Mennonite

The Mennonites are a Christian group descended from

the church communities of Anabaptist denominations
named after Menno Simons (14961561) of Friesland (at
that time, a part of the Holy Roman Empire). Through
his writings, Simons articulated and formalized the teachings of earlier Swiss founders. The early teachings of the
Mennonites were founded on the belief in both the mission and ministry of Jesus, which the original Anabaptist
followers held to with great conviction despite persecution by the various Roman Catholic and Protestant states.
Rather than ght, the majority of these followers survived
by eeing to neighboring states where ruling families were
tolerant of their radical belief in believers baptism. Over
the years, Mennonites have become known as one of the
historic peace churches because of their commitment to
pacism.[2]

alongside their long-term international development programs. Other programs oer a variety of relief eorts
and services throughout the world.
Since the latter part of the 20th century, some Mennonite groups have become more actively involved
with peace and social justice issues, helping to found
Christian Peacemaker Teams and Mennonite Conciliation Service.[13]

1 Radical Reformation
Main article: Radical Reformation
The early history of the Mennonites starts with the

In contemporary society, Mennonites either are described only as a religious denomination with members of
dierent ethnic origins[3][4] or as both an ethnic group and
a religious denomination. There is controversy among
Mennonites about this issue, with some insisting that they
are simply a religious group while others argue that they
form a distinct ethnic group.[5] Some historians and sociologists treat Mennonites as an ethno-religious group,[6]
while other historians challenge that perception.[7] Conservative Mennonite groups, who speak Pennsylvania
German, Plautdietsch or Bernese German t well into the
denition of an ethnic group, while more liberal groups
and converts in the Third World do not.
There are about 1.7 million Mennonites worldwide as
of 2012.[1] Mennonite congregations worldwide embody
the full scope of Mennonite practice from "plain people"
to those who are indistinguishable in dress and appearance from the general population. The largest populations of Mennonites are in India, Ethiopia,[8] Canada, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo and the United States,
but Mennonites can also be found in tight-knit communities in at least 82 countries on six continents or scattered amongst the populace of those countries. There
are German Mennonite colonies in Argentina, Belize,
Bolivia,[9] Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay,[10] and Paraguay,[11]
who are mostly descendants of Plautdietsch speaking
Mennonites who formed as a German ethnic group in
what is today Ukraine. A small Mennonite congregation
continues in the Netherlands where Simons was born.

Spread of the early Anabaptists, 15251550

Anabaptists in the German and Dutch-speaking parts

of central Europe. The German term is Tufer or
Wiedertufer (that is, Again-Baptists, or Anabaptists
using the Greek ana, again). These forerunners of
modern Mennonites were part of the Protestant Reformation, a broad reaction against the practices and theology of the Roman Catholic Church. Its most distinguishing feature is the rejection of infant baptism, an act that
had both religious and political meaning since almost every infant born in western Europe was baptized into the
Roman Catholic Church. Other signicant theological
views of the Mennonites developed in opposition to Roman Catholic views or to the views of other Protestant
reformers such as Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli.

Mennonite Disaster Service,[12] based in North America, provides both immediate and long-term responses to
hurricanes, oods, and other disasters. Mennonite Central Committee provides disaster relief around the world
1

FRAGMENTATION AND VARIATION

Some of the followers of Zwinglis Reformed church

thought that requiring church membership beginning at
birth was inconsistent with the New Testament example. They believed that the church should be completely
removed from government (the protofree church tradition), and that individuals should join only when willing
to publicly acknowledge belief in Jesus and the desire to
live in accordance with his teachings. At a small meeting
in Zurich on Jan 21, 1525, Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz,
and George Blaurock, along with twelve others, baptized
each other.[14] This meeting marks the beginning of the
Anabaptist movement. In the spirit of the times, many
groups followed, preaching about reducing hierarchy, relations with the state, eschatology, and sexual license,
running from utter abandon to extreme chastity. These
movements are together referred to as the Radical Reformation.
Many government and religious leaders, both Protestant
and Roman Catholic, considered voluntary church membership to be dangerousthe concern of some deepened
by reports of the Mnster Rebellion, led by a violent sect
of Anabaptists. They joined forces to ght the movement, using methods such as banishment, torture, burn- Menno Simons
ing, drowning or beheading.[15]:142
Despite strong repressive eorts of the state churches, the
movement spread slowly around western Europe, primarily along the Rhine. Ocials killed many of the earliest Anabaptist leaders in an attempt to purge Europe of
the new sect.[15]:142 By 1530, most of the founding leaders had been killed for refusing to renounce their beliefs.
Many believed that God did not condone killing or the
use of force for any reason and were therefore unwilling
to ght for their lives. The pacist branches often survived by seeking refuge in neutral cities or nations, such
as Strasbourg. Their safety was often tenuous, as a shift in
alliances or an invasion could mean resumed persecution.
Other groups of Anabaptists, such as the Batenburgers,
were eventually destroyed by their willingness to ght.
This played a large part in the evolution of Anabaptist
theology.

2 Fragmentation and variation

During the 16th century, the Mennonites and other Anabaptists were relentlessly persecuted. This period of persecution has had a signicant impact on Mennonite identity. Martyrs Mirror, published in 1660, documents much
of the persecution of Anabaptists and their predecessors.
Today, the book is still the most important book besides
the Bible for many Mennonites and Amish, in particular
for the SwissSouth German branch of the Mennonites.
Persecution was still going on until 1710 in various parts
of Switzerland.[16]
Disagreements within the church over the years led to
other splits; sometimes the reasons were theological,
sometimes practical, sometimes geographical. For instance, near the beginning of the 20th century, some
members in the Amish church wanted to begin having
Sunday Schools and participate in progressive Protestantstyle para-church evangelism. Unable to persuade the
rest of the Amish, they separated and formed a number
of separate groups including the Conservative Mennonite
Conference. Mennonites in Canada and other countries
typically have independent denominations because of the
practical considerations of distance and, in some cases,
language. Many times these divisions took place along
family lines, with each extended family supporting their
own branch.

