HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND

EMPLOYEES PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF

HOTEL FRONT LINERS IN PENANG,
MALAYSIA

SHADI ALI ALHROUT

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA

2015

HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND

EMPLOYEES PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF
HOTEL FRONT LINERS IN PENANG,
MALAYSIA

by

SHADI ALI ALHROUT

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
February 2015

DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate this work to my mother Thamenah, she is always my beloved.
To Dr. Muhammad al Hrout, my brother Khaleel, Dr.Talal, my sister Jumanh, Manal
To my wife Wassam and my daughter Wateen
To my late father, my late grandfather's, grandmother, uncle and aunt may Allah rest
his soul in mercy.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest and
most sincere appreciation to my advisor and mentor, Prof.
Badaruddin Mohamed.Thank you for your endless support and
encouragement and for creating a standard and work ethics that
was both challenging as well as rewarding.

For all his support

and advice in helping me to understand and overcome all the

possibilities and arising difficulties connected to my research.
Next would be my beloved family. My parents deserve special
mention for their inseparable support and prayers. Thanks for being
supportive and caring siblings. For their encouragement throughout
these past years, I would like to thank them for their love and
constant support while pursuing my dreams. These are the family
feelings of love which I will never forget. And appreciation is
extended to my friends; my Uncle Muhammad Khaleel, Husameddin
Dawoud, Fahed Zaqout,Itaf Dassan, Ahalm Ababseh, khaldoon
Alshourah.

Finally, I would like to thank the ministry of higher education

of Malaysia for supporting this study through the long term
research grant scheme 2001 [LRGS grant no: JPT.S (BPKI)
2000/09/01.015 J1d.4(64)].

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgement........................................................................................................ii
Table of Contents.........................................................................................................iii
List of Tables.............................................................................................................viii
List of Figures...............................................................................................................x
Abstrak........................................................................................................................xi
Abstract.....................................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................
1.2 Background of the Study.........................................................................................
1.3 Problem Statement...................................................................................................
1.4 Objective of the Study.............................................................................................
1.5 Research Questions................................................................................................
1.6 Methodology..........................................................................................................
1.7 Significant of the Study.........................................................................................
1.8 Operational Definitions.........................................................................................
1.9 Organization of the Thesis.....................................................................................
1.10 Conclusion...........................................................................................................
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................18
2.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................
2.2 Background............................................................................................................
2.3 Organization Structural..........................................................................................
2.4 General Administrative Theory.............................................................................
2.4.1 Henri Fayol..............................................................................................
2.4.2 Max Weber...............................................................................................
2.5 Prosocial Behaviour Theory..................................................................................
2.6 Human Resources Theories...................................................................................
2.7 Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Malaysia......................................................
2.8 Front-Line Employees in Hotels and Hospitality Industry....................................
2.9 Factors Affecting Prosocial Behaviour..................................................................

2.9.1 Employees Empowerment.......................................................................

2.9.2 Employee Empowerment and Organization Commitment......................
2.9.3 Employee Empowerment and Prosocial Behaviour.................................
2.9.4 Human Resource Management (HRM)...................................................
2.9.4.1 Training and Development...................................
2.9.4.2 Good and Safe Working Conditions......................
2.9.4.3 Recruitment and Selection...................................
2.9.4.4 Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO)..............
2.9.5 Self-Efficacy............................................................................................
2.9.6 Organizational Commitment....................................................................
2.9.7 Prosocial Behaviour.................................................................................
2.10 Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses Development.......................................
2.10.1 Theoretical Framework..........................................................................
2.10.2 The Research Hypotheses......................................................................
2.11 Conclusion...........................................................................................................
CHAPTER 3 - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.....................................................71
3.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................
3.2 Research Design....................................................................................................
3.3 Selection of the Study Area...................................................................................
3.4 Research Method...................................................................................................
3.5 Permission and Approval.......................................................................................
3.6 Paper based Questionnaire Design........................................................................
3.7 Covering Letters....................................................................................................
3.8 Measurement Instrument for Constructs...............................................................
3.8.1.1 Prosocial Behaviour Scale.......................................................
3.8.2 HRM Practices.........................................................................................
3.8.3 Organization Commitment.......................................................................
3.8.4 Employee Empowerment.........................................................................
3.8.5 Self-Efficacy............................................................................................
3.9 Reflective versus Formative Measurement Orientation........................................
3.10 Unidimentional versus Multi-Dimentional Constructs........................................
3.11 Population and Sampling.....................................................................................
3.12 Sample Size.........................................................................................................

3.13 Sample Criteria....................................................................................................

3.14 Pilot Study...........................................................................................................
3.15 Data Collection....................................................................................................
3.16 Analytical Methodology......................................................................................
3.17 Justification for Selecting Structural Equation Modelling..................................
3.18 Covariance-Based Structural Equation Modelling..............................................
3.19 PLS Structural Equation Modelling....................................................................
3.20 Justification for Selecting PLS Path Modelling..................................................
3.21 The Two-Step Modelling Approach....................................................................
3.22 Statistics for PLS Model Evaluation...................................................................
3.23 Measurement (Outer) Model Evaluation.............................................................
3.23.1 Loadings Reflective Indicants...........................................................100
3.23.2 Maximised or Composite Reliability (Internal Consistency)...............100
3.23.3 Cross-Loadings In PLS Analyses.........................................................101
3.23.4 Aver experience Variance Extracted Statistic.......................................101
3.23.5 Assessing Parameter and Loading Significance...................................101
3.23.6 Statistics to Assess The PLS Structural (Inner) Model (PLS
Structural Model Assessment Statisitcs)..............................................101
3.23.7 Interpretation of Statistics for Assessing PLS Inner Model (PLS
Inner Model Interpretation of Statistics).............................................102
3.24 Data Preparation for Analysis............................................................................103
3.25 Preliminary Data Analysis.................................................................................103
3.25.1 Missing Data........................................................................................103
3.25.2 Outliers.................................................................................................104
3.25.3 Multivariate Normality........................................................................104
3.25.4 Multicollinearity...................................................................................106
3.26 Participant Characteristics.................................................................................106
3.27 Conclusion.........................................................................................................107
CHAPTER 4 - RESULTS........................................................................................108
4.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................108
4.2 Reliability and Validity of the instrument............................................................108
4.2.1 Reliability...............................................................................................108
4.2.2 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)........................................................109

4.2.2.1 Prosocial Behaviour............................................110

4.2.2.2 Employee Empowerment...................................111
4.2.2.3 HRM Practises....................................................111
4.2.2.4 Organization Commitment.................................112
4.2.2.5 Self-efficacy........................................................113
4.3 Describing the Approaches for Higher-order Construct Models HOC in Partial
Least Squares Modelling (PLS).......................................................................
4.4 Common Method Variance Analysis...................................................................
4.5 Measurement Model Assessment........................................................................
4.5.1 Convergent Validity................................................................................
4.5.2 Discriminant Validity.............................................................................120
4.5.2.1 Cross Loading Assessment.................................120
4.5.2.2 Fornell-Larcker Criterion.....................................121
4.6 Assessment of Formative Constructs (HRM Practices)......................................124
4.6.1 Collinearity among Dimensions of HRM Practices...............................124
4.6.2 Relevance of Outer Weights for the First-order Constructs of HRM
Practices...............................................................................................125
4.7 Structural Model Assessment..............................................................................126
4.7.1 Predictive Relevance Q2.........................................................................132
4.7.2 Effect Size f 2..........................................................................................132
4.8 Mediation Effect Assessment..............................................................................133
4.9 Moderation Effect................................................................................................138
4.9.1 Gender as a Moderator...........................................................................139
4.9.2 Experience as a Moderator.....................................................................140
4.10 Summary of Results...........................................................................................142
4.11 Conclusion.........................................................................................................144
CHAPTER 5 - DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS........................................................145
5.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................145
5.2 Discussion of Research Questions.......................................................................146
5.2.1 First Research Question:........................................................................147
5.2.2 Second Research Question:....................................................................152
5.2.3 Third Research Question:.......................................................................159
5.2.4 Fourth Research Question:.....................................................................160

5.2.5 Fifth Research Question:........................................................................163

5.3 Conclusion...........................................................................................................164
CHAPTER 6 - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...........................165
6.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................165
6.2 Conclusion...........................................................................................................165
6.3 Implications of the Study.....................................................................................170
6.3.1 Theoretical Implications.........................................................................170
6.3.2 Practical Implications.............................................................................172
6.4 Limitations and Future Studies............................................................................173
6.5 Conclusion...........................................................................................................175
Appendix..................................................................................................................197
Appendix A: Missing Data Report...........................................................................197
Appendix B: Outliers................................................................................................199
Appendix C: Normality............................................................................................201
Appendix D: Multicollinearity Test..........................................................................203
Appendix E: Questionnaire......................................................................................208
Appendix F: Approval Letter...................................................................................213

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Table 2:1: Benefits and Costs of Empowerment.............................................................
Table 2:2: Disadvantages of Ineffective or Unfair Recruitment and Selection...............
Table 2:3: Advantages of Equal Employment Opportunities..........................................
Table 2:4: Advantages of Developing Employees Self-Efficacy...................................
Table 3:1: Malaysia hotel tourist by States 2012.............................................................
Table 3:2: Principles of Questionnaire Format................................................................
Table 3:3: Strengths and Weaknesses of Questionnaires.................................................
Table 3:4: The Questionnaire Design..............................................................................
Table 3:5: Hotel and Rooms Supply in Penang, 2012....................................................
Table 3:6: List of Respondents........................................................................................
Table 3:7: Types of Samples.....................................................................................
Table 3:8: Summary of Descriptive Statistics.................................................................
Table 3:9: Questionnaire Distribution and Response Rate..............................................
Table 3:10: Comparison of CBSEM and PLS (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2013;
Wilson, 2011)................................................................................................
Table 3:11: Skewness and Kurtosis values for the variables.........................................105
Table 3:12: Participants Characteristics (N=202)..........................................................107
Table 4:1: Summary of Reliability test (N=202)...........................................................109
Table 4:2: Exploratory Factor Analysis for Prosocial Behaviour..................................110
Table 4:3: Exploratory Factor Analysis for Employee Empowerment.........................
Table 4:4: Exploratory Factor Analysis for HRM Practices..........................................112
Table 4:5: Exploratory Factor Analysis for Organization Commitment.......................113
Table 4:6: Exploratory Factor Analysis for Self-efficacy.............................................113
Table 4:7: Results Summary for the Measurement Model............................................119
Table 4:8: Item Cross Loadings.....................................................................................120
Table 4:9: Correlations and Discriminant Validity N 202.............................................122
Table 4:10: Collinearity Assessment for the Formative Construct (HRM practices)
....................................................................................................................125
Table 4:11: Hypotheses Testing Results........................................................................130
Table 4:12: Results of Effect Size f2 and q2...................................................................133
Table 4:13: t Values of Indirect Effects.........................................................................135
Table 4:14: Strength of Mediation Effect......................................................................137

Table 4:15: Path Differences between Female and Male Frontline Employees...........139
Table 4:16: Path Coefficient Differences between High Level and Low Level
Experience..................................................................................................141

LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2:1: Theoretical framework..................................................................................
Figure 2:2: Hypothesized Model of the Study................................................................
Figure 3:1: Research Design Process..............................................................................
Figure 3:2: Map of Penang..............................................................................................
Figure 3:3: Dominant Measurement Orientations...........................................................
Figure 3:4: Normality Curve of Item Q10.....................................................................105
Figure 4:1: Hierarchical Component Model of Employee Empowerment Follows
Reflective-Reflective, Type I......................................................................115
Figure 4:2: Hierarchical Component Model of HRM Practices Follows ReflectiveFormative, Type II......................................................................................116
Figure 4:3: Measurement Model Assessment..................................................123
Figure 4:4: Measurement Model Assessment for HRM Practices...............................126
Figure 4:5: Bootstrapping Assessment for the Outer First-order Formative
Constructs...................................................................................................126
Figure 4:6: Results of Bootstrapping (t-values)............................................................131
Figure 4:7: Barplot of Path Coefficients Differences between Female and Male of
Frontline Employees...................................................................................140
Figure 4:8: Bar plot of Path Coefficients Differences between High and Low Levels
Experience of Frontline Employees...........................................................141

10

PENGURUSAN SUMBER MANUSIA DAN TINGKAH LAKU

PROSOSIAL STAF BARISAN HADAPAN HOTEL DI PULAU
PINANG, MALAYSIA

ABSTRAK

Staf barisan hadapan atau pekerja kaunter dalam industri perhotelan dan hospitaliti
memainkan peranan penting dalam membentuk pendapat tentang khidmat pelanggan,
ataupun penyampaian khidmat mereka. Justeru, keputusan yang diambil semasa
melayan pelanggan akan memberi kesan terhadap pelanggan. Adakalanya, keputusan
boleh diambil dengan melanggar aturan dan peraturan yang ditetapkan oleh organisasi,
dan mengambil sesetengah risiko. Apabila khidmat seseorang staf melanggar aturan dan
peraturan yang ditetapkan dalam usaha memenuhi keperluan pelanggan, maka dia
menunjukkan tingkah laku prososial. Dalam industri perhotelan, interaksi di antara
pekerja kaunter dan khidmat pelanggan mereka boleh anteseden tingkah laku prososial
pekerja kaunter.Kajian ini berusaha mengkaji pengaruh dua variabel penyederhana (iaitu
kecekapan diri dan komitmen organisasi) terhadap perkaitan di antara amalan
pengurusan sumber manusia (Human Resource Management, HRM) dan pemerkasaan
pekerja sebagai varibel bebas dan tingkah laku prososial sebagai varibel bersandar.Bagi
menjawab persoalan kajian ini, kami menggunakan penyelidikan rentas-silang.Suatu
soal selidik tadbir-sendiri, yang disesuaikan daripada sains tingkah laku, digunakan bagi
mengumpul data.Teknik pensampelan mudah berstrata digunakan bagi memastikan
bahawa sampel yang digunakan mewakili keseluruhan populasi (mengambil kira gender
dan pengalaman). Instrumen direka bentuk untuk mengukur lima komponen utama
berikut amalan HRM, pemerkasaan pekerja, tingkah laku prososial, komitmen
organisasi, dan kecekapan diri. Komponen amalan HRM terdiri daripada empat binaan,

11

iaitu latihan dan pembangunan, pengambilan dan pemiihan, keadaan kerja yang baik
dan selama, dan peluang pekerjaan yang sama. Soal selidik diagihkan kepada 202
responden, dan data dianalisis menggunakan pemodelan persamaan berstruktur
(structural equation modelling, SEM) dalam perisian PLS.Dapatan kajian ini
mempunyai beberapa implikasiPara pentadbir disarankan untuk menggalakkan tingkah
laku prososial dalam kalangan pekerja kaunter. Jika tidak, mereka perlu memaklumkan
para pekerja tentang jenis gerak-isyarat yang dapat membantu khidmat pelanggan.
Tingkah laku prososial dijangkakan dalam sesetengah keadaan boleh menjejaskan
keadaan yang lain. Namun demikian, jika terdapat aturan yang sering diketepikan, maka
para pentadbir perlu menilai atau menyemak semua aturan tersebut.

