricultural land).
89
Hand auger and

associated
methods
Trial pits

4.4 - Worked Example

Scenario
A series of seven groundwater monitoring installations were needed within a small (2 ha) busy industrial unit where
buildings and plant were closely spaced and vehicle movements were frequent. Two of the borehole locations
needed to be close to offices where people work for most of the day and others needed to be sited in tight spaces
between tanks, vehicles and walls. An old BGS borehole log for an area within the site recorded 5 m of very sandy
clay overlying clay bedrock with groundwater at 2.5 m corresponding to the approximate level of a nearby river. It
was decided that groundwater monitoring installations to 4 m would be needed, this depth allowing approximately a
1.5 m water column, which would be sufficient for the quantity of water samples, needed. The information on the
natural ground conditions provided by the borehole log on the site had been confirmed at shallow depths during the
site reconnaissance visit, when open excavations around a sewer repair were observed. The made ground was
expected to comprise reworked clay and, in some locations, pulverised fuel ash (PFA) that was imported at the time
of the sites redevelopment. It was suspected that small amounts of asbestos insulation were present in the PFA.
Choice of investigation method
1
Identify the site specific soil/rock conditions and the most appropriate intrusive methods;
Made ground = reworked clay and PFA. Natural ground = sandy clay overlying clay bedrock. The most
suitable methods = Trial Pits, Cable Percussive, HSA, Window Sampling and Probing. Unsuitable methods =
Rotary Drilling and Down the Hole Hammer.
Identify any site specific special situations and the most appropriate intrusive methods;
Drilling into ground containing asbestos. A number of methods may have been suitable, depending on the
working methods adopted. Trial Pitting was identified as an unsuitable method.
Identify any site specific operational issues and the most appropriate intrusive methods;
Access constraints (buildings, tanks), locations next to buildings, members of the general public in the vicinity of
investigation locations and vehicles needing to pass over the finished installations. The most suitable methods =
window sampling and hand auger/associated methods.
Discuss your specific requirements with your chosen drilling contractor(s);
The project manager discussed the site context, ground conditions and technical objectives of the site
investigation with a drilling contractor, who suggested that, of his two suggested methods (window sampling
and hand augering) hand-deployed window sampling be used. The contractor advised that hand auger methods
would not achieve the required depth.
The contractor estimated that it would take one long day to complete the seven installations, together with
breaking out of concrete at nearly all of these which was scheduled to be completed first (using hand-held
equipment), before workers arrived at the industrial unit in the morning. In addition, as the method was quick,
it was planned that the two boreholes close to offices would be completed during the workers lunch break. As
the diameter of the largest samplers was only 50 mm, the amount of surface concrete broken out was minimal
and stop-cock type covers with neat concrete repair established flush with ground level were chosen as these
would not obstruct vehicle movements.
The detailed method statement included for safe investigation in those areas where small amounts of asbestos
insulation were expected in the fill.
90
4.5 Site Investigation Preparation and Implementation Checklist

Site Investigation Preparation and Implementation
Issues
Has the date that work will start and its duration been discussed and
agreed with the client contact?
Will Permits to Work need to be obtained?
Will security badges etc need to be worn by personnel and how are
these obtained?
Client and Site Communications
Have the permitted site working hours been agreed with the site?
Can a key to the site gate be held by site investigation personnel and
if so, who will be responsible for this and its safe return?
Will the site contact need/wish there to be an inaugural site meeting
and what will be the impact on the intended organisation of the parties
involved?
Can the site provide a secure and suitable office and storage area for
use by site investigation personnel and can a refrigerator be used
temporarily in this for the storage of samples (if needed)?
Can the site provide an appropriate washdown area for equipment
together with nearby power and clean water supplies?
Are site skips appropriate for waste arisings from the site
investigation and if not, where can site investigation skips be stored?
Will the client and/or site contact need a set of borehole keys?
Will the client and/or site contact wish to inspect the site investigation
locations and condition of the working areas after the work has
finished?
What needs to be done to comply with the requirements of CDM,
COSHH and other Health and Safety legislation?
Who needs copies of contact names and telephone numbers etc for
parties involved in the investigation?
Health and Safety Issues
Have copies of the contractors relevant Risk and COSHH

assessments and Health and Safety Plans been
requested/received/approved?
Are the necessary personal protective equipment and other health and
safety equipment (e.g. monitors) available and in good working
order?
Are the locations of all underground services/utilities known and
drawings available?
Will the work have health and safety implications for the general
public and, if so, what are the implications?
Will measures be needed to protect ground surfaces and prevent
fugitive dust, groundwater, soil arisings and/or odours?
Are sufficient appropriately qualified and skilled staff members
available for the investigation?
91
Comments

Issues
What information will need to be provided to ensure that site staff are
properly briefed (e.g. technical objectives, expected conditions, client
contact details and project set-up, site drawings, health and safety
issues, personal protective equipment needed, dates, times, contractor
and other contact details etc.)?
Are all third parties contractors available - including all individuals
named in contract documents (e.g. cable tracing, drilling and
excavation contractors, waste management/skip hire, laboratory,
hand-digging crew, re-instatements crew, surveyors)?
What is the information that will need to be provided to these third
parties to ensure that they are fully briefed and prepared (technical
specification, health and safety issues, personal protective equipment
needed, dates, times, contact details etc.)?
"Operational and Technical Issues
Will the arrival on site of contractors need to be staggered to allow

separate briefings or is it better that they arrive together for one
inaugural meeting?
Are site access gates and turning circles wide enough to allow all
plant and vehicles into the site?
Are all general parts of the site that need to be investigated accessible
to plant and vehicles?
Is it physically and otherwise possible to establish site investigation
locations in the required positions?
What is the best system for executing the site investigation locations
(e.g. (i) start at one end of the site and progress systematically efficient but risks entailing gaps if progress is slow, or (ii)
leapfrog between locations involves greater plant movements but
ensures general overall coverage if progress is slow or if the
investigation is curtailed for any reason).
Will any earth/waste mounds/concrete security blocks on site need to
by moved or vegetation cleared?
Will topographic survey work need to be carried out at the start of the
investigation, at the end or both?
Will services locations need to be checked as a self-contained
exercise before drilling and excavation works begin or will the ability
to check for these be needed throughout the investigation in the event
that locations need to be moved?
Will services clearance need to be confirmed by hand-digging?
Will surface concrete need to be broken as a self-contained exercise
before drilling and excavation works begin or will the ability to break
concrete be needed throughout the investigation in the event that
locations need to be moved or sub-surface concrete is encountered?
What borehole covers and re-instatement works will be needed?
Will measures be needed to manage water and arisings as trial
pits/boreholes are excavated/drilled?
92
Comments

Issues
What waste management measures will be needed (solid and liquid
arisings from excavations, drilling and purging exercises)?
Are all portacabins, first aid facilities, site toilets, sample/equipment
storage facilities etc that are needed available?
Operational and Technical Issues #
What special storage facilities are needed for samples to maintain the
correct temperature, security etc)?
Will any cover/reinstatement materials (e.g. gravel, sand, scalpings
etc) be needed, when should they arrive on site and where should they
be stored?
Will any ropes, cones, barriers, warning signs be needed?
Will any couriers that are needed to collect samples for delivery to the
lab need to be booked provisionally?
What referencing system will be used for the investigation locations
and samples?
Will any photographs need to be taken during the investigation (e.g.
general ones of the site, before and after ones at investigation
locations etc)?
If the site is near to surface water features, will the level of these need
to be recorded?
What other on-site measurements will be needed?
What arrangements will need to be made for
skips/portacabins/equipment etc to be collected after the site
investigation is finished?
Division of Responsibilities and Other Issues
What is the priority for nice to have items if contractors are on

Standing Time or if the supervising scientist(s)/engineer(s) have
free time for some other reason?
Might there be the opportunity/the time to interview personnel/the
general public on site who would have knowledge that could
supplement the desk study findings?
What feedback to the project manager will be needed from the on-site
staff during the site investigation period?
How much can the supervising scientist/engineer divert from the
original site investigation design, brief and budget, without the project
managers approval, if conditions on site change or are found to be
different to what was anticipated?
Are any of the third parties ones with whom the project manager is
unfamiliar and, if so, is there a need formally to monitor performance
during the site investigation?
What general lines of communication need to be established between
on-site staff, contractor, consultant, regulator, site owner and site
contact to deal with everyday issues?
How is this to differ in the event that problems occur on site, work
progresses at a different rate to expected, the client/site contact
expresses any dissatisfaction etc?
93
Comments

Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists. Guidelines for Combined Geoenvironmental
and Geotechnical Investigation (2000).
British Drilling Association (Operations) Ltd, Essex. Guidance Notes for the Safe Drilling of Landfill and
Contaminated Land.
British Standards Institution Code of Practice for Site Investigations. BS5930: 1999.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (1995) Remedial Treatment for Contaminated
Land. Volume III: Site Investigation and Assessment.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association Special Publication 103 (1996)
Characterisation of Contaminated Sites Using Electrical Imaging.
Rapid
Driscol, F. G. (1986) Groundwater and Wells. Second Edition. Johnston Division, Minnesota.
Environment Agency R&D Project P2-178. Review of Non-intrusive Groundwater Investigation Techniques
for Groundwater Pollution Studies (in preparation).
Environment Agency R&D Project record P5-044. Guidance on Monitoring the Operational and Postremediation Performance of Remedial Techniques (in preparation)
Environment Agency (1988) Review of LNAPL Monitoring Techniques in Groundwater. R&D Project
Record P2/080/1/M.
Guidance Document for Combined Geoenvironmental and Geotechnical Investigation. AGS 2000.
Idel, K.H., Muhs, H., and Von Soos, P. (1969) Proposals for quality classes in soil sampling and the importance
of boring methods and sampling equipment. In: Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Mexico,
Speciality Session No 1. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Ministere de l'Industrie (SQUALPI). Applied Geophysics Code of Practice. With BRGM, CGG,CGGF and
LCPC, France.
Nielson, D.M. (1991) Editor. Practical Handbook of Groundwater Monitoring. Lewis Publishers, Michigan,
USA (Chapters 6 and 7).
Contaminated Sites.
Reynolds, J.M. An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics.
Site Investigation Steering Group (1993) Guidance for the Safe Investigation by Drilling of Landfills and
Contaminated Land. Thomas Telford, London.
Telford, Geldart, Sheriff and Keys. Applied Geophysics.
USEP (1991) Handbook of Suggested Practices for the Design and Installation of Ground-Water
Monitoring Wells EPA1600 14-89 1034 (available on the Internet: http://www.epa.gov/swerust1/
at/wwelldct.pdf last accessed August 2000).
94
5.
SAMPLING
5.3 - Type and amount of samples (Table A5 from Environment Agency R&D Technical
Report Number P5-066/TR Secondary Model Procedures for the Development of
Appropriate Soil Sampling Strategies)
5.4 - Field techniques used in soil sampling (Table A7 from Environment Agency R&D
Technical Report Number P5-066/TR Secondary Model Procedure for the Development
of Appropriate Soil Sampling Strategies)
95
This checklist uses the simple example of a site on which two pollutant linkages have been identified, namely
leakage from an underground petrol tank and known disposal of lead catalyst waste.
Issues
Tick
Comments (using example)
Has a Conceptual Model been developed for the

