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Osi Layers
Osi Layers
Layer 1 - Physical
Physical layer defines the cable or physical medium itself, e.g., thinnet, thicknet, unshielded
twisted pairs (UTP). All media are functionally equivalent. The main difference is in
convenience and cost of installation and maintenance. Converters from one media to another
operate at this level.
Layer 3 - Network
NFS uses Internetwork Protocol (IP) as its network layer interface. IP is responsible for
routing, directing datagrams from one network to another. The network layer may have to
break large datagrams, larger than MTU, into smaller packets and host receiving the packet
will have to reassemble the fragmented datagram. The Internetwork Protocol identifies each
host with a 32-bit IP address. IP addresses are written as four dot-separated decimal numbers
between 0 and 255, e.g., 129.79.16.40. The leading 1-3 bytes of the IP identify the network
and the remaining bytes identifies the host on that network. The network portion of the IP is
assigned by InterNIC Registration Services, under the contract to the National Science
Foundation, and the host portion of the IP is assigned by the local network administrators. For
large sites, the first two bytes represents the network portion of the IP, and the third and fourth
bytes identify the subnet and host respectively.
Even though IP packets are addressed using IP addresses, hardware addresses must be used to
actually transport data from one host to another. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is
used to map the IP address to it hardware address.
Layer 4 - Transport
Transport layer subdivides user-buffer into network-buffer sized datagrams and enforces
desired transmission control. Two transport protocols, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), sits at the transport layer. Reliability and speed are the
primary difference between these two protocols. TCP establishes connections between two
hosts on the network through 'sockets' which are determined by the IP address and port
number. TCP keeps track of the packet delivery order and the packets that must be resent.
Maintaining this information for each connection makes TCP a stateful protocol. UDP on the
other hand provides a low overhead transmission service, but with less error checking. NFS is
built on top of UDP because of its speed and statelessness. Statelessness simplifies the crash
recovery.
Layer 5 - Session
The session protocol defines the format of the data sent over the connections. The NFS uses
the Remote Procedure Call (RPC) for its session protocol. RPC may be built on either TCP or
UDP. Login sessions uses TCP whereas NFS and broadcast use UDP.
Layer 6 - Presentation
External Data Representation (XDR) sits at the presentation level. It converts local
representation of data to its canonical form and vice versa. The canonical uses a standard byte
ordering and structure packing convention, independent of the host.
Layer 7 - Application
Provides network services to the end-users. Mail, ftp, telnet, DNS, NIS, NFS are examples of
network applications.
The Open System Interconnection Reference Model (OSI) is a seven layer model that was
developed as part of the effort to standardize networking that was started in the late 1970's as
part of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) initiative.
Use the OSI and TCP/IP models and their associated protocols to explain
how data flows in a network
Describe the purpose and basic operation of the protocols in the OSI and
TCP models
Select the components required to meet a network specification
Beyond these subtopics you'll need to have at least a general understanding of the model
across some of the other exam topics as well but this is the primary area of focus.
For the Network+ exam most of this relates to subtopic 4.1 Explain the function of each layer
of the OSI model.
For both certification exams you'll need to know where in the model certain protocols
function as well as knowing at what layers hardware devices such as routers, switches,
bridges, et cetera work. Additionally, you'll need to have a good understanding of how
security of data is handled through the devices and what security features are offered to the
data in transit and at which levels of the OSI model offer what types of security.
NOTES FROM THE FIELD - TrainSignal offers in depth training for both the Cisco CCNA
640-802exam as well as CompTIA's Network+ exam
The Data Link Layer provides the practical means to transfer data between network nodes as
its main job is to transfer data between network nodes in a wide area network or between
nodes on the same local area network segment/subnet. It has the secondary responsibility to
detect and correct errors (as permissible) that may take place at the Physical Layer. The
protocol data unit in use at this level of the OSI model is referred to as a "frame."
The Network Layer handles the forwarding and routing of data along logical paths between
network connected nodes. In addition to routing and forwarding functions of this layer of the
model is also performs addressing, error handling, quality of service control, congestion
control and packet sequencing. The protocol data unit in use at this level of the OSI model is
referred to as a "packet."