12

HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEES

PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF HOTEL FRONT LINERS IN
PENANG, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT

The frontline staffs of hotels and the hospitality industry plays a pivotal role in
forming the opinions of service consumers by means of their service delivery.
Therefore, the decisions they tend to make while serving the customers affect their
rapport with the customers. Sometimes, the decision can be made at the expense of
violating the organizational rules and regulations and taking some risks. When staff
service violates the rules and regulations to address customer needs, they show
prosocial behaviour. In the hotel industry, the interaction between frontline employees
and their service consumers can be an antecedent of the prosocial behaviour of frontline
employees. This study investigates the influence of two mediating variables (i.e., selfefficacy and organization commitment) on the relationship between human resource
management (HRM) practices and employee empowerment as the independent variable
and prosocial behaviour as the dependent variable. To address the questions of the study,
we used cross-sectional research. A self-administered questionnaire, which was adopted
from behavioural science, was used for data collection. The stratified convenience
sampling technique was used to ensure that the sample represented the whole population
(considering both gender and experience) in the study. The instrument was designed to
measure five major components, namely, HRM practices, employee empowerment,
prosocial behaviour, organization commitment, and self-efficacy. The HRM practice
component comprised four constructs: training and development, recruitment and
selection, good and safe working conditions, and equal employment opportunities. A

13

questionnaire was administered to 202 respondents, and data were analyzed by using
structural equation modeling (SEM) in PLS software. The results of the study have
some implications for researchers and administrators in the hospitality industry.
Administrators are advised to promote the prosocial behaviour of the frontline
employees. Nonetheless, administrators should inform their staff members about the
types of gestures that can help service consumers. Prosocial behaviour may be expected
in some positions, whereas such behaviour is detrimental in other positions.
Nevertheless, if there is a rule that is frequently being waived, it is that administrators
need to assess or revise the rules

14

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces the background of this study. In doing so, it first provides
a discussion on prosocial behaviour in the tourism and hospitality industry. Second, it
presents the problem statement, research objectives, and research questions. Finally,
it discusses the significance and organization of this study.

1.2 Background of the Study

According to Blake and Chiesa (2013), tourism consists of the activities of
tourists that pertain to travelling and staying in another country, usually far from their
permanent residence for not more than an entire year. Tourism is generally related to
leisure, entertainment, and recreational activities without the purpose of earning
remuneration from the place visited. Some definitions of tourism included the
concept of earning through tourist activities. Such type of tourism is called business
tourism because some people are involved in providing infrastructure, goods, and
services to tourists and visitors. However, the term tourism is particularly
associated with the concept of leisure, fun, and entertainment (Wahab, Al-Momani,
& Noor, 2010).

Tourism or hospitality industry is a major source of revenue worldwide. It

strengthens the economy of a country similar to many other economic sectors.
Tourism involves different stakeholders such as tour operators, travel managers, food
and beverage firms, travel agents, transport companies, sellers, and souvenir shops
that provide goods and services to visitors and tourists (Sheng & Chen, 2012).

Thousands of employees, workers, and staff members are involved in running a

system to develop tourist activities. They provide goods and services to tourists from
all over the world so that visitors can be accommodated. Consequently, staff
members and tourists have to interact and communicate with each other while
providing and receiving goods and services. Therefore, staff members develop a
social interaction when they communicate and interact with customers. Both the
service providers and tourists or customers intermingle (the service encounter)
during the delivery of services.
Service providers offer different services, whereas customers wish to be satisfied
with the services of these providers. Therefore, the customers estimate and compare
the quality of services to the cost they pay for the services. They will be satisfied if
their perception of the services is beyond their level of expectation. If the services do
not fulfill their requirements and their level of satisfaction, then they will be
dissatisfied and displeased. Dissatisfaction can also affect the perceptions of service
providers. Therefore, service providerswill also be dissatisfied with the service
quality (Y.-K. Lee, Nam, Park, & Lee, 2006). In addition, the prosocial behaviours of
service providers, such as cooperating, helping, volunteering, and sharing, can be
regarded as customer-oriented service in the hospitality industry. Therefore, the
prosocial behaviours of service providers are critically significant for administrative
personnel and service marketers because they assist in measuring their behaviour and
attitude toward the customers.
Prosocial behaviour functions as a parameter for gauging the quality of service
and the satisfaction level of customers. This behaviour helps the hospitality industry
to evaluate the overall performance of service providers toward customers (Y.-K.
Lee, et al., 2006; Tsaur & Lin, 2004). The management performs its duty to ensure

the appropriateness of the front-line workers who meet the customers and deliver the
service. However, the process of identifying the performance of key workers in its
true spirit is tedious and complex (Bowen, Siehl, & Schneider, 1989).

The front-line or leading employees are the strength and the backbone of the
hospitality industry. Previous studies have designated and recognized such
employees as successful service operators (Janta, Lugosi, Brown, & Ladkin, 2012).
These employees play a significant role in generating revenue and promoting
tourism. They contribute to the growth of the sales of goods and boost business
(Lundberg & Mossberg, 2008). They are influential employees who execute quality
service encounters (Wall & Berry, 2007) and imprint a positive impression of the
company on the consumers to shape their progressive influences (Bettencourt,
Brown, & MacKenzie, 2005; L. S. Cook et al., 2002; Reynolds & Beatty, 2000).
The nature of hospitality work is service-oriented and requires high levels of
communication and interaction between the guests, tourists, and foreign visitors. In
many cases, some employees perform more tasks than their duties in terms of being
polite in their behaviour and providing extra services; these tasks are recognized as
extra-role behaviour. They pay maximum attention and sincerity to their job and
attempt their best to satisfy the consumers at a higher level(Furlong, Chung, Bates, &
Morrison, 1995; Kamdar & Van Dyne, 2007). However, a majority of the employees
put superficial efforts and do not bear the sacrifices in providing services to the
customers. This tendency of these employees is known as role-prescribed behaviour
(Borman, Penner, Allen, & Motowidlo, 2001). The work attitude and personality
traits of employees who go beyond the rules and regulations in serving the guests
should be studied and ascertained. In some cases, hospitality employees reflect such

types of behaviour (Miller, Craighead, & Karwan, 2000) According to Bennett and
Robinson (2000), employees who deviate from the prescribed rules and regulations
are not constantly and properly trained nor guided regarding their predefined
regulations in their jobs, which is the reason for the performance of their duties in an
uncommon manner and for the reflection of their behaviours that are different from
others.
Edgar and Geare (2005) further stated that companies are liable to provide a good,
respectable, and conducive working environment for all the employees in terms of
safety, welfare facilities, and protection. A safe and healthy work environment can
enhance the quality of services and goods to be provided to consumers or customers.
Dean and Bowen (1994) highlighted the importance of empowering front-line
employees in terms of their involvement in day-to-day decisions regarding jobassociated activities. Conger and Kanungo (1988) argued that employee
empowerment affects the task behaviour and performance of employees and that they
consequently provide a higher level of services effectively and efficiently to their
customers and consumers. Bateson and Curtiss (1996) added that empowerment
helps service providers to become more focused, approachable, responsible, and
responsive. Empowerment also improves their morality and respective experience.
Previous studies concluded that organizations should empower employees based on
their performance.
Successful employees should also be provided with rewards, supplementary
benefits, and the authority to make independent decisions that can benefit the
organization (Bowen & Lawler III, 1992; J. Kelley, Whitley, Sipe, & Crofts Yorker,
2000). Therefore, empowerment is a vital aspect of the work of employees because

they have to make several prompt decisions to provide services that achieve a higher
level of satisfaction (Hartline & Ferrell, 1996; Menon & Hartmann, 2002). Fuller,
Morrison, Jones, Bridger, and Brown (1999) revealed that studies regarding the
effectiveness of empowerment and its relationships with work outcomes and benefits
have also been conducted in Western countries, particularly in the United States and
Canada.
By contrast, employees are less empowered in Malaysia compared with those in
European and Western countries because Malaysia is fundamentally a traditional
Islamic country and has not adopted the culture and traditions of other Western
countries. In addition, the issue of empowerment in Malaysia, particularly in
professions dominated by female workers, remains controversial because of its
Islamic traditions and values, which are different from those of European and
Western countries (Ahmad & Oranye, 2010).
1.3 Problem Statement
According to Dawkins and Reichheld (2007) and Morgan, Crutchfield, and
Lacey(2006) quality service delivery is known as a significant requirement in
tourism to be successful in the current competitive environment. The interaction
between employees and customers is a special aspect of the hospitality industry.
Therefore the quality of service plays a vital role when employees deal with
customers. Generally, poor service delivery and high labor cost are caused by a lack
of prosocial behaviour of hospitality employees (Gill & Mathur, 2007). However,
hospitality employees can modify their behaviour and improve service quality in the
light of the feedback received from the customers (Bettencourt, et al., 2005; Mohr &
Bitner, 1995). Therefore, front-line employees having a sense of responsibility from

the company, can bring changes to their attitude after interacting and communicating
with the customers (Mohr & Bitner, 1995). Thus, employees can provide better
services to their customers. Litzky, Eddleston, and Kidder(2006) concluded that the
prosocial behaviour of employees and workers of the hospitality industry allows
them to adapt to the need to provide quality services to their customers. According to
Curtis (2010), limited research could be found regarding the key factors that play a
vital role in decision making regarding the prosocial behaviour of employees of the
tourism and hospitality industry.

The current study aimed to develop and validate a proposed model of predicting
the prosocial behaviour of employees working in hotels. These employees not only
fulfill the basic demand, conduct, and rules and regulations of the hotel industry, but
also provide services according to the demands and satisfaction levels of customers
to promote the tourism industry. Better employee performance increases the
satisfaction level of customers (Tsaur, Cheng, & Wu, 2004). However, superior
individual care, respect, courtesy, politeness, attention, and novelty are also required
in terms of service behaviour in the provision of goods and services (Du Gay &
Pryke, 2002; Handley, Sturdy, Fincham, & Clark, 2006).
The major goal of any organization is to improve employee skills to enhance the
quality of services. Achieving this goal gains customer satisfaction that increases the
profits of an enterprise. This study investigates the key factors in a wider context that
would determine the behaviour of employees working in the Malaysian tourism
industry. A considerable focus was given to the customer-oriented prosocial
behaviour, in which employees engage themselves in constant improvement and

exert efforts to enhance the quality of services for customers (Peccei & Rosenthal,
2001).
The term service behaviour is alternatively used as professional behaviour, and
two chief sets of experiences related to the level of psychological empowerment, as
experienced by employees on the job and perceived human resource management
(HRM) practices in the organization, affect the professional behaviour of employees
(Peccei & Rosenthal, 2001). In conjunction with professional behaviour, Edgar and
Geare (2005) identified four dimensions of HRM practices, such as the provision of
equal employment opportunities, fair recruitment and selection, effective training and
development, and a respectable and conducive work environment.
Equal provision of employment opportunity means offering the same chances to
all of the applicants for selection irrespective of their social differences while
advertising the vacancies and then letting employees gain equal access to services
and other fringe benefits after they are recruited. The management should provide
equal opportunities to all of the employees working in the industry (Edgar & Geare,
2005). Chew and Wong (2008) and Kim, Leong, and Lee(2005) reported various
selection and recruitment approaches across different companies in Malaysia. These
approaches are helpful in deciding the type of characteristics, personality, and
personal traits that may be suitable according to the climate and policy of any
organization. With regard to the training and developmental dimension of employees,
imparting updated training methods and materials to all of the employees is essential
worldwide to improve their exposure in providing services. However, several
Malaysian companies assume this process to be a costly waste of time (Abdul Jalil,
2002).

Kosov, Lafontaine, and Perrigot (2002) reported that the previous studies lack
the different aspects of factors that may affect the employees in the hotel industry.
Therefore, future studies should investigate such issues. Furthermore, Becerra,
Santal, and Silva (2007) argued that given modernity and the global environment,
new studies should examine the hidden aspects of the prosocial behaviour of
employees in the hotel industry.

Therefore, the current research is an effort to design a conceptual framework that

predicts the prosocial behaviour of front-line employees of the hotel industry. This
study introduced two mediating variables (i.e., self-efficacy and organization
commitment) to identify and explicate the mechanism and process that underlies an
observed relationship between the independent variables (i.e., HRM practices and
employee empowerment) and the dependent variable (i.e., prosocial behaviour).
Lower levels of employee commitment could result in lower levels of the prosocial
behaviour of employees and in the negative image of the hospitality industry, despite
the efforts made by a hotel management regarding HRM practices and empowerment
(Y.-K. Lee, et al., 2006). Self-efficacy is associated with the prosocial behaviour of
employees because they have a direct contact with customers (Bandura, 1994).
The literature has identified various indications of the importance of
organizational commitment and self-efficacy to the processes and practices of
prosocial behaviour. However, a significant shortage exists in terms of empirical
studies, models, and theoretical basis for operating them simultaneously as mediators
between HRM practices and employee empowerment on prosocial behaviour. Figure
2.1 (on page 58) indicates the proposed conceptual framework that depicts the

relationships among HRM practices, employee empowerment, self-efficacy

organizational commitment, and prosocial behaviour.
1.4 Objective of the Study
The overall purpose of this research work was to identify the relationship between
employee empowerment and HRM practices on self-efficacy and organizational
commitment and to determine the direct and indirect effects of self-efficacy and
organizational commitment on the prosocial behaviour of employees in the tourism
and hospitality industry. Furthermore, this study examined the relationships among
the factors identified as potentially related to it. To accomplish this purpose, the
research identified the following objectives:
1. To investigate the relationship between employee empowerment and HRM
practices on the prosocial behaviour of front-line employees in the tourism
and hospitality industry
2. To examine the relationship between employee empowerment and HRM
practices and their influence on self-efficacy and organizational commitment
in the tourism and hospitality industry
3. To investigate the links between self-efficacy and the organizational
commitment of employees of the tourism and hospitality industry and their
influence on prosocial behaviour
4. To examine the mediation of the links between self-efficacy and
organizational commitment on the relationship between employee
empowerment and HRM practices on prosocial behaviour
5. To investigate the mediation of gender and experience on the relationship
between employee empowerment and HRM practices on self-efficacy,
organizational commitment, and prosocial behaviour

1.5 Research Questions

This study identified the relationship between employee empowerment and HRM
practices on self-efficacy and organizational commitment and determined the direct
and indirect effects of self-efficacy and organizational commitment on the prosocial
behaviour of employees in the tourism and hospitality industry in Penang City,
Malaysia. Thus, this study attempted to answer the following research questions:
1. How do employee empowerment and HRM practices influence the prosocial
behaviour of front-line employees in the tourism and hospitality industry?
2. How do employee empowerment and HRM practices influence self-efficacy
and organizational commitment in the tourism and hospitality industry?
3. How do organizational commitment and theself-efficacy of employees in the
tourism and hospitality industry influence prosocial behaviour?
4. How do organizational commitment and self-efficacy mediate the relationship
between employee empowerment and HRM practices on prosocial
behaviour?
5. Do gender and experience moderate the relationship between employee
empowerment

and

HRM

practices

on

self-efficacy,

organizational

commitment, and prosocial behaviour?

