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A Comprehensive Power Loss, Efficiency, Reliability and Cost Calculation of A 1 MW/500 KWH Battery Based Energy Storage System For Frequency Regulation Application
A Comprehensive Power Loss, Efficiency, Reliability and Cost Calculation of A 1 MW/500 KWH Battery Based Energy Storage System For Frequency Regulation Application
Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 21 April 2014
Accepted 24 July 2014
Available online 23 August 2014
Battery based energy storage system (ESS) has tremendous diversity of application with an intense focus
on frequency regulation market. An ESS typically comprised of a battery and a power conversion system.
A calculation of performance parameters is performed in this research. The aim is to formulate an indepth analysis of the ESS in terms of power losses of the semiconductor and electrical devices, efciency, reliability and cost which would foster various research groups and industries around the globe to
improve their future product. In view of this, a relation between the operating conditions and power
losses is established to evaluate the efciency of the system. The power loss calculation presented in this
paper has taken into account the conduction and switching losses of the semiconductor devices. Afterwards, the Arrhenius Life Stress relation is adopted to calculate the reliability of the system by
considering temperature as a covariate. And nally, a cost calculation is executed and presented as a
percentage of total cost of the ESS. It has been found that the power loss and efciency of the ESS at rated
power is 146 kW and 85% respectively. Furthermore, the mean time between failures of the ESS is 8 years
and reliability remains at 73% after a year. The major cost impact observed is for battery and PCS as 58%
and 16% respectively. Finally, it has been determined that further research is necessary for higher efcient
and lower cost system for high penetration of energy storage system in the market.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Conduction loss
Cost
Energy storage system
Switching loss
Efciency
Reliability
1. Introduction
Energy storage technologies are emerging as the most promising solutions for augmenting frequency regulation application for
utilities. Large scale energy storage solution prefers pumped hydro
due to the maturity of technology as well as requirement posed by
the utility [1]. However, other smaller technologies such as compressed air, thermal, batteries, and ywheels are also evolving
rapidly because of near commercial product viability through
vigorous research by the research groups and industries around the
globe. In contrast to the capabilities of other smaller technologies,
battery storage technology is forefront owing to the competency of
lower power and shorter discharge times, ranging from a few
seconds to 6 h, and easily adaptable at a site without ample
attention on any specic geographical features.
Among various battery chemistries, lead-acid battery remains a
dominant choice for grid-connected energy storage applications.
However, Lithium-ion battery technologies promised enhanced
159
160
Fig. 1. Energy storage system functional a) Block diagram, b) Detail component level connection.
accepts frequency signal from the dispatch center and communicates that with the BMS and local controller of each 3-level PCS. The
PCS is based on P and Q control and the PCS couples to the Point of
Coupling (PCC) through a delta-wye transformer, acting as a source
of leading or lagging active/reactive current. Each PCS should
maintain the frequency at the PCC using only local information. The
PCS can not only convert the input dc voltage to a three-phase AC
voltage with desired magnitude, frequency and phase angle at the
PCC, but also capable to supply bidirectional controllable active and
reactive power to limit the uctuation of the frequency and voltage
to an allowable range if required. However, it should be mentioned
that the primary objective is to ensure the injection and absorption
of active power depending on the frequency signal and if required,
the PCS is capable to perform to regulate the voltage. The system is
capable providing 1 MW output of 480VAC/60 Hz, three phase low
voltage power. The initial energy capacity is 500 kWh. The system
also adopts LiFePO4 battery technology with long cycle life and
large cell capacity to meet the MW-scale energy storage output. The
switchgear and step up transformer is neglected due to the out of
scope of this research. Fig. 1b shows the detail of the electrical
component level connection that forms the ESS.