In the early days of the Anabaptist movement, Menno Simons, a Catholic priest in the Low Countries, heard of the
movement and started to rethink his Catholic faith. He
questioned the doctrine of transubstantiation, but was reluctant to leave the Roman Catholic Church. His brother,
a member of an Anabaptist group, was killed when he
and his companions were attacked and refused to defend
themselves. In 1536, at the age of 40, Simons left the Roman Catholic Church. He soon became a leader within
the Anabaptist movement, and was wanted by authorities for the rest of his life. His name became associated
with scattered groups of nonviolent Anabaptists whom he
helped to organize and consolidate.
The rst recorded account of this group is in a written
order by Countess Anne, who ruled a small province in
central Europe. The presence of some small groups of violent Anabaptists was causing political and religious turmoil in her state, so she decreed that all Anabaptists were

3
to be driven out. The order made an exception for the freedoms, Mennonites learned to live very simply. This
non-violent branch known at that time as the Menists.
was reected both in the home and at church, where their
Political rulers often admitted the Menists or Mennonites dress and their buildings were plain. The music at church,
into their states because they were honest, hardworking usually simple German chorales, was performed a capand peaceful. When their practices upset the powerful pella. This style of music serves as a reminder to many
state churches, princes would renege on exemptions for Mennonites of their simple lives, as well as their history
military service, or a new monarch would take power, as a persecuted people. Some branches of Mennonites
and the Mennonites would be forced to ee again, usu- have retained this plain lifestyle into modern times.
ally leaving everything but their families behind. Often,
another monarch in another state would grant them welcome, at least for a while.

3 Jakob Ammann and the Amish

schisms
Main article: Amish

Mennonite churches blended into city architecture to avoid offending the religious sensibilities of the majority. Doopsgezinde
Gemeente, Amsterdam.

While Mennonites in Colonial America were enjoying

considerable religious freedom, their counterparts in Europe continued to struggle with persecution and temporary refuge under certain ruling monarchs. They were
sometimes invited to settle in areas of poor soil that no
one else could farm. By contrast, in The Netherlands the
Mennonites (nl: Doopsgezinden) enjoyed a relatively high
degree of tolerance. The Mennonites often farmed and
reclaimed land in exchange for exemption from mandatory military service. However, once the land was arable
again, this arrangement would often change, and the persecution would begin again. Because the land still needed
to be tended, the ruler would not drive out the Mennonites but would pass laws to force them to stay, while at
the same time severely limiting their freedom. Mennonites had to build their churches facing onto back streets
or alleys, and they were forbidden from announcing the
beginning of services with the sound of a bell.
In addition, high taxes were enacted in exchange for both
continuing the military service exemption, and to keep
the states best farmers from leaving. In some cases, the
entire congregation would give up their belongings to pay
the tax to be allowed to leave. If a member or family
could not aord the tax, it was often paid by others in the
group.
A strong emphasis on community was developed under these circumstances. It continues to be typical of
Mennonite churches. As a result of frequently being required to give up possessions in order to retain individual

In 1693 Jakob Ammann led an eort to reform the Mennonite church in Switzerland and South Germany to include shunning, to hold communion more often, and
other dierences. When the discussions fell through,
Ammann and his followers split from the other Mennonite congregations. Ammanns followers became known
as the Amish Mennonites. In later years, other schisms
among Amish Mennonites resulted in such groups as the
Old Order Amish, New Order Amish, Kaufman Amish
Mennonites, Conservative Mennonite Conference and
Biblical Mennonite Alliance.

4 Russian Mennonites
Main article: Russian Mennonite
The
Russian
Mennonites
(German:
Russlandmennoniten)[17] are of German language,
tradition and ethnicity. They are descents from GermanDutch Anabaptists who settled for about 250 years in
West Prussia and established colonies in the south west
of the Russian Empire (present-day Ukraine) beginning
in 1789. Their ethno-language is Plautdietsch, a German
dialect of the East Low German group, whereas the
majority uses Standard German in church and for
reading and writing. The term Russian Mennonite
is considered by some to be a misnomer because their
original ethnic ancestry is not from Russia.
In 1768 Catherine the Great of Russia acquired a great
deal of land north of the Black Sea (in present-day
Ukraine) following a war with the Ottoman Empire and
the takeover of their vassal, the Crimean Khanate. Russian government ocials invited Mennonites living in
Prussia to farm the Ukrainian steppes depopulated by
Tatar raids in exchange for religious freedom and military exemption. Over the years the Mennonite farmers were very successful. By the beginning of the 20th
century, they owned large agricultural estates and some
had become successful as industrial entrepreneurs in the

5 NORTH AMERICA

cities, employing wage labor. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War (19171921),
all of these farms (whose owners were called Kulaks) and
enterprises were expropriated by local peasants or the Soviet government. Beyond expropriation, Mennonites suffered severe persecution during the course of the Civil
War, at the hands of workers, the Bolsheviks and, particularly, the communist-anarchists of Nestor Makhno, who
considered the Mennonites to be privileged foreigners of
the upper class and targeted them. During expropriation, hundreds of Mennonite men, women and children
were murdered in these attacks.[18] After the Ukrainian
Soviet War and the takeover of Ukraine by the Russian
Bolsheviks, people who openly practiced religion were in
many cases imprisoned by the Soviet government. This Germantown Mennonite Meetinghouse, built 1770
led to a wave of Mennonite emigration to the Americas
(U.S., Canada and Paraguay).
When the German army invaded the Soviet Union in the
summer of 1941 during World War II, many in the Mennonite community perceived them as liberators from the
communist regime under which they had suered. When
the tide of war turned, many of the Mennonites ed with
the German army back to Germany where they were accepted as Volksdeutsche. The Soviet government believed
that the Mennonites had collectively collaborated with
the Germans. After the war, many of the Mennonites in
the Soviet Union were forcibly relocated to Siberia and
Kazakhstan, and many were sent to gulags, as part of
the Soviet program of mass internal deportations of various ethnic groups whose loyalty was seen as questionable. Many German-Russian Mennonites who lived to
the east (not in Ukraine) were deported to Siberia before
the German armys invasion, and were also often placed
in labor camps. In the decades that followed, as the Soviet regime became less brutal, a number of Mennonites
returned to Ukraine and Western Russia where they had
formerly lived. In the 1990s the governments of Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine gave these people the opportunity to emigrate, and the vast majority emigrated to
Germany. The Russian Mennonite immigrants in Germany from the 1990s outnumber the pre-1989 community of Mennonites by three to one.
The worlds most conservative Mennonites (in terms of
culture and technology) are the Mennonites aliated
with the Lower and Upper Barton Creek Colonies in Belize. Lower Barton is inhabited by Plautdietsch speaking Russian Mennonites, whereas Upper Barton Creek is
mainly inhabited by Pennsylvania German speaking Mennonites from North America. Both groups do not use motors, paint, or compressed air.[19]

Ten Thousand Villages Store in New Hamburg, Ontario

many they received a sympathetic audience among the

larger of these German-Mennonite congregations around
Krefeld, Altona-Hamburg, Gronau and Emden.[20] It was
among this group of Quakers and Mennonites, living under ongoing discrimination, that William Penn solicited
settlers for his new colony. The rst permanent settlement
of Mennonites in the American colonies consisted of one
Mennonite family and twelve Mennonite-Quaker[21] families of German extraction who arrived from Krefeld,
Germany, in 1683 and settled in Germantown, Pennsylvania. Among these early settlers was William Rittenhouse, a lay minister and owner of the rst American
paper mill. Jacob Gottschalk was the rst bishop of this
Germantown congregation. This early group of Mennonites and Mennonite-Quakers wrote the rst formal protest
against slavery in the United States. The treatise was addressed to slave-holding Quakers in an eort to persuade
them to change their ways.[22]