1.6 Methodology
This study used quantitative data to identify the relationships among the different
variables, such as the relationship and the influence of HRM practices on
organizational commitment, employee empowerment, and self-efficacy. Furthermore,
identifying the relationship and the influence of self-efficacy and organizational
commitment on prosocial behaviour was another aspect of the study. Thus, the study

10

adopted a quantitative correlation approach. According to Tosun (2010), correlational

studies provide valuable and applicable information about variable relationships.
Therefore, a non-experimental approach based on ontological, epistemological,
theoretical, and methodological perspectives was designed to seek empirical answers
from the quantitative variable (Yong-Ki, Jung-Heon, Dae-Hwan, & Kyung, 2005).
For this purpose, the current study used a questionnaire to collect the data.
1.7 Significant of the Study
This study primarily investigated the effects of employee empowerment and HRM
practices on self-efficacy and organizational commitment and to determine the direct
and indirect effects of self-efficacy and organizational commitment on the prosocial
behaviour of employees. Morrison (2006) revealed that prosocial behaviour is not a
vibrant role founded on individual differences based on gender. This research
revealed that women are less likely to present prosocial behaviour. Therefore, the
secondary purpose of the current study was to examine significant differences in the
prosocial behaviour of employees in the hospitality industry using gender as a
determinant. This aspect of the study will aid management in recruiting, selecting,
and training employees in the hospitality industry.
Different basic concepts such as entertainment, recreation, leisure, and hospitality
are associated with the term tourism (Jiang & Tribe, 2009). Several stakeholders in
the tourism industry (i.e., travel agents, tour operators, food and beverage firms,
transport companies, and souvenir shop keepers) promote the culture and lifestyle of
multi-racial and multi-ethnic communities. It also formulates the prosocial behaviour
of employees in the tourism and hospitality industry (Sheng & Chen, 2012).
Therefore, tourism, as known by an organization, provides facilities and services to

11

visitors and tourists in entertaining and recreational destinations (Kusluvan,

Kusluvan, Ilhan, & Buyruk, 2010).
The dedication and prosocial behaviour of employees working in the tourism and
hospitality industry are significant in providing quality services to customers.
Therefore, the unsatisfactory and poor performance of employees in terms of their
dedication and prosocial behaviour induces high labor costs and poor quality of guest
service. Therefore, the prosocial behaviour and dedication of employees influence
the success of the tourism and hospitality industry (Krause & Scannell, 2002).
The prosocial behaviours of the employees of the tourism and hospitality industry
assist in formulating and modifying their behaviour to be suitable for providing
quality services to customers. In return, the tourism and hospitality industry
flourishes to excel in entertaining customers (Antimova, Nawijn, & Peeters, 2012)
Therefore, the role of prosocial behaviour is significant in conjunction with the
services provided to the customer. Furthermore, the current study will help the
different stakeholders associated with the tourism and hospitality industry to improve
their performance.
The tourism and hospitality industry is a productive and profitable business, being
a rapidly growing economic sector worldwide. In recent years,this industry has been
a major source for the promotion of the trade and economy of countries. It assists in
generating revenue that strengthens the economic position of a country. It also helps
promote social, cultural, environmental, and political values among the people. The
tourism and hospitality industrysimilarly provides employment opportunities to
millions of people, as well as serves as a tool for development and driver of
economic growth. An annual report of the World Tourism Organization 2013

12

regarded tourism as a bid source of generating revenue to make nations prosperous

(Blanke & Chiesa, 2013).
The tourism and hospitality industry generates opportunities for tourists to travel
to and stay in the destinations outside their permanent environment and to enjoy in
recreational activities. The people associated with tourist activities provide
infrastructure, goods, and services to tourists and visitors. The term tourism is
particularly associated with the concept of leisure and entertainment and with the
provision of numerous earning opportunities (Wahab, et al., 2010).
The findings of the present research will help academic institutions, research
scholars, and administrations to open new horizons in the development of tourism.
They will also aid the tourism industry in improving prosocial behaviour and service
quality according to customer feedback. Finally, this research, through the empirical
implications, will be useful in promoting the Malaysian tourism industry.
1.8 Operational Definitions
The definitionsof the terms employed in the current study are
explained as follows:

Front-line Employees: Frontline employees possess a large measure of

control over the customer experience. Their actions determine whether a
customer becomes a brand evangelist or detract. Understanding how best to
motivate these employees--and designing processes and strategies to ensure
that theyre empowered, energized, and personally vested is at the core of
delivering standout service and creating a compelling brand experience. Here

13

are four critical areas to consider when creating a standout experience.

(Gordon & Copes, 2008).

Human Resource Management (HRM): Activities conducted for the

developmental aspect of staff and the organization, set by the top
management, including the involvement in assessing training plans and
policies, staff motivation and creating a suitable working environment.

Employee

Empowerment:Employee

empowerment

is

giving

employees a certain degree of autonomy and responsibility for decisionmaking regarding their specific organizational tasks. It allows decisions to be
made at the lower levels of an organization where employees have a unique
view of the issues and problems facing the organization at a certain
level(Bonn & Forbringer, 1992).

Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy affects some of the factors that predict

motivation. According to Bandura(1994)self-efficacy is a self judgment of
one's ability to perform a task within a specific domain. However, high selfefficacy in one domain doesn't guarantee high efficacy in another. The high
self-efficacy will positively affect performance and good performance will
enhance one's self-efficacy in turn.

Organizational Commitment: Psychological bond to a hotel organization,

including a sense of job involvement, loyalty, and belief in the values of the
organisation are referred to asorganizational commitment (O'Reilly &
Chatman, 1986). It is characterised by employee's acceptance of

14

organisational goals and their willingness to exert effort on behalf of the

organisation (Anderson, Born, & Cunningham-Snell, 2002).

Prosocial Behaviour: Prosocial Behaviour refers to the phenomenon

of people helping each other with no thought of reward or compensation. You
may have thought this didn't exist, but it's been known to happen. Prosocial
behaviours are actions or patterns of behaviour rather than motivations. The
motivation to do charitable acts is called altruism.

1.9 Organization of the Thesis

The present study consists of five chapters, and the structure of the study will be as
follows.
Chapter One introduces prosocial behaviour of the employees working in tourism
and hospitality industry, and describes research problem, background, scope, and
purpose of the study and theoretical perspective that had been used for the current
study. Research objectives, research questions and finally the limitations of the
research were stated.
Chapter Two presents the detailed literature review related to basic concepts of
tourism, hospitality industry, moderators gender experience, employee
empowerment, HRM practices and organizational commitment, and customeroriented prosocial behaviour of the employees working in tourism and hospitality
industry.

15

Chapter Three describes the research methodology, along with the research design,
the study setting, population, sampling, data collection tool and procedure,
operationalization of the research variables, statistical method for data analysis, pretest and pilot study, and finally, the procedure for preparing and interpreting of data
for analysis.
Chapter Four discusses the assessment of the measurement model followed by the
structural model in order to test the hypotheses. Multi - group comparisons will also
be conducted to test the moderating effects of gender and experience.
Chapter Five presents the discussions and conclusions based on the results and
findings of the current research, theoretical and practical implications, limitations,
strengths and suggestions for future research.
1.10 Conclusion
This chapter provided an overview of the research gap relative to
human resources management practices and employees prosocial
behaviour

in

tourism

and

hospitality

industry.

Background

information related to the study was highlighted and pointed to the

gap which this study addresses. The purpose of the study, research
questions, and significance of the study were outlined.

16

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a critical review of the relevant literature related to
prosocial behaviour. It discusses the problems facing prosocial behaviour and
reviews employee empowerment and HRM practices on self-efficacy and
organizational commitment. It subsequently identifies the direct and indirect effects
of self-efficacy and organizational commitment on employees in the tourism and
hospitality industry.
2.2 Background
The word tourism is generally perceived as moving around from one place to
another or as having a long trip or expedition, along with an organized group and
under the leadership of a tour guide to visit a variety of sights one after another
(Laws, Harper, Jones, & Marcus, 2013). Having such a definition, tourism refers to
socio-economic events that bring social, economic, and ecological development
(Smallman & Moore, 2010).
The word tourism is related to several basic notions, such as free or leisure time,
fun, amusement, relaxation, and hospitality (Jiang & Tribe, 2009). A range of
stakeholders (i.e., tour organizers, tour agencies, refreshment stands, transportation
companies, and souvenir shop owners) contribute to the development of different
cultures and lifestyles of multi-ethnic groups as well as the prosocial behaviour of the
staff of the tourism and hospitality sector (Baruch, O'Creevy, Hind, & Vigoda-Gadot,
2004). Tourism generally refers to an organization that affords several amenities for
visitors and tourists at entertaining destinations (Kusluvan, et al., 2010).

17

The tourism and hospitality industry provides tourists with the opportunity to
travel and reside in entertaining destinations outside of their permanent milieu for
less than one entire year for fun and leisure. Tourism is essentially tied with leisure
and entertaining activities without any type of payment to the destination visited
(Blanke & Chiesa, 2013). Nonetheless, some descriptions of tourism incorporate the
idea of income generation in tourist activities. This type of tourism is known as
business tourism, and it is linked to tourism activities that involve the provision of
goods and services to tourists and visitors. The literature suggests a consensus on the
aspects of leisure and entertainment in tourism, especially in the aspect of defining
this term (Wahab, et al., 2010).
2.3 Organization Structural
Organizational structure is a peculiar structural agenda that clarifies the approach
to the roles that organizational members perform, so that everyone understands their
responsibilities to the group. A structure depends on the organization's objectives and
policy, the vision and the general mission of the organization. Organizations are
increasingly becoming aware based on a number of empirical studies of the
importance of strategic human resources management. The certainty of causal
relationship in organizational performance cannot be ascertained.

The valuable contribution of Alfred Chandlers scholarship on the large industrial

enterprise has deepened understanding of economic development, and helped
establish the field of strategic management research. Chandlers monumental work
was reported in (1962) when he carried out a study on major US firms. The high
point of the study was the support provided for a capabilities theory of the business
enterprises. Chandlers emphasized the importance of organizational innovation,

18

manegarial acumen and business performance. Chandler also stressed the

importance of taking a long term perspective when looking to the future. In his 1962
groundbreaking work on Strategy and Structure, Chandler showed that a long-term
coordinated strategy was necessary to give a company structure, direction, and focus.
He says it concisely, structure follows strategy. Organizational structure of a
company is related to the strategic analysis of the contractor or developer. According
to his vision and maro environment or micro enterprise's strategic decision devont
allow better structuring of activities entrepise.
2.4 General Administrative Theory
This is the part of Management Studies whose proponents have
been Henri Fayol and Max Weber. It is a theory that focuses on
describing what managers do and what constitute good
management practices.
2.4.1 Henri Fayol
Henri Fayol who was the former managing director of a large French coal-mining
firm was a contemporary of Frederick Taylor. Fayol, focused at the activities of all
managers. He proposed that administrative management is concerned with the design
and management of an organization. He developed 14 administrative principles for
organizational structure and management. These principles are Division of Work,
Authority, Discipline, Unity of Command, Unity of Direction, Subordination of
Individual Interests to the General Interest, Remuneration, Centralization, Scalar
Chain, Order, Equity, Stability of Tenure of Personnel, Initiative, and Esprit de
Corps.

19

2.4.2 Max Weber

Max" Weber was a German sociologist, philosopher, political, and early 20th
century economist whose ideas influenced social theory, social research, and the
entire discipline of sociology. He described a model form of organization as the
system of government that runs throughout the realms of defined hierarchy, formal
selection of employees, detailed rules and regulations, impersonal relationships and
career orientation.
2.5 Prosocial Behaviour Theory
Prosocial behaviour has been studied from many different angles and from the
perspective of almost every sub-discipline in psychology. However, several sources
provide comprehensive overviews capturing key developments that have made the
study of prosocial behaviour like evolutionary theories, models, or principles of
prosociality in humans. Some of this work has tested such as genetic and neuro
scientific perspectives of evolution, particularly Inclusive Fitness Theory.
Prosaically research and includes many new theories and directions. most reviews of
prosocial behaviour, and it emphasizes the context of social groups, large
organizations, and real-world settings. Other important reviews do not focus
specifically on prosociality. Review of prosocial behaviour summarizes prosocial
theories and research in clear detail. Inclusive Fitness Theory involve research
review that has tested other research inspired by co-evolutionary models has
investigated the conditions under which individuals are willing to display strong
prosocial tendencies.

20

2.6 Human Resources Theories

Raymond Miles.Miles, R. E. (1965) proposed a notion of human resources as a
general category for a variety of management related theories. The primary task of
management should be the creation of a working environment that fosters employee
creativity and risk taking in an effort to maximize and tap into the resources
employees bring to the job. He however delineated between two groups of
researchers whom he labeled human relations and human resources. As such,
communication in this perspective must be constant and bi-directional between
human relations and human resources and participation in decision-making must
include both management and workers.

