Journal of Food Engineering 63 (2004) 177184

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Eect of fermented/germinated cowpea our addition on the

rheological and baking properties of wheat our
Elin Hall
en a, S
glu
enol I_ bano

b,*

, Paul Ainsworth

Department of Food Science, Swedish University of Agriculture Science, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden
b
Department of Food Engineering, Gaziantep University, 27310 Gaziantep, Turkey
Department of Food and Consumer Technology, Manchester Metropolitan University, Old Hall Lane, M14 6HR Manchester, UK
Received 19 April 2003; accepted 21 July 2003

Abstract
There is a growing interest in fortifying wheat our with high lysine material, such as cowpea our, to improve the essential
amino acid balance of baked food products. The use of cowpeas as a food source has not been utilised fully, especially in developed
countries. In this research, wheat our in a standard bread formulation was partially replaced with cowpea our, germinated cowpea
our and fermented cowpea our at levels of 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% (wt/wt). Composite ours were analysed for ash, protein,
gluten contents and a-amylase activity as well as colour, farinograph and extensograph characteristics. Bread baked from composite
ours was analysed for loaf volume and weight, texture, crumb-grain structure and colour.
Increasing levels of cowpea our in the blends resulted in changed our characteristics such as ash and protein contents and
colour. It also changed farinograph and extensograph characteristics, mainly by increased water absorption. Incorporation of
cowpea our exerted a certain volume depressing eect on the bread and gave a compact structure at higher substitution levels.
Overall acceptable results were obtained based on characteristics of control bread.
2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cowpea our; Fermentation; Germination; Dough properties; Rheological and baking properties

1. Introduction
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata or V. sinensis), also
known as black-eyed pea, is a leguminous crop of many
tropical and subtropical areas and is an important grain
legume in developing countries. It contains 2426%
crude protein and is rich in glutamic acid, aspartic acid
and lysine, but low in sulphur amino acids. Cowpeas are
low in fat and contain no cholesterol. The lipid content
ranges from 0.7% to 3.5% and unsaturated fatty acids
constitute more than two thirds of the total fatty acids
(Prinyawiwatkul, McWatters, Beuchat, & Phillips,
1996).
Considerable interest has been generated in fortifying
wheat our with high protein, high lysine material to
increase the protein content and improve the essential
amino acid balance of baked products, especially bread.
The high lysine content (486 mg/g nitrogen) makes
*

Corresponding author. Tel.: +90-342-3601200; fax: +90-3423601100.

E-mail address: sibanoglu@gantep.edu.tr (S
. I_ banoglu).
0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0260-8774(03)00298-X

cowpeas an excellent enhancer of protein quality when

combined with cereal grain proteins, which are low in
lysine but rich in sulphur amino acids (Prinyawiwatkul
et al., 1996). Also, the low crude fat content of cowpeas
removes the need for a defattening step at our production (McWatters, 1990).
Despite its high protein content, the use of cowpeas
as a food source has not been utilised to its full potential, particularly in the industrialised countries, mainly
due to preparatory diculties (Sharma, Bajwa, & Nagi,
1999). The constraint has also been the presence of indigestible oligosaccharides in cowpeas (Sosulski, Elkowiez, & Reichert, 1989), particularly ranose and
stachyose. They can be hydrolysed by intestinal anaerobic micro-organisms to produce atulence or intestinal
gas (Prinyawiwatkul et al., 1996). In addition to these,
anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin and chemotrypsin inhibitors, responsible for reducing the digestibility
of protein by inhibiting protease activity, and haemagglutinins, have been detected (Liener, 1979). Research
has shown that germination (Sathe, Deshpande, Reddy,
Gell, & Salunkhe, 1983) and fermentation (Zamora &

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E. Hall
en et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 63 (2004) 177184

Nomenclature
10C
10F
10G
15C
15F
15G
20C
20F
20G
5C

wheat our with 10% untreated control

cowpea our
wheat our with 10% fermented cowpea our
wheat our with 10% germinated cowpea
our
wheat our with 15% untreated control
cowpea our
wheat our with 15% fermented cowpea our
wheat our with 15% germinated cowpea
our
wheat our with 20% untreated control
cowpea our
wheat our with 20% fermented cowpea our
wheat our with 20% germinated cowpea
our
wheat our with 5% untreated control cowpea our