In the early 18th century, 100,000 Germans from the

Palatinate emigrated to Pennsylvania, where they became
5 North America
known collectively as the Pennsylvania Dutch (from the
Anglicization of Deutsch or German.) The area had been
Persecution and the search for employment forced Men- repeatedly overrun by the French in religious wars, and
nonites out of the Netherlands eastward to Germany in Queen Anne had invited the Germans to go to the British
the 17th century. As Quaker Evangelists moved into Ger- colonies. Of these immigrants, around 2,500 were Men-

5.2

Mennonite Church USA

nonites and 500 were Amish.[23] This group settled farther west than the rst group, choosing less expensive land
in the Lancaster area. The oldest Mennonite meetinghouse in the United States is the Hans Herr House in West
Lampeter Township.[24] A member of this second group,
Christopher Dock, authored Pedagogy, the rst American
monograph on education. Today, Mennonites also reside
in Kishacoquillas Valley (also known as Big Valley), a valley in Huntingdon and Miin counties in Pennsylvania.
During the Colonial period, Mennonites were distinguished from other Pennsylvania Germans in three
ways:[25] their opposition to the American Revolutionary
War, which other German settlers participated in on both
sides; resistance to public education; and disapproval of
religious revivalism. Contributions of Mennonites during
this period include the idea of separation of church and
state, and opposition to slavery.
From 1812 to 1860, another wave of Mennonite immigrants settled farther west in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois
and Missouri. These Swiss-German speaking Mennon- Mennonite Church logo
ites, along with Amish, came from Switzerland and the
Alsace-Lorraine area. These immigrants, along with the
Amish of northern New York State, formed the nucleus
of the Apostolic Christian Church in the United States.
There were also Mennonite settlements in Canada, who
emigrated there chiey from the United States (Upstate
New York and Pennsylvania):
St. Jacobs, Ontario c.1819
Kitchener, Ontario/Waterloo, Ontario c. 1800s
Cambridge, Ontario c. 1830s
Markham, Ontario, c.1800-1820s

5.1

Old Mennonite Church (MC)

The Swiss-German Mennonites who emigrated to North

America in the 18th and 19th centuries and settled rst
in Pennsylvania, then across the midwestern states (initially Ohio, Indiana, and Kansas), are the root of the
former Mennonite Church denomination (MC), colloquially called the Old Mennonite Church. This denomination had oces in Elkhart, Indiana, and was the
most populous progressive Mennonite denomination before merging with the General Conference Mennonite
Church (GCMC) in 2002.

5.2

Mennonite Church USA

The Mennonite Church USA, or MCUSA, is the largest

Mennonite denomination in the United States, with a
total 2006 membership of 110,696 members in 950
congregations.[26] Pennsylvania remains the hub of the
denomination, with over 300 congregations and over

Mennonite Church USA logo

40,000 members. There are also large numbers of

members in Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, and Illinois.[27] The
MCUSA and the Mennonite Church Canada are each
a fairly recent 2002 merger of the (General Assembly)
Mennonite Church and the General Conference Mennonite Church.
In 1983 the General Assembly of the Mennonite Church
met jointly with the General Conference Mennonite
Church in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in celebration of 300
years of Mennonite witness in the Americas. Beginning
in 1989, a series of consultations, discussions, proposals,
and sessions (and a vote in 1995 in favor of merger) led to
the unication of these two major North American Mennonite bodies into one denomination organized on two
fronts - the Mennonite Church USA and the Mennonite
Church Canada. The merger was nalized at a joint
session in St. Louis, Missouri in 1999, and the Canadian
branch moved quickly ahead. The United States branch
did not complete their organization until the meeting in
Nashville, Tennessee in 2001, which became eective

5 NORTH AMERICA

February 1, 2002.

nation, men were shifted into agriculture, education and

were mostly
The merger of 1999-2002 at least partially fullled the industry. The 10,700 Canadian objectors [29]
Mennonites
(63%)
and
Doukhobors
(20%).
desire of the founders of the General Conference Mennonite Church to create an organization under which all
Mennonites could unite. Yet not all Mennonites favored
the merger. The Alliance of Mennonite Evangelical Congregations represents one expression of the disappointment with the merger and the events that led up to it.

5.3

Mennonite Church Canada

Mennonite Church Canada logo

Mennonite Church Canada is a conference of Mennonites in Canada, with head oces in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Currently (2003) the body has about 35,000 members in 235 churches. Beginning in 1989, a series of
consultations, discussions, proposals, and sessions led to
the unication of two North American bodies (the Mennonite Church & General Conference Mennonite Church)
and the related Canadian Conference of Mennonites in
Canada into the Mennonite Church USA and the Mennonite Church Canada in 2000.

Mennonite conscientious objector Harry Lantz distributes rat poison for typhus control in Gulfport, Mississippi (1946).

In the United States, Civilian Public Service (CPS) provided an alternative to military service during World War
II. From 1941 to 1947, 4,665 Mennonites, Amish and
Brethren in Christ[30] were among nearly 12,000 conscientious objectors who performed work of national importance in 152 CPS camps throughout the United States
and Puerto Rico. The draftees worked in areas such as
soil conservation, forestry, re ghting, agriculture, social services and mental health.

The organizational structure is divided into ve regional conferences. Denominational work is administered through a board elected by the delegates to the
annual assembly. The MCC participates in the Canadian Council of Churches, the Evangelical Fellowship of
The CPS men served without wages and with minimal
Canada, and the Mennonite World Conference.
support from the federal government. The cost of maintaining the CPS camps and providing for the needs of
the men was the responsibility of their congregations and
5.4 Alternative service
families. Mennonite Central Committee coordinated the
Mennonites in Canada were automatically exempt from operation of the Mennonite camps. CPS men served
any type of military service during World War I by pro- longer than regular draftees, not being released until well
visions of the Order in Council of 1873, yet initially many past the end of the war. Initially skeptical of the program,
were imprisoned for their beliefs until this was armed government agencies learned to appreciate the mens service and requested more workers from the program. CPS
by the government of the time.
made signicant contributions to forest re prevention,
During World War II, Mennonite conscientious objectors erosion and ood control, medical science and reform of
were given the options of noncombatant military service, the mental health system.
serving in the medical or dental corps under military control, or working in parks and on roads under civilian supervision. Over 95% chose the latter and were placed in 5.5 Schisms
Alternative Service camps.[28] Initially the men worked
on road building, forestry and reghting projects. Af- Prior to emigration to America, Anabaptists in Europe
ter May 1943, as a labour shortage developed within the were divided between those of Dutch/North German and

5.6

Schools

Swiss/South German background. First the Dutch/North

German group took their name from Menno Simons, who
led them in their early years. Later the Swiss/South German group also adopted the name Mennonites. A third
group of early Anabaptists, mainly from south east Germany and Austria were organized by Jakob Hutter and
became the Hutterites. The vast majority of Anabaptists
of Swiss/South German ancestry today lives in the US and
Canada, while the largest group of Dutch/North German
Anabaptists are the Russian Mennonites, who live today
mostly in Latin America.