2.7 Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Malaysia

As a source of business and economic development of a country, the tourism and
hospitality industry does not only increase the income and economic strength of a
country, but also affects the ecological, social, cultural, and political values of its
citizens. For instance, creating job opportunities for millions of people, which is
considered a sign of development, spurs the economic growth of a country. The
report of the World Tourism Organization 2013 shows that tourism is a lucrative
source of earnings, which contributes to the prosperity of a country.
The tourism and hospitality industry in Malaysia, as an important economic
sector, has contributed to the economic development of the country to a great extent.
Malaysia generated MYR 10.2 million in revenues in 2000 and up to MYR 20.9
million in 2007. Various tourist activities spurred the increase in this amount, which
reached MYR 46.0 billion from MYR 17.3 billion in seven years (Leng, 2010). The
tourism and hospitality industry has a key role in the growth of a sustainable

21

Malaysian tourism. This role explains the expectations from Malaysian hotels to
provide their customers and visitors with quality services.
The Malaysian tourism enterprise has been booming swiftly for the last three
decades. The promotion of the tourism industry in Malaysia goes back to the 1990s.
The Malaysian tourism enterprise has since become a major source of earnings and
foreign exchange, inducing a thriving economy (Kasim, 2007; Ko & Stewart, 2002;
Ltkov & Vogt, 2012) and success in receiving a large number of tourists from
different parts of the world owing to the charming and amazing destinations of
Malaysia. Malaysia has thousands of tourist attractions for foreigners (Liu, 2006).
Tourism, now the seventh largest source of income after oil, gas, palm oil,
manufacturing, and other industries, has reinvigorated the Malaysian economy
rapidly. More than MYR 47 billion have been generated by the Malaysian tourism
enterprise in the financial year of 2012. This massive value implies that the tourism
industry has promoted the economic growth of Malaysia (Heraty & Morley, 2000).
The tourism and hospitality industry, as a rapidly growing business, has been
prolific and profitable not only in Malaysia but also across the world, engaging a
range of stakeholders such as tour organizers and travel agencies. Each stakeholder
requires thousands of staff members to work efficiently (Al Hrout&Mohamad 2014).
This study investigated the different aspects of tourism (tourism characteristics,
key concepts, and factors fostering relationships among tourists, tour organizers,
governments, and local communities). More specifically, this study examined the
prosocial behaviour of the staff members in the Malaysian tourism and hospitality
industry in general and of the front-line staff in particular to determine how the

22

behaviour is linked to hotel industry and how it can promote the quality of services
offered by them (Narayan, Narayan, Prasad, & Prasad, 2010).
The tourism business would not be a success without the contribution of a large
number of staff members. Of all of them, the front-line staff has a critical role in
providing tourists with goods and quality services (Harris, Doughty, & Kirk, 2002).
Service quality, as an indicator of the predictability and work consistency of
organizations (Rust & Oliver, 1994) in meeting the needs of customers who have a
variety of expectations and descriptions of service quality, is based on divergent
cultural, traditional, social, and ethnic backgrounds. Such expectations and
descriptions require human resources to look for new means of engaging the staff
emotionally, undertaking responsibility in serving the needs of customers, and
guaranteeing their satisfaction (Hsu & Leat, 2000).

2.8 Front-Line Employees in Hotels and Hospitality Industry

Given that the front-line employees are responsible for offering services to
customers, they can build up and enhance the positive image of their organizations
by guaranteeing quality services (Bettencourt & Brown, 1997; Hoffman & Kelley,
2000; Schneider & Bowen, 2010; Whittaker & Marchington, 2003). To offer quality
services to customers and to bring them a great sense of satisfaction, the front-line
staff needs to be competent and motivated. Similarly, high-quality human resources
are desperately required to adopt effective measures in addressing the needs of the
front-line staff to guarantee excellent customer service, as stated by Bowen and
Ostroff (2004). Front-line employees whose efforts are appreciated and who have the
support of their organization are likely to invest more energy in offering quality
services to customers by showing more desirable social behaviour. This observation

23

implies that the social behaviours of front-line staff considerably matter and require
monitoring.
Monitoring the social behaviour of front-line staff is indispensable; however,
front-line staff members of hotels are rarely supervised and monitored during
working hours as a result of poor HR policies. Poor HR policies and performance
induce sub-standard services or products. In the hotel or hospitality industry, the
quality of services offered to customers is dependent on the quality of human
resources (Forte & Gilbert, 1982). Keenoy and Anthony (1992) argue that successful
HR management demands staff cooperation and assistance in any issue. The training
and instructions given to front-line staff on treating the customers in a hotel (Keenoy
& Anthony, 1992) are important because they contribute to shaping the prosocial
behaviour of staff members, such as the waiters and other employees in a hotel.
2.9 Factors Affecting Prosocial Behaviour
A variety of factors contribute to the prosocial behaviour of staff members.
Factors such as employee empowerment, self-efficacy, HRM performance, and
organizational commitment shape the prosocial behaviour of staff members of the
hotel or hospitality industry. The leading factors are classified into two major
categories. Those classified in the first category contribute to the improvement of the
individual characteristics of the staff, whereas those classified in the second category
are determined by the organization and induce the improvement of the prosocial
behaviour of the staff. These factors are briefly described in the subsequent sections
2.9.1 Employees Empowerment
Organizations in the current global environment are in search of distinctive
features to surpass their competitors and obtain market share. An imperative feature

24

with a close association with organizational performance is staff efficiency. This

feature has raised the question of how to improve staff efficiency. A consensus exists
that empowering the staff would boost their efficiency. This idea is primarily derived
from the theory that yielding a position of authority to the staff members in decision
making increases their sense of self-assuredness, competence, and diligence.
However, the term empowerment should be clarified and defined. Empowerment
means giving people accreditation and recognizing their true value by allowing them
to participate in decision-making and planning processes by admiring their work and
constantly providing them with sufficient feedback, training, and support. Staff
members who are allowed to think autonomously and assist the company with the
planning process subsequently exert significant efforts to do a better and more
efficient job (Ali, 2013).

Employee empowerment refers to the process of granting a person the authority to

think, act, be in charge of his/her own action, and decide autonomously. In other
words, the term refers to the feeling of self-empowerment in deciding about ones
own future. Taking empowerment as an action that someone performs for another
person should be necessarily avoided. This notion is one of the problems that
organizations confront regarding the concept of empowerment. Someone is generally
assumed to be empowered by another in a higher position, often a manager.
Accordingly, the staff members expect to be empowered to undertake an action,
whereas the managers wish the members to act in empowered ways. Such differences
in the interpretation of empowerment by numerous organizations induced their
unhappiness with this concept. Organizations are responsible for providing a
stimulating and favorable environment in which their staff members can develop
their abilities and can be encouraged to act in an empowered manner. To this effect,

25

any hindrances to the ability of the staff to act in empowered ways should be
removed (Batt, Colvin, & Keefe, 2001; S. Singh & Dixit)
Gomez and Rosen (2001) argue that empowerment is allied with human
psychology and can be described as psychological empowerment; that is, a
motivational construct that underlines meaning, competence, self-determination,
and impact (p. 58). Empowerment measures the authority given to the staff to take
initiative and independently make decisions about their tasks (Clark, Hartline, &
Jones, 2009). Staff members are encouraged to take initiative in responding to the
service requests of hotel customers. Accordingly, they are appreciated and
remunerated with incentives for their impressive performance (Chow, Lo, Sha, &
Hong, 2006; L. S. Cook, et al., 2002). Empowerment helps the staff members make
better decisions while they provide services, and it motivates them to guarantee
quality services to customers. Empowerment stimulates a prompt response to a
customer request and generates constructive ideas for satisfactory services. Such
constructive ideas are significant in situations that require decision making.
Motivation, in this respect, plays a key role in using empowerment to comply with
customer requests (Lashley, 2001; Sternberg, Anderson, & Morrison, 2003) .
Empowerment refers to the authority and power bestowed on service providers by
their managers to make routine duty-related decisions (Bowen & Lawler III, 1992).
Similarly, Conger and Kanungo (1988) state that empowerment influences the task
behaviour of the staff in terms of addressing the immediate needs of customers. For
instance, empowered service providers can satisfy customer needs as efficiently and
at the soonest time as possible. Bateson (1979) believes that empowerment not only
increases the customer orientation, accountability, and receptiveness of the staff, but
also enhances the morale and self-image of both the staff and the organization.

26

Previous research suggests that the staff should be given the authority to make
self-regulating decisions that promote the organizational mission. Staff members
should also be rewarded based on their performance, that is, their prosocial
behaviour toward customers (L. S. Cook, et al., 2002; Johanson & Woods, 2008).
Therefore, empowerment is a significant attribute that helps the staff make prompt
decisions in pleasing customers (Clark, et al., 2009). (Johanson & Woods, 2008) have
demonstrated that empowerment has several benefits, such as creating staffresponsive behaviour, stimulating prompt action toward customer complaints,
motivating and self-regulating the staff, and providing higher service quality to
customers. Similarly, authorizing service providers to rely on their decisions and to
provide quality services to customers can reciprocally enhance the positive effects of
gaining customer desires, needs, self-esteem, and loyalty on the decisions of service
providers Deebtoglaw,2006).
Lashley (2000) considers empowerment as an employment strategy that reflects
the managerial insight that shifts from control to commitment, whereas Bowen
and Lawler III (1992) define empowerment as the responsibility given to the staff by
managers to make daily decisions while serving customers. Empowerment can
inspire and motivate the staff to set individual goals, positively affect the output of
the organization, and induce satisfactory services and high levels of performance
(Johanson, Youn, & Woods, 2010).
Employee empowerment is a managerial strategy in the hotel and hospitality
enterprise, which is seriously concerned with improving the service quality of staff
members in a competitive milieu (Hubrecht & Teare, 1993). Customer-contact
employee attitude and behaviour influence The consumer satisfaction and service

27

quality (Parasuraman, 1987),Such a strategy helps organizations to encourage their

staff to take more responsibility for quality customer service (Barbee & Bott, 1991).
However, assuming that organizations will succeed if they yield the authority to
the employee to do whatever is needed to satisfy a customer is nave. First, staff
members rarely believe in this scenario because the hierarchical work system of
organizations limits the authority of employees. Second, the employees may not
know the meaning of doing whatever is needed if they are improperly trained or illequipped with the necessary tools.
The service organizations that do not have these characteristics use the production
line approach. Furthermore, according to Zeithaml and Bitner (2013), research has
cited the benefits of empowerment in service organizations; however, empowerment
in some cases could have the opposite effect. Lashley (1999) explains that
empowerment can be used to describe different initiatives undertaken by employees
and managers, which could even be a winwin situation. Many service organizations
have discovered that to respond to customer needs, front-line employees should be
empowered and be able to recover when things go wrong. Zeithaml and Bitner
(2013) describe empowerment as the act of giving employees the desire, skills, tools,
and authority to meet customer needs and expectations.
Employees need the specific knowledge and tools to be able to make certain
decisions, and they need motivation that encourages them to do the right things.
Zeithaml and Bitner (2013) state that organizations will fail in employee
empowerment if they focus on this aspect: Now you have the authority to do
whatever is required to satisfy a customer. First, employees do not often believe in
this directive primarily because some organizations remain hierarchical. Second,

28

employees will not have the knowledge about the meaning of doing whatever is
requires to satisfy customers without the proper training and tools. According to
Bowen and Lawler (1992), empowerment brings costs and benefits to organizations
(see Table 2.1).
Table 2:1: Benefits and Costs of Empowerment
Benefits of empowerment

Costs of empowerment

Quicker online responses to customer needs

A potentially greater monetary investment in

during service quality: employees who are

selection and training: to find employees who

willing and allowed to make decisions in front

work well in an empowered environment

of the customer will make the decisions quickly,

requires more costly selection procedures,

with not always asking an immediate supervisor.

including extensive training

Quicker online responses to not satisfied

Higher labour costs: the organisation might

customers during service recovery: Empowered

reduce its number of part-time employees, and

employees will be able to recover customers

the employees with more responsibility will

complaints quickly, which can turn dissatisfied

demand higher salaries

customers into satisfied and loyal ones.

Employees feel better about their jobs and

Potentially slower or inconsistent service

themselves: when employees have the authority

delivery: empowered employees do spend more

to make decisions themselves, they will feel

time with the customers, which could annoy the

responsible and makes them more satisfied at

ones who are waiting. Empowered employees

work. This in turn will lead to lower turnover.

need to satisfy each customer in the right way

Employees will interact with customers with

May violate customers perceptions of fair play:

more warmth and enthusiasm: when employees

customers think that each one is worth equal

feel better about themselves at work, these

service, and therefore it is vital to give service

feelings will in turn spill over to the customers.

Empowered employees are a great source of

to each customer
Employees may give away the store or make

29

service ideas: when employees feel empowered,

bad decisions: many people have a fear that

they will feel responsible for the service

empowered

outcome and have ideas about how to be

decisions that the organization cannot afford.

employees

will

make

effective.

Great

word-of-mouth

advertising

from

customers: empowered employees do special

and unique things that the guest will spread to
their family, friends and others about
Source:Bowen and Lawler, 1992, cited in Zeithaml and Bitner, 2002, p.334.

2.9.2 Employee Empowerment and Organization

Commitment
Watson (1986) defines employee empowerment as a managerial perception that
deals with the transition from the stage of control to the stage of commitment (p.
253). Although this strategy is useful, it has some demerits. Empowering the staff
may diminish the control of the organization over the empowered staff.
Empowerment is related to the self-control and commitment of staff while rendering
quality services. This instance occurs when the organization relinquishes its control
and allows its staff to experience a sense of self-control and commitment. The
empowering strategy, which has been facilitated by organizational commitment,
encourages staff members to undertake more responsibility not only for their actions,
but also for organizational development (Barry, 1993). In addition, the tact and skills
inherited by the staff from an organization can be substantially aid in improving the
output of the organization (Ripley & Ripley, 1992)and in satisfying customers
(Hubrecht & Teare, 1993), consequently improving the financial capacity of the

30

costly

organization (Cotton, 1993). The empowering strategy is also adjustable to the layoff and downsizing practices of organizations (Barry, 1993; Shirley, 1993).
However, several organizational efforts to gain the commitment of the staff
overlap or interfere with the empowerment process. Some measurements and
strategies can be undertaken to gain the genuine commitment and obligation of the
staff. Such strategies include developing the prosocial behaviour of staff members,
safeguarding their jobs, and increasing their job satisfaction through positive
feedback. Major changes in the job design through job improvement, along with the
sincere engagement and participation of staff members, can also develop their
prosocial behaviours.
Kelly (1991) indicates that building a close link between improving the
performance of staff members and their job satisfaction, as an effective strategy, is
both highly simplistic and realistic. However, some other factors interact with and
determine the greater commitment to the objectives of customer service quality and
engendering the positive feelings among the staff. Kelly (1991) also suggests that
any changes concerning prosocial behaviour are a matter of selecting and adopting
strategies vigilantly and properly. In this respect, four factors negatively contribute to
the acceptability of these strategies. Factors such as deployment of improper
strategies, limited understanding of inequality related to the benefits, fragile trust
between stakeholders, and limited organizational and professional support negatively
influence staff perceptions on the strategies claiming to serve a collective purpose.
However, the assumption that the engagement of staff is merely an upshot of
organizational commitment and job satisfaction is nave. In this case, the potential
intricacy of other influencing factors, such as a management strategies and labor
market conditions, will be overlooked (Marchington, 1992).

