SOCIETY IN 17th CENTURY ENGLAND

During the 17th century the population of England and Wales grew
steadily. It was about 4 million in 1600 and it grew to about 5 1/2 million
by 1700.
During the 17th century England became steadily richer. Trade and
commerce grew and grew. By the late 17th century trade was an
increasingly important part of the English economy. Meanwhile industries
such as glass, brick making, iron and coal mining expanded rapidly.
During the 1600s the status of merchants improved. People saw that
trade was an increasingly important part of the country's wealth so
merchants became more respected. However political power and
influence was held by rich landowners.
At the top of Stuart society were the nobility. Below them were the
gentry. Gentlemen were not quite rich but they were certainly well off.
Below them were yeomen, farmers who owned their own land. Yeomen
were comfortably off but they often worked alongside their men.
Gentlemen did not do manual work! Below them came the mass of the
population, craftsmen, tenant farmers and laborers.
For the upper class and the middle class life grew more comfortable but
for the poor life changed little At the end of the 17th century a writer
estimated that half the population could afford to eat meat every day. In
other words about 50% of the people were wealthy of at least
reasonably well off. Below them about 30% of the population could
afford to eat meat between 2 and 6 times a week. They were 'poor'. The
bottom 20% could only eat meat once a week. They were very poor. At
least part of the time they had to rely on poor relief.
By an act of 1601 overseers of the poor were appointed by each parish.
They had power to force people to pay a local tax to help the poor. Those
who could not work such as the old and the disabled would be provided
for. The overseers were meant to provide work for the able-bodied poor.
Anyone who refused to work was whipped and, after 1610, they could be
placed in a house of correction. Pauper's children were sent to local
employers to be apprentices.
On a more cheerful note in the 17th century in many towns wealthy
people left money in their wills to provide almshouses where the poor
could live.
A history of English society

LONDON IN THE 17TH CENTURY

In 1600 Westminster was separate from London. However in the early
17th century rich people built houses along the Thames between the
two. In the late 17th century many grand houses were built west of
London. Meanwhile working class houses were built east of the city. So
as early as the 17th century London was divided into the affluent west
end and the poor east end.
17th century towns were dirty and unsanitary. People threw dirty water
and other rubbish in the streets. Furthermore the streets were very
narrow. At night they were dark and dangerous.
However there were some improvements in London. In the early 17th
century a piped water supply was created. Water from a reservoir
traveled along elm pipes through the streets then along lead pipes to
individual houses. However you had to pay to be connected to the
supply and it was not cheap.
In 1600 people in London walked from one street to another or if they
could afford it they traveled by boat along the Thames. However from
the early 17th century you could hire a horse drawn carriage called a
hackney carriage to take you around London.
In the 1680s the streets of London were lit for the first time. An oil lamp
was hung outside every tenth house and was lit for part of the year. The
oil lamps did not give much light but they were better than nothing at
all.
During the 17th century towns grew much larger. That was despite
outbreaks of plague. Fleas that lived on rats transmitted bubonic plague.
If the fleas bit humans they were likely to fall victim to the disease.
Unfortunately at the time nobody knew what caused the plague and
nobody had any idea how to treat it.
Plague broke out in London in 1603, 1636 and in 1665. Each time it
killed a significant part of the population but each time London
recovered. There were always plenty of poor people in the countryside
willing to come and work in the town. Of course, other towns as well as
London were also periodically devastated by the plague. However the
plague of 1665, which affected London and other towns, was the last.
We are not certain why.
BANKS IN 17TH CENTURY ENGLAND