7
5.6.1 Secondary schools
This list of secondary Mennonite Schools is not
an exhaustive list.
Most are members of the
Mennonite
Schools
Council,<ref
="msc">http:
//www.mennoniteschools.org/
Mennonite
Schools
Council</ref> endorsed by the Mennonite Education
Agency.[32]

A trickle of North German Mennonites began the migration to America in 1683, followed by a much larger
migration of Swiss/South German Mennonites beginning in 1707.[31] The Amish are an early split from the
Swiss/South German, that occurred in 1693. Over the
centuries many Amish individuals and whole churches
left the Amish and became Mennonites again.
After immigration to America, many of the early Mennonites split from the main body of North American
Mennonites and formed their own separate and distinct
churches. The rst schism in America occurred in 1778
when Bishop Christian Funks support of the American
Revolution led to his excommunication and the forma- Mennonite teacher holding class in a one-room, eight-grade
tion of a separate Mennonite group known as Funkites. school house, Hinkletown, Pennsylvania, March 1942
In 1785 the Orthodox Reformed Mennonite Church was
formed, and other schisms occurred into the 21st century. Canada
Many of these churches were formed as a response to
deep disagreements about theology, doctrine, and church
Eden High School, St. Catharines, Ontario
discipline as evolution both inside and outside the Men Mennonite Brethren Collegiate Institute, Winnipeg,
nonite faith occurred. Many of the modern churches
Manitoba
descended from those groups that abandoned traditional
Mennonite practices.
Mennonite Collegiate Institute, Gretna, Manitoba
Larger groups of Dutch/North German Mennonites came
Mennonite Educational Institute, Abbotsford,
to North America from the Russian Empire after 1873,
British Columbia
especially to Kansas and Manitoba. While the more progressive element of these Mennonites assimilated into
Rockway Mennonite Collegiate, Kitchener, Ontario
main stream society, the more conservative element emigrated to Latin America. Since then there has been a
Rosthern Junior College, Rosthern, Saskatchewan
steady ow of Mennonite remigrants form Latin America to North America.
Westgate Mennonite Collegiate, Winnipeg, Manitoba
These historical schisms have had an inuence on creating
the distinct Mennonite denominations, sometimes using
mild or severe shunning to show its disapproval of other United States
Mennonite groups.
Belleville Mennonite School, Belleville, Pennsylvania
Bethany Christian Schools, Goshen, Indiana

5.6

Schools

Several Mennonite groups have their own private or

parochial schools. Conservative groups, like the Holdeman, have not only their own schools, but their own curriculum and teaching sta (usually, but not exclusively,
young unmarried women).

Central Christian School, Kidron, Ohio

Christopher Dock Mennonite High School, Lansdale, Pennsylvania
Eastern Mennonite School, Harrisonburg, Virginia
Freeman Academy, Freeman, South Dakota

5 NORTH AMERICA
Greenwood
Delaware

Mennonite

School,

Greenwood,

Immanuel Schools, Reedley, California

Iowa Mennonite School, Kalona, Iowa
Lancaster Mennonite High School, Lancaster, Pennsylvania
Philadelphia Mennonite High School, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania
Sarasota Christian School, Sarasota, Florida
Western Mennonite School, Salem, Oregon
5.6.2

Controversy in Quebec

Quebec does not allow these parochial schools, in the

sense of allowing them to have an independent curriculum. As of 2007, the Quebec government imposed a
standard curriculum on all schools (public and private).
While private schools may add optional material to the
compulsory curriculum, they may not replace it. The
Quebec curriculum is unacceptable to the parents of the
only Mennonite school in the province.[33] They said they
would leave Quebec after the Education Ministry threatened legal actions. The Province threatened to invoke
Youth Protection services if the Mennonite children were
not registered with the Education Ministry; they either
had to be home-schooled using the government approved
material, or attend a sanctioned school. The local population and its mayor supported[34] the local Mennonites.
The Evangelical Fellowship of Canada wrote that year to
the Quebec government to express its concerns[35] about
this situation. The case has been followed by groups defending religious freedom, and the Becket Fund placed
Quebec on its weekly report of governments that threatened religious traditions.[36] By September 2007, some
Mennonite families had already left Quebec.[37]

Bethel College, North Newton Kansas

United States
Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas
Bluton University, Bluton, Ohio
Eastern Mennonite University, Harrisonburg, Virginia
Fresno Pacic University, Fresno, California
Goshen College, Goshen, Indiana
Hesston College, Hesston, Kansas
Rosedale Bible College, Rosedale, Ohio
Tabor College, Hillsboro, Kansas

5.7 Sexuality, marriage, and family mores

The Mennonite church has no formal celibate religious

order similar to monasticism, but recognizes the legitimacy of and honours both the single state and the sanctity of marriage of its members. Single persons are expected to be chaste, and marriage is held to be a lifelong,
monogamous and faithful covenant between a man and a
woman. In conservative groups, divorce is discouraged,
5.6.3 Post-secondary schools
and it is believed that the hardness of the heart of people is the ultimate cause of divorce. Some conservative
Canada
churches have disciplined members who have unilaterally
divorced their spouses outside of cases of sexual unfaith Bethany College, Hepburn, Saskatchewan
fulness or acute abuse. Until approximately the 1960s or
Canadian Mennonite University, Winnipeg, Mani- 1970s, before the more widespread urbanization of the
Mennonite demographic, divorce was quite rare. In retoba
cent times, divorce is more common, and also carries less
Columbia Bible College, Abbotsford, British stigma, particularly in cases where abuse was known.
Columbia
Some Mennonite churches identify as LGBT-arming
Conrad Grebel University College, Waterloo, On- churches. Congregations have been disciplined by or extario (part of the University of Waterloo)
pelled from their regional conferences for taking such a
[38]
while other congregations have been allowed
Menno Simons College, Winnipeg, Manitoba (part stance,
to
remain
at
variance with ocial Mennonite Church
of Canadian Mennonite University but aliated
[39]
Some pastors who performed sameUSA
policy.
with and located at the University of Winnipeg).
sex unions have had their credentials revoked by their
Steinbach Bible College, Steinbach, Manitoba
conference,[40] and some within the Mennonite Church