site and have the pollutant linkages been
identified?
e.g. unleaded petrol leakage from an underground

tank migrating into a major aquifer.
Can the site be zoned into areas of pollutant

linkages and others so that the sampling can be
targeted, as well as providing general coverage of
the remainder of the site if required? Where and
how many sampling locations should be planned
for in these areas?
e.g. three zones:
possible leaching into the ground water from

disposal of lead catalyst waste.
1) vicinity of the tank (three locations in this
instance);
2) area of known lead catalyst disposal (eight
locations in this instance);
3) remainder of site where pollutant linkages
have not been determined (five locations in
this instance).
Exploratory, in this instance, to investigate
redevelopment pollutant linkages.
Has the purpose of the site investigation been

determined? Should it be carried out on a staged
basis or as a single exercise?
to establish baseline conditions?
to investigate pollutant linkages?
to investigate redevelopment pollutant

linkages?
preliminary/exploratory/main/validation?
Are the likely contaminants of concern known i.e.

what should be looked for and what other
parameters should be measured?
e.g. petroleum hydrocarbons, MTBE, benzene and

lead.
What phase are the contaminants likely to be in?
e.g.
LNAPL (floating on water table)?
DNAPL (sunk to base of water table)?
LNAPL (TPH, benzene) floating on water

table;
dissolved phase (moving with groundwater

direction)?
dissolved phase (TPH, MTBE, benzene and

possibly lead);
adsorbed onto soil particles?
vapour phase, (benzene and other light

fractions of petrol);
adsorbed into building fabric?
solid phase (non-adsorbed onto soil

particles)?
gaseous phase (methane and carbon dioxide

from degradation of the petrol);
solid non-adsorbed phase (lead).
gaseous/ vapour phase (in soil)?
uptake into flora/fauna?
Therefore, in this example, perched water,

groundwater, any free phase present, gas and soil
should all be sampled.
Where are the contaminants likely to be found?
location?
depth, stratum, medium?
In the vicinity of the tank with the migration

plume following groundwater flow and possibly as
soil gas.
Lead is likely to remain in the location in which it
was initially disposed; although site works such as
levelling, or service route excavation may have
spread the lead catalyst around the site. Under
acidic conditions, migration via leaching into
groundwater may have occurred.
What field techniques should be used to collect

samples or conduct tests?
e.g. LNAPL versus DNAPL? an interface probe

meter is a good way to determine if LNAPL or
DNAPL is present.
96
Issues
Tick
Comments (using example)
What frequency of sampling or testing should be

carried out?
e.g. interface probe used at pre-determined times

during the day to reflect tidal cycle or other
influence on groundwater.
How much sample should be collected and what

laboratory techniques should be used to test the
samples?
e.g. proportionally larger quantity per sample in

general areas of the site to facilitate wide suite of
analyses, compared to that per sample of lead
catalyst waste (specific quantities determined by
laboratory and methods).
97
The name of the laboratory;
any laboratory reference (often pre-printed onto labels provided by the laboratory);
any information needed to ensure safe transportation/handling of samples;
sample type (e.g. soil/water/sediment sometimes pre-printed onto the label);
site name/location;
name of company taking the sample and possibly also the name of the person taking
the sample;
company job number, other internal reference(s);
date, and possibly also the time of, sampling;
full sample reference;
sample depth.
Note:
A sample may be made up of several different bottles/pots etc and the same information needs
to be included on each.
Labelling must comply with legislative requirements e.g. the:
Classification, Packaging and Labelling of Dangerous Substances Regulations 1986

(and any amendments);
Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging) Regulations 1993 (and any

amendments).
98
5.3 - Type and amount of samples

(Table A5 from Environment Agency R&D Technical Report Number P5-066/TR Secondary Model
Procedure for the Development of Appropriate Soil Sampling Strategies)
Type of sample
Typical application
Amount of sample
Small disturbed sample
Routine off-site chemical testing

(including total and leachable
substances, moisture content, organic
matter content)
1-2 kg depending on nature of

soil (e.g. larger sample needed
where high proportion of stone,
pebbles or brick/concrete debris)
Extraction of soil pore water
1-2 kg depending on nature and

permeability of soil
For
head-space
testing
of
volatile/semi-volatile substances in
the field (indicative only)
Approximately 1 kg
Chemical testing in the field
Substance and kit specific
U100
sample
Laboratory analysis of volatile/semivolatile substances
Standard core, 100mm diameter
Chemical composition
Application specific check with

receiving laboratory
Measurement of density particle size

and porosity
Depends on nature of strata see

BS 812
Large disturbed sample
Particle size analysis
Depends on nature of strata see

BS 812
Pressurised
steel
or
cylinder
Laboratory analysis of ground gases

(e.g. methane, carbon dioxide,
oxygen)
Approximately
100
mls
(pressurised to 10 atmospheres)
Activated carbon tube

sample
Laboratory
vapours
organic
Exposure period/gas volume is

application and substance specific
Colorimetric
tube
Field determination of a range of

different gases and vapours
Exposure period/gas volume is

application and substance specific
undisturbed
Non-Aqueous
Liquids
Large
sample
Phase
undisturbed
stainless
aluminium
detection
analysis
of
99
5.4 - Field techniques used in soil sampling

(Table A7 from Environment Agency R&D Technical Report Number P5-066/TR Secondary Model
Procedure for the Development of Appropriate Soil Sampling Strategies)
Type of sample/test
Technique
Small disturbed soil sample
Soil auger (for shallow depths), trial pits, trenches, boreholes,

probeholes (although note that sample recovery from probeholes may be
poor in unconsolidated strata)
Large disturbed soil sample
Trial pits, trenches, boreholes
Large
undisturbed/U100
undisturbed samples
Cable percussion borehole drilling
Non-aqueous phase liquids
Sampling by disposable bailer (e.g. down dedicated monitoring wells) or

similar container from trial pits/trenches
Chemical soil test kits
Substance and application specific
In situ gas and vapour

testing:
Portable instruments used, for example, during probehole/borehole

formation and in dedicated monitoring wells
Ground gases
Combined infra-red/electrochemical cell gas analysers

Flammable gas meters (incorporating catalytic oxidation/thermal
conductivity/electrochemical cell)
Gas pressure/flow meters
Organic vapours
Photo-ionisation Detectors (PIDs) fitted with an appropriate lamp

Organic vapour analysers (flame ionisation method)
Activated carbon tube
Other gases/vapours
Colorimetric detection tube
100
101

American Society for Testing and Materials (1995) Standards on Ground Water and Vadose Zone
Investigations: Drilling, Sampling, Well Installation and Abandonment Procedures.
American Society for Testing and Materials (1999) Standards on Ground Water and Vadose Zone
Investigations: Drilling, Sampling, Geophysical Logging, Well Installation and Decommissioning. 2nd
Edition
American Society of Safety Engineers. Soil Sampling (Technical Engineering and Design Guides as Adapted
from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, No. 30).
Barcelona, M.J., Helfrich, J.A. and Garske, E.E. (1988) Verification of sampling methods and selection of
materials for groundwater contamination studies. In: Collins, A.G. and Johnson, A.I. (eds.) Groundwater
Contamination: Field Methods ASTM STP963 (Philadelphia).
British Standard BS 1377-1 (1990) Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes General
requirements and sample preparation.
British Standard BS 1427 (1993) Guide to field and on-site test methods for the analysis of waters.
British Standard BS 1924-1 (1990) Stabilised materials for civil engineering purposes. General
requirements, sampling, sample preparation and tests on materials before stabilisation.
British Standard BS 3680-10E (1993) (ISO 9195:1992) Measurement of liquid flow in open channels.
Sediment transport. Sampling and analysis of gravel bed material.
British Standard BS 5930 (1999) Code of practice for site investigations, Section 3:21 frequency of sampling
and testing in boreholes, Section 3:22 Sampling the Ground.
British Standard BS 7755-1.2 (1999) (ISO 11074-2:1998) Soil quality. Terminology and classification.
Terms and definitions relating to sampling.
British Standard BS 7755-3.11 (1995) (ISO 11048:1995) Soil quality. Chemical methods. Determination of
water-soluble and acid-soluble sulphate.
British Standard BS EN ISO 10301 (1997) (BS 6068-2.58:1997) Water quality. Determination of highly
volatile halogenated hydrocarbons. Gas-chromatographic methods.
British Standard BS1017 (1989) Sampling of Coal and Coke. Part 1 Methods for sampling coal. British
Standards Institution (London).
British Standard BS6068 (1981) Section 6.1 Guidance on the Design of Sampling Programmes. British
Standards Institution (London).
British Standard BS6068- 6.14 (1998) (ISO 5667 14:1998) Water quality. Sampling. Guidance on quality
assurance of environmental water sampling and handling.
British Standard EN 25667-1 (1994) (BS 6068-6.1:1981 ISO5667/1-1980)
Guidance on the design of sampling programmes.
Water quality. Sampling.
British Standard ISO/5667- 18: Guidance on sampling groundwaters from potentially contaminated sites
(ISO/DIS 5667-18).
Bymes, M.E. (1994) Field Sampling Methods for Remedial Investigations CRC Press - Lewis Publishers.
Carter, M.R. Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis. CRC Press - Lewis Publishers.
Cheremisinoff, P.N., Gigliello, K.A., ONeill, T.K. Groundwater-Leachate: Modelling, Monitoring,
Sampling. ASIN: 0877623767.
Department of the Environment (1994) CLR 4. Sampling strategies for contaminated land. Report by The
102
Centre for Research into the Built Environment. The Nottingham Trent University.
Meta Generics Ltd.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions CLR 11 Handbook of Model Procedures for the
Management of Contaminated Land. Contaminated Land Research Report (2000 in preparation).
Environment Agency (1998) National Sampling Procedures Manual.
Environment Agency R&D Technical Report Number P5-066/TR Secondary Model Procedure for the
Development of Appropriate Soil Sampling Strategies)
Environment Agency. Guidance on Monitoring of Landfill Leachate, Groundwater and Surface Water (in
preparation).
Environment Agency. Guidance on Monitoring the Operational and Post-remediation Performance of
Remedial Techniques. R&D Project P5-044.
Hvorslev, M.J. (1948) Subsurface exploration and sampling of soils for civil engineering purposes.
Vicksburg, Miss: Waterways Experiment Station.
Idel, K.H., Muhs H., and Von Soos, P. (1969) Proposals for quality classes in soil sampling and the importance
of boring methods and sampling equipment. In: Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Mexico,
Speciality Session No 1. Rotterdam: Balkema.
International Standards Organisation ISO/DIS 10381-1. Soil quality: Sampling Guidance on the design of
sampling programmes.
International Standards Organisation ISO/DIS 10381-2. Soil quality: Sampling Guidance on sampling
techniques.
International Standards Organisation ISO/DIS 10381-4. Soil quality: Sampling Guidance on the procedure
for the investigation of natural, near-natural and cultivated sites.
International Standards Organisation ISO/DIS 10381-5. Soil quality: Sampling Guidance on procedures
for the investigation of soil contamination of urban and industrial sites.
International Standards Organisation ISO/DIS 10381-6 (1993) Soil quality: Sampling Guidance on the
collection, handling and storage of soil for the assessment of aerobic microbial processes in the laboratory.
investigation and sampling of soil gas.
sampling of stockpiles.
Saxena, K.S., Gill, S.A., Lukas, R.G. Subsurface Exploration and Soil Sampling. American Society of Safety
Engineers.
Tan, K.M. Soil Sampling, Preparation, and Analysis. Marcel Dekker.
Wilson, N. Soil Water and Ground Water Sampling. CRC Press - Lewis Publishers.
103
6.
ON-SITE MEASUREMENTS