The Transport Layer is responsible for the reliable, end to end transfer, recovery and flow
control of the segments between the nodes. The protocol data unit in use at this level of the
OSI model is referred to as a "segment."
The Session Layer addresses the build up and tear down of the connection sessions between
nodes on a network. The protocol data unit in use at this level (and all of the subsequent
levels) of the OSI model is referred to simply as "data."
The Presentation Layer is responsible for taking the data from applications at the application
layer and breaking it down for use on the session layer as well as the reverse. It also has the
task of formatting the data so that it can be sent to other nodes.
The Application Layer handles the initial connection of a given application to the network. It
is where applications and application type activities such as browsing the web, sending and
receiving email and performing file transfers take place. There are applications that wholly
reside at the level such as Telnet and FTP.
At the Session layer you can find socket driven connections and session establishment in
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), and Real-time
Transport Protocol (RTP).
You can also find Named Pipe sessions, a protocol in the Server Message Block (SMB) suite
as well as the NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) application Programming
Interface (since NetBIOS is not formally a true networking protocol).
Session Announcement Protocol (SAP) is a protocol for broadcasting multicast session
information and it is also found at the Session layer.
At the Data Link Layer you can find these common protocols:
Since the Physical Layer is really for defining the physical "connection" or attachment of
given media and how it is configured as well as the electrical and physical properties and the
operating specifications for the devices and media in use there are no actual TCP/IP common
protocols that are in use.
You can find certain combinations of media and standards at this layer such as RS-232
(Recommended Standard 232) which is the standard for data and control signals connecting
between a DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) and a DCE (Data Circuit-terminating Equipment)
and Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) which provides digital data transmission over local
telephone lines.
In this article we reviewed the tie in of the OSI Model to the CCNA and Network+ exams as
well as took a look at the breakdown of the seven layers of the OSI Model
We wrapped up with a quick look at some of the protocols that are in use at each of the OSI
Model Layers
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In a previous article, we explained the OSI model and how it works. In that article, we went
over how the OSI model is a standard theoretical model for how networking hardware,
software, protocols work together. What we didnt discuss in that article is how the OSI model
can help you in your day to day life.
Some of you might be thinking theoretical models dont help me or the OSI model is just
some engineering thing for the nerds. However, in reality, it is quite the opposite. The OSI
model can help you. Let me show you how.
Using the OSI model
First off, I want you to have a visual image of the OSI mode. It looks like this:-
On the left hand side is a user. On the right hand side, you could have a server. Every
request ANDresponse has to travel from the left, down every layer, to the physical layer,
across the physical layer, up the layers on the right, and up to the server on the top right hand
corner.
By understanding this information and having a visual image of how the OSI model works,
you have a very valuable troubleshooting tool. If you can visualize the different pieces that
complete the path of the data, you will have much less trouble resolving a networking issue.
You can think of the OSI model as a map for the path that your data takes. If your data is not
completing the path, you can check each waypoint on the map until you find the area that is
causing the problem.
In my time spent as a network administrator, I would use the OSI model daily. Let me explain
how.
When a get a call from a user that explains a problem they are having, I would immediately
visualize the OSI model. The user might say that they cant bring up a graphic they are trying
to download from the Internet. That graphic is brought up in an application. (layer 7 of the
OSI model). I could either start at the top or the bottom, depending on what I suspected was
the problem. I would usually start at the bottom (termed the bottom up approach). At the
bottom of the OSI model is the physical layer (layer 1). So, I would proceed to ask them
questions like this:
Can you ping your default gateway? (network, testing LAN IP connectivity)
Can you ping the host you are trying to get to by name? (application, DNS and
network WAN IP connectivity)
What format is the graphic in? Do you have a viewer for that format? (presentation)
Can your web browser open up another website? (basic application troubleshooting)
It may turn out that the graphic they were trying to bring up was a .TIFF file and they didnt
have a decoder for that type of file. Thus, this would have been a presentation error issue as
the presentation layer deals with formats of graphics & files, as well as compression and
encryption.