9
USA have had their credentials reviewed without any disciplinary actions taken.[41][42] Most recently, the Mountain States Mennonite Conference licensed an openly gay
pastor in February 2014.[43]

The Lords Supper understood as a memorial rather

than as a sacrament or Christian rite, ideally shared
by baptized believers within the unity and discipline
of the church.[46]

Traditionally, very modest dress was expected, particularly in conservative Mennonite circles. As the Mennon- One of the earliest expressions of Mennonite faith was the
ite population has become urbanized and more integrated Schleitheim Confession, adopted on February 24, 1527.
into the wider culture, this visible dierence has disap- Its seven articles covered:
peared outside of conservative Mennonite groups.
The Ban (excommunication)
Some expelled congregations were dually aliated with
the Mennonite Church and the General Conference Men Breaking of bread (Communion)
nonite Church. The latter did not expel the same congregations. When these two Mennonite denominations for Separation from and shunning of the abomination
mally completed their merger in 2002 to become the new
(the Roman Catholic Church and other worldly
Mennonite Church USA and Mennonite Church Canada
groups and practices)
denominations, it was still not clear, whether the congre Believers baptism
gations that were expelled from one denomination, yet included in the other, are considered to be inside or out Pastors in the church
side of the new merged denomination. Some Mennonite
conferences have chosen to maintain such disciplined
Renunciation of the sword (Christian pacism)
congregations as associate or aliate congregations
in the conferences, rather than to expel such congrega Renunciation of the oath (swearing as proof of truth)
tions. In virtually every case, a dialogue continues between the disciplined congregations and the denominaThe Dordrecht Confession of Faith was adopted on April
tion, as well as their current or former conferences.[44]
21, 1632, by Dutch Mennonites, by Alsatian Mennonites
In 1911 the Mennonite church in the Netherlands in 1660, and by North American Mennonites in 1725.
(Doopsgezinde Kerk) was the rst Dutch church to have There is no ocial creed or catechism of which accepa female pastor authorized; she was Anna Zernike.[45]
tance is required by congregations or members. However,
there are structures and traditions taught as in the Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective[47] of Mennonite
Church Canada and Mennonite Church USA.
6 Theology
Mennonite theology emphasizes the primacy of the teachings of Jesus as recorded in New Testament scripture.
They hold in common the ideal of a religious community based on New Testament models and imbued with
the spirit of the Sermon on the Mount. Their core beliefs
deriving from Anabaptist traditions are:

7 Worship, doctrine, and tradition

Salvation through faith in Jesus Christ.

The authority of scripture and the Holy Spirit.
Believers baptism understood as threefold: Baptism by the spirit (internal change of heart), baptism by water (public demonstration of witness), and
baptism by blood (martyrdom and asceticism or the
practice of strict self-denial as a measure of personal
and especially spiritual discipline).
Discipleship understood as an outward sign of an in- Interior of the Mennonite Church Friedelsheim, Germany
ward change.
There is a wide scope of worship, doctrine and traditions
Discipline in the church, informed by New Tes- among Mennonites today. This section shows the main
tament teachings, particularly of Jesus (for exam- types of Mennonites as seen from North America. It is
ple Matthew 18:1518). Some Mennonite churches far from a specic study of all Mennonite classications
practice the Meidung (shunning).
worldwide but it does show a somewhat representative

10

Interior of the Mennonite Church Giethoorn, Netherlands

Mennonite farmers wife dressmaking, Pennsylvania, 1942

7 WORSHIP, DOCTRINE, AND TRADITION

requirement for ministers to be approved by the denomination, and sometimes ministers from other denominations will be appointed. A small sum, based on membership numbers, is paid to the denomination, which
is used to support central functions such as publication
of newsletters and interactions with other denominations
and other countries. The distinguishing characteristics
of moderate Mennonite churches tend to be ones of emphasis rather than rule. There is an emphasis on peace,
community and service. However, members do not live
in a separate communitythey participate in the general
community as salt and light to the world (Matt 5:13,14).
The main elements of Menno Simons doctrine are retained, but in a moderated form. Banning is rarely practiced and would in any event have much less eect than
those denominations where the community is more tightknit. Excommunication can occur, and was notably applied by the Mennonite Brethren to members who joined
the military during the Second World War. Service in the
military is generally not permitted, but service in the legal
profession or law enforcement is acceptable. Outreach
and help to the wider community at home and abroad is
encouraged. The Mennonite Central Committee (MCC)
is a leader in foreign aid provision.
The Reformed Mennonite Church, with members in the
United States and Canada, represents the rst division in
the original North American Mennonite body. Called the
First Keepers of the Old Way by author Stephen Scott,
the Reformed Mennonite Church formed in the very early
19th century. Reformed Mennonites see themselves as
true followers of Menno Simons teachings and of the
teachings of the New Testament. They have no church
rules, but they rely solely on the Bible as their guide. They
insist on strict separation from all other forms of worship
and dress in conservative plain garb that preserves 18th
century Mennonite details. However, they refrain from
forcing their Mennonite faith on their children, allow their
children to attend public schools, and have permitted the
use of automobiles. They are notable for being the church
of Milton S. Hershey's mother and famous for the long
and bitter ban of Robert Bear, a Pennsylvania farmer who
rebelled against what he saw as dishonesty and disunity in
the leadership.

sample of the complicated classications within the Men- Holdeman Mennonites, ocially called Church of God
in Christ, Mennonite, were founded from a schism in
nonite faith worldwide.
1859 and has about 22,000 members worldwide. They
Moderate Mennonites include the largest denomi- are known as Holdeman Mennonites after their founder.
nations, the Mennonite Brethren and the Mennonite They emphasize Evangelical conversion and strict church
Church. In most forms of worship and practice they dif- discipline. They stay separate from other Mennonite
fer very little from other Protestant congregations. There groups because of their emphasis on the one-true-church
is no special form of dress and no restrictions on use of doctrine and their use of avoidance toward their own extechnology. Worship styles vary greatly between dier- communicated members. The Holdeman Mennonites do
ent congregations. There is no formal liturgy; services not believe that the use of modern technology is a sin in
typically consist of singing, scripture reading, prayer and itself, but they discourage too intensive a use of the Ina sermon. Some churches prefer hymns and choirs; oth- ternet and avoid television, cameras and radio.
ers make use of contemporary Christian music with electronic instruments. Mennonite congregations are self- Old Order Mennonites cover several distinct groups.
supporting and appoint their own ministers. There is no Some groups use horse and buggy for transportation and

11
parted ways in the early 20th century. Although this
group began using cars in 1927, the cars were required to be plain and painted black. The largest
group of Automobile Old Orders are still known today as Black Bumper Mennonites because some
members still paint their chrome bumpers black.