104

Instrument
Analytes/capabilities
Applications
Detection/
quantification
limits
Interference
Maintenance/
care
Groundwater monitoring.
Resolution: 1mm
Dirt or viscous product

on the probe and rain
or condensation water
interfere.
Keep the probe

clean, handle with
care.
Typical analytes: CH4, CO2 by infrared absorption, O2, H2S and CO by

internal
electro-chemical
cells;
records maximum and stabilised CH4
concentrations, atmospheric pressure,
gas pressure/vacuum, temperature;
display of methane concentration as
% by volume and % LEL (lower
explosion limit); some models are
intrinsically safe.
Routine monitoring of landfill sites

and other sites where bulk gases from
the microbial degradation of organic
materials are expected; may be used
in confined areas, if intrinsically safe.
Methane has high

threshold of accuracy
(+/-10% LEL);
typical detection
limits: 0.5% CH4,
0.5% CO2; 1% O2
Avoid water entering

the instrument.
Check calibration,
batteries, filters.
Detection of organic compounds in

the gas phase; fast response time (2-3
seconds) and good long-term
stability; intrinsically safe models
have been developed, but most
models are not intrinsically safe,
since an open flame is used for
detection.
Use models which are not

intrinsically safe only in well vented
areas or where gas concentrations are
below 20% of the LEL (i.e. 1% by
volume), e.g. detection of leaks in
piping and apparatus containing
hydrocarbon gases, measurement of
atmospheric
hydrocarbon
concentrations
at
low
levels,
continuous on-site monitoring.
Intrinsically safe models can be used
for compliance monitoring with
health and safety laws; landfill
monitoring;
tracking
migratory
emissions; monitoring safety of
Typically detection
limits: 0.5 ppm,
1ppm; typical
accuracies: +/-1-5%
(for semi-logarithmic
scales) or +/-0.1ppm.
Two versions: one with

GC and one without
GC, standard version
(without GC) does not
differentiate between
methane and VOCs
while the GC version
does; will not operate
in very oxygen
deficient areas.
Check calibration,
batteries, filters;
high
concentrations of
hydrocarbons can
contaminate
(poison) the
detector for a
considerable time.
Interface meter
Air/water,
air/product
water/product
interfaces;
intrinsically safe.
Landfill gas
analyser
Flame
ionisation
detector
(F.I.D.)
and
is
105
Instrument
Applications
Detection/
quantification
limits
Interference
Maintenance/
care
buildings, etc.
Personal gas
monitors
Sensor/alarm for explosive and other

gases and in normal operating
conditions should be intrinsically
safe. Instantaneous measurement of
the gas content in the atmosphere;
measurement of short-term exposure
level and intake by inhalation after
one or more work shifts. Up to four
gases can be measured at any one
time.
Personal protection in hazardous

areas.
Typical ranges: 0.1100% LEL; 01000ppm CO; 0%35% O2; 0-500ppm

H2S; 0-3% CO2; 0100ppm chlorine
Silicones, halogens
(>1000ppm),
halogenated
hydrocarbons, volatile
organometallics,
phosphorous and
sulphur containing
compounds may
damage the sensor.
Check batteries;
do not replace
dry-cell batteries
in a hazardous or
potentially
dangerous area.
Photoionisation
detector (PID)
Analysis
of
volatile
organic
compounds (VOCs) within soil
samples using photoionization and a
UV lamp.
Generally used for Headspace

Analysis of VOCs within soil
samples.
Typical range: 0.12000 ppm, linear

range: 0.1ppm400ppm, detection
limit: 0.1ppm
repeatability: +/1.0%.
Avoid water or dirt

entering the instrument.
Check
batteries
and calibration.
Portable
hydrocarbon
analyzer
In situ hydrocarbon screening tool,

based on the modulation of
transmitted light intensity along anoptical fibre; particularly sensitive to
hydrocarbons in the range C6 to C10;
no methane interference or high
humidity related problems; fast
response; usually certified as
intrinsically safe.
Used for determination of free phase

hydrocarbons
(BTEX/diesel)
in
vapour, water/vapour interfaces and
water
environments
e.g.
hydrocarbons emanating from storage
tanks or in remediation wells, leak
detection and wastewater discharge,
water quality and groundwater
monitoring.
Typical range: 020,000 ppm as BTEX

in water; detection
limit: 200ppb for
BTEX, otherwise
ppm range;
accuracy+/-3ppm or
10% whichever is
greater.
Avoid long-term
exposure to product or
water, especially at
depth of more than
0.5m of water; the
probe can be used for
short periods of time to
depths up to 8m.
Keep the probe

clean (follow
manufacturers
instructions),
preconditioning of
the probe may be
required; check
calibration and
batteries.
Geiger-Mueller
counter
Measures radioactivity in air.
Personal protection against ionising

radiation.
Typical range: 0.051.25MeV
106
Check batteries.
Instrument
Electronic
meters and
probes
Applications
In situ measurement of pH, dissolved

oxygen, electric conductivity, redox
potential, temperature.
Routine monitoring of ground and

surface waters, and In situ
measurement of samples which are
likely to change on exposure to air
(e.g.. landfill leachates).
Detection/
quantification
limits
Probe specific; see

manufacturers
details.
Interference
Not suitable in oily

environments;
dissolved oxygen and
electrode potential
measurements only
suitable in ground and
surface waters.
Maintenance/
care
Calibration check;
store probes
according to
manufacturers
instructions.
Notes
Confirmatory laboratory analysis:
All measurements made on site with portable instruments should be supported by confirmatory laboratory analysis.
Test kits and ion specific probes:
A range of chemical and biological field test kits, such as immuno-assays, and ion selective probes are commercially available. These provide for a rapid analysis in the field
and are useful screening tools. However, their sensitivity and accuracy are relatively coarse and may be affected by site conditions. Thus, for quantitative assessment,
measurements should to be accompanied laboratory analysis. Test kits should also be used only for testing a matrix for which they have been validated. Thus a test kit
validated for testing of soils should not be used for groundwater until the kit has been validated for groundwater.
107
Sampling
installations
Principle/description
applications
Comments/
limitations
Tube or pipe usually of an outer diameter

below 80 mm with a porous element or
perforated section.
Dependent on
sampling extraction
method.
Only one specific

zone/depth range
can be sampled.
A group of closely spaced boreholes or

piezometers installed at different depths.
Dependent on
sampling extraction
method.
Can cause
excessive ground
disturbance.
Nested
piezometers
A group of isolated piezometers installed

within a larger diameter borehole to enable
sampling over a specific depth interval
within the aquifer. The probes are isolated
by an impermeable seal between them.
Dependent on
sampling extraction
method. Allows for
depth profiling.
Seals between the

probes are difficult
to install and may
be unreliable.
Multi-level
sampler
System enabling sampling from discrete

depths. The system may be driven directly
into the ground, installed in an existing
borehole or in a purpose-drilled hole.
Dependent on
sampling extraction
method. Allows for
depth profiling.
Difficult to install
and requires
specialist
knowledge. Costly.
Piezometer
Multiple
borehole/
piezometer
arrays
108
Sample
extraction
methods
Applications
Bailer (grab
sampler)
Samples groundwater at specific depths within

a borehole or piezometer. Consists of a tube or
cylinder with a check valve at the lower end or
both ends. The opening and closing of the
valve(s) can be controlled by motion,
electricity, gas pressure, vacuum or by
mechanical messenger. Made of PVC, stainless
steel or Teflon.
Suitable for most

parameters. Closed or
shut-in-bailer must be
used for redox potential,
dissolved gases, VOCs
and TOX.
If the number of
monitoring points and/or
sampling frequency are
high, purging and
sampling can be
laborious.
Inertia pumps
Consists of a continuous length of tube with a

non-return valve at the lower end. Samples are
retrieved by lowering the tube down the
monitoring well to the required depth and then
successively lifting and lowering the tube over
a short distance. Mechanical lifting devices are
commercially available.
The tube should
preferably be made of Teflon. With the
amendment of a second inner tube can be
suitable for VOCs etc.
Suitable for most

parameters except for
redox potential,
dissolved gases, VOCs,
TOC and TOX.
Sampling can be
laborious. Limited to
depth of approx. 60 m.
Bladder pumps
Consists of a sample chamber with a gas

