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Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology

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Ventilation, Industrial
Howard D. Goodfellow
University of Toronto and Stantec Global Technologies Ltd.

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.

Ventilation Design Methodology

Ventilation Equipment
Design Equations for Industrial Ventilation
Ventilation Modeling Using Computers
Ventilation Modeling Using Fluid Dynamics
Solving Ventilation Problems for Existing Plants

GLOSSARY
Canopy Structure or enclosure located above a contaminant source to capture the rising contaminant into a
ducted system.
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics.
Dust Small particles created by the breaking of larger
particles by mechanical action.
Face velocity Air velocity at the hood opening.
Froude number Dimensionless number that is the ratio
of inertial forces to buoyancy forces.
Fume Small solid particles formed by the condensation
of vapors of solid materials.
Hood Structure designed to enclose or partially enclose
a contaminant-generating operation.
Industrial air technologies Air flow control technologies to control workplace indoor environment and
emissions.
Mist Small droplet of materials that are ordinarily liquid
at normal temperature and pressure.
Neutral zone or plane of neutral pressure Elevation
within a building at which neither the outside air tends

to move into the building nor the inside air tends to

move out.
Reynolds number Dimensionless number that is the ratio of inertial to viscous forces.
Target levels Acceptable design levels for contaminants
in an industrial environment.
Threshold limit values Airborne concentrations of substances for conditions under which it is believed that
nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after
day without adverse effect.

THE FIELD OF INDUSTRIAL ventilation, or the more

general, Industrial Air Technology (IAT) is a challenging
field, which has been neglected by the scientific community until the last decade.
In all ventilation, the condition of the indoor environment called Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) and the exposures
for the occupants are important. In industrial facilities, the
contaminant emission rates may be 10100 times higher
than in nonindustrial facilities, but for many contaminants,
the IAQ levels may be the same. From a design point of

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view, the first priority is to consider the process, but other

important issues, such as occupants, energy, environment,
corporate image, etc., must also be considered.
The benefits of advanced industrial ventilation with improved IAQ are

The more general IAT system category can be classified

into three categories: (1) industrial ventilation, (2) process
air technology, and (3) safety systems.
A more detailed breakdown of these systems is as follows.

r Improved health of workers and reduced absenteeism

r Improved work satisfaction, higher productivity, and

INDUSTRIAL VENTILATION

reduced production failures

r Air conditioning systems

fabrics, machinery, and products

Air conditioning systems include control of air quality

and thermal environment for both human occupancy
and processes
r General ventilation systems
In general ventilation systems, some indoor air
parameters are controlled only partially. Target levels
are usually lower than for air conditioning.
r Local ventilation systems
These are used for local controlled zones. These
systems are based on local capture of contaminants.
r Process ventilation systems
In process ventilation, the target is to maintain defined
conditions to ensure process performance, e.g., paper
machine hoods.

r Reduction in maintenance costs for the building

r Reduction in energy consumption
r Opportunity to select new energy-efficient systems in

ventilation design

r Environmental pollution is reduced by lower energy

usage and lower emissions to the surroundings

r Embraces Clean Plant Design Concept

r Improve life cycle

Figure 1 is a schematic representation of the principles

of industrial ventilation.
It is typical for industrial premises to have, in one space,
zones with different target levels. The target levels may be
determined for the whole area or locally. Often only a part
of the space requires controlling of the indoor environment
parameters. In addition to the main controlled zone, there
may be one or more local controlled zones with different
target levels than the main controlled zone.
Industrial air technology field is a more general description than industrial ventilation and includes measures to
prevent harmful emissions from industrial processes to be
discharged outdoors, conveying and cleaning technologies, and controlled discharge of exhaust air to outdoors.
Industrial air technology systems include drying, process
ventilation, and safety air systems.
The scope of the IAT field includes industrial process
buildings, as well as hospitals, underground car parks,
mining, railroad and vehicle tunnels, livestock buildings,
and other similar premises and processes.

PROCESS AIR TECHNOLOGY

r Cleaning systems

Cleaning systems are used to remove contaminants,

clean the resulting fluid flows and collect materials
before discharging the exhaust air.
r Pneumatic conveying systems
Conveying systems are used to transport captured
pollutants from processes to a collection point.
r Drying systems
Drying systems are used to remove moisture, gases,
and vapors from the product

SAFETY AIR TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS

r Designs to ensure safety from explosions

FIGURE 1 Zoning and IAT systems.

Typically, industrial premises will have, in one space,

zones with different activities, which require different target levels for indoor environment and its control. These
target levels may be determined for the whole area or locally. Also, often only a part of the space needs to be controlled. In addition to the main controlled zone, there may
be one or more local controlled zones with different targets
than in the main controlled zone. For example, machines
equipped with electrical components require very clean
and accurately controlled indoor environment, while the

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unoccupied zone by the ceiling needs only a less stringent

controlled protection against structural damages.
In industrial premises, the target levels of IAQ, as well
as other targets, e.g., emissions, shall be specified zone by
zone.
Controlled zone is a zone in which the thermal and air
purity (quality) conditions are controlled to their specified
levels. The two categories of controlled zones are
r Main controlled zone is normally a large area, which is

often the same as occupied zone

r Local controlled zone, an area where the air is

controlled locally, the control requirements may be for

worker protection and comfort, for process control, or
for production protection
Uncontrolled zone is a zone in which source emissions
will be captured by source capturing system, and where the
capture efficiency is determined and shall be maintained
over the working period. From the pollutant concentration point of view, the capture zone is uncontrolled (e.g.,
workers shall not enter a capture zone without additional
protection).
Room air conditioning systems are used for controlling
the main controlled zone. Systems can be divided into
subsystems:
r
r
r
r
r
r
r

Air handling systems

Air distribution systems (ductwork)
Room air distribution systems
Ventilation systems
Room heating and cooling systems
Main exhaust systems
Discharge systems: stacks, environmental dispersion
Note: Air distribution systems are not ventilation or air
conditioning systems. For example, mixing air
distribution or displacement air distribution are
methods to bring the supply air to the treated space.