Stauer Mennonites, or Pike Mennonites, represent one

of the rst and most conservative forms of North American Horse and Buggy Mennonites. They were founded in
1845, following conicts about how to discipline children
and spousal abuse by a few Mennonite Church members. They almost immediately began to split into sepaMennonite Horse and Carriage
rate churches themselves. Today these groups are among
the most conservative of all Swiss Mennonites outside the
Amish. They stress strict separation from the world,
speak German while others drive cars and speak English.
adhere to strict withdrawal from and shunning of aposWhat most Old Orders share in common is conservatate and separated members, forbid and limit cars and
tive doctrine, dress, and traditions, common roots in 19th
technology and wear plain clothing.
century and early 20th century schisms, and a refusal
to participate in politics and other so-called sins of the Conservative Mennonites are generally considered
world. Most Old Order groups also school their children those Mennonites who maintain somewhat conservative dress, although carefully accepting other technolin Mennonite-operated schools.
ogy. They are not a unied group and are divided into
Horse and Buggy Old Order Mennonites came from various independent conferences and fellowships such as
the main series of Old Order schisms that began the Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church Conference.
in 1872 and ended in 1901 in Ontario, Pennsylva- Despite the rapid changes that precipitated the Old Ornia, and the U.S. Midwest, as conservative Men- der schisms in the last quarter of the 19th century, most
nonites fought the radical changes that the inuence Mennonites in the United States and Canada retained a
of 19th century American Revivalism had on Men- core of traditional beliefs based on a literal interpretation
nonite worship. Most Horse and Buggy Old Order of the New Testament scriptures as well as more exterMennonites allow the use of tractors for farming, al- nal plain practices into the beginning of the 20th centhough some groups insist on steel-wheeled tractors tury. However, disagreements in the United States and
to prevent tractors from being used for road trans- Canada between conservative and progressive (i.e. less
portation. Like the Stauer or Pike Mennonites emphasis on literal interpretation of scriptures) leaders
(origin 1845 in Lancaster, Pennsylvania), the Gro- began in the rst half of the 20th century and continue
dale Conference, and the Old Order Mennonite to some extent today. Following WWII, a conservative
Conference of Ontario, they stress separation from movement emerged from scattered separatist groups as a
the world, excommunicate, and wear plain clothes. reaction to the Mennonite churches drifting away from
Some Old Order Mennonite groups are unlike the their historical traditions. Plain became pass as open
Stauer or Pike Mennonites in that their form of criticisms of traditional beliefs and practices broke out in
the ban is less severe because the ex-communicant the 1950s and 1960s. The rst conservative withdrawals
is not shunned, and is therefore not excluded from from the progressive group began in the 1950s. These
the family table, shunned by their spouse, or cut o withdrawals continue to the present day in what is now
the growing Conservative Movement formed from Menfrom business dealings.
nonite schisms and from combinations with progressive
Automobile Old Order Mennonites, also known as Amish groups. While moderate and progressive MenWeaverland Conference Mennonites (having their nonite congregations have dwindled in size, the Conserorigins in the Weaverland District of the Lancaster vative Movement congregations continue to exhibit conConferencealso calling Horning), or Wisler siderable growth. Other conservative Mennonite groups
Mennonites in the U.S. Midwest, or the Markham- descended from the former Amish-Mennonite churches
Waterloo Mennonite Conference having its origins which split, like the Wisler Mennonites, from the Old Orfrom the Old Order Mennonites of Ontario, Canada, der Amish in the latter part of the 19th century. (The
also evolved from the main series of Old Order Wisler Mennonites are a grouping descended from the
schisms from 1872 to 1901. They often share the Old Mennonite Church.) There are also other Consersame meeting houses with, and adhere to almost vative Mennonite churches that descended from more
identical forms of Old Order worship as their Horse recent groups that have left the Amish like the Beachy
and Buggy Old Order brethren with whom they Amish or the Tennessee Brotherhood Churches.

12

8 MEMBERSHIP

Progressive Mennonite churches allow LGBT members

to worship as church members and have been banned
from membership in some cases in the moderate groups
as result. The Germantown Mennonite Church in Germantown, Pennsylvania is one example of such a progressive Mennonite church.[48]
Some progressive Mennonite Churches place a great
emphasis on the Mennonite traditions teachings on
peace and non-violence. Some progressive Mennonite
Churches are part of moderate Mennonite denominations Bethesda Mennonite Church in Henderson, Nebraska, U.S.
(such as the Mennonite Church USA) while others are independent congregations.

Membership

Children in an Old Order Mennonite community selling peanuts

near Lamanai in Belize.

In 2009, there were 1,616,126 Mennonites in 82 countries. The United States had the highest number of
Mennonite Church in Hamburg-Altona, Germany
Mennonites with 387,103 members, followed by the
Democratic Republic of the Congo with 220,444 members. The third largest concentration of Mennonites was
in Ethiopia with 172,306 members, while the fourth
largest population was in India with 156,922 members. Europe, the birthplace of Mennonites, had 64,740
members.[1]
Africa has the highest membership growth rate by far,
with an increase of 10% to 12% every year, particularly
in Ethiopia due to new conversions. In Latin America
growth is not a high as in Africa, but strong because of
the high birth rates of traditional Mennonites of German ancestry. Growth in Mennonite membership is slow
but steady in North America, the Asia/Pacic region and
Caribbean region. Europe has seen a slow and accelerating decline in Mennonite membership since about 1980. Old Order Mennonite children from San Ignacio, Paraguay.

8.1

Organization worldwide

nonite churches and groups, many of which are separate

from all others. Some churches are members of regional
The most basic unit of organization among Mennonites or area conferences. And some regional or area conferis the church. There are hundreds or thousands of Men- ences are aliated with larger national or international

8.2

Organization: North America

13

conferences. Thus, there is no single authorized organi- whose decisions are not binding on member churches.
zation that includes all Mennonite peoples worldwide.
The member churches of Mennonite World Conference
For the most part, there is a host of independent Mennon- include the Mennonite Brethren, the Mennonite Church
ite churches along with a myriad of separate conferences USA, and the Mennonite Church Canada, with a comwith no particular responsibility to any other group. In- bined total membership of at least 400,000, or about 30%
dependent churches can contain as few as fty members of Mennonites worldwide.
or as many as 20,000 members. Similar size dierences
occur among separate conferences. Worship, church discipline and lifestyles vary widely between progressive, 8.2
moderate, conservative, Old Order and orthodox Mennonites in a vast panoply of distinct, independent, and
widely dispersed classications. For these reasons, no
single group of Mennonites anywhere can credibly claim
to represent, speak for, or lead all Mennonites worldwide.