Fields, 1979) of cowpeas can not only improve nutritional quality by increasing protein content but also
reduce these undesirable factors. Fermentation of cereals improves amino acid composition and vitamin content, increases protein and starch availabilities and
lowers levels of anti-nutrients such as trypsin inhibitor
(Chavan & Kadam, 1989). Changes in the proximate
composition of germinated seeds are expected eects of
germination (Ologhogbo & Fetuga, 1986) and the nutritional benet of legumes can be improved before incorporation into legume supplemented products by
utilising this (Fernandez & Berry, 1989). Germination
induces an increase in free limiting amino acids and
available vitamins with modied functional properties
of seed components. Germination has been shown to
decrease anti-nutritional factors like those mentioned
above and also increase the fat, protein and crude bre
contents (Uwaegbute, Iroegbu, & Eke, 2000).
The maximum nutritional benets can be achieved by
complementing cereals with cowpeas at the ratio of
45:15 (cereal:cowpea, wt/wt), which yield amino acid
scores closer to the FAO/WHO/UNU standard (Prinyawiwatkul et al., 1996). However, nonglutenous protein adjuncts exert a volume depressing eect on bread
when used at the relatively high levels necessary to accomplish the desired amount of fortication. They also
change the absorption, mixing tolerance and other
physical properties of doughs. Only small amounts of
our or isolates have been found to give acceptable
volume in the end products.
Fermented or unfermented cowpea our can be used
in breads, baby/weaning foods, chips, and extruded
snacks. Cowpea and peanut our have been reported to

5F
5G
a
b
BU
C
F
G
HFN
L
N
RH
SD
VC
VL
VR
VS

wheat our with 5% fermented cowpea our

wheat our with 5% germinated cowpea our
hunter redgreen
hunter yellowblue
Brabender unit
untreated control cowpea our
fermented cowpea our
germinated cowpea our
Hagberg falling number
hunter lightness
Newtons
relative humidity
standard deviation
volume of container
loaf volume
volume of rapeseeds
specic volume

successfully replace up to 20% wheat our in cookies

(McWatters, 1978) and doughnuts (McWatters, 1982a,
1982b), at least 43% in muns and up to 20% in bread
(Mustafa, Al-Wessali, Al-Basha, & Al-Amir, 1986).
The purpose of this research is to partially replace
wheat our in a standard bread formulation with germinated, fermented and unfermented (control) cowpea
our to improve protein quality and quantity without
aecting loaf volume and overall acceptability.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Cowpea our production
Cowpeas were subjected to natural lactic acid fermentation and germination followed by grinding to a
ne our. Flour from untreated cowpeas was produced
as control to compare any changed properties that
might occur due to the two pre-treatments. Wheat our
was partially substituted with these ours at levels of
5%, 10%, 15% and 20% by weight. Properties of the
resulting composite ours were determined, as well as
properties of the bread produced from composite ours.
2.1.1. Control cowpea our (C)
Cowpeas were washed and then dried on perforated
trays at 50 C for 24 h. They were ground to ne our
through a 1 mm mesh screen using a hammer mill.
2.1.2. Germinated cowpea our (G)
Cowpeas were washed in cold running water and
soaked in tap water for 8 h at room temperature. The

E. Hall
en et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 63 (2004) 177184

hydrated seeds were spread on trays lined with previously sterilised moist muslin sheets and covered with
aluminium foil. Germination went on for three days in
an incubator at 25 C. They were dried at 50 C for three
days, after which formed roots and testa were rubbed
o. Dried, germinated seeds were ground through a 1
mm mesh screen.
2.1.3. Fermented cowpea our (F)
Unfermented, washed and dried cowpeas (as in Section 2.1.2) were ground through a 1 mm mesh screen.
The our was then mixed with water (1:4, wt/wt) to form
a slurry followed by and addition of 5% sugar by weight
of our. The slurry was left to ferment in trays at 25 C
for four days until the pH of the slurry reached 5.50.
The fermented slurry was dried at 50 C and then
ground through a 1 mm mesh screen to produce fermented cowpea our.
2.2. Tests on composite ours
2.2.1. Rheological analysis
Measurements of water absorption, dough development time, dough stability, and degree of softening were
made by using a farinograph (model 8 101, Brabender
OHG, Duisburg, Germany) according to AACC 54-21
method (Approved methods of the American association
of cereal chemists, 2000). Dough extensibility and maximum resistance to a extension were determined using an
extensometer (model 8 600, Brabender OHG, Duisburg,
Germany) using AACC method 54-10 (Approved methods of the American association of cereal chemists, 2000).
Water absorption is the amount of water that the our
can absorb until the dough consistency reaches 500 BU.
Dough development time is the time required for the
curve to reach its maximum height (i.e. 500 BU). Dough
stability is the time needed before the dough consistency
starts to decline from 500 BU line. Dough weakening is
the reduction in the dough consistency from 500 BU line
after 5 min. The farinograph records how far the dough
stretches before breaking. This distance (in cm) on the
chart is termed extensibility and is a measure of dough
elasticity. The maximum force reached as the dough
stretches is known as the dough resistance.
2.2.2. Gluten content
Ten gram of our was mixed to a sti dough with 5
ml water. The dough was placed in the washing chamber
of the gluten washer and run for 15 min. The gluten ball
was gently kneaded under a tap with coldrunning water
to wash away any remaining starch or coarse particles.
Surplus water was removed. The gluten ball was cut into
twelve pieces, placed in a tin and dried in the drying
oven for 30 min at 155 C. After cooling in a desiccator,
weight of dry gluten was recorded. Tests were done in
duplicates and presented as a mean value (Approved