Furthermore banking developed in the 17th century. As England grew

more commercial so lending money became more important. In the early
17th century goldsmiths lent and changed money. Then in 1640 King
Charles I confiscated gold, which London merchants had deposited at
the mint for safety. Afterwards people began to deposit money with
goldsmiths instead. The goldsmiths gave receipts for the gold in the
form of notes promising to pay on demand.
In time merchants and tradesmen began to exchange these notes as a
form of money. The goldsmiths realized that not all of their customers
would withdraw their gold at the same time. So it was safe to issue notes
for more gold than they actually had. They could then lend money using
the extra notes. The Bank of England was founded in 1694.
A history of Banking
RICH PEOPLE'S HOMES IN 17TH CENTURY ENGLAND
In the late 17th century furniture for the wealthy became more
comfortable and much more finely decorated. In the early 17th century
furniture was plain and heavy. It was usually made of oak. In the late
17th century furniture for the rich was often made of walnut or (from the
1680s) mahogany. It was decorated in new ways. One was veneering.
(Thin pieces of expensive wood were laid over cheaper wood). Some
furniture was also inlaid. Wood was carved out and the hollow was filled
in with mother of pearl. At this time lacquering arrived in England. Pieces
of furniture were coated with lacquer in bright colors.
Furthermore new types of furniture were introduced in Stuart England. In
the mid 17th century chests of drawers became common. Grandfather
clocks also became popular. Later in the century the bookcase was
introduced.
Chairs also became far more comfortable. Upholstered (padded and
covered) chairs became common in wealthy people's homes. In the
1680s the first real armchairs appeared.
In the early 17th century the architect Inigo Jones introduced the
classical style of architecture (based on ancient Greek and Roman
styles). He designed the Banqueting Hall in Whitehall, which was the first
purely classical building in England.
The late 17th century was a great age of building grand country homes,
displaying the wealth of the upper class at that time.
A history of English homes

POOR PEOPLE'S HOMES IN 17TH CENTURY ENGLAND

However all the improvements in furniture did not apply to the poor.
Their furniture, such as it was remained very plain and basic. However
there were some improvements in poor people's houses in the 17th
century.
In the Middle Ages ordinary people's homes were usually made of wood.
However in the late 16th and early 17th centuries many were built or
rebuilt in stone or brick. By the late 17th century even poor people
usually lived in houses made of brick or stone. They were a big
improvement over wooden houses. They were warmer and drier.
Furthermore in the 16th century chimneys were a luxury. However
during the 17th century chimneys became more common and by the
late 17th century even the poor had them. Furthermore in 1600 glass
windows were a luxury. Poor people made do with linen soaked in linseed
oil. However during the 17th century glass became cheaper and by the
late 17th century even the poor had glass windows.
In the early 17th century there were only casement windows (ones that
open on hinges). In the later 17th century sash windows were
introduced. They were in two sections and they slid up and down
vertically to open and shut.
Although poor people's homes improved in some ways they remained
very small and crowded. Most of the poor lived in huts of 2 or 3 rooms.
Some families lived in just one room.
FOOD IN 17TH CENTURY ENGLAND
In the early 17th century people began eating with forks for the first
time. During the century new foods were introduced into England (for
the rich) such as bananas and pineapples. New drinks were introduced,
chocolate, tea and coffee. In the late 17th century there were many
coffee houses in the towns. Merchants and professional men met there
to read newspapers and talk shop.
However for the poor food remained plain and monotonous. They
subsisted on food like bread, cheese and onions. Ordinary people also
ate pottage each day. This was a kind of stew. It was made by boiling
grain in water to make a kind of porridge. You added vegetables and (if
you could afford it) pieces of meat or fish.
The history of food