Discharge systems are used to discharge exhaust air to

outdoors in such a way that harmful spreading of pollutants
to environment and back to indoors is avoided.
Local ventilation systems are used for local controlled
zones. These systems are based on local exhaust ventilation for local protection. Primarily local protection should
be made using process methods such as encapsulation,
process modification, source capturing, etc.
Local ventilation systems can be divided into the following subsystems:
r Local exhaust
r Local supply, including air curtains, i.e., control of air

flow using jets

r Combined local supply and exhausts

Fans, ducts, and filters are subsystems of local exhaust

ventilation.
Methods for Room Air
ConditioningBasic Strategies
Table I summarizes the strategies for room air conditioning. This table includes a description of the four strategies,
main characteristics, and typical applications.
Industrial ventilation refers to the control of the environment with airflow as it applies to processing and
manufacturing operations. The design methodology for
ventilation systems is described on the basis of the development of ventilation system design as an integral part of
the project planning and design activities. Procedures to
be implemented for the development of technical specifications for louvers and roof exhausters are presented. The
theoretical development of the design equations for heat
release calculations, air set in motion, gravity or powered
ventilators, and dilution ventilation is covered. Ventilation
modeling is described for both computer applications and
fluid dynamic techniques. Techniques for solving ventilation problems for existing plants are summarized.

I. VENTILATION DESIGN METHODOLOGY

A. Background
Most industrial ventilation problems are complex. The development of cost-effective solutions requires an experienced and qualified ventilation engineer working with an
industrial hygienist. Experience has shown that the four
solutions to be considered for a ventilation problem, in
order of priority, are as follows:
1. Process modifications to eliminate the contaminant
problem can range from a total to a partial process
change. For some operations, a change in the
materials handling system may be required (e.g., type
of system, frequency of operation, change in material
composition or temperature).
2. If no acceptable process changes are possible, the
application of local exhaust ventilation should be
considered. Local exhaust ventilation usually requires
ducted systems with hoods and covers. Figure 2 is a
schematic of a local exhaust ventilation system. These
systems are commonly referred to as dust control,
fume control, and mist control systems. For local
exhaust ventilation systems, the concentration of
contaminant in the exhaust duct is significantly higher
than in the general room area.

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TABLE I Ideal Room Air Conditioning Strategies

Air conditioning
strategy
Description

Heat, Humidity and

Contaminant
Distribution
(Pictures)
X-axis: C,
mg/m3 , %RH
Y:axis: Room dim.
(e.g. height)
SU = supply,
EX = exhaust
Main characteristics:

Ideal Contaminantand Heat Removal

Efficiency

Piston
To create unidirectional
air flow field over the
room area by supply air.

Room dimension

SU

EX

T, C, x

Room air flow patterns

controlled by low
momentum
unidirectional
supply air flow,
strong enough to
overcome disturbances

Stratification

Zoning

Mixing

To support flow field created

by density differences by
replacing the airflow out
from the room area with
supply air

To control air conditions

within the selected zone
in the room by the supply
air and allow stratification
of heat and contaminants
in the other room areas

To provide uniform
conditions throughout
the ventilated space

Room dimension

SU

Room dimension

EX

T, C, x

Room air flow patterns

controlled mainly
by boyancy; supply air
distribution with low
momentum

SU

Room dimension

EX

T, C, x

Room air flow patterns

controlled partly by supply
and partly by boyancy

SU

EX

T, C, x

Room air flow patterns

controlled typically
by high momentum
supply air flow

Typical application
(An example of
a general room
air distribution
method)

3. For applications where local exhaust ventilation is not

feasible, process building or general work area
ventilation must be employed. For these systems,
contaminated air is exhausted to the outdoors and
large volumes of makeup air are introduced to dilute
plant air contaminants to acceptable concentrations.
For these industrial ventilation applications, the
concentration of contaminant in the exhaust duct is
not significantly higher than the contaminant
concentration in the general room air. Figure 3 is a
schematic of a general work area ventilation
system.

FIGURE 2 Schematic of local exhaust ventilation system.

For any specific industrial ventilation problem, the

contaminated air can be exhausted by natural
ventilation (taking advantage of buoyancy-driven
forces arising from heat sources) or forced ventilation
(using fans or roof exhausters). Design equations are
developed in Section III for natural or forced
ventilation systems for the control of heat, dust, and

FIGURE 3 Schematic of general work area ventilation system.

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fume for large industrial process buildings. Design

equations are also developed for dilution ventilation
applications as they apply to gases and volatile vapors.
4. Personal protection equipment, such as respirators,
should only be considered for solving ventilation
problems as an emergency or an interim maintenance
requirement.
B. Design Methodology
On a global basis, significant progress has been made
since 1990 in developing a systematic design procedure
for industrial ventilation systems. The initial research and
development effort was started in Finland in 1991 with
the launch of the INVENT program and an investment of
more than $20 million U.S. dollars. In 1995, a decision
was made at a workshop in Zurich to start preparation of
an international guidebook for industrial ventilation. An
analysis of the current state-of-the-art identified the following issues:
1. No scientific basis for many design applications
2. No harmonization of design equations from different
countries or researchers
3. Gaps in technical literature not defined and no
roadmap identified for future technological
developments
4. Many ventilation books are out of data
5. No longer acceptable to overdesign ventilation
systems
6. No handbook in the industrial ventilation field
7. No accepted design methodology based on a
rigorous scientific approach
8. Ventilation field fragmented on a global basis so
need collaboration by a team of international experts
9. Excellent opportunity to collate worldwide research
and development efforts into a single handbook
10. INVENT program started in Finland has generated
momentum and a critical mass to make project
successful
The design of a ventilation system must be incorporated into the plant design and layout at the earliest conceptual stage of the project. The ventilation engineer must
work closely with the project design team at all stages of
the project since the ventilation system can have a major impact on the type of process to be used, the plot
plan, the building profile, and equipment layout within the
plant.
In many applications, the ideal ventilation scheme may
be in conflict with other environmental design criteria such
as noise control and fume control. For example, ideal ventilation schemes may be based on the concept of a wide-

open building to enhance natural ventilation: this is in

conflict with noise control considerations that require the
plant to be enclosed as much as possible to reduce neighborhood noise. Another example of this conflict is the use
of canopies for remote fume capture. Canopies perform
best if the building is totally enclosed to prevent cross
drafts from disturbing the rising plume and causing it to
miss the fume control system. Cost-effective ventilation
systems can only be developed if the ventilation system
design is an integral part of the project planning and design
activities from the preliminary conceptual stage.
Figure 4 is an outline of the systematic design methodology procedure for industrial ventilation. This design
methodology has been developed over many years of international collaboration and represents input from numerous
engineers, researchers, scientists, and practitioners in the
industrial ventilation field. A brief description of the different design steps follows below. (More details can be found
in the Handbook of Industrial Ventilation edited by H.D.
Goodfellow and E. Tahti, listed in the bibliography.)
C. Target Levels
It is difficult to achieve a good indoor environment in
an industrial facility because of the lack of a scientific

FIGURE 4 Outline of the systematic design methodology procedure for industrial ventilation.