Methods of using the OSI model
I just gave you an example for using the OSI model with a bottom up approach to
troubleshooting. There are three different ways to use the OSI model:
Top down - troubleshooting by going from the application layer (layer 7) down to the
physical layer (layer 1)
Divide and Conquer in this method, you start with whatever layer you feel is most
likely the cause of the problem, then move in whatever direction you feel is the more
likely cause of the issue (either up or down the OSI model)
In Summary
Now you may not be a network administrator but the OSI model can help anyone troubleshoot
any networking problem. I hope that this example gave you some ideas as to how you can use
the OSI model, everyday, to troubleshoot your networking problems.
Question 1
Which of the following correctly describe steps in the OSI data encapsulation process?
(Choose two)
A. The transport layer divides a data stream into segments and may add reliability and flow
control information.
B. The data link layer adds physical source and destination addresses and an FCS to the
segment.
C. Packets are created when the network layer encapsulates a frame with source and
destination host addresses and protocol-related control information.
D. Packets are created when the network layer adds Layer 3 addresses and control information
to a segment.
E. The presentation layer translates bits into voltages for transmission across the physical link.
Answer: A D
Explanation
The transport layer segments data into smaller pieces for transport. Each segment is assigned
a sequence number, so that the receiving device can reassemble the data on arrival.
The transport layer also use flow control to maximize the transfer rate while minimizing the
requirements to retransmit. For example, in TCP, basic flow control is implemented by
acknowledgment by the receiver of the receipt of data; the sender waits for this
acknowledgment before sending the next part.
-> A is correct.
The data link layer adds physical source and destination addresses and an Frame Check
Sequence (FCS) to the packet (on Layer 3), not segment (on Layer 4) -> B is not correct.
Packets are created when network layer encapsulates a segment (not frame) with source and
destination host addresses and protocol-related control information. Notice that the network
layer encapsulates messages received from higher layers by placing them into datagrams (also
called packets) with a network layer header -> C is not correct.
The Network layer (Layer 3) has two key responsibilities. First, this layer controls the logical
addressing of devices. Second, the network layer determines the best path to a particular
destination network, and routes the data appropriately.
-> D is correct.
The Physical layer (presentation layer) translates bits into voltages for transmission across the
physical link -> E is not correct.
Question 2
Which layer of the OSI reference model uses the hardware address of a device to ensure
message delivery to the proper host on a LAN?
A. physical
B. data link
C. network
D. transport
Answer: B
Explanation
The hardware address of a device or the Media Access Control (MAC) address is added in the
Data Link layer. An Ethernet MAC address is a 48-bit binary value expressed as 12
hexadecimal digits (for example: 00:15:A4:CB:03:CA).
Question 3
Which layer of the OSI reference model uses flow control, sequencing, and
acknowledgments to ensure that reliable networking occurs?
A. data link
B. network
C. transport
D. presentation
E. physical
Answer: C
Question 4
Which layer in the OSI reference model is responsible for determining the availability of
the receiving program and checking to see if enough resources exist for that
communication?
A. transport
B. network
C. presentation
D. session
E. application
Answer: E
Question 5
Data transfer is slow between the source and destination. The quality of service
requested by the transport layer in the OSI reference model is not being maintained. To
fix this issue, at which layer should the troubleshooting process begin?
A. presentation
B. session
C. transport
D. network
E. physical
Answer: D
Question 6
Which protocols are found in the network layer of the OSI reference model and are
responsible for path determination and traffic switching?
A. LAN
B. routing
C. WAN
D. network
Answer: B
Question 7
Refer to the exhibit. An administrator pings the default gateway at 10.10.10.1 and sees
the output as shown. At which OSI layer is the problem?
-----------------------------------------------
Answer: E
Explanation
The Network layer is responsible for network addressing and routing through the
internetwork. So a ping fails, you may have an issue with the Network layer (although lower
layers like Data Link & Physical may cause the problem).
Question 8
Which of the following are types of flow control? (Choose three)
A. buffering
B. cut-through
C. windowing
D. congestion avoidance
E. load balancing
Answer: A C D
Explanation
Three types of flow control are buffering, windowing & congestion avoidance:
+ Buffering: If a device receives packets too quickly for it to handle then it can store them in
a memory section called a buffer and proceed them later.