CLOTHES IN 17TH CENTURY ENGLAND

At the beginning of the 17th century men wore starched collars called
ruffs. Women wore frames made of wood or whalebone under their
dresses. They were called farthingales. However the farthingale was
soon discarded and the ruff evolved into a large lace collar (for those
who could afford it!).
In the 17th century men wore knee length, trouser like garments called
breeches. They also wore stockings and boots.
On the upper body men wore linen shirts. In the early 17th century they
wore a kind of jacket called a doublet with a cape on top. Men wore their
hair long. They also wore beards.
In the late 17th century a man's doublet became a waistcoat and men
wore a frock coat over it. With breeches it was rather like a three-piece
suit. Men were now clean shaven and they wore wigs.
Women wore a linen nightie like garment called a shift. Over it they wore
long dresses. The dress was in two parts the bodice and the skirt.
Sometimes women wore two skirts. The upper skirt was gathered up to
reveal an underskirt. Women in the 17th century did not wearknickers.
From the mid 17th century it was fashionable for women to wear black
patches on their faces such as little stars or crescent moons.
The history of clothes
GAMES AND PASTIMES IN 17TH CENTURY ENGLAND
In the 17th century traditional pastimes such as cards and bowls
continued. So did games like tennis and shuttlecock. People also played
board games like chess, drafts, backgammon and fox and goose.
The wealthy also played a game called pale-maille (Pall Mall in London
gets its name from an area where the game was played). Charles II also
made yachting a popular sport.
The theater remained popular. However the Puritans disapproved of the
theater and in 1642 they banned it completely. Theater began again in
1660.
In the early 17th century the stage jutted out into the audience. In the
late 17th century it took on its modern form. In the early 17th century
boys played women's parts. However after 1660 actresses performed.

Among the poor cruel 'sports' like cock fighting and bull and bear baiting
were popular. (A bear or bull was chained to a post and dogs were
trained to attack it).
The first English newspaper was printed in 1641. The first women's
magazine was The Ladies Mercury in 1693.
A history of Games
EDUCATION IN THE 1600s
In well off families both boys and girls went to a form of infant school
called a petty school. However only boys went to grammar school. Upper
class girls (and sometimes boys) were taught by tutors. Middle glass
girls might be taught by their mothers. Moreover during the 17th century
boarding schools for girls were founded in many towns. In them girls
were taught subjects like writing, music and needlework.
In the grammar schools conditions were hard. Boys started work at 6 or
7 in the morning and worked to 5 or 5.30 pm, with breaks for meals.
Corporal punishment was usual. Normally the teacher hit naughty boys
on the bare buttocks with birch twigs. Other boys in the class would hold
the naughty boy down.
A history of Education
TRANSPORT IN 17TH CENTURY ENGLAND
In 1600 the royal posts were exclusively used to carry the kings
correspondence. However in 1635, to raise money, Charles I allowed
members of the public to pay his messengers to carry letters. This was
the start of the royal mail.
From the middle of the 17th century stagecoaches ran regularly between
the major English towns. However they were very expensive and they
must have been very uncomfortable without springs on rough roads.
There was also the danger of highwaymen.
In 1663 the first Turnpike roads opened. You had to pay to use them. The
money was used to maintain the roads. In towns wealthy people were
carried in sedan chairs.
In Tudor times goods were carried by pack horse. Or carriers with carts
carried goods. However it was still easier to transport goods by water.
Around Britain there was a 'coastal trade'. Ships and boats carried goods
from one part of the coast to another.

A history of transport
MEDICINE IN THE 17TH CENTURY
During the 17th century operations were performed by barber-surgeons.
Their knowledge of anatomy improved. Medicine also improved. In 1628
William Harvey published his discovery of how blood circulates around
the body. Doctors also discovered how to treat malaria with bark from
the cinchona tree.
However medicine was still handicapped by wrong ideas about the
human body. Most doctors still thought that there were four fluids or
'humors' in the body, blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. Illness
resulted when you had too much of one humor. Nevertheless during the
17th century a more scientific approach to medicine emerged and some
doctors began to question traditional ideas.
The Chinese invented the toothbrush. (It was first mentioned in 1498).
However toothbrushes arrived in Europe in the 17th century. In the late
17th century they became popular with the wealthy in England.
The average life span in the 17th century was shorter than today.
Average life expectancy at birth was only 35. That does not mean that
people dropped dead when they reached that age! Instead many of the
people born died while they were still children. Out of all people born
between one third and one half died before the age of about 16.
However if you could survive to your mid-teens you would probably live
to your 50s or early 60s. Even in Stuart times some people did live to
their 70s or 80s.
A history of Medicine
WARFARE IN THE 17TH CENTURY
In the early 17th century firearms were either matchlocks or wheel locks.
A matchlock held a slow burning match, which was touched to the
powder when the trigger was pulled. With a wheel lock a metal wheel
spun against iron pyrites making sparks. During the 17th century both of
these were gradually replaced by the flintlock which worked by hitting a
piece of flint and steel making sparks.
Furthermore in the early 17th century the cartridge was invented. The
musket ball was placed in a container, which held the right amount of
gunpowder to fire it. The soldier no longer had to measure powder from
a powder horn into his gun.