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foundation for setting target levels for industrial air quality.

This target level becomes the design input for establishing
the industrial ventilation system design parameters. A detailed description of the use of target levels of air quality
as a valuable design tool is presented in a Handbook of
Industrial Ventilation by H.D. Goodfellow and E. Tahti.
Details of a case history of the application of target level
and design methodology for paper machine room ventilation are also included.
Step 1: Given data
r Identify and collect data that are site specific (i.e.,

climatic conditions, site elevation, etc.)

r Literature search to obtain published ventilation design

data
Step 2: Process description
r Understand the industrial process and identify

subprocesses

r Identify possible emission sources, occupational areas,

effects of environmental parameters on production,

needs for enclosure, and ventilation equipment
r Divide process in such parts that their inputs and
outputs to the environment can be defined
FIGURE 5 Design methodology for industrial ventilation systems.

Step 3: Building layout and structures

basis for defining acceptable design levels for contaminants in an industrial setting. A detailed database for existing contaminant exposure is available from the Finnish
Institute of Occupational Hygiene (FIOH). Figure 5 shows
a recommended approach for assessing target levels of industrial air quality.
Target concentrations of air contaminants can be developed based on both human risk assessment and technology. Health risk estimates at low concentrations (e.g., below one-tenth of the current occupational exposure limits)
are, in general, inaccurate and rather unreliable. Consequently, technology-based approaches for the assessment
of target concentrations have been emphasized. The control technology approach is based on information on current concentrations achieved by standard practices and
benchmark concentrations achieved by the advanced
ventilation and production technologies.
Existing contaminant exposure data banks, such as
available from FIOH and other international health and
safety bodies, can be utilized for assessing concentration
levels that are achievable. The benchmark air quality has
been determined by measuring concentrations in factories
equipped with the advanced technologies. This information on the benchmark air quality, the current concentration levels, and the health and comfort effects form the

r Collect properties of building layout, structures and

building envelope, and openings

r Complete zoning of building based on division of the

process and building layout

r Identify layout requirements and structures required

for ventilation systems

r Develop isometric of building showing all openings

Step 4: Target-level assessment

r Define target levels for indoor (zones) and outdoor

(exhaust) conditions based on human risk assessment

and technology
r Specific design conditions for which the target levels
for ventilation system based on reliability, energy
consumption, investment, and life cycle costs, etc.
Step 5: Source description
r Identify emission sources by type (chemical and

physical properties)

r Complete typical data sheet to be used to develop a

catalog of emission sources (Fig. 6) review

requirements for heat load calculations

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Step 8: Calculation of total building loads

r Calculate total loads (heat, humidity, contaminants)

from different subprocesses and building for specific

zones of the building
r Account for time dependency of emissions
r Evaluate system performance and establish if target
levels or building layout and structures need to be
revised
Step 9: Selection of the system
r Select acceptable systems based on target levels
r Identify feasibility of different options selected
r Select the most effective ventilation system

Step 10: Selection of equipment

r Identify system specifications
r Select acceptable equipment based on performance

characteristics

r Equipment recommendations
r Prepare a technical specification for selected

equipment
Step 11: Detailed design
r Calculate dimensioning requirements for selected

systems

r Detailed layout ventilation systems

r Design control system
r Consider special issues such as thermal insulation,

condensation risks, fire protection, sound and vibration

damping, maintenance, etc.
r Develop construction and commissioning plan
FIGURE 6 Catalog of emission sources data sheet.

II. VENTILATION EQUIPMENT

Step 6: Local protection
r Calculate heat loads from individual sources (see

Section III)
r Use emission data or calculation models
r Calculate total volume of air set in motion
r Heat and flow balances
Step 7: Local protection
r Examine feasibility of local source control
r Calculate working conditions for different options
r Compare to target levels of local zone

A. Background
For industrial ventilation systems, the major equipment
components are louvers and roof ventilators (gravity or
powered). This equipment should only be purchased after the system design has been completed and proper
technical specifications have been prepared by a qualified and experienced ventilation engineer. The technical
specifications must clearly and concisely communicate
the users requirements or criteria to the bidders. Some
important guidelines that will assist the engineer in the
preparation of better technical specifications include the
following.

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1. Do your homework. The engineer preparing

specifications must have an in-depth technical
knowledge of the specified components.
2. Clearly define the scope of work. that is, what is
included and excluded.
3. Strive for clarity and conciseness. Avoid ambiguous
phrases, legalese, and repetition.
4. Discuss your requirements with suppliers first. What
is available?
5. Define performance criteria and the required
warranty. The basis of performance criteria must be
well developed and must include details of testing
procedures.
6. Aim for performance specifications. Avoid highly
restrictive ones.
7. Do not reinvent the wheel. Modify standard
specifications.
8. Supply pertinent process data, test results,
information on operating conditions, and samples of
contaminants.
9. Be specific. Minimize reference to general standards.
10. Attach a technical questionnaire to be completed by
all bidders and used during bid analysis.
B. Louvers
In industrial buildings, the prime purpose of louvers is to
control the location and flow of incoming air. Some design
guidelines for industrial louvers follow.

FIGURE 7 Typical ventilation equipment: (a) louvers, (b) roof gravity ventilators, (c) square or rectangular powered roof exhausters.

1. The velocity of the incoming air must be low enough

to prevent uncomfortable drafts on personnel
(0.5 m/sec).
2. Louvers must be located to account for wind
patterns.
3. Any openings for louvers must minimize the
penetration of rain or snow.
4. Airflow requirements must be reduced during the
winter.
5. Louvers must be of rugged design and able to
operate in hot, dusty environments as well as under
freezing conditions.
6. Resistance to airflow must be minimized.
7. Louver designs must be architecturally pleasing.
8. A special screen design may be required to keep out
insects or birds.
9. Acoustic treatment may be required.
10. Design must be flexible to accommodate the
addition of heat to the incoming air.
11. Louver elevation must be high enough to avoid
damage from snow removal or other equipment.
12. Louver elevation must be low enough to supply air
without the occurrence of dead zones.

Louvers are available in a great variety of types, blade

profiles, materials, and finishes. A typical industrial louver profile is shown in Fig. 7. Louver types can be fixed or
operating, coordinated louvers, or custom special louvers.
The operating types can be manual with a push bar spring
and chain, gear box and shafting, pneumatic, or electric.
Louvers come in a wide range of standard materials and
finishes (e.g., galvanized, aluminum) as well as custom
design louvers (e.g., stainless steel). Louvers may be located in a row around the perimeter of the building or may
be stacked vertically in banks with proper support steel.
In the design of louvers for a ventilation system, the
critical design features involve the air pressure drop at the
specific velocity of the air (either expressed as a face velocity or velocity through the free area), as well as the
weather penetration at this velocity. The specified airflow into the building through louvers is established on
the basis of ventilation design calculations. For a specific
application, the engineer, in consultation with the louver
suppliers, can select the type of louver, material of construction, blade profile, and actual location of louvers. For
guidance, selection should follow the design guidelines
listed earlier.