3. Power loss calculation
(2)
161
Pc U0 Iavg rf i2rms
dT11
dT12
M sin ut
0
0 ut p
p ut 2p
0 ut p
p ut 2p
1
1 M sin ut
(4)
(5)
dT13 1 dT11
(6)
dT14 1 dT12
(7)
The average and rms currents in IGBTs T11 and T14 of the 3-level
PCS are calculated as follows [32]
3lvlPCS
IT11;avg
3lvlPCS
IT14;avg
2p
Zp
dT11 iom dut
0
(1)
(3)
3lvlPCS
I 2 T11;rms
3lvlPCS
MIom
sinj4j p j4jcos 4
4p
3lvlPCS
I2 T14;rms
1
2p
(8)
Zp
dT11 i2om dut
0
3lvlPCS
MI2 om
4p
4
1
1 cos 4 cos24
3
3
(9)
162
2
1 6
3lvlPCS
3lvlPCS
IT12;avg
IT13;avg
4
2p
p4
Z
Zp
iom dut
0
3lvlPCS
Iom
3lvlPCS
MIom
4p
3
7
dT12 iom dut 5
sinj4j j4jcos 4
(10)
2
3lvlPCS
I 2 T12;rms
3lvlPCS
I 2 T13;rms
1 6
4
2p
p4
Z
Zp
i2om dut
3lvlPCS
MI2 om
4p
4
1
1 cos 4 cos24
3
3
(11)
In principle the diodes from D11 to D14 don't carry any current,
because the current of T11 commutes to D15, the current of T14
commutes to D16 and the current of T12 commutes to T13. This is
demonstrated in Ref. [21].
The average and rms currents in diodes D15 and D16 of the 3level PCS are calculated as follows [32]
2
3lvlPCS
3lvlPCS
ID15;avg
ID16;avg
1 6
4
2p
p4
Z
Zp
dT13 iom dut
3
7
dT12 iom dut 5
0
3lvlPCS
Iom
3lvlPCS
MIom
4p
p 24cos 4 2 sinj4j
(12)
3lvlPCS
I 2 D14;rms
3lvlPCS
Psw;D15D16
(18)
where fsw is the switching frequency of the PCS, ESR signies the
rated switching loss energy given for the reference commutation
voltage and current Vref,d and Iref,d, while Vdc2 and Idc1 indicate the
actual commutation voltage and current respectively.
In a similar manner, the switching loss of the IGBTs T11 and T14
is given by
3lvlPCS
Psw;T11T14
(19)
3lvlPCS
3lvlPCS
3lvlPCS
Psw
3 Psw;D15D16
Psw;T11T14
(20)
There the total power loss of the 3-level PCS can be found as
3lvlPCS
I 2 D15;rms
3
2
p4
Zp
Z
1 6
7
3lvlPCS
Pl3lvlPCS Psw
Pc3lvlPCS
(21)
So the total power losses of the of the battery and 3-level PCS
can be determined by using (2) and (21) as.
163
in the diode. Under the assumption of a linear loss model for the
diodes, the switching loss of the diodes D15 and D16 is given by
(18).
7
dT12 i2om dut 5
0
3lvlPCS
I 2 om
3lvlPCS
I 2 om
12p
3p 6M 2M cos24
(13)
3lvlPCS
3lvlPCS
3lvlPCS
Pc;T11T14
2 Ui0 IT11=T14;avg
rif I 2 T11=T14;rms
(14)
where Uio and rif is the forward voltage and resistance of the IGBT
respectively.
In a similar manner the conduction losses of T12 and T13 of the
PCS is
3lvlPCS
3lvlPCS
3lvlPCS
Pc;T12T13
2 Ui0 IT12=T13;avg
rif i2 T12=T13;rms
(15)
2
3lvlPCS
Ud0 ID15=D16;avg
3lvlPCS
rdf I 2 D15=D16;rms
(16)
where Udo and rdf is the forward voltage and resistance of the diode
respectively.
Using (14)e(16), the total conduction losses can be determined
by
Pc3lvlPCS
3lvlPCS
Pc;D15D16
3lvlPCS
Pc;T11T14
3lvlPCS
Pc;T12T13
(17)
(22)
4. Efciency calculation
The power condition for grid connected ESS typically does not
require a DCeDC converter for the grid-connected PCS. Because of
the high voltage output of the lithium e ion battery that is capable
to supply enough voltage to the PCS input for a proper injection of
sinusoidal voltage and current in the grid.
In order to calculate the efciency of the systems, the relation
between the operating point and power generation/loss is needed.
Each of the battery string is composed of 35 battery module connected in series, hence the power generation, Pg of the ESS is
expressed as.
Pg Vi Iiiw1 wn
(23)
where wi represents a particular battery module for and Pgi represents the power generation for wi battery module. Vi and Ii
represent the voltage and current for wi module respectively. The
power loss of each system can be found as described in Section IV
and the total power loss is mathematically expressed as
iw1 wn
Pl PliESS
(24)
Pgi Pli
100%
Pgi
(25)
5. Reliability calculation
Reliability is the probability that a component will satisfactorily
perform its intended function under given operating conditions.