inflatable bladder inside and a check valve at
each end. The bladder is successively inflated
and deflated using compressed gas, through
which the sample is lifted. Available in a range
of sizes.
Can be used for

sampling piezometers
with diameters as low
as 25 mm. Suitable for
most parameters.
Air introduced to the

pump during sampling
may affect performance.
Limited to sampling from
shallower depths. Some
hydrocarbons may affect
the pumps rubber parts.
Gas driven pumps
Similar to bladder pumps but do not contain an

inflatable bladder. Sample is transported by
sequential pressurisation and venting.
Suitable only for

measurement of
electrical conductivity,
major ions, trace metals,
nitrate and non-volatile
organics.
Limited by the small

number of suitable
determinands.
Gas lift pumps
The sample is forced upwards in an air/sample

mixture by applying compressed gas (air) to the
external case of the borehole. The water is
transported up an inserted tube.
Suitable only for

measurement of
major ions, trace metals
and nitrate.
The resulting aerosol may

be hazardous. The sample
may be significantly
altered through the
mixing with air and gas
may be forced into the
geological formation.
Suction/vacuum
pumps
Available in a range of capacities and pumping

speeds
Suitable only for

measurement of
major ions, nitrate and
non-volatile organics.
Limited to a depth of
around 10 m. Limited by
the small number of
suitable determinands.
109
Limitations
Care to be taken not to

entrain air in the
sampling column.
Sampling
installations
Applications/limitations
As in table 6.2
Steel pipes of small diameters (approx 80 mm
o.d) with a perforated section or gas inlet at
the lower end, which are directly driven into
the ground using a hammer or engine-driven
device.
Depth limited to about 3-5 meters.

Suitable only for a limited range of
soils, but easy to install and use. A
large area can be surveyed in a short
time. Can give false negatives where
they are too shallow to penetrate the
critical zone or where used in low
permeability surface soils.
Applications/limitations
Gas sampling
bulbs/cylinders
Gas is passed through a sampling vessel fitted

with valves at both ends. Sampling is carried
out with both valves open and continues until
the gas in the vessel is replaced by the sample
gas. A pump must be used if there is no
positive pressure in the sampling tube. The
cylinders are made from glass, steel or
aluminium alloy.
A sufficiently high flow rate is required

to replace the gas in the cylinder or a
low flow rate pump must be used. The
volume of gas passed through the
sampler must be monitored. The vessel
should be flushed with an inert gas
prior to sampling
Pressurised
gas cylinders
The gas sample is compressed into a small

cylinder using a hand pump. Samplers are
usually made of stainless steel or aluminium
alloy and may be fitted with either one valve
(closed end) or two valves (flow through).
Alternatively, the cylinder may be evacuated
prior to sampling and the vacuum is then used
to draw the sample into the cylinder.
The body material may be reactive to

certain VOCs and hydrogen.
Adsorbent tubes
The gas is passed through a small steel or

glass tube filled with an adsorbent. Selective
gas components can be sampled by varying
the adsorbent material. Gas components are
pre-concentrated.
Must
be
used
in
combination with a low flow pump.
Used for trace gas analysis.
Gas sampling
bags
Inflatable light-weight bags which are preemptied before sampling. The sample may be
released directly into the bag or injected with
a syringe. Available in different materials,
such as Tedlar, Teflon, aluminium or saran
gas sampling bags.
Storage period of samples is limited.
Drive-in
piezometers/gas
spike
Sample
containers
110

British Standard ISO/5667- 18 (draft).
Contaminated Sites (ISO/DIS 5667-18).
Guidance on Sampling Groundwaters from Potentially
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (1993) The Measurement of Methane and Other
Gases from the Ground. Report 131.
Department of the Environment (1991) Landfill Gas: A Technical Memorandum Providing Guidance on
the Monitoring and Control of Landfill Gas. Waste Management Paper No. 27, HMSO, London.
Environment Agency (2000) Guidance on the Monitoring of Landfill Leachate, Groundwater and Surface
Water. Consultation Document.
111
7.
CROSS-CONTAMINATION
112
Possible mitigation measures
Potential source/cause of crosscontamination

Penetration through an aquiclude into
an aquifer.
use appropriate drilling methods and techniques (see Chapter 4);
specify an appropriate borehole design (see Chapter 7);
Creation of a preferential migration

route from shallow contaminated
horizons to deeper, uncontaminated
ones (where there is no aquiclude)
during drilling.
supervise construction of groundwater/gas monitoring

installations and double check all measurements made by the
contractor;
use an experienced drilling contractor that understands the issues

fully.
Contaminated groundwater and arisings

brought to the surface from trial pits
and boreholes.
minimise by choice of most appropriate investigation method;
ensure that clean and contaminated materials are segregated

as far as is practicable;
Fugitive release of contaminated

groundwater and/or dust from trial pits
and
boreholes
during
excavation/drilling and subsequent
purging.
adopt appropriate water/spoil management methods;
protect the ground with wooden boards/plastic sheeting etc where

necessary.
Surface water entering a monitoring

installation if the level of the cover is
lower than surrounding ground.
choose location of boreholes carefully with regard for general

topography;
choose an appropriate design for borehole headwork.
Badly back-filled boreholes or trial pits

(see Chapter 7).
take care in back-filling.
Contaminated
construction
installation.
be clear in specifying to the contractor that only clean material is

to be used;

fully.
Supposedly clean imported back-fill

material is actually contaminated.
inspect all imported material and reject if not acceptable;
if accepted, analyse to confirm properties are acceptable.
Surplus arisings from boreholes and

trial pits badly managed.
give appropriate consideration to waste management procedures

at outset of project and communicate this to all involve parties;
check condition of skips brought to site;
adopt Duty of Care.
Hydrocarbon oils used to lubricate

screw threaded drilling equipment e.g.
casings, augers (oils can be transferred
to formation).
specify the use of synthetic lubricants, lard, vegetable-based oils

or pure vegetable oils;

fully.
Hydrocarbon
oils
introduced
deliberately into the air line to lubricate
down the hole hammer equipment
avoid use of DTH if other methods are suitable (see Chapter 4);
specify the use of synthetic lubricants or vegetable-based oils;

fully.
Badly constructed boreholes resulting

in ineffective seals between formations.
spoil re-used during

of
a
monitoring
113
Possible mitigation measures
Potential source/cause of crosscontamination

Hydrocarbon
oils
inadvertently
introduced to the formation during
drilling via air flow from badly
maintained compressors (applicable to
rotary coring, rotary drilling and down
the hole hammer techniques).
Oil/diesel leaking onto ground surface
from badly maintained plant and
vehicles brought to site.
Leakage/spillage from
temporary diesel tanks.
contractors
Contamination transferred between

investigation locations and off-site on
equipment, vehicle wheels etc.
Smearing between formations during

excavation (excavator bucket) or
drilling (from casings/bit).
Smearing between formations as
casings are surged into position (a
technique commonly carried out by
cable percussive drillers to aid their
subsequent removal).
Groundwater pumps and dipping
equipment used between investigation
locations without cleaning.
Vandalism to plant, vehicles, skips
boreholes etc on site.
Contaminants transferred between

samples and monitoring equipment etc
on dirty gloves.
notify the contractor that properly serviced compressors only can

be used on site;
on particularly sensitive projects, request that proof of
compressor servicing is provided;
ensure that badly maintained/faulty equipment is removed from
site.
be aware of condition of plant/vehicles when brought to site and
during investigation;
immediately contain any losses.
specify that these are to be contained within temporary bunds and

filled/used carefully.
clean equipment between locations;

fully;
clean vehicle wheels if necessary before they leave site. on
larger investigations, hire a wheel wash.
not possible to eliminate but impact in many instances is unlikely
to be significant.
specify that this is not acceptable.

fully.
make sure that these are cleaned between locations.
adopt appropriate security arrangements during the site

investigation;
ensure that all boreholes have securely locked covers when
investigation is finished.
wear two pairs of disposable gloves and change the outer pair as
frequently as necessary;
clean sampling equipment or use dedicated sampling equipment.
check that all vessels are clean and caps are well-fitting;
segregate new clean pots from used ones;
wipe sample vessels after filling to remove soil/water residues.
not easy to manage but use a reputable laboratory and follow

protocols set out in Chapter 5.
Sampling equipment e.g. trowels etc.

not cleaned between samples
Use
of
dirty/damaged/unsuitable
sample vessels.
Bad handling of samples after they have
left site.
114
115

(illustrated in 7.4)
NB
described in conceptual terms only the precise design (diameters, depths etc) will need to be tailored to the
site specific conditions
Stage One: Insert a wide diameter cut-off casing into the aquiclude to an appropriate depth;
Stage Two: Place an appropriate thickness of bentonite plug to form a seal and pull back the wide diameter
casing to the top of the seal;
Stage Three: Drill and drive in a narrow diameter casing through the bentonite seal to the required depth;
Stage Four: Place a bentonite plug at the base of the borehole (if needed);
Stage Five: Install a groundwater/gas monitoring standpipe (filter-wrapped if necessary to prevent fines
ingress) with a sand/gravel pack around the response zone and a bentonite plug placed above the sand/gravel
pack. Withdraw the narrow casing to just above the aquiclude;
Stage Six: Place bentonite plug/suitable fill material whilst removing casing and install a robust, lockable
cover.
Where drilling is to proceed through several aquifers and intervening aquicludes, then several sizes of
casing and down-hole drilling equipment will be needed. This will need very careful consideration at an
early stage.
116

(described in 7.3)
KEY
FILL/MADE GROUND
SAND AND GRAVEL
CLAY
SAND
BENTONITE SEAL
STANDPIPE
PERFORATED
UNPERFORATED
CONCRETE PLINTH
BENTONITE
PLUG
AQUICLUDE
CASING
PULLEDBACK
BENTONITE
PLUG
BENTONITE
PLUG
AQUIFER
RESPONSE
ZONE
BENTONITE
PLUG
117

American Society for Testing and Materials Standard Practice for Decontamination of Field Equipment
Used at Non-radioactive Waste Sites D5088-90. (West Conshohocken)
American Society for Testing and Materials Standard Practice for Decontamination of Field Equipment
Used at Low Level Radioactive Waste Sites D5608-94. (West Conshohocken)
Environment Agency Decommissioning Redundant Boreholes and Wells (leaflet produced by the National
Groundwater and Contaminated Land Centre)
USEP (1991) Handbook of Suggested Practices for the Design and Installation of Ground-Water
Monitoring Wells EPA1600 14-89 1034 (available on the Internet: http://www.epa.gov/swerust1/
cat/wwelldct.pdf last accessed August 2000).
118
8.
ANALYTICAL STRATEGIES