31

In this regard, the aforementioned factors may have implications for promoting
the effects of staff empowerment. More importantly, the extent to which the
strategies can involve staff emotionally and psychologically in their job activities
requires attention. The feelings that staff members acquire due to their exercise of
personal authority and attainment of customer contentment contribute to employee
empowerment. In sum, employee empowerment may promote service delivery
encounters and amend the prosocial behaviour of hotel and hospitality staff.
2.9.3 Employee Empowerment and Prosocial Behaviour
Several studies have explored the relationship between staff empowerment and
service quality. Lashly (1999) reported that fully empowered staff members who
communicate professionally bring more satisfaction to customers. Lashley (2000)
added that customers feel more satisfied with the delivery of service when the staff
demonstrate more responsibility and enthusiasm. He investigated the level of
satisfaction of 10 empowered staff members based on customer feedback and the
degree of staff autonomy and commitment. He also suggested that the negligence of
staff autonomy and commitment was attributed to the absence of trust between the
organization and the environment of empowerment.
Lashley (2000) claimed that the empowered staff might have shown better
customer-oriented prosocial behaviours if they had learned different skills and
strategies to fulfill customer needs. McGrath (2013) indicated that the service
behaviour of staff can be better modified to be in line with customer requirements
and perceptions of service quality. The prosocial behaviours of staff toward service
encounters are appreciated by customers while gauging the service quality; therefore,
the prosocial behaviours of staff play a key role in the entire service delivery process
(Lashley, 2001).
32

Accordingly, the empowered staff would display proper and flexible prosocial
behaviours toward customers in service encounters, and the service behaviours of
customer-contact staff might provide customers with a better impression of service
quality and change their perceptions. However, the preceding discussion claims that
further empirical research is required on prosocial behaviours in relation with staff
empowerment and staff quality (Tsaur, et al., 2004). More specifically, the mediatory
role of service behaviours in such a relation should be examined. Several researchers
(Gazzoli, Hancer, & Park, 2010; Tag-Eldeen & El-Said, 2011) claim that the positive
service behaviours of the empowered staff may positively affect customer
perceptions of service quality. Conversely, several factors such as feelings of
unreliability between the employers and the staff may destroy the relationship
between staff empowerment and service quality (Tsaur, et al., 2004). In the tourism
and hotel industry, hotel management considerably emphasizes staff empowerment,
prosocial service behaviour, and service quality to increase the level of customer
satisfaction the prosocial behaviour of staff members in the hotels and hospitality
industry is the focus of this research.Customer satisfaction is critical in the service
industries, Rewards and recognition are often used to encourage good service
behaviour from employees. However, challenges may arise since not every type of
necessary behaviour can be predicted, and therefore cannot be contracted for ex-ante.
They also cannot be directly reinforced by incentives because they frequently
change. Research has repeatedly shownthat service quality is related to customer
satisfaction and retention, while customer satisfaction is positively correlated with
companies higher profits( Parasuraman and Grewal 2000;Anderson 2006).

33

2.9.4 Human Resource Management (HRM)

The term human resources refers to people, workers, or staff, and/or the
staff and management linked to an industry and to organizations, or both. HRM is an
elusive term that varies from one person, organization, and even business to another.
Wang and Dessler and Tan (2011) define HRM as a set of policies and practices that
deal with different people, HR aspects, or both. Such aspects include performing job
analysis, recruiting, screening (selecting the ideal applicants from the requirements),
training, paying salaries, rewarding, and evaluating staff in HRM (Dessler, 1980).
Heery and Noon (2001) state that regardless of the remarkable efforts to define
HRM, consensus on the meaning of this term remains lacking.
Humans are complex to be dealt with, especially at workplaces because of their
diversity, individual differences (attitudes and behaviours), and the relationships that
they establish with others. For these reasons, hotel enterprises confront serious
challenges in employing and retaining qualified staff of diverse characteristics. Such
challenges may include staff absenteeism or staff turnover.(Al Hrout& Mohamed,
2014).
The Malaysian tourism and hotel industry is no exception in terms of these
challenges. Although this industry has expanded in Malaysia in the last few decades,
Malaysian hotels are challenged to hire more competent and skilled staff even if the
staff is temporary and is paid on an hourly basis.
The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) acknowledges the key role of the
tourism and hospitality industry in opening career opportunities across developed
and developing nations. The WTTC maintains that the number of travel and tourism
career-related tasks has exceeded 230 million, which is nearly 8.7% of all of the

34

careers worldwide (Narayan, et al., 2010). The quantity of career openings is as

important as the career quality for academics and policy makers. Policy makers and
business executives treat the staff as valuable assets of an industry, although many
remain skeptical if such a view has an empirical basis. For instance, McJob is
deemed to be a career that has low salary, low dignity, low class, low profit, and no
future in the hospitality industry. (Lindsay & McQuaid, 2004). By contrast, Hussain
and Gunasekaran (2009) consider a career in the hospitality industry as rewarding for
those people who have served or who plan to serve.
MacDonald and Sirianni (1996) and Deery et al. (2001) evaluate this career as a
demanding job because of the unpredictability of life and work conditions in the
service community. They categorize service careers into two groups. Some careers
do not require professional skills, are not well paid, and are large in number, whereas
other careers are small in number, need expertise, and are lucrative. Some careers fall
in the middle of these two classifications, which implies that labor analysts should
seek answers to the following questions: (a) What types of career opportunities will
be opened in the future? (b) Who is filling these careers? (c) From where will the
labor power be supplied? These questions are directly related to the tourism and
hospitality industry and are of interest in this study.
The scope of this study includes not only the specific HRM practices, but also the
philosophy beyond these practices. The philosophy of HRM practices pertains to the
beliefs and values of an organization about the manner in which the staff should be
treated (Huselid, Jackson, & Schuler, 1997). Such a philosophy can affect the
relationship between an organization and its staff. It can change the level of staff
organizational citizenship and the prosocial behaviours of staff. For instance, a
company with an implicit philosophy may intend to think of its staff as a temporary

35

resource that can be simply replaced. In this case, an economic rather than a social
interchange is expected to become an issue. In this respect, an ongoing commitment
is likely to establish a social exchange; as a result, small opportunities exist for
developing organizational citizenship and prosocial behaviours. By establishing
long-term relationships with the staff, the organization can win and raise the trust and
commitment of staff members, which are essential for their prosocial and
organizational citizenship behaviours. Previous research (Eisenberger, Stinglhamber,
Vandenberghe, Sucharski, & Rhoades, 2002; Witt, Newbould, & Watkins, 1992)
indicated that staff members whose beliefs about their careers have been appreciated
and valued by their organizations display higher organizational citizenship behaviour.
The positive perceptions of staff members toward their organization are likely to
encourage them to build a better rapport with the organization. Such a relationship
may improve the prosocial behaviour of staff members and stimulate the economic
growth of the organization. Additionally, the organization that cherishes the values of
staff members can motivate them truthfully to improve the reputation of the
organization in line with its goals and positively influence organizational citizenship
behaviour and service quality(Parasuraman, 1987),(Boselie, Dietz, & Boon, 2005).
Careful planning in HRM helps the organization identify and fulfill its HR needs
by improving the turnover of staff members (Chand & Katou, 2007; Heraty
&Morley, 2003;Sun & Rueda, 2012). Altarawneh (2009) indicates that the hotel
industry should address and amend the attitudes of staff members and improve their
abilities and prosocial behaviours by developing and implementing effective
strategies. Altarawneh argues that human resources significantly help realize the
major goals of the hotel industry in a thriving and competitive market. Another
critical issue is deciding about the income structure of the staff. However, a gap still

36

exists in the HR literature on payment systems for the staff (A. Nankervis, Compton,
& Savery, 2002).
Guerrier and Deery (1998) suggest that hospitality research on HR practices has
focused on key concepts, such as recruiting applicants, selecting the appropriate
candidates, training them, and implementing strategic HRM. Some other HR-related
issues should be explored. Deery and Jago (2002), Guerrier and Lockwood (1989),
and Lsob et al. (2012), raise the question of whether the hotel industry is the right
sector to examine the HRM function. The reason for such skepticism is that the
previous history of the industry has been devoid of any interest in the HRM sector
and its practice. Moreover, (Aycan et al., 2000) and Cho, Woods, Jang, and Erdem
(2006) argue that practices in the hotel industry have rarely focused on the
workforce and work relations and human resource management. Therefore,
research in this area is devoid of any model.
However, previous research has indicated that interest in the HRM of the hotel
industry has begun to grow since the 1990s. For instance, Harrington and Akehurst
(1996) presented evidence of staff training in quality-related activities. Anastassova
and Purcell (1995) reported that British executives train their staff as a part of quality
management and that these executives are practicing HRM instead of staff
management.
In a similar study, Buick and Muthu (1997) demonstrated that the popularity of
the issues of domestic labor markets and career opportunities has rapidly increased.
Watson and DAnnunzio-Green, (1996) contended that a few hotels have initiated
training and development programs and company-wide consultations. These hotels
have also introduced evaluation and communication systems to support and

37

strengthen a newly launched service quality. Deery and Jago (2001) argued that the
hotel and hospitality leaders have gratefully accepted the ideas of empowerment and
teamwork to place the responsibility of some activities on the front-line staff. Hoque,
Akter, and Monden (2005) also examined the same data following the same
procedure and reported that HRM-related practices are more practical and applicable
in the hotel and hospitality industry than in other industries such as manufacturing.
However, despite the growing interest in HRM of the hotel and hospitality industry,
systematic and efficient practices related to HRM functions require further
investigation.
Previous studies in the HRM literature argued that HRM practices substantially
contribute to the prosocial behaviour of the staff and organizational efficiency. HRM
practices influence organizational performance (Heneman, Schwab, Fossum, & Dyer,
1989), organizational effectiveness, profits (Scarpello & Ledvinka, 1988), and output
(Schneider & Bowen, 1993). Huber (1991) recommended that promoting the output
and prosocial behaviour of the staff as basic functions of HRM should be considered.
(Rupp & Cropanzano, 2002) proposed that both theoretical and empirical studies
have significant implications for changing the behavioural patterns in different HRrelated activities, such as job recruitment, job analysis, applicant selection, applicant
training, evaluation, and payment, as well as in labor and staff relations. (Aycan, et
al., 2000) also elaborated on the HRM of an organization in building a strong one-onone staff rapport, which in return affects the prosocial behaviours of the staff. For
instance, Schneider and Bowen (1985) revealed that staff members exerted more
energy in serving their customers when they feel that their organizations will
facilitate their performance, exercise proper supervision, and provide job
opportunities. Zerbe, Dobni, and Harel (1998) asserted that the relationship of staff

38

members with other colleagues and their perceptions of HRM performance directly
influence their prosocial behaviours.
Agus, Barker, and Kandampully (2007) indicated that the principal concern of a
hotel is to provide guests with first-rate services. Such services require the
empowerment of the staff to secure productivity and business survival. However, the
services offered on inseparability and heterogeneity fail to guarantee the postproduction quality control as well as comprehensive and continuous services (Batt, et
al., 2001). Inseparability refers to the coincident production and consumption,
whereas heterogeneity is the discrepancy in the service (Agus, et al., 2007). This
concept means that the implementation of HRM practices in the hotel industry
requires a strategic and constructive dialogue both on HR and quality on commercial
grounds (Gerhart, Wright, MAHAN, & Snell, 2000). The implementation may also
increase unit labor costs.
Several scholars (B. E. Becker & Huselid, 2006; Knox & Walsh, 2005;A. R.
Nankervis & Compton, 2006) analyzed the critical situation concerning the staff.
They concluded that recruiting a small number of staff member will possibly natively
influence service quality. They asserted that recruiting a smaller number of staff
members upsets the balance of career openings and consequently deteriorates the
business setup. They argued that hotels with full services hiring a large number of
permanent staff members will be jeopardized because of labor costs. In addition to
these costs, an economic recession also negatively influences the hotel industry (A.
R. Nankervis & Compton, 2006).
A strong positive relationship between organization effectiveness and HRM
practices exists; strategic HRM has been substantially supported by empirical

39

research (B. Becker & Gerhart, 1996; Gerhart, et al., 2000). Reviewing these studies,
Gerhart et al. (2000) concluded that raising the standard deviation for one unit in
variables related to HRM could grow the profit of organizations. However, Gerhart et
al. warned about the implication of these results; some factors require more
consideration than others; for instance, if the HR manager is merely a rater or if
random and systematic measurement errors exist. Similarly, other scholars (B. E.
Becker & Huselid, 2006; Bloom & Milkovich, 1998) expressed similar concerns and
added that the existing conceptual models should be re-examined in terms of the
validity of these results.
The hotel industry, as a labor- and capital-intensive industry, uses major resources
in hotel operations. This aspect requires the industry to constantly revise its domestic
management practices to enhance the social and professional skills of its human
resources for effective and efficient services. Adopting a strategic approach, the
industry can improve its business environment (A. Nankervis, et al., 2002), change
its authoritarian environment, revise its regulations to fulfill the requirements of the
tourists and the hotel industry, and pass new regulations annually. The approach may
require HR managers to be attentive to and conform with existing regulations before
making any decision (D. S. Cook & Ferris, 1986). In other cases, the approach may
require HR managers to gain a comprehensive knowledge of the business and its
environment. Such knowledge can facilitate their adjustment to the environmental
changes and guarantee organizational success (Hallak, Assaker, & O'Connor, 2012).
The approach also requires employees to be honest, hardworking, and committed, as
well as adopt a positive job attitude (Anastassova & Purcell, 1995; Song, Niu, Xie, &
Shi, 2004).