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With the known flow rate and a recommended louver

face velocity, the louver size can be determined. For
each type of louver, information is available from the
louver supplier that relates pressure drop in millimeters
of water to air velocities through the free area of the
louver expressed in meters per second. The percent free
area of the louver can be calculated from information
supplied by the louver manufacturer. The actual velocity
of air through the blades is calculated by dividing the
flow rate by the louver free area. For this velocity through
the blades, the pressure drop can be determined from a
typical curve based on test work for the specific louver.
The velocity usually selected is about 1.25 m/sec.
C. Roof Ventilators (Gravity or Powered)
Roof ventilators are widely used in industrial buildings
and are the workhorses of the industry. Roof ventilators
are devices designed either to introduce outdoor air into
buildings or to exhaust air from them. Supply systems
may bring outside air into specific work areas to control the in-plant environment, or they may supply makeup
air to balance exhaust requirements. These supply units
may be equipped with filters or humidifying sections to
produce cleaned or conditioned air. Some supply units
may be designed to recover heat or to add heat by means
of hot water or steam coils to reduce the space-heating
load. The primary function of a roof exhauster is the direct exhaust of heat, moisture, and contaminants, such as
fume, smoke, noxious gases, or mists, from the workplace
environment.
Ventilators may be gravity or powered. Gravity ventilators depend on thermal driving forces. with the hot air
rising and being exhausted through the roof. Power ventilators or powered roof ventilators (PRVs) have motordriven fans. They may be designed to exhaust air, to
bring in outdoor air, or to operate in either mode as
required.
Gravity ventilators are available in many different styles
and materials of construction. Figure 7 shows a typical profile of a gravity ventilator. Gravity ventilators are
sometimes referred to as monitors, streamline monitors,
or guided-flow or sawtooth roof monitors.
Powered roof ventilators come in three basic configurations: round, dome, and square or rectangular. Figure 7
shows a schematic of a square or rectangular powered roof
exhauster.
For almost all applications. both types of ventilators
should be considered at the conceptual stage. A selection
should only be made after proper technical and economic
analyses have been completed. Some general guidelines
for selecting either gravity or powered ventilators include
the following.

1. The initial total cost will be much higher for gravity

ventilators.
2. Operating costs for powered ventilators will be higher
(power, maintenance).
3. Community noise is often a problem with powered
roof exhausters.
4. Powered exhausters provide more flexible and better
control. They can be located directly above the hot
source, can operate in an on/off mode or with a
two-speed fan, and can be turned off in winter.
5. A good feature of gravity ventilators is that they are
self-regulating. The ventilation rate through a section
will increase if the heat release from a source below
increases.
6. Powered ventilators have higher discharge rates that
help reduce ground-level concentrations and reduce
the effect of wind.
7. Gravity ventilator designs can be used to complement
the architectural features of industrial buildings.
The important design parameter for gravity ventilators
is the throat area or flow area required for a given flow
rate. Exhaust capacities must account for heat, height, and
wind factors. It is also known that special building pressure
conditions, air supply locations, equipment or structural
obstructions, and the transient nature of heat releases all
affect ventilation rates. For specific conditions, it may be
necessary to perform modeling tests or a more rigorous
calculation approach, as described in Section III.
Powered ventilators must be sized to handle the required
flow at a static pressure by using tables available from the
equipment suppliers. In many plants, poor flow conditions
at either the inlet or outlet of the powered roof exhausters
have a very significant effect on the ventilation rate. If
a ventilation problem exists in a plant with powered roof
exhausters, the first step in problem solving should always
be to measure actual flow rates in the field.

III. DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR

INDUSTRIAL VENTILATION
A. Heat Release Calculations
Detailed calculations can be carried out to establish heat
releases from the different operations within the process
building. Heat is released from surfaces by convective
forces that cause thermal updrafts, thus making up the
primary ventilation flows, and by radiant transfer. Radiant
heat that is not ultimately converted into convective heat
does not affect the primary ventilation flow. This would
include radiant heat that is absorbed by the roof and walls
and subsequently lost to the outside atmosphere. However,

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radiant heat absorbed within the building and converted

to convective heat does affect the primary ventilation flow
rate. Both the steady and the intermittent heat releases are
calculated. For design purposes, it is recommended that an
average heat release be established to be somewhat higher
than the steady heat release.
For convective heat losses, the heat release from equipment surfaces is calculated with the equation
qc = h c A(Ts Ta )
where qc is convective heat loss (kcal/sec), h c the natural convective heat transfer coefficient in kilocalories
(kcal/m2 C sec), A the surface area of hot source (m2 ), Ts
the surface temperature ( C), Ta the surrounding air temperature ( C). The convective heat transfer coefficient h c
can be readily estimated from well-established formulas
that can be found in standard heat transfer reference books.
For radiant heat losses, the heat release from equipment
surfaces is calculated by


qr = F A Ts4 Ta4
where qr is radiant heat loss (kcal/sec),
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (kcal/m2 sec K4 ), emissivity
of substance (blackbody coefficient of the radiating
surface), F view factor (usually assumed equal to 1),
A surface area of hot source (m2 ), Ts absolute surface
temperature (K), Ta absolute surrounding air temperature
(K). Emissivities for various surfaces are available in
standard references.
The total heat release from the equipment surface is
the sum of the convection and the radiation heat losses.
The heat loss calculations provide the necessary data
for the ventilation heat balance and total building heat
balance.
B. Air Set-in-Motion Calculations
Air set-in-motion calculations account for major air and
fume vertical flows that are produced by the total convective portion (may include some radiant heat loss that is
converted to convective heat) of heat release from hot processes. This hot air is heated by contact with the surfaces
of the hot equipment and rises due to thermal buoyancy.
The size and velocity of this hot air column is a function of
the heat release rate and the distance between the source
and the roof level. The roof ventilators must accommodate the total flow of hot air delivered to them in order to
ensure that the hot contaminated air does not recirculate
to the lower working areas. It is imperative that the total
volumes of air set in motion be calculated and compared
to the exhaust rates of roof ventilators.
The heated air stream originating from the surfaces of
hot bodies mixes turbulently with the surrounding air as