179

methods of the American association of cereal chemists,

2000).
2.2.3. a-Amylase activity
The a-amylase activity was determined by measuring
the HFN (AACC method 56-81B) (Approved methods of
the American association of cereal chemists, 2000). A
water bath was brought to the boil and kept boiling
briskly. Twenty-ve millilitre of room tempered, distilled water was placed in a tube and 7.0 g of our added. To obtain a uniform suspension, a stopper was
tted and the tube shaken vigorously up and down 25
times. The tube with a stirrer was placed in the boiling
water bath and the timer started immediately. After 5 s,
the suspension was stirred by hand at a rate of two stirs
per second for a total of 60 s. At exactly 60 s, the stirrer
was released and the microswitch turned into position.
When the stirrer had dropped by its own weight to the
point where the microswitch was activated, the timer
stopped and the falling number could be recorded. Results were presented as a mean value of three runs. The
HFN gives an indication of amylase activity in the our
such that the longer it takes for the stirrer to drop on its
own weight to the point where the switch is activated the
lower the amylase activity.
2.2.4. Ash content
Ash content was analysed according to AOAC standard method (Ocial methods of analysis, 1995). Results
were presented as a mean value of triplicates for each
composite our.
2.2.5. Colour
Flour colour was analysed using a Hunter Colour
Lab colorimeter (model D 25-2, Hunter Associates Laboratory Inc., Reston Virginia, USA). In the Hunter-Lab
colorimeter, the colour of a sample is denoted by the
three dimensions L, a and b. The L value gives a measure
of the lightness of the product colour from 100 for
perfect white to zero for black, as the eye would evaluate
it. The redness/greenness and yellowness/blueness are
denoted by the a and b values respectively.
2.2.6. Crude protein content
The protein content was analysed according to
AOAC method 955.04 (Ocial methods of analysis,
1995). A factor of 6.25 was used to calculate crude
protein content. Tests were done in triplicates.
2.3. Bread making and bread properties
2.3.1. Bread making
Bread was made using a Hobart mixer according to a
activated dough development technique with 1000 g
our, 20 g yeast, 18 g salt and water determined by

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E. Hall
en et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 63 (2004) 177184

farinograph to give a dough consistency of 500 BU. The

dough temperature was 30 C.
Flour and salt were sieved together into the mixing
bowl. Water and yeast were mixed and added to the
our with the mixer running at speed 1. After mixing for
one minute, the speed was changed to no. 2 for 10 min.
The dough was divided into three 460 g pieces, rounded
up and left covered for 10 min. They were moulded and
placed in greased tins and then placed in a prover, 42 C/
80%RH, for about 5060 min until the dough piece was
level with the top of the tin. The bread was baked in an
oven at 230 C for 25 min.
For each our blend three batches of dough were
made, each baked to three loaves of bread.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Results on composite ours
Fig. 1 shows the ash content of the ours studied. The
white wheat our used in this study had an ash content
of 0.55% (dry basis). Values for the composite ours
ranged from 1.0% to 1.4% and the more wheat our that
was substituted for cowpea our in the mixes, the higher
was the ash content. Beans were not dehulled or decorticated before milling; therefore, as expected, a higher
content of ash in the more substituted ours was obtained. The dierently treated ours were not notably

2.3.2. Loaf volume and weight

Loaf volume was measured using rapeseed replacement method after 15 min from oven (K
oksel, Sivri,
zboy, Basman, & Karacan, 2000). The loaf was put in
O
a metallic container with known volume (VC ). The
container was topped up with rapeseed, the loaf removed and the volume of the rapeseed noted (VR ). Loaf
volume (VL ) could then be calculated and recorded according to
VL ml VC  VR
After cooling 1 h, the same loaves used for measuring
volume, were weighed on digital scales, W (g). Specic
volume (VS ) of bread was calculated as
VS ml=g

VL
W

Fig. 1. Ash content of composite ours (%, dry basis).