+ Windowing: a window is the quantity of data segments that the transmitting device is
allowed to send without receiving an acknowledgment for them. For example:
With the window size of 1, the sending device sends 1 segment and the receiving device must
reply with 1 ACK before the sending device can send the next segment. This waiting takes
some time.
By increasing the window size to 3, the sending device will send up to 3 segments before
waiting an ACK -> helps reduce the waiting time.
+ Congestion avoidance: lower-priority traffic can be discarded when the network is
overloaded -> minimize delays.
Question 9
A network administrator is verifying the configuration of a newly installed host by
establishing an FTP connection to a remote server. What is the highest layer of the
protocol stack that the network administrator is using for this operation?
A. application
B. presentation
C. session
D. transport
E. internet
F. data link
Answer: A
Explanation
FTP belongs to Application layer and it is also the highest layer of the OSI model.
Question 10
A receiving host computes the checksum on a frame and determines that the frame is
damaged. The frame is then discarded. At which OSI layer did this happen?
A. session
B. network
C. physical
D. data link
E. transport
Answer: D
Explanation
When using the term frame we can easily recognize it belongs to the Data Link layer. In this
layer, an Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field is added to the frame to verify that the frame
data is received correctly.
Welcome to the most basic tutorial for networker! Understanding about OSI model is one of
the most important tools to help you grasp how networking devices like router, switch, PC
work.
Lets take an example in our real life to demonstrate the OSI model. Maybe you have ever
sent a mai+l to your friend, right? To do it, you have to follow these steps:
This is also the well-known table of the OSI model so you must take time to learn by heart. A
popular way to remember this table is to create a fun sentence with the first letters of each
layer. For example: All People Seem To Need Data Processing or a more funny sentence
sorted from layer 1 to layer 7: Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away.
When a device wants to send information to another one, its data must go from top to bottom
layer. But when a device receives this information, it must go from bottom to top to
decapsulate it. In fact, the reverse action at the other end is very natural in our life. It is very
similar when two people communicate via mail. First, the writer must write the letter, insert it
into an envelope while the receiver must first open the envelope and then read the mail. The
picture below shows the whole process of sending and receiving information.
Note: The OSI model layers are often referred to by number than by name (for example, we
refer saying layer 3 to network layer) so you should learn the number of each layer as
well.
2. When the information goes down through layers (from top to bottom), a header is added to
it. This is called encapsulation because it is like wrapping an object in a capsule. Each header
can be understood only by the corresponding layer at the receiving side. Other layers only see
that layers header as a part of data.
At the receiving side, corresponding header is stripped off in the same layer it was attached.
Understand each layer
Layer 7 Application layer
This is the closest layer to the end user. It provides the interface between the applications we
use and the underlying layers. But notice that the programs you are using (like a web browser
IE, Firefox or Opera) do not belong to Application layer. Telnet, FTP, email client
(SMTP), HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) are examples of Application layer.
Layer 6 Presentation layer
This layer ensures the presentation of data, that the communications passing through are in the
appropriate form for the recipient. In general, it acts as a translator of the network. For
example, you want to send an email and the Presentation will format your data into email
format. Or you want to send photos to your friend, the Presentation layer will format your
data into GIF, JPG or PNG format.
Layer 5 Session layer
Layer 5 establishes, maintains and ends communication with the receiving device.
Layer 4 Transport layer
This layer maintains flow control of data and provides for error checking and recovery of data
between the devices. The most common example of Transport layer is Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
To help you remember the functions of each layer more easily, I created a fun story in which
Henry (English) wants to send a document to Charles (French) to demonstrate how the OSI
model works.
Lastly, I summarize all the important functions of each layer in the below table (please
remember them, they are very important knowledge you need to know about OSI model):
Note: In fact, OSI is just is a theoretical model of networking. The practical model used in
modern networks is the TCP/IP model. You may think Hm, its just theoretic and has no use
in real life! I dont care! but believe me, you will use this model more often than the TCP/IP
model so take time to grasp it, you will not regret I promise :)
Question 1
Where does routing occur within the DoD TCP/IP reference model?
A. application B. internetC. networkD. transport
Answer: B
Explanation
The picture below shows the comparison between TCP/IP model & OSI model. Notice that
the Internet Layer of TCP/IP is equivalent to the Network Layer which is responsible for
routing decision.