The average time of satisfactory operation of a system is the Mean
164
TJ TA Pl RJA
L TJ L0 exp BDTJ
(27)
where,
L0 is the quantitative normal life measurement (hours) assumed
to be 1 106
B EA/K, K is the Boltzman's constant which has a value of
8.6 105 eV/K, EAis the activation energy, which is assumed to
be 0.2 eV, a typical value for semiconductors [37].
DTJ is the variation of junction and ambient temperature and can
be expressed as
(28)
1
l
L TJ
(29)
lsystem
(33)
where Tv is the ambient temperature ( C) and S is the stress factor.
The failure rate for a wire wound resistor is given by Ref. [24]
gR gb pR pE pQ 1 106 failure=hour:
(34)
(26)
N
X
Tv 273
S Tv 273
exp
gb 4:5 109 exp 12
343
0:6
273
li
(30)
i1
6. Cost calculation
The preliminary cost of the energy storage system is calculated
based on the available market price of each equipment. The ESS is
considered to build on a module concept where each of the modules would perform a specic assigned task. Moreover, the modules
will be connected to each other through a detail integration plan.
The cost of ESS is subdivided into 7 sections based on modules and
work load for integration. A short description of each of the section
is presented below:
1. PCS: The PCS mainly comprised of inverter and related switchgear. It is assumed that the inverter supplied by a manufacturer
that includes related circuit breaker, fuse and other accessories
that is required for proper protection of the utility and personal.
The cost of the PCS, PCScost is calculated from individual components and expressed as a percentage of the total system cost, Tsc
and given by (35)
PCScost % 16:1Tsc
(35)
2. Battery: The battery section holds the battery string, BMS and
necessary DC fuse and breaker and expressed by
Bcost % 57:4Tsc
(36)
3. Electrical System Module (ESM): The ESM integrates PCS, supervisory and local controller, fans and etc. The ESM also integrates the auxiliary power and other components as required
to perform the essential task. The cost of the ESM is calculated as
MTBFsystem
1
lsystem
Rsystem elsystem t
(32)
Hcost % 1:8Tsc
(38)
HVcost % 4:6Tsc
(39)
MCcost % 4:6Tsc
(40)
LAcost % 6:4Tsc
(41)
165
Fig. 5. Power loss as a percentage of rated power for a) Battery system, b) Power conversion system.
166
Fig. 6. Efciency as a percentage of rated power for battery, power conversion system and energy storage system.
high power losses and vice versa while charging and discharging
state of the battery. It is assumed that the resistance is unchanged
during charging and discharging state. The corresponding conduction and switching losses as well as the total power loss of the
PCS is presented in Fig. 5b for a similar operating condition. The
results of the power losses for both battery and PCS is higher as
soon as the ESS shifts the operating point from low to high regime.
It has been found that the maximum power loss at rated power
level for battery and PCS of the ESS are 130 kW and 16 kW
respectively, while the total power loss of the ESS at rated power is
146 kW.
A comparison of efciency for the battery and PCS as well as
overall efciency of the ESS is presented in Fig. 6. The operating
conditions are the same to make a fair assumption between power
loss and efciency. It is obvious that the battery efciency degrades
as soon as the operating level shifts from 10% to 100% of rated
power, however, remains in the vicinity of 87% which is similar to
167
Fig. 8. Reliability of the battery, power conversion system and energy storage system a) Over a year, b) Over time.
168
Fig. 9. Cost of the modules of an energy storage system as a percentage of the total cost.
has the lowest impact on the total cost. The ESM, labor and HVAC
system remains in between higher and lower end of the ESS cost. A
vigorous cost reduction of the ESS is being undertaken by the
author and left for future publication.
8. Conclusions
The power loss, efciency, reliability and cost calculation of a
grid-connected energy storage system for frequency regulation
application is presented. Conduction and switching loss of the
semiconductor devices is used for power loss and efciency
calculation and temperature is used as a stress factor for the reliability calculation of the energy storage system. In addition, a
module based approach for the energy storage system cost calculation is presented. It is found that the system ensures lower loss
and consequently higher efciency. Moreover, the mean time between failures is in an acceptable agreement and battery and PCS
has the highest impact on the cost of the system. It is expected that
more research will be undertaken for a more efcient and reliable
as well as lower cost system in near future.
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