119

TPH is sometimes referred to, incorrectly, as hydrocarbon oil, extractable hydrocarbon oil and grease and
mineral oil*. There are many analytical techniques available for which the output is reported as TPH. No single
method measures the entire range of petroleum-derived hydrocarbons.
The definition of TPH depends on the analytical method used because a TPH determination is the total
concentration of the hydrocarbons extracted and measured by a particular method. The same sample analysed
by different TPH methods may produce different TPH values. It is therefore essential to know how each
determination is made and to recognise that the interpretation of the results depends on the capabilities and
limitations of the selected method.
Analytically, there are two major components in TPH: Gasoline Range Organics (GRO) which are volatile
hydrocarbons in the C5-C10 range which are speciated to include BTEXs/MTBE and Diesel Range Organics
(DRO) which are extractable hydrocarbons in the C10 C35 range covering both aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons. Crude oils may contain molecules with 100 carbons or more. These heavy hydrocarbons are
outside the detection range of the more common GC-based TPH methods, but specialised gas chromatographs
are capable of analysing such heavy molecules.
Generally C5 to C10 hydrocarbons are detectable through purge and trap or headspace analysis for both soil and
waters. Generally C10 to C35 hydrocarbons are detectable through a solvent extraction process followed by gas
chromatography flame ionisation detection (GC/FID). GC/FID is a commonly used method for petroleum
hydrocarbon analysis. The method involves extracting the hydrocarbons with a suitable solvent, concentrating
the extract and injecting into a GC equipped with an FID. Quantification is performed by comparing the area
under the chromatogram from the appropriate FID response of a sample to the corresponding response of a
standard mixture.
GC-based methods are preferred for TPH measurement because they detect a broad range of hydrocarbons, they
provide both sensitivity and selectivity, and they can be used for TPH identification as well as quantification.
The speciation of the hydrocarbons into the composite aliphatics (mineral oils) and the composite aromatics
(polynuclear aromatics) is essential to allow a comprehensive risk assessment to be carried out covering the
components that are most toxic to the receptor. One approach is that of the US-based TPH Criteria Working
Group (TPHCWG, 1997a-e) which has developed detailed procedures for analysing TPH within a risk
assessment framework.
Infra-red spectrometry, although widely used in the oil industry, is generally less useful than gas
chromatographic methods since the former provide no understanding of chemical composition (it yields only a
number: oil in mg/kg). At best, infra-red gives a relative measure of contamination (although more rarely is
used to identify functional groups), so its role (if used) is likely to be in delineation. It should also be borne in
mind that infra-red fails to identify certain hydrocarbons, depending on their molecular weights (a particular
concern being the losses of volatiles).
* mineral oil is often referred to but actually consists of, amongst other chemicals, straight chain aliphatic hydrocarbons in the range C10 to
C35 (of which TPH is a fraction).
In preparing the text in this box, the contribution of Geochem Group, Chester is gratefully acknowledged.
120

Issues
Tick
Comments
In situ or ex-situ
analysis, or a
combination of both?
Using a PID, for example, can be a cost-effective means of screening

soil and groundwater samples for laboratory analysis of VOCs.
Turnaround time
required?
A fast turnaround time may only be achieved by an on-site laboratory

or utilising field kit tests.
Detection limits
required?
Depending on the toxicity of the contaminant and the sensitivity of the

receptor, different detection limits may be suitable.
See also Detection Limits in Chapter 8.
Initial laboratory
screening techniques
versus speciation?
A PAH screen, for example, could be used to select those samples for
subsequent USEPA 16 PAHs speciation analyses.
Total metals or
bioavailable metals or
particular valency?
Total metal could be used as a screen to determine any requirement to

further analyse for bioavailable or a particular valency of metal
concentration For example, chromium (VI) is considered
carcinogenic whereas chromium (III) and (0) are not classified as
carcinogenic.
Leachate analysis?
Is leaching a pollutant linkage? Leachate analyses were developed to

determine the total amount of contaminant that would leach out into
the groundwater over a specified period of time (e.g. 60 years, (former)
NRA analysis). They can, however, overestimate the amount likely to
be encountered in the field.
What is the analytical

method actually
measuring?
This is most relevant for organic analyses, where ranges of carbon

chain length are analysed rather than a particular species.
Soil characteristics?
For example:
(i)
Colorimetric methods typically determine overall phenols,

but this does not include p-cresol (which is often found on
contaminated land sites);
(ii)
solvent extraction excludes analysis of volatiles;
(iii)
DCM/acetone extraction (typically used for PAH extraction)

will co-extract some plastics and resins, so caution must be
exercised.
pH, organic matter content and clay content can affect the availability
of contaminants and will therefore be important during any subsequent
semi-quantitative risk assessment determination of required RBCLs
(Risk Based Clean-up Levels). The forthcoming CLEA guideline
values are dependent upon organic matter content and clay content.
121

Department of the Environment (1994) CLR 5. Information Systems for Land Contamination. Report by
Meta Generics Ltd.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (in preparation) CLR 9 Contaminants in Soil:
Collation of Toxicological Data and Intake Values for Humans. Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons.
Department of the Environment, Transport and Regions. Handbook of Model Procedures for the
Management of Contaminated Land (not yet published). Contaminated Land Research Report CLR 11.
Department of the Environment (1997) A Quality Approach for Contaminated Land Consultancy. CLR 12,
prepared by the Association of Environmental Consultancies with the Laboratory of the Government Chemist.
London.
Development and Validation of an Analytical Method to Determine the Amount of Asbestos in Soils and
Loose Aggregates (1996)
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. CLR 11. Handbook of Model Procedures for the
Management of Contaminated Land. Contaminated Land Research Report (in preparation).
Environment Agency Chemical Test Data on Contaminated Soils - Qualification Requirements ref.
EAS/2703/1/6/Version3/FINAL 1
Eurochem (1998) Harmonised Guidelines for the Use of Recovery Information in Analytical Measurements
(can be downloaded from the Internet free of charge: http//www.vtt.fi/ket/eurochem/publications.htm last visited
July 2000)
Eurochem (1998) Quality Assurance in Research and Development and Non-routine Analysis (can be
downloaded from the Internet free of charge: http//www.vtt.fi/ket/eurochem/publications.htm last visited July
2000)
Eurochem (1998) The Fitness for Purpose of Analytical methods (can be downloaded from the Internet free of
charge: http//www.vtt.fi/ket/eurochem/publications.htm last visited July 2000)
Eurochem and Royal Society of Chemistry (1999) Vam Bulletin Proficiency Testing and Contaminated Land
pps 4-10 and p 35
National Rivers Authority (1994) Leaching Tests for Assessment of Contaminated Land: Interim NRA
Guidance. R&D Note 301, National Rivers Authority (Bristol).
Smith, M.A. (1991) Data Analysis and Interpretation. In: Recycling Derelict Land. G. Fleming (ed.)
Thomas Telford.
Van der Sloot et al (1997) Harmonisation of Leaching/Extraction Tests Elsever, Amsterdam.
122
9.
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

9.3 - An illustration of the value of assimilating topographic survey data with historic maps
123

Project name/number
Co-ordinate system
Level datum
Arbitrary grid
Survey stations
Detail survey/scale of plot
Detail to be included
1:200
National grid
Ordnance
datum
Permanent
Local grid
Arbitrary
datum
Temporary
1:500
Other
Permanent buildings/structures
Temporary/mobile buildings
Visible boundary features & descriptions
Roads, tracks, footways, paths
Changes in surfaces
Street furniture
Statutory authorities plant & service covers
Underground pipe sizes & inverts
Vegetation
Isolated trees
Wooded areas
Vegetation limits
Pitches/recreation areas
Private gardens or grounds
Water features
Earth works
Industrial features
Railway features
Site access from public highways
Site investigation works
Height information
Drawing information to be
included
Spot levels
Contours
Spacing
Others (specify)
Interval
Road
sections
Spacing
Site address
Site boundary
Site area in acres & hectares
Scale of drawing & scale bar (in metres)
Direction of true north
OS co-ordinates and/or grid
Historical information
Traced on site
Underground services
Gas mains (high, medium, low pressure)
Water
Electrical (HV & LV)
Telephone (including fibre-optic)
Cable TV
Sewers (foul & storm)
Others
Dead services- approx. location & marked as Dead
124
Digitised
125
9.3 - An illustration of the value of assimilating topographic survey data with historic
maps
126
Stop cock type cover set flush with the ground (cap covering well not shown)
cover
ground level
well tube
Measurement point could be:
the top of the well tube; or
!
ground level.
!
Top hat type cover set proud above the ground (cap covering well not shown)
cover
outer tube
ground level
well tube
Measurement point could be:
the top of the well tube;
!
the top of the outer tube; or
!
ground level.
!
127

BGS/EA 2000 Some Guidance on the Use of Digital Environmental Data BGS Technical Report WE/99/14,
EA NGWCLC Report NC/06/32.
Ordnance Survey maps at various scales.
RICS Business Services Limited (RICS Books) (1996) Surveys of Land, Buildings and Utility Services at
Scales of 1:500 and Larger - Client Specification Guidelines 2nd Edition.
Surveys of Land, Buildings and Utility Services at Scales of 1:500 and Larger - Client Specification
Guidelines 2nd Edition 1996. RICS Business Services Limited (RICS Books).
128
10.
SITE OBSTRUCTIONS
CONSIDERATIONS
AND
GEOTECHNICAL
10.1 - Diagrammatic Presentation of Section 6 of the Party Wall etc. Act 1996 Adjacent
Excavation and Construction
129
10.1 - Diagrammatic presentation of Section 6 of the Party Wall etc. Act 1996 Adjacent
Excavation and Construction
130

Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists. Guidelines for Combined Geoenvironmental
and Geotechnical Investigation (2000).
British Standard (1995) Code of Practice for Site Investigations. British Standard Institution (London).
BS5930 (1981).
British Standard (1999) Code of Practice for Site Investigations. BS 5930.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association Special Publication 32 (1984) Construction Over
Abandoned Mine.
Department of the Environment (1990) Regional Atlas of Mining Areas produced by Arup Geotechnics
Department of the Environment (1990) Review of Mining Instability in Great Britain produced by Arup
Geotechnics
131
11.
HEALTH AND SAFETY

11.4 - Requirement flow chart for notification to HSE
11.5 - BDA site colour coded site characterisation system
132

Issues
Tick
Are hazardous substances likely to be:
Present in the ground?
Brought onto the site?
Given off/produced by any work activity?
Have the hazardous substances been identified?