Question 2
Refer to exhibit.
A network administrator cannot establish a Telnet session with the indicated router. What is
the cause of this failure?
A. A Level 5 password is not set.B. An ACL is blocking Telnet access.C. The vty password is
missing.D. The console password is missing.
Answer: C
Question 3
Before installing a new, upgraded version of the IOS, what should be checked on the router,
and which command should be used to gather this information? (Choose two)
A. the amount of available ROMB. the amount of available flash and RAM memoryC. the
version of the bootstrap software present on the routerD. show versionE. show processesF.
show running-config
Answer: B D
Explanation
When upgrading new version of the IOS we need to copy the IOS to the Flash so first we have
to check if the Flash has enough memory or not. Also running the new IOS may require more
RAM than the older one so we should check the available RAM too. We can check both with
the show version command.
Question 4
Refer to the exhibit. An administrator pings the default gateway at 10.10.10.1 and sees the
output as shown. At which OSI layer is the problem?
A. data link layerB. application layerC. access layerD. session layerE. network layer
Answer: E
Explanation
The Network layer is responsible for network addressing and routing through the
internetwork. So a ping fails, you may have an issue with the Network layer (although lower
layers like Data Link & Physical may cause the problem).
Question 5
At which layer of the OSI model does PPP perform?
A. Layer 2B. Layer 3C. Layer 4 D. Layer 5
Answer: A
Question 6
Which of the following correctly describe steps in the OSI data encapsulation process?
(Choose two)
A. The transport layer divides a data stream into segments and may add reliability and flow
control information. B. The data link layer adds physical source and destination addresses and
an FCS to the segment.C. Packets are created when the network layer encapsulates a frame
with source and destination host addresses and protocol-related control information. D.
Packets are created when the network layer adds Layer 3 addresses and control information to
a segment.E. The presentation layer translates bits into voltages for transmission across the
physical link.
Answer: A D
Explanation
The transport layer segments data into smaller pieces for transport. Each segment is assigned
a sequence number, so that the receiving device can reassemble the data on arrival.
The transport layer also use flow control to maximize the transfer rate while minimizing the
requirements to retransmit. For example, in TCP, basic flow control is implemented by
acknowledgment by the receiver of the receipt of data; the sender waits for this
acknowledgment before sending the next part.
-> A is correct.
The data link layer adds physical source and destination addresses and an Frame Check
Sequence (FCS) to the packet (on Layer 3), not segment (on Layer 4) -> B is not correct.
Packets are created when network layer encapsulates a segment (not frame) with source and
destination host addresses and protocol-related control information. Notice that the network
layer encapsulates messages received from higher layers by placing them into datagrams (also
called packets) with a network layer header -> C is not correct.
The Network layer (Layer 3) has two key responsibilities. First, this layer controls the logical
addressing of devices. Second, the network layer determines the best path to a particular
destination network, and routes the data appropriately.
-> D is correct.
The Physical layer (presentation layer) translates bits into voltages for transmission across the
physical link -> E is not correct.
Question 7
A network administrator is verifying the configuration of a newly installed host by
establishing an FTP connection to a remote server. What is the highest layer of the protocol
stack that the network administrator is using for this operation?
A. applicationB. presentationC. sessionD. transportE. internetF. data link
Answer: A
Explanation
FTP belongs to Application layer and it is also the highest layer of the OSI model.
Question 8
At which layer of the OSI model is RSTP used to prevent loops?
A. data link B. network C. physical D. transport
Answer: A
Question 9
Which layer in the OSI reference model is responsible for determining the availability of the
receiving program and checking to see if enough resources exist for that communication?
A. transportB. networkC. presentationD. sessionE. application
Answer: E
Question 10
A receiving host computes the checksum on a frame and determines that the frame is
damaged. The frame is then discarded. At which OSI layer did this happen?
A. sessionB. networkC. physicalD. data linkE. transport
Answer: D
Explanation
When using the term frame we can easily recognize it belongs to the Data Link layer. In this
layer, an Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field is added to the frame to verify that the frame
data is received correctly.