Apart from artillery there were two branches of an army. The cavalry
were usually armed with wheelock pistols and sabers. They were
protected by back plates, breastplates and helmets. The infantry
consisted men armed with muskets and those armed with pikes. A
musket took a long time to reload and the soldiers were very vulnerable
while they did so. Therefore they were protected by men with pikes (a
weapon like a long spear). In theory there were two musketeers to each
pike man. The pike men usually had a steel helmet but musketeers did
not usually wear armor.
About 1680 the bayonet was invented. With bayonet fixed a musket
could be used as a weapon even if it had been fired and was not
reloaded. The bayonet did away with the need for pike men.
A history of weapons
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION IN THE 17th CENTURY
A revolution in thought occurred during the 17th century. The ancient
Greeks could be said to be scientists. They thought by using their reason
they could work out why the natural world behaves as it does. However
the Greeks never tested their theories by carrying out practical
experiments. As a result many of their ideas about the natural world
were wrong. Unfortunately the ancient Greek philosophers were held in
very high esteem and for centuries hardly anyone questioned their
theories. This began to change in the late 16th century and the early
17th century. People began to conduct experiments to see if theories
about the world were true.
In England a man named Francis Bacon 1561-1626 declared that people
should not accept that a theory was true just because a Greek
philosopher said it was. He argued that careful observation and
experiment was the key to finding out how the natural world works.
Gradually this new method of understanding the world took over. By the
late 17th century the new scientific approach had triumphed everywhere
in Europe. By then scientists were carrying out careful observations and
experiments to find out how the world works.
In 1645 a group of philosophers and mathematicians began holding
meetings to discuss science or natural philosophy. Charles II was
interested in science and in 1662 he made the club the Royal Society.
The great chemist Robert Boyle was born in 1627. He published his
famous book The Skeptical Chemist in 1661. The great physicist Isaac
Newton was born in 1642. He published his great work Principia
Mathematica in 1687.

The arts also flourished in late 17th century England. The great architect
Christopher Wren 1632-1723 designed many buildings including the
most famous St Paul's Cathedral.
The poet John Milton 1608-1674 wrote his masterpiece Paradise Lost. It
was also the era of the great English composer Henry Purcell 1659-1695.
During the 17th century belief in witchcraft and magic also declined. The
last person to be executed for witchcraft in England met her death in
1685. (Incidentally witches were hanged in England not burned).

England in the Early 17th Century

In 1603 King James VI of Scotland became King James I of England. He
began a new dynasty - the Stuarts.
James I never had the same charisma as Elizabeth I and never enjoyed
the same popularity. However among his achievements he ended the
long war with Spain in 1604. He was also responsible for a new
translation of the Bible, the King James Version, which was published in
1611.
Meanwhile in 1605 James survived an assassination attempt - The
Gunpowder Plot