Have the hazards that these substances can present been assessed?
Is exposure to hazardous substances likely to occur via:
Inhalation?
Ingestion?
Skin contact?
Who will be exposed:
Site workers?
Contractors?
Visitors?
General public?
Others?
Have the risks associated with the following activities been

assessed:
Site reconnaissance?
Site investigations?
Long term monitoring?
Other?
Has COSHH been considered in planning and designing the

investigation?
133
Comments
Issues
Tick
Are the safety procedures and precautions proposed adequate for

controlling exposure of employees to substances hazardous to
health?
Have arrangements been made for the maintenance of safety
equipment?
Have employees been given adequate training?
Is health surveillance needed?
What first aid training is needed?
Is monitoring required?
If YES what of and when?
When will the COSHH assessment be reviewed?
Do CDM/MHSW/PPER Regulations apply?
Source: CIRIA Report 132
134
Comments

Tasks
Tick
Appointment of a planning supervisor

Hand over of the site Health and Safety File, if one exists
Notification of the investigation to the HSE, if required
Preparation of risk and COSHH assessments for the investigation
Preparation of the pre-tender Health and Safety Plan
Commence preparation, or add to the existing Health and Safety
File
Assessment of tenderers competence to carry out the investigation
Appointment of a principal contractor for the investigation
Preparation of the contractors risk and COSHH assessments
Preparation of the Construction Health and Safety Plan
Preparation of work method statements, to include health and
safety issues
Continued collection of information for the Health and Safety File
On completion of investigation carry out project review and
feedback
Complete Health and Safety File and hand over to client
135
Comments

Do the CDM Regulations apply
to the investigation?
Is the local authority the

enforcing authority for health
and safety purposes?
None of the CDM Regulations

apply
Yes
No
Is the investigation to be carried

out for a private householder?
No
Yes
Yes
No
Has the client entered into an

arrangement with a developer?
Only CDM Regulation 7 (Site

Notification Requirement) and
13 (Designer Duties) apply
Will demolition or dismantling

work be involved as part of the
investigation?
No
Is the investigation notifiable?

See Figure11.4
Yes
All CDM Regulations apply
No
Will the largest number of

people on the site for the
investigation at any one time
exceed four?
CDM Regulations do not

apply except for Regulation
13 (Designer Duties)
No
136
11.4 - Requirement flow-chart for notification to HSE
Does the project need to be notified to the HSE
Will the investigation be longer than 30

working days on site
Yes
No
Written notification to HSE using Form F10

is required
Will the investigation involve more than 500

person working days on site
Yes
No
Notification not required
137
11.5 British Drilling Association site colour coded site characterisation system
BDA site designation
GREEN
Broad description
Subsoil, topsoil, hardcore, bricks, stone, concrete, clay, excavated road materials,
glass, ceramics, abrasives, etc.
Wood, paper, cardboard, plastics, metals, wool, cork, ash, clinker, cement, etc.
NOTE: There is a possibility that bonded asbestos could be contained in otherwise
inert areas.
YELLOW
Waste food, vegetable matter, floor sweepings, household waste, animal carcasses,
sewage sludge, trees, bushes, garden waste, leather etc.
Rubber and latex, tyres, epoxy resin, electrical fittings, soaps, cosmetics, non toxic
metal and organic compounds, tar, pitch, bitumen, solidified wastes, dye stuffs, fuel
ash, silica dust etc.
RED
All substances that could subject persons and animals to risk of death, injury or
impairment of health.
Wide range of chemicals, toxic metal and organic compounds etc., pharmaceutical and
veterinary wastes, phenols, medical products, solvents, beryllium, micro-organisms,
asbestos, thiocyanates, cyanides etc.
Hydrocarbons, peroxides, chlorates, flammable and explosive materials. Materials that
are particularly corrosive or carcinogenic etc.
Source: BDA Guidance Notes for the Safe Drilling of Landfills and Contaminated Land
This guidance should be used with caution and should not replace the assessments required
by COSHH and CDM.
138

Issues
Tick
Have assessments for all hazardous substances (COSHH) and

other health and safety risks (MHSW) likely to be encountered on
site been carried out?
Has the use of a non-intrusive investigation method or one that
limits ground disturbance to minimise contact between employees
and contaminants been considered?
What equipment will be required to help ensure health and safety
on site?
What safety procedures have been adopted?
In the case of an emergency, are the locations of and contacts for
the emergency services known and communicated to the site team?
Have any risks associated with possible lone working been
considered?
Have the emergency services been informed/consulted?
Source CIRIA Report 132
139
Comments

Name of person(s) carrying out site visit:
Contact number during site visit:
Vehicle make, colour and registration:
Name and contact number of site representative:
Date and time of visit:
Contact in office:
Site size and note whether operational/disused/derelict:
Site accessed from (name of road)
Site owner and contact details:
Grid ref.:
Tick to confirm that location map attached
Job reference:
Visit number:
Subject
Information required
140

Issues
Tick
Have the work objectives been defined?

Have appropriate risk assessments been undertaken?
Have the site activities been described and divided into
contaminated and clean categories?
Have the timing and location of the site activities been described?
Have the entry and exit arrangements both for the site and between
contaminated/clean zones been described?
Are any phasing or relocation of zone boundaries and entry/exit
arrangements required?
Have the safe working methods for each activity been detailed?
Have permits to work been obtained?
Have the use, storage and maintenance of PPE been detailed for
each activity?
Have the decontamination facilities for both people and plant been
described?
Have the communication procedures been detailed?
Are safety audits required? If YES are they described?
Have the environmental monitoring requirements been detailed?
Have the key staff their roles, qualifications and experience been
detailed in respect to health and safety?
Have the requirements for training been addressed?
Is medical screening of staff required?
Have the first aid requirements been defined?
Have the site emergency plan and emergency requirements been
established?
Has a record keeping system been established that details the
results of monitoring, changes in methods etc.?
Source CIRIA Report 132
141
Comments

British Drilling Association (Operations) Ltd, Essex. Guidance for the safe investigation by drilling of
landfills and contaminated land.
Building Research Establishment. Fire and explosion hazards associated with the redevelopment of
contaminated land. BRE Information Paper IP 2/87. BRE (London), 1087.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (1992) Special Publication 79. Methane and
associated hazards to construction: A bibliography.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (1996) A guide for safe working practices on
contaminated sites. Report Number 132. Prepared by WS Atkins.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association Report 166 CDM Regulations Work Sector
Guidance for Designers.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association Report 172 CDM Regulations Practical
Guidance for Clients and Clients Agents.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association Report 173 CDM Regulations Practical
guidance for Planning Supervisors.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association Special Publication 90 (1992) Handbook. Site
Safety.
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 1999.
Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994.
Environment Agency. Health and Safety Codes of Practice Manual.
Environment Agency. Health and Safety Risk Management Manual.
Environment Agency. Health and Safety Management Procedures Manual.
Environment Agency. Occupational Health Manual.
Health and Safety Executive (1991) Avoiding Danger from Underground Services.
Health and Safety Executive (1980) Avoidance of danger from overhead electrical power lines. GS6.
Health and Safety Executive (1999) Health and Safety in Excavations Be Safe and Shore. HS (G) 185.
Health and Safety Executive. A Guide to Managing Health and Safety in Construction. HSE Books
Health and Safety Executive. Five steps to Risk Assessment. HSE (IND(G)163L).
Health and Safety Executive. Managing Construction for Health and Safety, Approved Code of Practice.
HSE Books.
Health and Safety Executive. Occupational exposure limits. EH40/2000, HSE Books (updated annually).
142
Health and Safety Executive. Protection of workers and the general public during development of
contaminated land. HSE(G)66, 1991.
Institute of Petroleum (1998)
(London).
Guidelines for investigation and remediation of petroleum retail sites.
ISO FDIS 10381-3 Soil Quality Part 3 Guidance on safety.

Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999.
Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1993.
Site Investigation Steering Group (1993). Guidance for the safe investigation by drilling of landfills and
contaminated land. Thomas Telford, London.
143
12.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
12.1 - Fauna species that are protected together with their resting place
144
12.1 - Fauna species that are protected together with their resting place.
Species
Legislation
Habitat notes
Protective Measure
Close season
(approximate dates)
Badger
1992 Badgers
Act
Protects badgers and their

setts
Bats all
species
1981 W&C
Act,
Schedule 5
Requires suitable
soils
for
burrowing
Buildings, caves,
hollow trees
All breeding
wild birds
1981 W&C
Act,
Breeding females in setts

from December to May
inclusive
Mid-May (approx.) to July
(breeding), Mid Octoberearly
April
approx.
(hibernation).
Mid March to late July
(approx.)
Great crested
newt
1981 W&C
Act
Schedule 5
1981 W&C
Act,
Schedule 5
1981 W&C
Act,
Schedule 5
1981 W&C
Act,
Schedule 5
Otter*
Water vole
Dormouse*
Sand lizard*
Natterjack
toad*
*
1981 W&C
Act,
Schedule 5
1981 W&C
Act,
Schedule 5
All habitats but

especially dense
scrub
Ponds with rough
vegetation around
Protects all bats, their

breeding roosts, autumn
roosts and hibernation
roosts
Protects breeding birds
and their nests.
Protects newts and their
breeding ponds
Late February to June
Holts may be
established away
from river courses
Burrows in ditch
and river banks
Protects otters and their

holts
Breeding can take place

throughout the year
Protects
systems
Occupied
year
Diverse,
especially ancient
coppice
woodland.
Sandy
heath
habitats
in
southern England
Shallow
pools,
especially in heath
and coastal areas
Protects dormice, their

nests and hibernation sites
May to July (nests),

November
to
March
inclusive (hibernation)
Protects the animal and its

breeding site
May to July (breeding),

November
to
March
inclusive (hibernation)
Late February to early June
the
burrow
Protects the animal and its

breeding site
rarer species that could be found at some sites in certain parts of the country
145
throughout
the