Organization: North America

The twelve largest Mennonite/Anabaptist groups are:

1. Mennonite Brethren (300,000 members on six continents worldwide)
2. Old Order Amish (250,000 in North America)
3. Meserete Kristos Church in Ethiopia (120,600
members; 126,000 more followers attending alike
churches)[49]
4. Old Colony Mennonite Church (120,000 in the
Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church in rural Goessel, Kansas
U.S., Canada, Mexico, Belize, Argentina, and Bolivia)
In 2003, there were about 323,000 Mennonites in the
5. Mennonite Church USA with 114,000 members in United States.[52] About 110,000 were members of
the United States
Mennonite Church USA churches, about 26,000 were
members of Mennonite Brethren churches, and about
6. Brethren in Christ with 100,000 U.S. and worldwide 40,000[51] were members of conservative churches. It
members
is not known how many Old Order Mennonites there
are. Other sources list 236,084 total United States
7. Communaut Mennonite au Congo (87,000)
Mennonites.[53]
8. Kanisa La Mennonite Tanzania with 50,000 memTotal membership in Mennonite Church USA denominabers in 240 congregations
tions decreased from about 133,000, before the merger
9. Deutsche Mennonitengemeinden with 40,000 mem- in 1998, to about 114,000 after the merger in 2003.
The Mennonite Church USA has begun proling potenbers in Germany[50]
tial members and has been successful at recruiting inner10. Mennonite Church Canada with 35,000 members in city minorities into the church in several large cities in
Canada
the United States. Signicant growth in the conservative
churches seems to be occurring by itself in the already
11. Conservative Mennonites with 30,000 members in
existing communities.
over 500 U.S. churches[51]
In Canada, there were approx. 130,000 Mennonite
12. Church of God in Christ, Mennonite with 21,765 church members in 2003with the largest concentramembers in about 19,000 in the U.S. and Canada, tions in Manitoba, Ontario, and British Columbia.[54]
with the remaining in members in 32 other countries About 37,000 of those were members of Mennonite
(2008 data)
Church Canada churches and another 35,000 of those
members of Mennonite Brethren churches. ApproxiThe Mennonite World Conference is a global community mately 5,000 belonged to conservative Old Order Menof 95 Mennonite and Brethren in Christ Mennonite na- nonite churches, or other ultra-conservative and orthodox
tional churches from 51 countries on six continents. It ex- churches. The remaining 55,000 Mennonites belonged to
ists to facilitate community between Anabaptist-related various other Canadian churches. In 1972 Mennonites
churches worldwide, and relate to other Christian world in Altona, Manitoba, established the Mennonite Thrift
communions and organizations, but it is not a governing Shop[55] which has now become a world-wide source of
body of any kind. It is a voluntary community of faith assistance to the needy.[56]

14

10 NOTES

As of 2003, there were an estimated 80,000 Old Colony

Mennonites in Mexico.[57] These Mennonites descend
from a mass migration in the 1920s of roughly 6,000 Old
Colony Mennonites from the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. In 1921, a Canadian Mennonite delegation arriving in Mexico received a privilegium, a
promise of non-interference, from the Mexican government. This guarantee of many freedoms was the impetus
that created the two original Old Colony settlements near
Patos Nuevo Ideal, Durango, Cuauhtmoc, Chihuahua
and La Honda, Zacatecas as well as many communities
in Aguascalientes.[58]

8.3

Organization: United Kingdom

There is the United Kingdom Mennonite Ministry, which

is part of the Nationwide Mennonites from Wisconsin
(U.S.) which meets in Old Sodbury. There are also the
British Conference of Mennonites,[59] and the London
Mennonite Centre.[60]

See also
Eastern Mennonite Missions
Church of God in Christ, Mennonite
Guy Hershberger

10 Notes
[1] http://mwc-cmm.org/article/world-directory Mennonite
World Conference World Directory, 2012
[2] Historic Peace Churches. Global Anabaptist Mennonite
Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved Jan 12, 2013.
[3] Who are the Mennonites?". Third Way Cafe. Retrieved
Jan 12, 2013.
[4] Did you know.... Mennonite Historical Society of
Canada. Retrieved Jan 12, 2013.
[5] The Mennonite Game. Mennonite Historical Society of
Canada. Retrieved Jan 12, 2013.
[6] Multicultural Canada: Mennonites.
canada.ca. Retrieved Nov 6, 2012.

Multicultural-

[7] Ethnicity. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia

Online. Retrieved Jan 12, 2013.
[8] Ethiopian conference tops membership. Mennonite
Weekly Review. Jul 13, 2005. Retrieved Jul 25, 2011.
[9] Bolivian Reforms Raise Anxiety on Mennonite Frontier,
The New York Times
[10] Aus Montevideo: Galizische Mennoniten in Uruguay
(Nov 1, 2012). Mennonites from Galitzia in Uruguay.
Galizien.org. Retrieved Nov 6, 2012.

Hutterites

[11] Antonio De La Cova (Dec 28, 1999). Paraguays Mennonites resent 'fast buck' outsiders. Latinamericanstudies.org. Retrieved Oct 29, 2011.

Living in a Perfect World

[12] Mennonite Disaster Service. Retrieved May 30, 2007.

Mennonite Church USA Archives

Mennonite denominations
Mennonites in Argentina
Mennonites in Belize
Mennonites in Bolivia
Mennonites in France
Mennonites in Mexico
Mennonites in Paraguay
Mennonite settlements of Altai
More-with-Less Cookbook
Orthodox Mennonites (Canada)
Hans Reist
Silent Light a 2007 lm by the Mexican lmmaker
Carlos Reygadas set in a Mennonite community.
Simple living
Ten Thousand Villages

[13] Mennonite Conciliation Service. Retrieved May 30,

2007.
[14] Strasser, Rolf Christoph (2006). Die Zrcher Tufer
1525 [The Zurich Anabaptists 1525] (PDF) (in German). EFB Verlag Wetzikon. p. 30. Retrieved Jan 28,
2012.
[15] Murray, Stuart (2010). The Naked Anabaptist: The Bare
Essentials of a Radical Faith. Herald Press. ISBN 978-08361-9517-0.
[16] "Mennonites". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
Appleton Company. 1913.
[17] Ukrainian Mennonite General Conference GAMEO.
Gameo.org. 1926-10-08. Retrieved 2012-11-13.
[18] Rempel, John G. (1957). Makhno, Nestor (1888
1934)". Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Two hundred forty names appear on a list of
November 1919 of those murdered in Zagradovka. In
Borzenkovo in the village of Ebenfeld alone 63 persons
were murdered, and in Steinbach of the same settlement
58 persons. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help);

Virginia Mennonite Missions

[19] Altkolonier-Mennoniten in Belize.

geschichte.net. Retrieved Oct 4, 2014.