2.3.3. Crumb-grain structure

Crumb-grain structure was evaluated visually and
judged according to the Dallman scale 18 with higher
Dallman scale numbers indicating smaller pores and
more dense structure in bread (K
oksel et al., 2000).
2.3.4. Colour of crumb and crust
The colour of bread crumb and crust was measured
using Hunter Colour Lab in the same way as for the
our (Section 2.2.5).
2.3.5. Texture of crumb
Ninety minute after coming out of the oven, crumb
rmness was analysed with a texture analyser (Stable
Micro Systems Ltd, Godalming, UK) following AACC
method 74-09 (Approved methods of the American association of cereal chemists, 2000). A return distance of
30 mm, 5 g trigger force and a 35 mm diameter cylindered aluminium probe was used. Three 2.5 cm thick
slices were measured from one loaf out of each batch.
Force in Newton was measured at 6.25 mm and a mean
value was calculated for each loaf and then a mean of
these to get a value for each blend.

Fig. 2. Crude protein content of composite ours (%, as is).

E. Hall
en et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 63 (2004) 177184

Fig. 3. Wet weight of gluten from 10 g composite our samples.

dierent within each percentage group (p > 0:05), except

for the 10F and 15F ours who were diverging somewhat with a higher ash content than those for 10C/10G
and 15C/15G, respectively.
As can be seen in Fig. 2, the protein content of the F
our mixes was considerably higher than those of C and
G (p > 0:05). The protein level of the germinated our
was somewhat higher than that of the untreated control
our, but not nearly to the same extent.
Fig. 3 shows the wet weight of gluten and decreasing
gluten content can be seen the higher the level of cowpea
our in the samples. This eect is a self-evident result
from the substitution of wheat our and also gluten with
bean our, diluting the amount of gluten in the composite ours.
Flour and dough characteristics analysed with Brabender Farinograph and Simon Extensometer are presented in Table 1. A correlation between the our water
absorption and increasing levels of cowpea our can be
seen. The water absorption capacity of our depends on
and is increased by lower moisture content, higher bran
content, higher protein content, higher pentosan levels,
more damaged starch and higher enzymatic activity. By
looking at the protein levels represented in Fig. 2 and the
rheological characteristics in Table 1, it can be noted that
our water absorption increases the higher the protein

181

content of the our. In a study by (Deshpande, Rangnekar, Sathe, & Salunkhe, 1983), it was shown that
wheatbean composite our blends had greater water
absorption capacities than wheat our. The addition of
bean our to wheat our is expected to increase the
protein content of the blends, since legumes generally
contain more proteins than the cereals. The greater water
absorptions of composite ours, therefore, could be an
additive eect. Approximately 7090% of dry bean proteins are water soluble, whereas gluten, the major fractions constituting approximately 8090% of total wheat
our proteins, are water insoluble. The higher water
absorption of the composites could hereby be explained
by the high water absorption of the beans (K
oksel et al.,
2000).
Proteases hydrolyse peptide linkages which are between amino acids. This eect induces a partial destruction of protein network. It increases the dough
viscosity and decreases the mixing time. The decreased
mixing time and stability indicate weakening of dough
strength. Although this can be hard to read out from the
data in Table 1 (dough stability), it was denitely notable at the time of the experiment when handling the
dierent dough. The cowpea ours gave weaker dough
with increased dough weakening at higher substitution
levels, although more extensible in the case of C and
especially G our (Fig. 4). For the germinated our,
20G resulted in poor extensibility compared to 5G/10G/
15G and extremely sticky dough for all substitution
levels. Samples with higher incorporation of cowpea
our demonstrated lower dough resistance (Fig. 5), most
signicantly so in the case of G, which exhibited very
low values for all substitution levels and almost no resistance at all at 20G. The 5C showed the highest resistance, with a quite steep slope down to the much
lower values for 15C/20C. Results for the F ours
showed an opposite trend compared to the other two
treatments, with a higher dough resistance and an