it moves upward. An air stream at a hot body source may

have a flow of 0.5 m3 /sec. After some vertical travel, this
hot air stream may set in motion, and become mixed with
(i.e., entrained in), an additional flow of 50 m3 /sec of
surrounding air. To avoid recirculation, roof ventilators
should, as a minimum, accommodate this total flow arriving at the roof level.
The following plume flow rate equations for point
plumes (first equation) and line plumes (second) can be
used to calculate air set in motion at different elevations:
Q = (6 /5)(18F/5 )1/3 z 5/3
Q = 2(F/)1/3 z
where Q is the plume flow rate at elevation z (m3 /sec)
(for a line plume, Q is plume flow rate per unit length of
source), entrainment constant (point plume 0.093, line
plume 0.156), z vertical distance from plume origin to roof
truss in meters, and F buoyancy flux (m4 /s3 )
F = qgc /Cp T0 0
where q is source heat flux (kcal/sec), gc acceleration
due to gravity (9.81 m/sec2 ), Cp ambient air specific heat
(kcal/kg K), T0 absolute ambient temperature (K), and 0
ambient air density (kg/m3 ).
C. Gravity or Powered Ventilation
In a classical technical paper in the ventilation field, published in 1926, Emswiler defined the concept of a neutral
zone or plane of neutral pressure as the elevation within
a building at which neither the outside air tends to move
into the building nor the inside air tends to move out.
Emswiler developed two theorems that apply to industrial
ventilation and form the basis for design.
Theorem 1. The sum of flow rates into the building
below the neutral zone must equal the sum of the flow
rates out of the building above the neutral zone.
n

i=1

Ai vi +

n


Qj = 0

j=1

where Ai is the area of opening (m2 ), vi the velocity

through the opening (m/sec), Q j the powered ventilation
flow rates (m3 /sec).
Theorem 2. The driving force at each opening is related to the vertical distance between the opening and the
neutral zone and the temperature difference between the
opening and the neutral zone:

Q N = A N L nz tnz /(RT )
where Q N is the flow rate (m3 /sec), A N the area of the
opening (m2 ), L nz the distance from center line of the

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opening to the neutral zone (m), tnz the temperature difference between the opening and the neutral zone (K), R
the resistance of the opening, and T the absolute temperature of the air at the opening (K).
The resistance of the opening R is given by
R = 1/2gc C

where gc is acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/sec2 ) and

C the loss coefficient for the opening. Substituting for R
in the preceding equation, the flow rate is given by

Q N = 4.43CA N L nz tnz /T (m3 /sec)
For C = 0.65,

Q N = (2.88/ T )A N L nz tnz

(m3 /sec)

Figure 8 shows the plane of neutral pressure for a hot

process building. The elevation of the neutral zone is determined by trial and error using the preceding equations.
The temperature rise through a hot process building is
a function of the amount of heat released in the building
and the ventilation flow rate. The heat balance equation
can be written as
t = q/Cp Q
where t is the temperature rise through the building ( C),
q the heat release rate (kcal/sec), the air density (kg/m3 ),
Cp the heat capacity of air (kcal/kg C), and Q the ventilation flow rate (m3 /sec).
Baturin has developed four equations that describe the
ventilation process. These equations can be used to calculate air changes in single-span and multispan (commonly
called multibay) process buildings.

The rate at which air flows through an opening of area

A, with a pressure difference P between the pressure
indoors and outdoors, is given by

G = CF A 2gc P
where G is the mass flow rate (kg/sec), CF the discharge
coefficient of flow (dimensionless), A the area of the opening (m2 ), gc acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/sec2 ),
the density of the air in the initial state (kg/m3 ), and P
the difference between the inside and the outside pressure
at a given opening (kg/m2 ).
From the continuity equations for the steady state, the
amount of air coming into the shop per unit of time (in
kilograms per second) is equal to the amount of air leaving
the shop in the same time period. Thus the air balance
equation is given by


G in =
G out
For the heat balance equation, the quantity of heat removed from the shop must equal the sum of the heat
brought into the shop by the outdoor air plus the surplus
heat given off in the shop in the same unit of time.
G = q/[Cp (tout tamb )]
where G is the mass flow rate of air leaving the shop
(kg/sec), q the quantity of heat removed from the shop
(kcal/sec), Cp the heat capacity of air (kcal/kg C), tout
the outlet air temperature ( C), tamb the ambient air
temperature ( C).
For natural ventilation, wind has a significant effect on
building ventilation rates. The effect of wind on a building
manifests itself as an increase in pressure on its windward
side and as suction on the leeward size. The pressure at any
arbitrary plane on a building is a magnitude of pressure in

FIGURE 8 The plane of neutral pressure as defined by Emswiler.

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excess of ambient pressure. This ratio is called the pressure coefficient and is dimensionless. Experiments have
shown that pressure coefficients remain constant on geometrically similar buildings. Thus, pressure coefficients
for buildings are found by wind-tunnel tests on geometrically similar models. The wind pressures are obtained
by multiplying the pressure coefficient for the points concerned by the velocity pressure of the wind as
p = kw (v 2 /2gc )
where p is the wind pressure (kg/m2 ), kw the wind pressure
coefficient (dimensionless), the air density (kg/m3 ), v
the velocity (m/sec), and gc the acceleration due to gravity
(9.81 m/sec2 ).
The preceding equations allow the amount of ventilation air required to meet allowable contaminant concentrations to be determined. The equations also allow the
areas of the vents in the walls and roof to be calculated.
For systems with mechanical ventilation as well as natural
ventilation, the quantity of air that is supplied or removed
by mechanical ventilation is written into the air balance
equation on the inlet or outlet side.
D. Dilution Ventilation
Starting with a fundamental differential material balance,
dilution ventilation requirements can be related to the generation and removal rates of a contaminant as
V dC

rate of
accumulation

= G dt Q  C dt
rate of
generation

rate of
removal

where V is the volume of the room or enclosure (m ), C the

concentration of gas or vapor at time t (ppm), G the rate
of generation of contaminant (m3 /sec), t the time (sec),
Q  = Q /K the effective rate of ventilation corrected for
incomplete mixing (m3 /sec), and K the design distribution
constant or mixing factor, allowing for incomplete mixing.
Before solving the dilution ventilation equation for different cases, it is important to establish a procedure for
estimating K , the mixing factor. Ventilation of contaminated air in a space would be simple if the outside air
could enter the room in a laminar fashion without turbulence and remove the contaminated air in a piston fashion.
For this condition, one air change would be required to
completely remove the contaminated air (K = 1). In practice, however, the introduction of the fresh air results in
turbulent mixing with the contaminated air, and after one
air change, the room still contains a dilution mixture of
fresh and contaminated air. For most industrial ventilation applications, K varies from 3 to 10. Factors that must
be considered by an experienced industrial hygienist or
ventilation engineer in selecting the K value include