40

A large number of hotels, such as the Ritz-Carlton (and their parent company
Marriott), Club Med Resorts, and Four Seasons, are widely popular for being the
best employers because of their service reputation, commitment to the staff, and
implementation of strategic HRM (Michelli, 2008; Solnet & Kandampully, 2008).
Michelli (2008) indicated that the strategic HRM implemented by Ritz-Carlton
proved to be highly useful because all of the staff members are engaged in strategy
formation and implementation. Similarly, some hotels (i.e., Club Med Resorts)
expect their employees to be in touch with the guests to offer luxury services and
maintain their standards (Solnet & Kandampully, 2008).
The hotel industry tends to overlook HR functions more compared with other
managerial practices (Kelliher & Johnson, 1997). A few scholars believe that HRM
in hotels remains in its infancy and has not developed well (McGunnigle & Jameson,
2000; L. Price, 1994). Reviewing the previous research, Price (2007) suggests the
implementation of more advanced HRM practices in hotels.
Tsaur and Lin (2004) demonstrated that staff members in the airline industry
develop a good rapport with their customers when they perceive that their
organization provides opportunities for career growth and wholeheartedly support
them. Salary structure and job training also strongly influence the contractual
employees of banks (Chebat, Babin, & Kollias, 2002).
In the tourism industry, strategic recruitment, professional training, and teamwork
affect the quality of services that staff members provide to their customers (Jago &
Deery, 2002). Various factors affect the performance of the organization and the staff.
Knowing the reason of the significant contribution of some specific HRM practices
to service behaviour is important. Schmit and Allscheid (1995) showed that the

41

tendency of employees to provide better customer service is strongly bonded to the

encouraging policies of the organization. Schneider and Bowen (1993), Bettencourt
and Brown (1997), and Chebat et al. (2002) concluded that some key predictors of
service behaviours are fairness in recruitment and selection procedures, staff
perception of workplace suitability, salary structure, and job supervision.
Professional training on multiple skills also increases the capability of the staff to
serve the customers and their conflicting needs (Davidow & Uttal, 1989; Peccei &
Rosenthal, 2001). The moral and financial support provided by the management to
the front-line staff (i.e., supplying pertinent and precise information,
incentive compensation, and resources) is also significantly related to service
behaviours (Schneider, 1994; Yoon, Beatty, & Suh, 2001). However, the context in
which service organizations work requires meticulous attention while examining the
relationship of particular HRM practices to the service behaviour of the staff (Ford &
Etienne, 1994; Schneider & Bowen, 1985). Schneider and Bowen (1991) warned
organizations against assuming a very simple relationship between HRM functions
and the attitudes and productivity of employees. Schneider and Bowendemonstrated
that some external factors (e.g., monetary turmoil and socio-political and cultural
trends of countries) affect this relationship. Similarly, poor access to education,
limited job opportunities, inequity, and coercion in South Africa influence the
prosocial behaviours of the front-line staff. The HRM practices in organizations are
briefly described in the subsequent sections.
2.9.4.1 Training and Development
Training particular skills pertinent to the prosocial behaviour of employees is a
managerial tool for responding to market demands and customer needs. Lacking such

42

skills can threaten any organization. Skill deficiency is immediately recognized at

entry-level positions (Davis, et al., 2011).

Ettington (1997) and Singh (2004) emphasize efficient teamwork training,

particularly when performance necessitates several skills, experiences, and decisions.
Teamwork training can develop problem-solving skills and promote innovation and
creativity. The problem-solving abilities of a team are currently gaining more
importance than individual problem-solving skills (Cianni & Wnuck, 1997; Zopiatis
& Constanti, 2012).
Several researchers (Gerhart, et al., 2000; Scandura & Williams, 2004) indicated
that HR efforts could induce desirable behaviours that are expected by the
employers. Organizational commitment has been extensively investigated in this
respect. Organizational commitment is defined as a psychological bond between the
staff and the organization or the employer. Chew and Wong (2008) and Koch and
McGrath (1982) reported that emotionally involved and committed employees are
less absent from work and are less reluctant to give up their jobs. They are also more
prolific and more dependable for additional responsibilities in offering services to
their customers. A number of scholars believe that facilitating training opportunities
for employee development can increase their organizational commitment (Cooper,
Scandura, & Schriesheim, 2005; Neves & Eisenberger, 2012) because employees
often interpret such efforts as a manifestation of the primary care and concern of their
organizations (Chen, Eisenberger, Johnson, Sucharski, & Aselage, 2009).
Training can include (a) developing the level of abilities and professional skills of
employees or (b) providing employees with a great sense of satisfaction in their
careers, environment, and workplace. Several researchers (Burke & Day, 1986;

43

Collins & Holton, 2004) revealed that training positively affects the performance of
employers and front-line staff. Training could also improve their prosocial
behaviours. Bartel (2000) asserted that investment in staff training is worthwhile
because it could boost the efficiency and mitigate turnover in the organization. Chen
et al. (2009) similarly indicated that training could broaden the knowledge of the
staff and increase their self-esteem and degree of commitment to the organization.
As an HR practice, training can provide organizations with a competitive
advantage as long as it is appropriately planned and implemented in a timeframe
(Stroh & Caligiuri, 1998). Chang and Chien (2012) argue that professional training
can enhance organizational performance and productivity. Chew and Wong (2008)
and Dessler and Tan (2011) confirm that effective training can reinforce the
perceptions of organizational impartiality, promote organizational firm commitment,
and improve the routine role and extra-role performance of employee. Significant
research has examined the effects of organizational commitment and HR practices.
Gregson et al. (1998) suggest that the commitment of staff members to their
organization can be enhanced through training and mentoring lower-level staff.
Different roles such as providing social support, serving as role models, and training
and mentoring the young staff can boost the career progression of the youth and the
relatively unskilled staff of the hotel industry as well as improve their prosocial
behaviours (Lankau & Scandura, 2002; Ragins & McFarlin, 1990). Previous studies
reported that staff members who are professionally mentored achieve notable job
success and obtain more job promotions. In the framework of organizational support
theories and social exchange, career mentoring (CM) is prone to produce a desirable
psychological attachment, which in turn affects prosocial behaviour (Schein, 1984).
CM may assist in promoting ethical, reciprocal attitudes and prosocial behaviour

44

among the staff. Commitment to the organization is highly appreciated as a part of

job training in the hotel industry because hotel industry jobs demand skills and
expertise to take care of hotel customers and their needs.
Mikkelson, Megan Partch, and Shah (1997) argued that the commitment of the
hotel employees often improves their performance and affects their perceptions of
organizational support. Rupp and Cropanzano (2002) indicated that employees could
fulfill their responsibility and obligation to the organization when they are more
committed. In view of these arguments, CM can improve the performance of an
organization if it is appropriately adopted.
Training is a systematic approach to education and development with the purpose
of enhancing the efficiency of a person, a team, and an organization and of taking
full advantage of their abilities and potentials (Goldstein & Ford, 2002) by improving
their knowledge, attitudes, and skills. The hotel industry is currently struggling to
compete in the worldwide market, and it builds up a reputation for its skillful,
knowledgeable, and motivated staff. Gowen III and Tallon (2003) quoted from the
American Society for Training and Development that more than $126 billion are
spent annually on staff training and development by American organizations.
The term development refers to any effort that results in acquiring new skills
and knowledge to promote individual growth. However, realizing if a particular
research has focused on training, development, or both, is difficult. Considering the
preceding clarification, the term training refers to both training and development
activities. Empirical data demonstrate that training activities modify the attributes of
organizations and employees (e.g., attitudes, motivation, and empowerment) and
positively affect the performance of the teams and their members (Goldstein & Ford,

45

2002). Aycan et al. (2000) and (Hamlin & Cooper, 2007) regard strand and strategic
human resource development (HRD) as a contingency approach. Models that
establish a relationship between competitive strategies and HRD have been
extensively addressed in the literature on strategic HRM. These models illustrate
strategic HRD as a constituent of HRM, which deals with the alignment between
competitive strategies and HRM practices. This approach allows the differentiation
between internal and external alignment. External alignment is concerned with the
manner in which an organization manages (e.g., moblizing) its resources to meet the
existing challenges in the competitive external milieu. By contrast, internal
alignment deals with pursuing strategic policies and goals as well as the extent to
which the established objectives, vision, and mission is matched with policy
decisions at the operational and actual behavioural levels (Goldstein & Ford, 2002).
These models present HR practice taxonomies for competitive strategies (e.g.,
quality improvement, innovation, and cost savings).
Numerous studies in the framework of social exchange theory (SET) have
examined the manner in which the activities of an organization may encourage its
staff members to comply with their obligations and consequently produce desirable
performance (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). The idea of this theory comes from the
norm of reciprocity, which explains why people are expected to lend a hand or
assist the ones who have previously helped them with their problems
(DEEBTOGLAW, 2006). The positive and complimentary conduct of an exchange
partner is reciprocated and produces beneficial outcomes. According to SET,
resources optionally provided by contributors are more highly appreciated than those
that are mandatorily provided due to conditions. Such type of voluntary assistance is
often appreciated as a sign that the contributor truly respects and values the recipient.

46

In line with this argument, organizational rewards and HR activities can be designed
to promote the authority of the staff. Several organizations pursue such a policy with
respect to career mentoring and development. In organizational support theory, this
policy actively encourages staff members to constantly evaluate the organizational
feedback on their actions to determine how the organization is treating them (i.e.,
whether or not its manner is caring).
They also carefully observe the behaviour of managers and supervisors to assess
the extent of organizational support (Xerri, 2013); (Gefen & Ridings, 2002).
Eisenberger et al. (2002) argue that this theory can explain the dissimilarity of the
emotional allegiance of employees to their respective organizations. This theory
assumes that the workforce shapes certain beliefs about the extent of concern of its
organization. The workforce similarly forms some ideas about the degree of
appreciation for its contribution to the organization.
The hotel industry emphasizes its competence and its qualified staff who displays
prosocial behaviours. Improving staff qualities (i.e., skills, knowledge, behaviour,
and attitude) contributes to the development of the hotel industry (Zhi-xue, 2001). To
achieve this purpose, standardized hotels rely on the professional training of their
staff as one of their important developmental strategies. These hotels believe that
adopting such strategies can change and modify the prosocial behaviours of their
staff. Highlighting the importance of the jobs of the staff in the organization, hotels
motivate their employees to provide a better service (Ahmad & Oranye, 2010). They
also attempt to provide equal recruiting opportunities and avoid any type of
discrimination in terms of religion, race, gender, age, disability, or nationality. This
policy is implemented following a work plan. Hotel supervisors set employee
performance as a yardstick in the aspect of providing equal recruiting opportunities

47

to all because employees are rated based on the support service and the
implementation of non-discriminatory practices. This policy creates an environment
that highly values the contribution of employees in fulfilling customer requirements.
Managing diversity allows all of the staff members to contribute their fullest
potential to the development of the hotel industry. This policy is robustly supported
and maintained by agency managers.
With reference to the training of employees, the opportunities for easy access to
necessary materials, tools, manuals, and information and the implementation of
formal mentoring programs may strengthen employee engagement and commitment
(Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007)
2.9.4.2 Good and Safe Working Conditions
Investigating the link between employee attitude and organizational performance
with HRM practices is a pressing concern. Previous studies examined the
relationship of HRM practices in good and safe working conditions to three
employee attitudes (i.e., job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
organizational fairness). As regressions barely explain the causal relationship
between employee attitudes and evaluation of HRM practices, analyzing the
relationship using the additive measures of the self-reports of managers is
recommended to identify the HRM practices that can induce better organizational
performance. Performing factor analysis indicated that safety performance is not
predicted by providing safety kits, but is fairly related to workforce training on the
appropriate usage of such kits (Fernndez-Muiz, Montes-Pen, & Vzquez-Ords,
2009).

48

Management needs to provide a good and safe environment that follows

predefined safety policies to strengthen the rapport with the employees of the hotel
industry. Such a rapport can increase safety performance (Andriessen, 1978).
Sawacha, Naoum, and Fong (1999) proposed the following measures for employee
safety and protection:
The possible health and safety measures for each project should be clearly defined
and implemented accordingly,Managing health and safety should be an integral
element of management, and the person responsible for coordinating the activities
should ensure that safety and health precautions are effectively managed,Dangers
and threats should be perceived; major factors that affect health and safety should be
identified, and possible measures for eliminating the dangers should be
undertaken,Competent contractors should be selected or placed on tender lists to
ensure health and safety matters.
Shimmin et al. (1980) stated that managers should devote every effort to
guarantee safe working conditions, create a healthy environment, and provide all
employees with safety training. Additionally, supervisors need to observe safe
working conditions and refuse to allow employees to work in an unhealthy and risky
environment. Bohle, Quinlan, Kennedy, and Williamson (2004) reported that good
working conditions are more encouraging than a large salary. Estryn-Behar et al.
(2000) similarly indicated that social attachment is more significant than monetary
support from a domestic marketing standpoint. A salary increase can be indicative of
intensive care or an increase in employee contentment. However, compensation is
prone to be short-term compared with other engagement programs.