John Howard Yoder

[20] Smith p.139

Taeufer-

15

[21] Smith p.360. Smith uses Mennonite-Quaker to refer to

Quakers who were formerly Mennonite and retained distinctive Mennonite beliefs and practices.
[22] See A Minute Against Slavery, Addressed to Germantown
Monthly Meeting, 1688 for text of the meetings message.
[23] Pannabecker p. 7.
[24] National Historic Landmarks & National Register of
Historic Places in Pennsylvania (Searchable database).
CRGIS: Cultural Resources Geographic Information System. Note: This includes J. Michael Sausman (August
1970). National Register of Historic Places Inventory
Nomination Form: Hans Herr House (PDF). Retrieved
Feb 18, 2012.
[25] Pannabecker p. 12.
[26] North America. Mennonite World Conference. 2006.
Retrieved 2009-12-03.
[27] 2000 Religious Congregations and Membership Study.
Glenmary Research Center. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
[28] Gingerich p. 420.
[29] Krahn, pp. 7678.
[30] Gingerich p. 452.
[31] Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American
People. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975, I, 292293.
[32] http://www.mennoniteeducation.org Mennonite Education Agency
[33] Westen, John-Henry; Elizabeth O'Brien (Sep 14, 2007).
Forced Education in Homosexuality and Evolution Leads
to Exodus of Mennonites from Quebec. LifeSiteNews.com. Archived from the original on Sep 14, 2007.
Retrieved Oct 29, 2011.
[34] The Gazette (Aug 16, 2007). Townsfolk sad to see Mennonites move away. Canada.com. Retrieved Oct 29,
2011.
[35] Hutchinson, Don (Sep 8, 2007). Faith-Based Education May Result in Loss of House and Home in Quebec. christianity.ca. Archived from the original on Sep
8, 2007. Retrieved Oct 29, 2011.
[36] IRFN (Aug. 2128): Austrian Politician Proposes Ban
on Mosques, Minarets, Becket Fund
[37] , Globe and Mail
[38] Huber, Tim. MWR : Eastern District cuts ties with Germantown church. Mennoworld.org. Retrieved Jan 13,
2013.

[43] First Openly Gay Pastor Approved by Mennonite Conference as License Approved.
[44] The Mennonite Churches and Homosexuality, Religious
Tolerance.org
[45] Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online:
Mankes-Zernike, Anna (18871972)
[46] In connection with the Lords Supper, some Mennonites
practice feet washing as a continuing outer sign of humility within the church. Feet washing was not originally an
Anabaptist practice. Pilgram Marpeck before 1556 included it, and it became widespread in the late 1500s and
the 1600s. Today it is practiced by some as a memorial sacrament, in memory of Christ washing the feet of
his disciples as recorded in the thirteenth chapter of the
Gospel of John.
[47] Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective. Retrieved May 30, 2007.
[48] http://www.cnn.com/us/9711/05/gay.mennonite/. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[49] Mennonite Weekly Review, 2004-10-12, Ethiopian
church strives to keep spiritual res alive
[50] Mennoniten in Deutschland. Mennoniten.de. Retrieved
Nov 6, 2012.
[51] 2008 CLP church directory
[52] United States and Worldwide Mennonite Membership
Statistics (source Mennonite Church USA)
[53] Mennonites in the United States. Mennonite Weekly
Review. Jun 20, 2005. Archived from the original on Dec
13, 2006. Retrieved Jan 21, 2007.
[54] Mennonites in Canada. Archived from the original on
May 16, 2007. Retrieved May 30, 2007.
[55] Mennonite Thrift Shop.
[56] CBC, The World at Six, Mar 17, 2012
[57] The Mennonite Old Colony Vision: Under siege in
Mexico and the Canadian Connection" (PDF). Retrieved
September 10, 2014.
[58] Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online: Old
Colony Mennonites
[59] 2003 Europe Mennonite & Brethren in Christ
Churches. Retrieved Mar 2, 2010.
[60] London Mennonite Centre. Retrieved Mar 2, 2010.

[39] Western District amends one resolution, tables another.

The Mennonite. Jul 1, 2012. Retrieved Jan 13, 2013.
[40] Southeast Conference removes ministerial credential.
[41] Central District takes 2-part action on pastors credentials.
[42] Decision not to discipline pastor stands at WDC.

11 References and further reading

Epp, Marlene. Mennonite Women in Canada: A
History (Winnipeg, University of Manitoba Press,
2008. xiii + 378 pp.)

16

12

Gingerich, Melvin (1949), Service for Peace, A History of Mennonite Civilian Public Service, Mennonite
Central Committee.
Horsch, James E. (Ed.) (1999), Mennonite Directory, Herald Press. ISBN 0-8361-9454-3
Krahn, Cornelius, Gingerich, Melvin & Harms, Orlando (Eds.) (1955). The Mennonite Encyclopedia,
Volume I, pp. 7678. Mennonite Publishing House.
Mennonite & Brethren in Christ World Directory
2003. Available On-line at http://www.mwc-cmm.
org/Directory/index.htm
Pannabecker, Samuel Floyd (1975), Open Doors:
A History of the General Conference Mennonite
Church, Faith and Life Press. ISBN 0-87303-636-0
Shearer, Tobin Miller (2010). Daily Demonstrators:
The Civil Rights Movement in Mennonite Homes and
Sanctuaries. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p.
392. ISBN 0-8018-9700-9.
Scott, Stephen (1995), An Introduction to Old Order
and Conservative Mennonite Groups, Good Books,
ISBN 1-56148-101-7
Smith, C. Henry (1981), Smiths Story of the Mennonites (5th ed. Faith and Life Press). ISBN 087303-060-5

11.1

Historiography

Heisey, M. J. "'Mennonite Religion was a Family

Religion': A Historiography, Journal of Mennonite Studies (2005), Vol. 23 pp 922.

12

External links

Mennonite at DMOZ
Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online
(GAMEO)
Mennonite Church Canada
Mennonite Church USA
Mennonite World Conference
"Mennonites". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.).
1911.

EXTERNAL LINKS

17

13
13.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Maikel, Mennonot, Tungol, Metron, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Frehorse, Qutezuce, Ericamick, Flapdragon, Wandering Raleighite,
Mwanner, Spearhead, Moilleadir, Riyehn, Jpgordon, Thuresson, Ray Dassen, Rbj, Ahc, Nsaa, Frank101, Alansohn, QVanillaQ, Walter
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13.2

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18

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Giethoorn_Zuidervermaning-1.JPG
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