However King James came into conflict with parliament. The cost of
government (and of fighting wars) was rising but the government's
income did not keep up. Rents from royal lands could only be raised
when the lease ended. Parliament was therefore in a strong position. MPs
could refuse to raise money for the king unless he bowed to their
demands. So the king was forced to look for new ways to raise money.
The situation was complicated by disagreements over religion. Many MPs
were puritans. They wished to 'purify' the Church of England of its
remaining Catholic elements. Although he was a Protestant James
disagreed with many of their views.
Furthermore James believed in the divine right of kings. In other words
God had chosen him to rule. James was willing to work with parliament
but he believed ultimate authority rested with him.
King James I died in 1625. He was 58. His son Charles followed him.
Like his father Charles I was firm believer in the divine right of kings.
From the start he quarreled with parliament.
At the beginning of his reign Charles I married a French Roman Catholic
princess, Henrietta Maria. However marrying a Catholic was very
unpopular move with the Puritans.
King Charles also fought unsuccessful wars. In 1625 he sent an
expedition to Cadiz, which ended in failure. Parliament strongly criticized
his policies and refused to raise extra taxes to pay for the Spanish war.
Charles angrily dissolved parliament and raised money by levying forced
loans. He imprisoned, without trial, anyone who refused to pay.
In 1627 an expedition was sent to La Rochelle in France. It was led by
the king's favorite the Duke of Buckingham and it ended in failure.
By 1628 the cost of wars meant Charles was desperate for money and
he was forced to call parliament. This time MPs drew up the Petition of
Right, which forbade the levying of taxes without parliament's consent. It
also forbade arbitrary imprisonment.

However king and parliament clashed over the issue of religion. In the
17th century religion was far more important than it is today. It was a
vital part of everyday life. Furthermore there was no toleration in
matters of religion. By law everybody was supposed to belong to the
Church of England (though in practice there were many Roman Catholics
especially in the Northwest).
In 1629 William Laud was Bishop of London. He was strongly opposed to
the Puritans and Charles supported him wholeheartedly.
Parliament criticized Laud and Charles called it impertinence. (He did not
think parliament had any right to do so). In return parliament refused to
grant the king taxes for more than one year. Charles sent a messenger
to parliament to announce it was dissolved. However members of the
Commons physically held the speaker down until they had passed three
resolutions about Laud and religion. Only then did they disband.
In 1633 Laud was made Archbishop of Canterbury. Laud was determined
to suppress the Puritans and he sent commissioners into almost every
parish to make sure the local churches came into line.
Furthermore the Puritans had their own preachers called lecturers. These
men were independent of the Church of England. Laud tried to put a stop
to these preachers - with some success.
Most of all Laud emphasized the ceremony and decoration in churches.
These measures were strongly opposed by the Puritans. They feared it
was the 'thin edge of the wedge' and Catholicism would eventually be
restored in England.
Meanwhile for 11 years Charles ruled without parliament. This period
was called the eleven years tyranny. Charles had various ways of raising
money without parliament's consent. In the Middle Ages men with
property worth a certain amount of money a year were supposed to
serve the king as knights. Under this old law Charles fined their
descendants for not doing so. Furthermore all wasteland had once been
royal land. In time some landowners had taken parts of it into
cultivation. Charles fined them for doing so. Using these dubious
methods by 1635 Charles was solvent.

However matters came to a head in 1637. In 1634 the king began

levying ship money. This was a traditional tax raised in coastal towns to
enable the king to build ships when more were needed. However in 1635
Charles began levying ship money in inland areas.
A Buckinghamshire squire called John Hampden refused to pay. In 1637
he was taken to court and although he lost his case he became a hero.
Ship money was very unpopular with the propertied class.
Worse in 1637 King Charles and Laud enraged the Scots by proposing
religious changes in Scotland. Laud and Charles tried to introduce a new
prayer book in Scotland. There were riots in Edinburgh. In February 1638
Scottish nobles and ministers signed a document called the National
Covenant.
Charles made two attempts to bring the Scots to heel. Both were
humiliating failures. The first Bishops War of 1639 ended with the peace
of Berwick but it was only a breathing space for both sides.
In April 1640 Charles summoned parliament again, hoping they would
agree to raise money for his Scottish campaign. Instead parliament
simply discussed its many grievances. Charles dissolved parliament on 5
May and it became known as the Short parliament because it met for
such a short time.
The Second Bishops War followed in 1640. In August 1640 the Scots
invaded England and they captured Newcastle. Charles was forced to
make peace with the Scots. By the treaty they occupied Durham and
Northumberland. Charles was forced to pay their army's costs.
Finally in August 1641 Charles was forced to abandon all attempts to
impose religious changes on Scotland. In return the Scots withdrew from
northern England.
Meanwhile, desperate for money, Charles was forced to call parliament
again in November 1640. This parliament became known as the Long
Parliament.
Parliament passed the Triennial Act, which stated that parliament must
be called every three years. A Dissolution Act stated that parliament
could not be dissolved without its consent.