49

The hotel industry recognizes the importance of motivating and encouraging its
employees. Previous studies have identified the factors that motivate employeesto
exert greater efforts and have proposed useful strategies for generating employee
incentives (Jones, 2010; Krause & Scannell, 2002;Sawacha, et al., 1999). These
factors include (a) offering attractive salaries and pecuniary bonus; (b) creating
opportunities for increased job responsibility, promotion, and exigent work; (c)
developing a sense of achievement and self-esteem; (d) appreciating others and
recognizing good employees; and (e) providing safe working conditions, good work
schedules, and job security (C. P. C. Chan, 2001).
The job satisfaction of employees positively affects the quality of their services
and their involvement with their organizations (Lundberg & Mossberg, 2008). In the
framework of social exchange theory, a conducive working environment results in
employees feeling contented, exerting extra efforts, and committing to offer
comprehensive services.
2.9.4.3 Recruitment and Selection
Recruitment and selection refer to a wide range of activities, such as job analysis,
job description, job specification, and planning for the present and future
requirements of employees.
According to Newell (2005), both recruitment and selection are necessary for any
organization to seek some appropriate human resources that can satisfy its
requirements and pursue its strategic goals. Although such a necessity may seem
common, organizations (including the hotel industry) employ different strategies for
recruiting and selecting their staff because the strategies for finding the ultimate fit
are subject to certain factors, such as the needs and culture of an organization and

50

whether employees have long- or short-term contracts (Budhwar, Luthar, &

Bhatnagar, 2006). Previous studies (Bonn & Forbringer, 1992; Parker & Skitmore,
2005;Taylor & McGraw, 2006) revealed that specific traditional recruitment and
selection practices in many developing countries have experienced foreign influence.
The literature concurs that strategies for staff recruitment and selection are more
important than the recruitment and selection processes themselves (Budhwar, et al.,
2006). Anderson et al. (2002) reported that a fair process of recruitment and selection
for employees in a workforce would help sustain a competitive environment.
Similarly, Heraty and Morley (2003) argued that the quality and practice of HR
capital affect the profitability of an industry. Ineffective or unfair recruitment and
selection strategies are reported to decrease commercial capability as well as the job
satisfaction, performance, commitment of employees; moreover, such strategies
increase costs, induce the stress and anxiety of staff members, hamper their ability to
handle work volume, cause shortage of staff, and increase the growth of unskilled
workers (Chand & Katou, 2007; Gordon & Copes, 2008; Heraty & Morley, 2000;
Shahnawaz & Juyal, 2006). The disadvantages of ineffective and unfair recruitment
are summarized in Table 2.2.
Table 2:2: Disadvantages of Ineffective or Unfair Recruitment and Selection
Disadvantages of ineffective or unfair recruitment and selection

Reducing commercial capability and ability to handle work volume,

Decreasing job satisfaction, performance, turnover rate

Leading to staff shortage and unskilled workforce growth
Increasing costs
Increasing managers and employees stress and anxiety
Decreasing organizational commitment

51

Several researchers (Shahnawaz & Juyal, 2006) believe that organizations can
reduce operating expenditure arising from recruitment and selection if they manage
to gain the commitment of staff members and encourage them to assume more
responsibility for their work. This belief may explain the interest of researchers in the
decentralization of responsibility for recruitment and selection (Harris, et al., 2002;
Hsu & Leat, 2000;Whittaker & Marchington, 2003). The concept of decentralization
for HRM includes the procedure of recruitment and selection in line management.
Hsu and Leat (2000) argue that line managers are more concerned with key decisions
about the staff.
HR specialists are observed to be more actively involved in developing business
strategies for aligning HRM practices with line management. However, Whittaker
and Marchington (2003) identify a gap in improving business strategies and contend
that decentralization may likewise be interpreted as the preferences for line
management of HR managers
2.9.4.4 Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO)
A heated debate in the literature in the first decade of the 21st century focuses on
the implication of business globalization and employment segregation. The subject of
debate is the management of diversity. It not only focuses on fairness and equity,
but it also manages diverse people in a global setting. A diverse management has
shown interest in those who contribute to promoting an equity perspective because it
may improve the hotel industry and prosocial behaviour.
Fairness in employment has been extensively discussed by numerous researchers.
Previous studies have recommended that job candidates should be given equal career
opportunities regardless of their gender, race, or other characteristics. Several

52

scholars (Chakrabarty, Boksh, & Chakraborty, 2013; Clark, et al., 2009)

recommended adopting equal employment opportunities (EEO), a merit-based
approach, to hire job candidates based on their ability and maintain equity in the
organization. However, discrimination exists in employing people for certain key
positions in the organization. Highly influential people are selected for managerial
positions. Fairness and equity are considered to some extent for recruiting less
important and lower-paid jobs in organizations (Ali, 2013; Arnesen, 2011;Islam &
Mayer, 2013). Fairness and equity focus on both the official and unofficial
contribution of employees to job activities, salary structure, and working hours.
Workers expect to be treated impartially and to face constraints imposed by the
government on their employers (Davis, et al., 2011). Several advantages of EEO are
presented in Table 2.3.
Table 2:3: Advantages of Equal Employment Opportunities

Advantages of EEO
Fighting individual discrimination
Increasing the number of job candidates and guarantee the

quality of selection
Raising employees interest and motivation enhancing job

productivity, job satisfaction and performance.

Encouraging the current employees to develop their full

potential.
Increasing quality of work
Creating conducive workplace

and reducing workplace

conflict
2.9.5 Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to an interpersonal quality of belief in ones own abilities to
efficiently accomplish a task (Bandura, 1994). It can be academic or emotional. Tsai

53

et al. (2009) argue that employees with high emotional self-efficacy perform better
than those without such a quality (Sun & Rueda, 2012). Moreover, people with a
high level of self-efficacy take effective control of their sentiments, feelings, and
emotions about social contexts (Yavas, Karatepe, & Babakus, 2011). High emotional
self-efficacy positively influences ones effective management of professional
matters. In dealing with such matters, developing interpersonal relationships is a
crucial element to guarantee organizational success (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009;
Karatepe, Uludag, Menevis, Hadzimehmedagic, & Baddar, 2006). High emotional
self-efficacy encourages staff members to involve themselves more in organizational
issues by relying on inter- and intra-personal relationships with colleagues in the
organization. Emotional experience and social pressure reinforce the sense of selfefficacy (Hallak, et al., 2012). According to social learning theory proposed by
Bandura (1996), developing confidence among employees reinforces their beliefs in
their ability to handle associated matters in the hotel industry. Niu (2010) argues that
beliefs are strong predictors of behaviour, which might explain the avoidance of
people in dealing with matters that they strongly believe that they can handle. Selfefficacy generates underlying motives to achieve target goals, develop goal-directed
behaviours, and diligently pursue pre-planned goals (Bandura, 1994). Both academic
self-efficacy and emotional self-efficacy are highly important in the development of
prosocial behaviours (Zopiatis & Constanti, 2012). Prosocial behaviours, as a
positive aspect of the personalities of employees, bring benefits to others.
Self-efficacy refers to the perceptions of people toward their ability to attain
specific goals by applying their knowledge and skills to specific tasks (Bandura &
Locke, 2003).

54

Emotional self-efficacy can be measured on three levels, namely, (a)

understanding the affairs of another person without showing any care, (b) caring
about others without having confidence in professional skills, and (c) recognizing
that emotions induce motivational arousal (Sherer, et al., 1982). Self-efficacy theory
(Bandura & Locke, 2003) relies on three major sources for evaluating self-efficacy.
a) Performance accomplishment is associated with the competency feeling of an
individual about any specific task. It is affected by certain relevant experiences
(positive or negative) about similar tasks.
b) Vicarious experience can be gained by observing successful people while they
perform their activities. Vicarious experiences, also known as modeling, bring
high expectations and fervent hopes for observers to improve their performance
based on their observations(Bandura & Locke, 2003).
c) Social persuasion refers to persuading or discouraging an individual to complete
the tasks that are managed by other people.
Hallak et al. (2012) argue that the concept of self-efficacy is also applicable to
groups. Neves and Eisenberger (2012) state that collective efficacy is useful in
measuring an individuals assessment and collective ability to demonstrate jobrelated prosocial behaviours. However, little is known about the consequences or
predictors of collective efficacy beliefs, but individual self-efficacy theory can
describe the perceptions of group members (N. Conway & CoyleShapiro, 2012;
Tremblay, Cloutier, Simard, Chnevert, & Vandenberghe, 2010).

55

Hung and Petrick (2012) revealed that perceived self-efficacy plays a mediatory
role in prosocial behaviour in conjunction with empathic self-efficacy and perceived
academic self-efficacy.
Some people are reluctant to display prosocial behaviour if it requires them to pay
significant costs and make sacrifices. However, self-efficacy also improves over time
through education and new experiences (Kim, et al., 2005). Therefore, the measures
of organization for improving the performance of employees have been based on
developing their self-efficacy, which is a positive psychological asset (Chaudhary,
Rangnekar, & Barua, 2012).
Table 2:4: Advantages of Developing Employees Self-Efficacy

Advantages
Increasing effective control on their sentiment, feelings, and

emotions about the social contexts.

Enhancing performance
Increasing employees ability to manage professional

matters effectively and competently.

Developing interpersonal relationships and ensuring

organizations success.
Encouraging the staff to involve more in organizational

issues
Generating underlying motives to achieve target goals,
develop goal-directed behaviours, and diligently pursue pre-

2.9.6

planned goals.
Organizational Commitment
Multiple definitions of organizational commitment exist in the relevant literature
of the hotel industry. According to Gunlu, Aksarayli, and Perin (2010),
organizational commitment is multidimensional in nature, referring to the willingness

56

of employees to devote more efforts to their organization, show allegiance to the

organization, display a degree of desire to maintain membership with the
organization, and value the resemblance of their organization with others. Li (2013)
identified commitment-related behaviours and attitudes. Lee, Song, Lee, Lee, and
Bernhard(2013) reported three major components of organizational commitment,
namely, (a) willingness to exert considerable effort for the organization, (b) strong
belief in achieving the goals of an organization, and (c) strong desire to maintain
organizational commitment. (Najafi, Noruzy, Azar, Nazari-Shirkouhi, & Dalvand)
(2011) define commitment as a positive force that accelerates the achievement of
organizational goals. Tang, Liu, Oh, and Weitz (2014) define commitment as a strong
bond between the employee and his/her employer.
With regard to the preceding discussion, commitment is an intrinsic force to act,
get involved, and show more loyalty to a particular organization to achieve its goals.
Organizational commitment is a key factor in organizational innovation,
achievement, and stability. It improves the trust among business owners, service
providers, and interest-related stakeholders in an organization. It promotes the
relationships between subordinates and subordinators and facilitates an
organizational climate that is conducive for working. It also increases growth,
organizational development, and survival.
Managers in the hotel industry provide organizational support in terms of service
training for its employees to successfully run the systems. In turn, the professional
training provided to the employees not only benefits their employer (Gunlu, et al.,
2010), but also encourages them to gain advantages, such as good reputation and
recognition, better salaries and fringe benefits, promotion, and specialized training
(Jumah, 2014). Allen and Shanock (2013) reported that employees tend to develop

57

personality traits and professional skills through a rigorous process of training and
workshops provided by their employers. Employees also believe that a system of
reward and punishment in their organizations can help them get promoted. Those
who are treated sympathetically by others under normal circumstances feel a sense of
acknowledgement and are motivated to repay the latter (Vujii, Jovii, Lali,
Gagi, & Cvejanov, 2014). Employees must realize their obligation to care for the
welfare of their organization to achieve its objectives. Particularly, the employees
who are supported and cared for by their organization should exert their efforts and
energies to satisfy their employer. Therefore, the care of the organization for its
employees positively affects the development of their prosocial behaviour, which is
based on job performance and job satisfaction (Yang, 2010).
Organizational commitment has become an interesting research topic because the
commitment of employees is recognized as a major determinant of organizational
effectiveness, higher levels of job performance, lower turnover, and lower
absenteeism (Suman & Srivastava, 2012). In conjunction with organizational
commitment, Chan and Qiu (2011) have identified the following three factors:

belief in achieving organizational goals and values;

strong desire to maintain the association with the organization; and
enthusiasm to exert full efforts and energy for the organization.

Previous studies revealed that a high level of organizational commitment is

connected to lower levels of absenteeism and turnover and serves as a basis for
determination (Gamage & Hewagama, 2013).
Organizational commitment is a complicated and multifarious phenomenon. It is a
pattern of behaviours, a motivating force, a set of behavioural intentions, or an

58

attitude. According to Gunlu et al. (2010), organizational commitment is a threedimensional construct that shows the relationship of an employee with an employer.
Imam, Raza, Shah, and Raza (2013) stated that constructs such as affective
commitment, normative commitment, and continuance commitment establish a good
relationship between employees and their employer.
2.9.7 Prosocial Behaviour
Prosocial behaviours pertain to volitional behaviours or actions that intend to
assist or bring benefits to others (Eisenberger, et al., 2002). The definition deals with
the outcomes of the actions of a person rather than the impetus underlying those
actions. The actions comprise sharing, soothing, saving, and assisting. However,
prosocial behaviour should be distinguished from altruism. Prosocial behaviour is
concerned with an action, whereas altruism is the drive or motivation to assist others
to fulfill their needs. The concept of altruism is not concerned with how a person
derives benefit from the action. A common example of altruism is when a person
donates others incognito, without any intention of being detected or having political
or financial benefits; in this example, the action of donating is the prosocial
behaviour, whereas altruism encourages the doer to undertake such an action.
With reference to the first point, the demonstration of prosocial behaviour may be
seen as an additional, effective means of achieving personal goals (Moorman &
Podsakoff, 1992). Puffer (1987) suggested that prosocial behaviour represents extra
effort and conscientiousness at work. Accordingly, he hypothesized a positive
relationship between the need for achievement and prosocial behaviour. However,
Baruch, O'Creevy, Hind, and Vigoda-Gadot (2004) conducted an exploratory study
of the motivational factors underpinning the use of competitive or cooperative
strategies at work. They failed to establish a significant correlation between
59

cooperation, which they defined as prosocial behaviour performed for the common
benefit of the donor and the recipient, and the need for achievement. Ward (2004)
similarly considered the relationship between the locus of control (LoC) and work
motivation and found that the use of competitive strategies was negatively correlated
with the dimensions of control, particularly the belief in control by the powerful
others. However, the need for personal control, similar to the need for autonomy,
may be hypothesized to be associated with the need for achievement.