1. Contaminant toxicity
2. Location and number of points of generation of
contaminant in the room or work area
3. Location of air inlets and outlets
4. Duration of the process, operational cycle, and normal
location of workers relative to sources of
contamination
5. Geometry of enclosures or room
6. Reduction in operating efficiency of mechanical air
moving devices
7. Seasonal changes in the amount of natural ventilation
The dilution ventilation equation will be solved for the
following three cases: (1) case A, rate of contaminant concentration buildup, (2) case B, maintenance of acceptable
concentrations at steady state, and (3) case C, rate of purging. Figure 9 is a graphical representation of these cases
on a plot of concentration versus time.
1. Case A: Rate of Contaminant
Concentration Buildup
Rearranging the dilution ventilation equation and integrating,

 C2
dC
1 t2
dt
=

V t1
C1 G Q C


G Q  C2
Q
ln
=

(t2 t1 )
G Q  C1
V
For the case of C1 = 0 at t1 = 0, this can be simplified to

V
(G Q  C)
t =  ln
Q
G
2. Case B: Maintaining Acceptable
Concentrations at Steady State
At steady state, dC = 0 and the preceding equation becomes
G dt = Q  C dt

FIGURE 9 Contaminant concentration versus time for different

dilution ventilation conditions.

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For a uniform generation rate and a constant concentration

 t2
 t2
G
dt = Q  C
dt
t1

t1


G(t2 t1 ) = Q C(t2 t1 )
KG
C
The preceding equation can be used to calculate the
flow rate of uncontaminated dilution air required to reduce the ambient concentration of a hazardous material
to an acceptable level. For liquid solvents, equations can
be developed based on the steady state to determine the
ventilation volume requirements for specific weights or
volumes of solvent evaporated. In metric units, the equations are
Q=

cubic meters per liter of solvent evaporated

=

24.1 specific gravity of liquid 106 K

molecular weight of liquid TLV

cubic meters per kilogram of solvent evaporated

=

24.1 106 K
molecular weight of liquid TLV

FIGURE 10 Displacement ventilation in workshops.

air and the contaminated air. Systems can be designed to

utilize thermal or density stratification to create a tendency
to unidirectional flow, that is, to create displacement flow.
The benefits of displacement flow are that it improves
the air renewal and contaminant removal speed and that
it assists in maintaining favorable concentration gradients
of the contaminants generated in the room. Calculation
procedures based on mathematical two-zone models have
been established.

where TLV is the threshold limit value.

3. Case C: Rate of Purging
To calculate the rate of decrease of concentration of contaminant over a period of time for the case where a volume
of air is contaminated and the contaminant generation process ceases (i.e., G dt = 0), the dilution ventilation equation is integrated as
 C2

Q  t2
dC
=
dt
C
V t1
C1
ln

Q
C2
= (t2 t1 )
C1
V

or
t2 =

V
C2
ln
Q  C1

For any specific contaminant, the design criteria may be

based on regulated limits, comfort limits, or odor threshold concentrations. For many industrial solvents, the most
stringent design criterion for a dilution ventilation system
is based on the odor threshold concentration.
Ventilation by displacement is a concept developed and
tested in laboratories in Norway and is based on ideal
unidirectional flow (plug flow). For this situation, as shown
in Fig. 10, no short circuiting takes place and the residence
time for the room air is exactly the transit time (ideal
case). A stratification takes place between the clean supply

IV. VENTILATION MODELING

USING COMPUTERS
A mathematical model for building ventilation has been
developed based on modifying Baturins four ventilation
equations. Except for the simplest cases, the solution procedure is iterative. For a building with many ventilation openings, the calculation procedure can become very
time-consuming. Computer programs are available that
can be applied for solving industrial ventilation problems.
Figure 11, a flow diagram of the computer ventilation
model, shows a typical input, the initialization and iteration loop, and the output. Further details are available in
the book by Goodfellow, Advanced Design of Ventilation
Systems for Contaminant Control.
The computer model has been verified by using data
from six independent surveys. Five of the surveys were
carried out on three different days in a three-aisle process
building approximately 275 m in length. The sixth survey was conducted in a multiple-aisle, high-production,
BOF ingot teeming building with several hundred building
openings. Results of the verification are shown in Table II.
With prevailing winds accounted for, the predicted and
measured results are all within 20% of each other. Table II
also gives the calculated flow rates for the no-wind condition. Results for calm conditions underestimate the total
flow rate by 1520%. The agreement between predicted
model flows and measured flows for individual openings

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FIGURE 11 Computer ventilation model flow diagram.

has also been studied. Scatter of individual points does

occur because of wind gustiness during measurement,
nonuniform distribution of heat sources, and pressure disturbances due to local building features. However, the
overall agreement is shown to be good.

Once correct modeling of observed ventilation flow

rates is established, the computer program can be used
to study the effects of different atmospheric conditions
(summer/winter, wind direction and speed, etc.) on the
ventilation characteristics for the shop. It is also a very

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TABLE II Verification of Ventilation Computer Model
Wind
Survey
number

Direction

Speed
(km/hr)

Heat
release
(Mcal/sec)

1
2
3
4
5
6

NNE
S
S
NNE
NNE
NE

2.7
9.0
12.0
3.6
15.5
16.2

1.5
2.7
2.4
2.0
2.9
20.0

useful tool in the evaluation of proposed ventilation improvement schemes. Different ventilation schemes can be
analyzed, and cost-effective solutions developed and implemented to solve the ventilation problems.
From the preceding discussions, it is apparent that the
computer ventilation model can reliably predict the gross
ventilation rates for complex process buildings. The use of
high-speed computers provides the designer with the capability of examining the impact of architectural changes,
wind conditions, or process changes on the performance
of the proposed ventilation scheme. Problems such as contamination due to cross drafts or high temperatures in the
work environment can be identified quickly and corrective
measures taken.
The limitations of computer modeling are apparent as
soon as predictions are required on the microenvironments
inside the building. The steady-state and intermittent recycle flows caused by process or other heat releases convey
contaminants from one area to another. These details of
the internal flow fields are required by the designer to ensure an acceptable work environment for a new facility
or to improve the work environment in an existing facility. Typical ventilation questions that may arise during
the planning and design of ventilation systems include
these.
1. What are the internal flow patterns under different
layout and operating conditions?
2. What are the effects of intermittent peak heat releases
on ventilation flow characteristics?
3. Can the flow fields be represented satisfactorily as a
two-dimensional flow?
4. What happens to contaminated plume that misses a
hood?
5. What effect do cross drafts have on the workplace
environment?
6. Where does the fresh air enter the building?
7. What are the predicted contaminant concentrations in
the breathing zone?
8. What is the source of contamination in a specific area?