Fining people who had not obtained knighthoods was declared illegal. So
was fining landowners who had encroached on royal land. Ship money
was also abolished
Parliament also took revenge on the king's hated adviser, Thomas
Wentworth, Earl of Strafford. They passed a special act declaring
Strafford was a traitor. The people of London took to the streets
demanding his execution. Charles feared for his and his families safety
and he was forced to sign the act. Strafford was executed on 12 may
1641.
Unfortunately parliament then divided. Opposition to the king was led by
John Pym but many began to fear he was going too far.
In November 1641 a list of grievances called the Grand Remonstrance
was drawn up but it was passed by only 11 votes. Pym then demanded
that the king hand over control of the militia. For many that was a step
too far. They feared that Pym might replace arbitrary royal government
with something worse.
Meanwhile parliament and the country split cover religion. Some wanted
to return the Church of England to the state of affairs before Laud.
Others wanted to abolish bishops completely. The country was becoming
dangerously divided.
In January 1642 Charles made the situation worse by highhandedly
entering the Commons and attempting to arrest 5 MPs for treason. (They
had already fled). No king had entered the Commons before and his
actions caused outrage. Once again Charles feared for his safety and he
left London.
In March 1642 Parliament declared that its ordinances were valid laws
and they did not require the royal assent.
In April 1642 the king then tried to seize arms in Hull but he was refused
entry to the town. Meanwhile in London parliament began raising an
army. (Although most of the House of Lords went over to the king). The
king also began raising an army and he set up his standard at
Nottingham in August.
The English Civil War

From the start parliament had several advantages. Firstly it held London
and the customs dues from the port were an important source of money.
Thirdly the navy supported parliament and made it difficult for the king
to receive help from abroad.
The king advanced towards London but he was stopped at Turnham
Green on 13 November 1642.
Then, in September 1643, the parliamentarians persuaded the Scots to
intervene on their behalf by promising to make England Presbyterian (a
Presbyterian church is one organised without bishops). A Scottish army
entered England in January 1644.
The parliamentarians then decided to reform their army. In December
1644 they passed the Self Denying Ordinance, which stated that all MPs
(except Oliver Cromwell and his son-in-law Henry Ireton) must give up
their commands. Early in 1645 parliamentary forces were reorganized
and became the New Model Army.
Afterwards the parliamentarians slowly gathered strength. Finally in May
1646 the king surrendered to the Scots.
Meanwhile following civil war radical ideas flourished. In November 1646
a man named John Lilburne, one of a group of radicals called the
Levellers published a tract called London's Liberty in Chains. He
demanded a republic and the abolition of the House of Lords. He also
said that all men should be allowed to vote and their should be religious
freedom.
Meanwhile in December 1647 Charles made a secret agreement with the
Scots. They agreed to invade England on his behalf. However Oliver
Cromwell crushed an army of Scots and English royalists at Preston.
The army now felt that parliament was being too lenient with the king.
They occupied London and Colonel Thomas Pride ejected about 140
members of the Commons. This action was called 'Pride's Purge'. It left a
'rump parliament' of about 60 members.
On 17 March 1649 parliament passed an act abolishing monarchy and
the House of Lords.