Issues
Will the works affect an SSSI or other site with
legal protection (e.g. National Nature Reserves,
Local Nature Reserves)?
Tick
Will the works affect a scheduled site of local

wildlife importance?
Does the site contain habitats suitable for

breeding birds and will proposed works result
in disturbance?
Are badgers present on the site and will works
affect any setts?
Are bats likely to be present on site and will

works affect their resting places?
Are other protected species likely to be present?
Will the works require the removal of any trees

or hedgerows?
146
Comments
Obtain information on SSSI from the Statutory
Authority, English Nature (or CCW, SNH) or Local
Plans. Where SSSI may be affected the proposed
investigation works must be agreed with the statutory
authority. Seasonal limits on work may be advised
Obtain information on sites from the local Wildlife
Trust (WT), or from Local Plans. The WT or the
Local Authority Ecologist can advise on the
ecological interest of the site and precautions to be
taken, e.g. in the case of protected species being
present or species being the subject of Biodiversity
Action Plans.
Inspect site for presence of trees, scrub, other
potential nesting areas, e.g. derelict buildings. Where
nesting is likely employ seasonal working (between
late July and mid-March) to avoid disturbance
Inspect sites for signs of burrowing or well used
animal pathways. Advice on local badger activity
may be obtained from the local WT, or EN (CCW or
SNH). Avoid works close to setts in the breeding
season
Inspect site for potential habitat, buildings, trees with
hollows or small crevices, underground caves or
crevices. Obtain specialist advice (from the WT, EN
etc) where works may impinge on any such sites.
Note that seasonal restrictions on work will apply.
Ponds are likely to contain amphibia. Obtain specialist
advice (from the WT, EN etc) where works may
impinge on any such sites. Note that seasonal
restrictions on work may apply.
Check with the local authority for the presence of any
TPO, or hedges protected under the Hedgerow
Regulations on the site. Avoid the bird-breeding
season. Where trees are to be felled consult the local
Forestry Commission Conservators Office over the
need for a felling licence. Trees with hollows or
crevices may contain bats (see above).

Investigation work
element
Potential environmental
impact
Possible mitigation measure
Creation of access
routes for tracked or
wheeled vehicles
Impacts on burrowing animals

including badgers, loss of trees
and scrub with potential impacts
on breeding birds
Seasonal working to avoid bird breeding season,

planned access routes to avoid habitats, planned
access routes following ornithological survey to
locate nesting areas if works in bird breeding
season.
Borehole installation

including badgers, risk of animals
falling into uncapped boreholes.
Adjust spatial pattern of samples. Avoid any

ground disturbance within 30 metres of an
occupied badger sett.
Ensure any open
boreholes are capped overnight.
Trial pits

including badgers, loss of valued
plant communities, risk of
animals falling into uncovered
trenches.

occupied badger sett.
Plan sampling pattern to avoid sensitive plant
communities, or, lift turves, retain turves and
subsoil and replace in original pattern after
works. Ensure any open trenches are covered
overnight.
Window
and
Penetrometer Sampling

including badgers,
Noise impacts may disturb
breeding birds (applies to all
mechanised
and
percussive
sampling techniques).

occupied badger sett. Avoid the bird breeding
season where breeding sites may be affected or
else seek ornithological advice.
Watercourse
sampling
Breeding waterbirds, watervoles
Conduct ornithological survey or avoid the birdbreeding season, avoid damage to waterside
burrow systems.
sediment
147

Archaeology
Council for British Archaeology (1998) Annual Report York.
Department of the Environment (1990) Planning Policy Guidance 16: Archaeology and planning London.
Department of the Environment Planning Policy Guidance 15: Planning and the historic environment
London.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions Environmental Geology in Land Use Planning:
A Guide to Good Practice; Advice for Planners and Developers; Emerging Issues.
Highways Agency (1995) Trunk Roads and Archaeological Mitigation. Advice Note 75/95
Institute of Field Archaeologists (1993 revised 1999) Standard and Guidance for Archaeological Desk Based
Assessment.
Institute of Field Archaeologists (1994 revised 1999) Standard and Guidance of archaeological field
evaluation.
Scottish Office (1994) National Planning Policy Guideline 5: Archaeology and Planning Edinburgh.
Scottish Office (1994) Planning Advice Note 42; archaeology-the planning process and scheduled ancient
monuments.
Shilston D.T., Harrison E., Parsons A.S. and Lee K. (1998) Giants Shoulders: The Cost-effective Use of
Geotechnical Desk Studies in Civil and Structural Engineering. Association of Geotechnical Specialists
Symposium on The Value of Geotechnics in Construction.
Welsh Office (1996) Planning and the Historic environment: Archaeology. Welsh Office Circular 60/96
Cardiff.
Ecology
Coventry S. and Woolveridge C. (1999) Environmental Good Practice on Site CIRIA London.
Hydrogeology and Hydrology

Environment Agency (1998) Policy and Protection of Groundwater (including series of groundwater
vulnerability maps of England and Wales).
National Rivers Authority (1995) Guide to Groundwater Vulnerability Mapping in England and Wales
National Rivers Authority (1995) Guide to Groundwater Protection Zones in England and Wales
Scottish Environment Protection Agency and Environment Agency Guidance Note PPG1 General Guide to the
Prevention of Water Pollution
Scottish Environment Protection Agency and Environment Agency Guidance Note PPG2 Above Ground
148
Oil Storage Tanks

Scottish Environment Protection Agency and Environment Agency Guidance Note PPG5 Works In, Near or
Liable to Affect Watercourses
Scottish Environment Protection Agency and Environment Agency Guidance Note PPG6 Working at
Construction and Demolition Sites
149
13.
OPERATIONAL SITES ADDITIONAL

CONSIDERATIONS

Issues
Appropriate channels of communication with the site operator
Working in close proximity to personnel not involved in the
investigation
Frequent vehicle movements, sometimes heavy goods vehicles
Noise levels from equipment used and the work type, especially
close to hospitals and residential areas
Ground vibration caused by percussion boring or rotary drilling close
to computer facilities and similar sensitive equipment
Air pollution from working equipment or odours and dusts arising
from the excavation, in populated areas
Working close to adjacent and overhead equipment
Working in confined environments, with little or no ventilation
Over water work, with moving river traffic
Working over buried tanks/voids/structures etc
Tick
Comments
Appendix A
Standard format for a factual site investigation report

begins on the following page
Cover to include:
Main Title (include site name and any site reference)

Report Version (e.g. Draft/Revised Draft/Final/Client Issue)
Confidentiality Status
Reporting Company
Document Reference
inside cover to include:
Main title (as on front cover)

Report status (as on front cover)
Report author(s) (typed, signed and dated)

Report checker(s) (typed, signed and dated)
Report reviewer(s) (typed, signed and dated)
Client:
Reporting company (as on front cover)
Reporting company address
Report reference
CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.
Introduction
1.1
Background
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Report structure
2.
Site location and description
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Site location
2.3
Site description
2.4
2.5
3.
Site geology, hydrogeology and hydrology
3.1
Introduction
3.2
Geology
3.3
Hydrogeology
3.4
Hydrology
4.
Site history
4.1
Introduction
4.2
History
4.3
4.4
4.5
5.
Previous site investigation information
5.1
Introduction
5.2
6.
Site investigation design and methodology
6.1
6.2
Methodology
6.3
Analytical suites
7.
Factual results
7.1
Introduction
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
10
7.7
10
7.8
10
7.9
10
8.
Other report sections
11
REFERENCES
12
FIGURES AND DRAWINGS
13
APPENDICES
14
INCLUDE REPORTING COMPANY NAME IN HEADER
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Summarise the pertinent issues i.e. the main findings and recommendations.
INCLUDE REPORT REFERENCE IN FOOTER
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
Provide reasons for works being undertaken, including whom has commissioned the
work/when/how (e.g. by letter of X/X/X) and, where appropriate, intended future usage of the
site.
1.2
State what is included and also what has been specifically excluded. Mention any:
liability to Third Parties;
time constraints (e.g. applied by Client);
any site constraints (e.g. access, financial).
1.3
Provide brief details.
1.4
List, briefly, all information sources and nature of information (include source of any
anecdotal information and all references used in the References section). Mention also, any
information that was sought but not obtained/still awaited.
1.5
Report structure
Provide a brief summary.
2.
SITE LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION
2.1
Introduction
State that this chapter of the report includes Hazard Identification and, where there is some
assessment of potentially relevant exposure scenarios/hazardous conditions, Hazard
Assessment.
2.2
Site location
Include:
location description (e.g. located in the centre of X city, between X river and X canal
and accessed off X road);
OS National Grid Reference;
full address (including postcode);
Site Location Figure (scale 1:25,000 or better).
2.3
Site description
Include:
current site size in hectares;
whether previously part of a larger site;
current use;
ownership;
general topography, noting ground level of land surrounding the site relative to that of
the site;
general description of ground surfaces;
evidence of visual contamination from walk-over observations;
notes of any site features that may have the potential to cause ground/groundwater
contamination;
a description of surrounding land uses (identify local receptors e.g. school playing
fields, sensitive habitats, housing and boundaries of neighbouring properties);
current site layout plan (showing site boundary(s) clearly) with notes from site
reconnaissance visit and previous process activity locations (if appropriate); and
site visit photographs.
NB As appropriate, summarise descriptions from reports of earlier stages and include latest
description in full. Include full references for the previous reports.
2.4
State if an ecological survey has been included during this or any previous stage and provide
details.
2.5
State if archaeological work has been included during this or any previous stage and provide
details.
3.
SITE
GEOLOGY,
HYDROLOGY
HYDROGEOLOGY
AND
As appropriate, summarise descriptions from other reports and include latest description in
full. Include full references for the previous reports.
3.1
Introduction
State that this chapter of the report includes both Hazard Identification and, where there is
some assessment of potentially relevant exposure scenarios/hazardous conditions, Hazard
Assessment.
3.2
Geology
Include:
a description of the site geology from published geological maps and borehole logs
from the local area (differentiate between solid and drift);
a statement as to whether data obtained in site investigations have confirmed the

published information (full detail to be provided in Chapter 7).
Consider including a conceptual drawing of the geological profile, particularly if the natural
stratigraphy is complex and/or has since become complicated by anthropological activity (e.g.
deeply founded tanks and piles etc).
3.3
Hydrogeology
Describe preliminary hydrogeological model (e.g. unconfined/confined aquifer, piezometer