Table 1
Rheological properties of doughs from composite oursa
Flour blend

Flour water
absorption
(%)

Dough development
(min)

Dough stability
(min)

Dough weakening
(BU)

Dough extensibility
(cm)

Dough resistance
(EU)

5C
10C
15C
20C
5G
10G
15G
20G
5F
10F
15F
20F

62.4
64.1
65.6
66.5
65.0
65.8
66.1
66.5
67.0
69.0
69.7
70.2

2.0
2.5
4.5
4.0
1.5
2.0
2.0
1.5
2.0
2.0
1.5
2.0

1.5
2.0
2.0
1.5
4.5
3.0
3.0
4.0
3.0
4.0
3.5
3.5

120
130
90
100
100
120
140

130
110
140
140

15.1
16.0
18.0
16.8
19.5
21.5
21.3
15.6
17.5
17.4
16.7
15.2

355
266
132
143
194
84
63
29
228
216
241
259

Mean values of triplicates, SD 6 5%.

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E. Hall
en et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 63 (2004) 177184

cowpea our gave progressively darker ours, as indicated by the falling L-values. The statistical analysis of
the data in Table 2 showed that the changes in a and b
values were not signicant at the 5% level.
3.2. Bread making and bread properties

Fig. 4. HFN of composite ours.

increase rather than decrease at 10/15 levels of substitution.

The weakening of dough due to the addition of bean
our to wheat our is in agreement with earlier observations of bean ours. Possible reasons for this weakening of dough due to the addition of bean our might
include an eective decrease in wheat gluten content
(dilution eect), competition between dry bean proteins
and wheat our proteins for water and possible proteolytic activity in the dry bean ours.
It is also known that bean proteins alone do not have
food dough forming properties and that the supplemental proteins disrupt the well dened proteinstarch
complex in wheat our bread suggesting a weakening of
dough. The proteolytic activity in bean ours has been
documented, and since ours had not been subject to
treatments to inactivate this, it could very well be a
possible explanation for dough weakening.
HFNs for the dierent composite ours are given in
Fig. 4. In bread, too much amylase activity will cause
wet, sticky breadcrumbs with large voids in the loaf, and
too little causes dry, crumbly breadcrumbs and high loaf
density. The germinated ours all had considerably
lower HFN and hence a higher a-amylase activity than
the both two other cowpea ours and the wheat our.
Hunter Lab colour of wheat our and control cowpea
our can be seen in Table 2. A higher substitution for

Table 3
Weight and volume of loaves made from 460 g dough piecesa

Table 2
Colour of oursa

Wheat our
5C
10C
15C
20C
5G
10G
15G
20G
5F
10F
15F
20F
a

All our blends produced nice, dome-shaped bread.

The cowpea our resulted in more sticky dough compared to ordinary wheat our dough, which made it
somewhat more dicult to handle at baking. This was
especially true for the G our mixes, which produced
very sticky and weak dough, as also evident from earlier
farinograph/extensograph analysis. Incorporation of
cowpea our in the dough had a certain negative eect
on loaf volume and also the specic volume of bread, as
presented in Table 3. This is due to the reduction in
the wheat structure forming proteins (Akobundu,
Ubbaonu, & Ndupuh, 1988) and a lower ability of the
dough to enclose air (see also earlier discussion).
In Table 3 it can be seen that while C breads stay on
more or less the same specic volume over the substitution range (around 3.8 ml/g) and F dier 10% between
5F/10F and 15F/20F (from 4.1 to 3.7 ml/g), the G bread
specic volume is decreased by 23%; from 4.0 ml/g for
5G to 3.1 ml/g for 20G.
Incorporation of cowpea our resulted in more
compact bread with a more dense structure. The crumbgrain structure was evaluated visually and numbered
according to the Dallman scale as presented in Table 4.
Although the G our had the strongest volume depressing eect on bread, F our produced bread with
smallest pores.
Texture analysis showed that the higher the level of
cowpea our in the bread, the harder was the texture
(Fig. 5). All ours showed the same increase in force
resistance, the 5% level being no dierent from an allwheat bread at around 1.8 N, but a more than a 60%

92.6
92.4
91.5
90.5
90.3
89.8
88.1
87.0
86.3
89.2
87.3
86.0
84.2

)4.4
)5.0
)4.4
)4.0
)4.3
)3.8
)4.3
)4.5
)4.5
)3.7
)3.8
)4.2
)4.2

8.8
9.5
9.4
9.1
9.4
9.3
10.1
10.3
10.7
9.0
9.1
9.6
9.9

Mean values of triplicates, SD 6 5%.