Model total flow

Measured
total flow
(m3 /sec)

Wind
(m3 /sec)

No wind
(m3 /sec)

260
429
331
364
492
5660

285
364
371
310
397
5190

282
334
326
305
344
4300

For more complex ventilation and contaminant control,

computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can be used. Governing equations similar to the ones presented earlier can
be developed for the three-dimensional non-steady-state
case. These equations represent the laws of conservation
of mass, momentum, energy, and related entities, and their
independent variables are allowed to vary in 1, 2, or 3 space
dimensions and in time. The advent of high speed computers and the creation of general computer code systems
allow the practical development of solutions to the type of
internal flow questions listed above.
A number of items have been identified requiring further
study in order to increase reliability of CFD simulations
in large industrial premises. These are
r Identifying a turbulence model that provides a

r
r
r

sufficient degree of reliability in the prediction of low

Reynolds number regimes, near wall effects, and
recirculating flows
Understanding the relative importance of long and
short wave radiation in an industrial setting to
determine if a long-wave radiation can be omitted from
simulations
Identifying heat transfer correlations for natural,
forced, and mixed convection that accurately predict
the heat transfer off a surface
Testing methods to provide for jets from diffusers in a
ventilated room in order to accurately model the
penetration length without resorting to fine grids
Identifying the role of magnitude of the effect that
potential errors in boundary condition specification
might play on the final solution.

A technique that is well developed for quantifying internal flow fields is the use of fluid dynamic models. Using
a small-scale replica of the building and the proper laws
of similarity, the actual flow rates and velocities for the
full-scale building can be predicted from measurements
of the small-scale replica. The fluid dynamic modeling
approach is described in Section V.

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V. VENTILATION MODELING USING

FLUID DYNAMICS
The technique of small-scale modeling for fluid flow
problems (i.e., fluid dynamic modeling) has been used
extensively for a wide variety of industrial ventilation
applications. The application of fluid dynamic models
has the advantage of enabling numerous different test
conditions to be examined. The costs for performing
modeling tests are usually much less than the cost for
performing a full-scale field test. A typical range of costs
for modeling studies is $20,000$100,000, depending
on the scope and complexity of the model and testing
methodology. For new facilities, the designer does not
have the option of field testing. Hence, fluid models
can provide useful design data at the conceptual and
preliminary engineering stages of a project.
The applications of fluid dynamic modeling techniques
include the following:
1. External flow fields (e.g., to model pressure
distribution, uncontrolled building emissions, stack
discharge)
2. Internal flow fields (e.g., to model movement of large
air masses far from enclosing walls, flow from one
bay to another, flow around obstacles such as cranes)
3. Individual sources of heat and contaminants (e.g., to
establish minimum capture volume for sources).
The general theory behind the use of scale models is
well covered in numerous textbooks on fluid mechanics
and in the technical literature. Therefore, only an outline
of the approach used in fluid modeling for ventilation applications follows.
Data measured in the model flow may be related quantitatively to the full-scale prototype flow by establishing
dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype.
The two conditions necessary to establish dynamic similarity are (1) exact geometric similarity, which requires
that the linear dimensions of the model are in the same
proportion as the corresponding dimensions of the prototype, and (2) kinematic similarity which requires that the
flow regimes be the same for model and prototype.
Kinematic similarity is achieved by matching governing dimensionless groups that describe the flow regime.
For modeling ventilation systems, the governing dimensionless groups for scaling model (m) to prototype (p)
are the Reynolds number and the Froude number. The
Reynolds number similarity criterion is not a critical scaling parameter because prototype flows are almost always
fully turbulent due to large Reynolds number. Flow patterns are similar in the different geometric scales as long
as the important flow fields are fully turbulent. Therefore,

Ventilation, Industrial

the Reynolds number similarity criterion is met by ensuring that the flow in the model is fully turbulent. For processes involving hot gases (i.e., buoyancy-driving forces),
the Froude number similarity criterion can be applied to
the model and the prototype.
The flow required in the prototype is given by
Q p = Q m (S)5/3 (qp /qm )1/3
where Q is the volumetric flow rate (cubic meters per
second), q the heat flow rate (kilocalories per second), S
the model scale (e.g., for a 1: 10 scale model, S = 10), p
the subscript identifying prototype parameter, and m the
subscript identifying model parameter.
Figure 12 is a typical flow chart of activities required for
a ventilation modeling study. The first step is to define the
contaminant and the source characteristics. Parameters to
be defined are the size of the process building and details
of the source flux (i.e., heat and contaminant release rates,
etc.). Information is required on the major sources of heat
in order to calculate heat balances and volumes of air set

FIGURE 12 Typical flow chart for ventilation modeling study.

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in motion. Data are required on the external and internal

flow conditions for the prototype. Information may be required on site conditions such as wind, speed, direction,
and frequency.
The design of the model system requires an examination
of the scaling parameters and the type of fluid medium to
be used. The common fluids used are air or water, but the
working or buoyancy-driven fluids for models can vary
widely. Fluid systems that have been used include air and
heated air, water and saltwater, water and carbon tetrachloride, and mercury and carbon tetrachloride. Air models are
usually the simplest and least expensive models to build
and test. The use of air may require a large model to ensure
fully turbulent flow. Because water has a smaller kinematic
viscosity than air, a smaller model is required to ensure
a high Reynolds number and turbulent flow. Flow visualization is also easier with water-based models because
velocities are lower than in air. A detailed analysis of the
scaling parameters and possible fluid systems is required
in order to select the best modeling technique for the specific ventilation problem. The measuring technique for the
contaminant of concern must also be considered since it
may have a significant impact on the level of accuracy and
the cost of the testing program.
Testing programs for many modeling studies are brief
compared to the time required to design and construct the
model system. For example, it is not uncommon to require
810 weeks to design and construct a model. 12 weeks
to commission and calibrate the model, and 12 days to
perform actual tests and develop solutions for the ventilation problem. For any model testing program, extensive
use should be made of photographic and video recording
equipment. The photographs and films will be invaluable
in analyzing the test results and for subsequent presentation of solutions to management.
The fluid dynamic modeling technique is a costeffective, flexible, and powerful tool for the design of
ventilation systems for a greenfield plant and for the elimination of ventilation problems in existing plants. Some
of the applications of scale modeling include

continue with the design of the structural steel while the

small-scale model is being constructed and tested. The
results of the small-scale modeling are used to refine the
ventilation concept and to finalize all requirements.
For an existing plant, the fluid dynamic model is a valuable tool in modeling the problem and developing alternative cost-effective solutions.