heads etc).
Include aquifer classification, licensed abstractions (volume, use,
distance/direction from the site) groundwater flow direction (if known) and any reported
pollution incidences.
3.4
Hydrology
Include description and details of local surface watercourses, e.g. distances and direction from
site, flow direction, General Quality Assessment, licensed abstractions (volume, use,
distance/direction from the site) and any reported pollution incidences.
4.
SITE HISTORY
Summarise history from previous desk study/other reports and include any new information in
full. Include full references for the previous reports.
4.1
Introduction
List information sources used (in more detail than in Section 1.3). State that this chapter of
the report includes both Hazard Identification and, where there is some assessment of
potentially relevant exposure scenarios/hazardous conditions, Hazard Assessment.
4.2
History
Provide a description from historical maps, aerial photographs, anecdotal evidence etc. for the
site and surrounding area (list specific sources/information used). In a site investigation
report, it may be appropriate to tabulate much of this information.
NB Avoid taking each map in turn and describing it as a chronology. Instead assimilate the
information first and then describe the history using suitable headings. For example, for a
Power Station Site:
Pre-Development (dates X to X);
Operational Period (dates X to X);
Decommissioning Period (dates X to X);
Post-Closure (dates X to X);
Redevelopment for Light Industrial Units (dates X to X);
etc.
4.3
E.g. Environment Agency, local authority Environmental Health Department, Health and
Safety Executive.
4.4
E.g. previous employees, nearby residents, site manager.
4.5
Include potential contamination sources, nature, scale etc. Summarise this information on a
plan of the site if possible.
5.
PREVIOUS SITE INVESTIGATION INFORMATION
As appropriate, summarise information and data included in reports of earlier stages in the
main body of the report. If there has been a series of previous investigations, deal with these
one at a time using a separate section for each (using the headings below in each section).
Include the full reference for each previous report.
If there has been only one previous investigation report and this is brief, consider including it
in full in an Appendix to the current report. If there are several reports of previous
investigations, consider including the investigation logs and analytical data in an
Appendix/series of Appendices to the current report.
5.1
Introduction
Provide a summary of why the investigation was undertaken, by whom, what it included and
when and how it was carried out. State that this chapter of the report includes both Hazard
Identification and, where there is some assessment of potentially relevant exposure
scenarios/hazardous conditions, Hazard Assessment.
5.2
Provide a summary of the physical and chemical conditions encountered (include any gas
monitoring results, groundwater levels etc.) and any recommendations made following the
investigation.
Include a drawing showing the locations of trial pits/boreholes etc. at a suitable scale.
6.
SITE
INVESTIGATION
METHODOLOGY
6.1
DESIGN
AND
Include:
specific objectives of the site investigation;
a description of the preliminary Conceptual Model (as described briefly in the

Introduction) and explain how this has been used to design the investigation;
a description of the site investigation design, including any phasing of investigations;
give the rationale used in locating boreholes and trial pits etc (e.g. borehole BH328
located on downstream side of a former diesel tank, river sample R303 taken just
downstream of an outfall pipe).
6.2
Methodology
Include:
the start and finish dates of the site investigation;
weather conditions (including atmospheric pressure data/trends where gas monitoring

has been undertaken);
a brief description of the personnel on site and their roles;
a brief description of the work that was actually undertaken;
a drawing showing the locations of trial pits/boreholes etc at a suitable scale;
brief details of the site investigation contractor(s) and laboratory(s) (include laboratory
UKAS testing accreditation number(s), details of other accreditation and QA/QC
procedures);
brief details of any preparatory work (e.g. moving of mounds of waste, breaking
through concrete etc) and all investigation activities included in the activity (e.g.
intrusive work, tank inspections/sampling of contents, gas/groundwater monitoring,
topographic survey etc);
for boreholes and trial pits, state maximum depth achieved, drilling method
(boreholes) and whether groundwater/gas monitoring installations were included;
details of any in situ testing;
for gas/other monitoring exercises state the methods, equipment used (e.g. PID with
10.2eV lamp), duration and frequency of monitoring and ambient conditions etc.;
description of sampling methods and confirmation that samples were

taken/stored/transported in accordance with good practice (specific details if
necessary);
field QA/QC procedures and results;
any limitations/constraints on field works.
6.3
Analytical suites
Describe the basis of the analytical strategy e.g. how and why analytical suites and samples
were chosen.
Include a summary of chemical analytical suites, samples scheduled for these (including
strata/locations/depths), brief details of the sample preparation and analytical methods used
together with any limitations/constraints on laboratory analysis.
7.
FACTUAL RESULTS
7.1
Introduction
An introductory paragraph should be included, particularly if this chapter may be separated

from the rest of a report and copied to other parties. In the introduction re-state very briefly
the date of the investigation, the number/type of investigation locations any other pertinent
background information. State that this chapter of the report is mainly a factual Hazard
Identification stage of risk assessment although some Hazard Assessment may be included.
7.2
Include a general overview of:
the physical conditions encountered on site (refer also to the geological information
provided in Chapter 3 and confirm whether the expected geology was proven);
any olfactory and/or visual evidence of presence/absence of contamination;
the type and nature of contamination and its spatial distribution.
Where possible, present physical conditions in tabular/illustrative forms.
7.3
Provide a full description of the made-ground encountered including any olfactory and/or
visual evidence relating to presence/absence of contamination. Where appropriate provide
descriptions for different areas and identify any emerging patterns.
7.4
Provide a full description of the natural ground encountered including any olfactory and/or
visual evidence of presence/absence of contamination.
7.5
Provide a description of groundwater encountered, including rate of inflow to trial

pits/boreholes, depth from ground surface (mBGL) and level (mAOD) of inflow and standing
after settlement. Include colour(s) of water and odours and evidence/thickness of free
product. It will usually be necessary to tabulate the groundwater measurements.
7.6
Include a general overview of:
the chemical conditions encountered on site;
the type and nature of contamination and its spatial distribution and whether this
accords with the physical conditions observed, any olfactory and visual contamination
indicators, gas readings etc.;
identify any invalid or suspect data.
Where possible, present chemical conditions in tabular/illustrative forms.
7.7
Provide a full description and describe possible contamination sources.
7.8
Provide a full description and describe possible contamination source(s).
7.9
(where relevant)
Present results in tabular/illustrative forms. State what instruments were used as a footnote to
the table(s) and include detection/quantification limits or the instruments used where no gas
was recorded. Provide a description of the findings and relate to physical and chemical
conditions.
10
8.
OTHER REPORT SECTIONS
Other report sections may be required depending on the requirements of the site
investigation, for example:
Hazard assessment;
Risk estimation;
Risk evaluation;
Recommendations;
Cost estimates for remedial work;
Summary (NB different to an executive summary).
11
REFERENCES
Include:
full references of reports of previous site investigations;
guidance documents referred to;
methods of test/analysis etc;
standards/codes/guidance documents;
any local history books used;
any local geological memoirs;
any other documents/reports/correspondence referred to in the report.
12
FIGURES AND DRAWINGS

Include, as a minimum:
site location plan (scale 1:25,000 or better);
current site layout plan with notes from site reconnaissance visit(s), previous process
activity locations (if appropriate);
drawing showing ground investigation locations (may or may not include topographic
survey details).
Include the following where appropriate:
assimilated information from historical maps/aerial photographs etc;
geological map extract;
conceptual drawing of the site geology;
illustrative sketches/diagrams of the site physical and chemical conditions;
any cross-sections, plans and other drawings needed to illustrate specific findings from
the desk study, site reconnaissance and site investigation phases.
13
APPENDICES
To contain any information supplementary to that in the main body of the report e.g.:
selected/full set of historical maps/aerial photographs;
general site photos;
previous site investigation report(s) and/or data;
pertinent copies of correspondence and file notes of relevant conversations with

named individuals;
extracts of historical documents/plans/drawings etc;
trial pit/borehole logs and photos of these;
site and laboratory chemical data and QA/QC information;
field data including results of any monitoring data recorded on site and groundwater
data;
copies of any relevant calibration check forms/certificates.
14

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Technical Aspects of Site Investigation Volume 2

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TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF SITE INVESTIGATION.

VOLUME II (OF II)

Research and Development

Technical Aspects of Site Investigation. Vol II (of II)

Environment Agency 2000

Environment Agencys Project Manager

R&D Technical Report P5-065/TR

GOOD PRACTICE OVERVIEW

2.1 - Investigation planning major issues

2.2 - Investigation planning checklist additional issues

2.3 - Investigation design checklist

2.4 - Summary of desk study information sources

2.5 - Typical target information available from a desk study

2.6 - Site reconnaissance information checklist

2.7 - Example of a site visit record sheet

2.8 - Selection of specialist advisors and contractors

2.9 - Definitions of professional and technical staff

2.11 - Further Reading

SITE CHARACTERISATION RECORDS AND DATA MANAGEMENT

3.1 - Example of a daily site diary

3.2 - Further Reading

INTRUSIVE AND NON-INTRUSIVE INVESTIGATION METHODS

4.1 - Investigation method summary sheets

4.2 - Selected photographs of investigation methods

4.3 - Choosing an intrusive investigation method

4.4 - Worked Example

4.5 Site Investigation Preparation and Implementation Checklist

4.6 - Further Reading

5.2 - Labelling samples information needed

5.5 - Sample chain of custody record

5.6 - Further Reading

R&D Technical Report P5-065/TR

6.1 - Portable instruments commonly used for site investigations

6.5 - Further Reading

7.2 - Examples of well and badly constructed trial pits

7.3 - Description of how to drill a borehole through an aquiclude into an aquifer

7.4 - Illustration of how to drill a borehole through an aquiclude into an aquifer

7.5 - Further Reading

8.1 - What do we mean by Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH)?

8.2 - Key questions to be considered in developing an analytical strategy

8.3 - Further Reading

9.1 - Example of topographic survey items/information needed

9.2 - Permanent ground marker types

9.4 - Suggested points of measurement on a borehole for the level

9.4 - Suggested points of measurement on a borehole for the level

9.5 - Further Reading

SITE OBSTRUCTIONS AND GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

10.2 - Further Reading

HEALTH AND SAFETY

11.1 - COSHH checklist

11.2 - CDM checklist

11.3 - Requirement flow chart for application of CDM Regulations

11.4 - Requirement flow-chart for notification to HSE11.5 British Drilling

11.6 - Investigations and surveys safety checklist

R&D Technical Report P5-065/TR

11.7 - Site visit safety checklist

11.8 - Safety method statement checklist

11.9 - Further Reading

12.2 - Ecological evaluation checklist

12.3 - Possible mitigation measures

OPERATIONAL SITES ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

13.1 - Checklist for working on operational sites

Standard format for a site investigation report

Brief and limitations