Wheat our
5C
10C
15C
20C
5G
10G
15G
20G
5F
10F
15F
20F
a

Weight
(g)

Volume
(ml)

Specic
volume (ml/g)

416.1
433.1
427.9
415.7
415.6
419.0
416.4
418.5
423.5
417.6
412.0
415.1
419.7

1560
1657
1597
1627
1490
1667
1587
1470
1330
1710
1680
1547
1540

3.7
3.8
3.7
3.9
3.6
4.0
3.8
3.5
3.1
4.1
4.1
3.7
3.7

Mean values of triplicates, SD 6 5%.

E. Hall
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183

Table 4
Crumb-grain structure according to the Dallman scalea

Dallman
number

Wheat
our

5C

10C

15C

20C

5G

10G

15G

20G

5F

10F

15F

20F

Higher number indicates smaller pores and more dense structure.

a
Mean values of triplicates, SD 6 5%.

3.5

Force (N)

3.0

Control

2.5

Germinated

2.0

Fermented

mainly lysine, and lead to amino acid sugar reaction

products (polymerised protein and brown pigments).
This reaction may compromise the nutritional value of
foods through the blocking and destruction of essential
amino acids such as lysine and other essential nutrients
(Hurrell, 1990).

1.5
1.0
0

10

15

20

4. Conclusions

25

Cowpea flour (%)

Fig. 5. Texture analysis of bread made using composite ours with
varying percentages of cowpea. Force measured at 6.25 mm.

increase could be noted at the 20% substitution levels,

with values closer to 3 N. Highest value was found for
20G, 3.18 N, which also was in accordance to other
results for crumb-grain structure and specic volume of
bread.
The colour of crust and colour of crumb (Table 5) got
progressively darker as the bread contained higher levels
of cowpea our. Also the crumb got a darker, brownish
colour from the cowpea our. This darkening of the
cowpea containing bread might have been attributed to
an increased Maillard reaction taking place during
baking of the loaves, due to the high lysine content of
cowpeas. In the Maillard reaction reducing carbohydrates react with free amino acid side chains of proteins,

Adding dry bean ours to wheat our does aect

most dough properties as measured by farinograph
(p > 0:05). These eects seem to increase as the level of
bean our in the blends is increased. Increased water
absorption of wheatbean composite ours may provide
more water for starch gelatinisation in the doughs during baking and may prevent stretching and tearing of
gluten strands. Results show that substituting wheat
our for cowpea our up to a level of 20% produces
bread with characteristics similar to control bread
(p > 0:05). One problem if producing bread with cowpea composite ours would probably be that you get
quite sticky dough which might be dicult to handle.
The use of dierent handling procedures may be need to
overcome this problem. A sticky dough indicates that
the water absorbtion rate is low. A longer holding time
(after mixing) before moulding may overcome the
problem.

Table 5
Colour of crust and crumb of breadsa
Crust

Wheat our
5C
10C
15C
20C
5G
10G
15G
20G
5F
10F
15F
20F
a

Crumb

34.4
36.9
33.8
32.1
28.8
31.3
30.4
28.2
27.8
36.8
32.4
29.5
30.7

4.6
7.9
7.7
6.6
7.0
6.5
7.9
6.9
7.8
9.5
8.4
7.2
7.1

16.3
15.2
13.0
8.2
8.1
10.7
9.2
7.6
9.1
15.4
12.8
7.9
8.9

78.7
74.9
72.6
66.4
60.3
72.5
72.4
65.2
60.4
71.9
66.7
59.7
57.8

6.8
8.6
8.1
6.0
4.4
8.0
8.2
6.6
8.0
8.8
7.5
3.9
4.0

16.2
17.1
16.3
15.2
15.8
17.0
17.7
16.5
17.1
16.9
15.7
13.5
13.5

Mean values of triplicates, SD 6 5%.

184

E. Hall
en et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 63 (2004) 177184

Using composite ours may be advantageous in developing countries where adequate technology for the
production dry protein concentrates/isolates is not
available or aordable in order to utilise the bean proteins. Also the development of such blends could lead to
improved utilisation of indigenous food crops in countries where import of wheat our is a necessity and dry
bean production is more than adequate.
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