VI. SOLVING VENTILATION PROBLEMS

FOR EXISTING PLANTS
Ventilation flows and design parameters are unique for
each specific process building. For most complex ventilation problems, it is recommended that both analytical calculations and a field measurement program be carried out

TABLE III Major Activities for a Ventilation Field Testing

Program
Activity

Specific items

1. Information gathering

Obtain drawings, reports, operating

procedures
Define problem (summer, winter,
heat, supply, exhaust)
Review existing data and studies
Visit site
Isometric drawings: plans, sections
Schedule of openings
Identifies factors specific for each
plant
Identifies significant heat sources
in building
Identifies typical operating practice
Identifies gaps in data to be filled
in by field testing program
General considerations
Building ventilation
In-plant flows
Field data log sheets for ventilation
measurements, weather conditions,
plant operating records
Field measurements (volume,
temperature, etc.)
Summary table of flows
Sketches to show in-plant flows

2. Data on ventilation
openings
3. Plant questionnaire

4. Develop details of field

testing program

5. Field testing program

1. Finalizing building ventilation rates and schemes

2. Examining internal flow patterns and contaminant
concentrations at any location
3. Examining external flow patterns, including
quantitative measurements of downwash and
transport of contaminants to other buildings
4. Establishing the effectiveness of source hoods.
For new process buildings, the recommended sequence
is to use the mathematical models and equations to develop the overall ventilation concepts and architectural
constraints. At this stage, the project design team can

6. Plant ventilation flow

balance and in-plant
flow patterns
7. Meltshop heat balance
8. Volumes of air set in
motion
9. Computer simulation of
ventilation flows
(natural ventilation)
10. Field testing report

Total plant heat balance calculation

Ventilation heat balance calculation
Based on surface temperature and
convective heat release
Calibrate using field test data

Summarize test conditions and test

results

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in order to develop a sound, cost-effective solution to the

ventilation problem. Experience has shown that the field
sampling program must be developed in detail and must
be tailormade for each specific ventilation problem. However, there are many elements of the field testing program
that are common for any problem. Although there may be
minor variations for any specific ventilation project, the 10
activities listed in Table III represent the major activities
for a field testing program and the sequence for performing this work. A brief description of the scope of work
required for each activity is included.
As a starting point, for the field testing program, obtain
all pertinent reports and drawings on the plant for review
and study. Specific information is required on the current
operating practice, as well as information on the nature
of the in-plant dust and heat stress problems. A visit to

the site should include a walk-through ventilation survey

using a data sheet as shown in Fig. 13.
It is necessary to develop the details of a field testing
program and all necessary field data log sheets prior to
the actual field testing. The development of a proper field
testing program is the most important step in ensuring a
successful ventilation study. This program should be reviewed and approved by plant operating personnel prior to
commencement. Because the ventilation flow in large process buildings is usually complex, an inexperienced sampling team will often collect insufficient data for subsequent analytical calculations or will spend a considerable
amount of effort collecting field data that are irrelevant. A
good approach is to perform preliminary calculations on
all sources and then to clearly identify where information
gaps exist and what essential data must be collected.

FIGURE 13 Walk-through ventilation survey data sheet.

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The measurement of air velocities through all the openings must recognize the need to have a representative
velocity for the survey. It is not acceptable to be on the
safe side by rounding readings to a higher value. Gusty
wind conditions will cause velocity readings to fluctuate.
Sufficient time must be allowed to elapse to enable the
individual monitoring the instrument to arrive at a representative velocity by integrating the observed values in
his or her mind.
A temperature measurement is required for each velocity measurement. For air entering the building, this would
generally be the ambient temperature. The ambient temperature should be recorded on an hourly basis. It will
change during the course of the day and could be higher
in the wake of the building. Do not expose the thermometer or temperature probe to sunlight or radiant heat from
hot objects. The temperature of air leaving the meltshop
will vary considerably. For heat balance calculations, good
temperature readings are important.
Temperatures associated with in-plant flow patterns
must also be recorded. Sufficient temperature data must be
available to allow evaluation of the air density distribution
within the shop.
Mean surface temperatures of hot surfaces must be
recorded for subsequent heat release and air-set-in-motion
calculations. The location of the equipment on the floor
plan and equipment surface temperature should be recorded on a separate sheet.
Weather data should be measured at the site and obtained from the nearest airport or meteorological station
as well. Data to be recorded include ambient temperature,
relative humidity, and wind speed and direction. During
the test period, this information should be recorded on at
least an hourly basis.
A record of plant activities during the testing program
is required. Data to be included are the status of operation
of all major process and environmental equipment, as well
as production levels.
An in-plant survey will be required to establish parameters such as dust levels and heat stress. These measurements would be concurrent with the ventilation survey.
An industrial hygienist would work with the ventilation
engineer to establish the scope and extent of the industrial
hygiene sampling program.
For any ventilation field testing program, it is essential to prepare a proper engineering report, which includes
all the field data, calculations, and test results. Using the

FIGURE 14

results of this field testing program, an experienced ventilation engineer can develop cost-effective solutions for
any plant ventilation problem.
Computer models based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can be used to predict the velocity vectors and
concentration of contaminants as a function of position
and time. Figure 14 shows an industrial CFD case study
with momentum sources. For this case, outputs from the
CFD program can be used to establish airflow patterns for
summer and winter conditions and for different process
operating scenarios. Data from the computer models can
be validated from the field measurement program.

SEE ALSO THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES

ENERGY FLOWS IN ECOLOGY AND IN THE ECONOMY
ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY FLUID DYNAMICS
(CHEMICAL ENGINEERING) HEAT TRANSFER MACHINE
DESIGN POLLUTION, AIR

BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (1998). Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice, 23rd ed.,
ACGIH, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Baturin, V. V. (1972). Fundamentals of Industrial Ventilation, 3rd ed.,
Pergamon, London, U.K.
Goodfellow, H. D. (1985). Advanced Design of Ventilation Systems for
Contaminant Control, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Heinsohn, R. J. (1990). Industrial Ventilation: Engineering Principles,
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Goodfellow, H. D., and Tahti, E. (2000). Handbook of Industrial Air
Technology (DGB), Academic Press, San Diego.