In recent decades, considerable work has explored prosocial behaviour, which is

also referred to as good citizenship behaviour or extra-role behaviour in the
workplace (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986; Organ, 1988; Zellars, Tepper & Duffy, 2002;
(Borman & Motowidlo, 1997; Organ & Ryan, 1995). Prosocial behaviour in
organizations is broadly linked with the notion of socially desirable behaviour
because cultural beliefs are held by people that they should behave prosocially
because it is socially desirable or correct in some sense. An example of an
organizationally dysfunctional prosocial behaviour might be offering individual
support to a colleague who is publicly critical of the organization or even engaging in
behaviours that clearly endanger the organizational goals or reputation in the eyes of
other stakeholders (Baruch, et al., 2004).
Research has been inconclusive in the area partly because of the varied
consequences of prosocial behaviour in organizations, such as improved
communications, improved job satisfaction, improved customer satisfaction, and
subsequently, enhanced organizational efficiency. These suggestions assume positive
outcomes for prosocial behaviours, and by implication, negative outcomes for
antisocial behaviours. The possible negative implications of antisocial behaviours are

60

inefficiency, poor decision making, and ineffective job performance, principally

resulting from conflict between organizational and individual considerations. As a
consequence of these considerations, any definition of prosocial behaviour in the
workplace must be broad and nonspecific. Prosocial behaviour is specifically
voluntary and is not required by role definition (Baruch, et al., 2004).
The motivation for prearranged prosocial behaviours and altruism is frequently
tied with religious practice. The emphasis of all religions (i.e., Islam, Judaism, and
Christianity) is rendering assistance to the less privileged as a religious obligation.
Such emphasis is a major reason to assume that prosocial behaviour is a social norm
and a moral imperative in all cultures.
The terminology prosocial behaviour has been used since the 1970s. It was used
as an antonym for antisocial behaviour. Significant research attempted to enlighten
the psychology of bestowing, assisting, and sharing. The significance of helping
behaviours and their psychological motivations aroused research interest in the
1960s. Gaining the insights into the behaviours was necessary to promote harmony in
interpersonal and group associations. Investigating the key factors that foster the
harmony was well-timed for several reasons.
First, through civil rights movements, blacks and whites undertook corporal
penalty and death in opposition to racial severance. Second, the number of cases in
which onlookers failed to aid the victims of notorious crimes dramatically increased;
these two contradictory issues attracted the attention of the nation, raised the question
of why some people do or do not display prosocial behaviours, and motivated social
psychologists to study the psychological drives that encourage assisting and sharing.

61

Numerous studies on prosocial behaviour have indicated that a variety of

situational and dispositional factors contribute to the decision of individuals to
bestow, share, and assist
2.10 Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses Development
This section discusses the theoretical framework and hypotheses development.
2.10.1 Theoretical Framework
Thirteen hypotheses, which establish the relationships of the independent factors
of employee empowerment and HRM practices (recruitment and selection, training
and development, compensation and rewards, and performance appraisal), have been
proposed for this study. In addition, the mediating factor of organizational
commitment, which operates as higher order construct consisting of three lowerorder constructs (affective commitment, continuous commitment, and normative
commitment), is proposed. Finally, the dependent variable of prosocial behaviour is
proposed. The hypotheses are stated as follows:

62

Moderators
Gender
Experience
Employee
Self-Efficacy
Empowerment
Organization
HRM Practices
Commitment

Prosocial
Behaviour

Independent

Mediating

Dependant

Variables

Variables

Variable

Figure 2:1: Theoretical framework

Prosocial behaviour is known as the voluntary behaviour that provides benefits to
others or to the society as a whole (Bign, Andreu & Gnoth, 2005). This behaviour is
characterized by different actions, such as helping, volunteering, and sharing. With
reference to the prosocial behaviour of employees of the hospitality industry, the trait
aims to provide quality services to customers and to allow employees to make good
decisions for the benefit of the company. With regard to the organizational
citizenship behaviour in line with the management literature, prosocial behaviour is
known as a discretionary extra-role behaviour that is normally unrewarded by the
company or organization. However, the planned and predefined behaviour of the
employees toward the customers achieves higher benefits. According to O'Reilly and
Chatman (1986), prosocial behaviour is not stated in the job description of

63

employees because it is a volunteer task that they perform. However, the extent to
which they undertake the responsibility of showing prosocial behaviour to customers
depends on the employees. Bandura (1997) stated that self-efficacy is associated with
the prosocial behaviour of employees because they have a direct contact with
customers. Thus, self-efficacy is also affiliated with the perception of people toward
achieving the desired goals by applying their knowledge, experience, and
professional expertise. According to Karatepe, Uludag, Menevis, Hadzimehmedagic,
and Baddar (2006), self-efficacy is the anticipated perception of a company or
organization toward its front-line employees regarding their performance.
With regard to the self-efficacy, empowerment enhances the self-efficacy of
employees because the power of discretion facilitates decisions that provide quality
services to their customers (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Chow, Lo, Sha & Hong,
2006), for which HRM practices help enhance self-efficacy (Appelbaum & Hare,
1996). In view of the preceding discussion, the present study explains the
mechanisms that induce prosocial behaviours in conjunction with empowerment and
HRM practices and investigates the organizational commitment in mediating the
relationship between HRM practices and empowerment in connection with the
prosocial behaviours of front-line hotel employees.
Prosocial behaviour consists of two main aspects, namely, the perceived HRM
practices of an organization (Peccei & Rosenthal, 2001) and the psychological
empowerment level of employees in the hospitality industry (Tsaur et al., 2004).
According to Edgar and Geare (2005), four factors of HRM practices, such as
recruitment and selection, good and safe working conditions, equal employment
opportunities, and training and development, enhance the prosocial behaviour of
employees. Moreover, HRM practices help predict organizational commitment and

64

prosocial behaviour at different levels, whereas organizational commitment grants

empowerment to employees in the hospitality industry (Yong-Ki, Jung-Heon, DaeHwan & Kyung, 2005), and employee empowerment possibly increases
organizational commitment in return. Finally, organizational commitment assists in
predicting the prosocial behaviour of employees in the hospitality industry.
2.10.2 The Research Hypotheses
Based on the proposed theoretical framework, several hypotheses were developed
to investigate the relationship between independent variables (employee
empowerment, HRM practices) on prosocial behaviour of employees in the
hospitality industry. Specific hypotheses were developed to test the mediating role of
self-efficacy and organizational commitment on the relationship between
independent variables and dependant variable see Figure 2.2.
The First Main Hypothesis
H1: Employee empowerment and HRM practices positively influence prosocial
behaviour.
Sub-Hypotheses
H1a: Employee empowerment positively influences prosocial behaviour.
H1b: HRM practices positively influence prosocial behaviour.
The Second Main Hypothesis
H2: Employee empowerment and HRM practices positively influence
organizational commitment and self-efficacy.
Sub-Hypotheses
H2a: Employee empowerment positively influences organizational commitment.
H2b: Employee empowerment positively influences self-efficacy.
H2c: HRM practices positively influence organizational commitment.

65

H2d: HRM practices positively influence self-efficacy.

The Third Main Hypothesis
H3: Organization commitment and self-efficacy positively influence prosocial
behaviour.
Sub-Hypotheses
H3a: Organizational commitment positively influences prosocial behaviour.
H3b: Self-efficacy positively influences prosocial behaviour.
The Fourth Hypothesis
H4: Self-efficacy and the organizational commitment mediate the relationships
between employee empowerment; HRM practices and prosocial behaviour.

The Sub-Hypotheses
H4a: Self-efficacy mediates the relationships between employee empowerment
and prosocial behaviour.
H4b: Organization commitment mediates the relationships between HRM
practices and prosocial behaviour.
H4c: Organization commitment mediates the relationships between employee
empowerment and prosocial behaviour.
H4d: Self-efficacy mediates the relationships between HRM practices and
prosocial behaviour.
The Fifth Hypothesis
H5: Gender and experience moderate the relationships between employee
empowerment, HRM practice, self-efficacy, organizational commitment
and prosocial behaviour.
Sub-Hypotheses

66

H5a: Gender moderates the relationships between employee empowerment,

HRM practices, self-efficacy, organizational commitment and prosocial
behavour.
H5b: Different levels of experience moderate the relationships between
employee empowerment, HRM practice, self-efficacy, organizational
commitment and prosocial behaviour.

67

Figure 2:2: Hypothesized Model of the Study

68

2.11 Conclusion
This chapter has provided a critical review of the literature related to the
behaviour of employees in hotels and the factors that influence this behaviour. In
doing so, the chapter has discussed relevant concepts and issues of staff motivation.
In the process, staff demand is acknowledged to be affected by employee
empowerment and HRM practices; meanwhile, other factors should also be
incorporated into a model when investigating the issue of employee demand. The
model used to study prosocial behaviour demand often takes after those skilled
employees in hotels, although significant differences exist between the two types of
tourism. Hence, after reviewing the relevant literature, the theoretical framework and
the formulation of the hypotheses were discussed in the final part of this chapter.

69

CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the research methodology and covers areas related to the
selection and scope of the study, research design and procedure of collection of data,
pilot study and ultimately analysis of the data. In perspective of first chapter, the
current research was designed to search for the answers of the research questions
concerned with the factors manipulating (Prosocial behaviour, organization
commitment, self-efficacy, HRM practices and employee empowerment). In order to
accomplish the objectives of this study, questionnaire was designed to sort out the
research problem.
3.2 Research Design
Qualitative and quantitative studies are based on the assumptions about applying
proper and valid methods, techniques, and forms of research. Social researchers
pointed out that both methods are useful and legitimate (Yin, 2014).
Quantitative methods offer numerous means of collecting data, which are
beneficial in various aspects of the community (A. Kelly, 2007). Quantitative
methods such as evaluation research, survey research, and field research help collect
reliable, consistent, and valid data that are useful for theoretical research, such as
sociology, management, and marketing, which transform theoretical knowledge into
practical applications (Williams, 2011). According to Muijs (2010), quantitative
research explains phenomena by collecting numerical data. Quantitative research
strains to frame the hypotheses of the research and empiricallyverifies those
70

hypotheses. Thus, the specificity of quantitative research encompasses the

measurement and counting of trials and executing the statistical analysis of a body of
numerical data using mathematically based methods(W. Zikmund, Babin, Carr, &
Griffin, 2012).
A quantitative research strategy was designed for the descriptive analysis of data
and for the testing of the hypotheses because this study aimed to endorse the
proposed hypotheses and hypothetical models. Quantitative data were collected using
self-administered questionnaires based on a literature review. First, the research
design was based on the relationship between the independent variables (i.e., HRM
practices and employee empowerment) and a dependent variable (i.e., prosocial
behaviour). Second, the study investigated the relationship between the independent
variables (i.e., HRM practices and employee empowerment) and mediating variables
(i.e., organizational commitment and self-efficacy). Third, the study examined the
relationship between mediating variables (i.e., organizational commitment and selfefficacy) and a dependent variable (i.e., prosocial behaviour). Finally, this chapter
explored the relationships among moderating variables (i.e., gender and experience)
and employee empowerment, HRM practices, self-efficacy, organizational
commitment, and prosocial behaviour. Figure 3.1 illustrates the framework of the
design of the research process.
The experimental design was prepared for the main study to generalize the results
to numerous hotel employees. The experiment was designed in consideration of the
variance range of the items to allow the assembly of adequate information for the
hypothesis under assessment. The selection of proper study methods contributes to
the enhancement of population representation, consequently refining the

71

generalizability of this study (Scandura & Williams, 2000). The present study
assessed the perception of front-line employees in hotels through five factors, and
maintained a large and representative sample size based on the power of analysis. In
addition, the study adopted stratified random sampling techniques to ensure that the
sample was representative for all of the strata (based on gender and experience)
within the focus of the study. The subsequent section illustrates the strategic
procedures charted in the administration and construction of self-dealt questionnairebased surveys.
Identify research questions
Selection of a topic
Review of literature
Formulation
of hypotheses
Identify
population
and sample
Identify accessible population
decide sampling method
seek access todesigning
sample
Questionnaire
Design questionnaire

Pilot test of questionnaire

Test the Reliability and validity of the questionnaire
Conduct the survey on employee hotel
Collect data
Self-administered questionnaire survey
Survey location: Penang Hotels, Malaysia
Analyze and interpret data and draw conclusions

Figure 3:3: Research DesignProcess

72

73

3.3 Selection of the Study Area

A leading income generator and source of work in Malaysia is the hotel industry,
which provides jobs for numerous people in urban and rural areas. Places such as
resorts, restaurants, and hotels symbolize significant income-generating agents and
opportunities for employment for people with a variety of skills (Herman & Eller,
1991). Malaysia is known worldwide for its lovely weather, beautiful sceneries, and
charming multi-ethnic culture. Tourists from different countries are attracted by these
major factors, pledge to visit Malaysia, and enjoy the amazing and interesting
features of this country. Therefore, the hotel industry ensures the increase in tourism
activities and promotes a progressive image of Malaysia and its people to the world.
Figure 3.2 highlights the important locations in the map of Penang.
Important locations are clearly highlighted in the map of Penang in Figure 3.2 .

Figure 3:4: Map of Penang

74

Penang, also called as Pulau Pinang in Bahasa Melayu, is located 5 north of the
equator. The island is turtle-shaped and is located on the northwestern seaside of the
Peninsula. It consists of the island of Penang, measuring 285 square kilometers, and
the mainland known as Seberang Prai. The mainland and the island are separated by
a sea-lane and are linked by the Penang Bridge, which is 13.5 kilometers long, as
well as a ferry service. Penang has a population of 1.65 million (Malaysia Monthly
Manufacturing Statistics, 2013). More than 50% of the population lives on the island.
The equatorial climate is a lovely mix of casual rainy, sunny, and warm days.
Penang is one of the most famous islands in Asia, and it is nicknamed as The
Pearl of the Orient by tourists. In 2012, the number of domestic tourists in Penang
was 2,996,282, whereas the number of foreign tourists was 3,096,907 (Tourism
Malaysia Statistics, 2012). The details of the tourists are shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3:5: Malaysia hotel tourist by States 2012
Domestic

Foreigner

Total

2,996,282

3,096,907

6,093,189

The natural beauty and exotic heritage of the island are its major attractions. With
the combination of the old and the new, Penang has much more to show to the world
than any other beautiful place. In this city, tourists can discover a Muslim mosque, a
Chinese temple, an Indian temple, and a century-old church within a five-minute
walk from one another. Another interesting characteristic of Penang is its vast variety
of food choices ranging from hawker stalls to fine dining. Penang is known as the
Food Paradise because of the rich ethnicity and culture of its population. Tourism
in Penang is considered significant to Malaysia, such that the Seventh Malaysia Plan
75

(19962000) included developing a sustainable tourism plan for Penang (Ghaderi,

Mat Som, & Henderson, 2012).
The center of Penang is Georgetown, a relatively small busy city that is ideal for
shopping tourism. However, tourists who desire a holiday away from the hustle and
bustle of city life may opt to travel to the tranquil beaches and soothing hills, which
are merely a few minutes away. A famous beach in Penang is Batu Ferringhi. Penang
Hill is accessible through a cable car directly to the peak or through a trekking path.
Tourism activities in Penang range from themes of the sea, sun, and sand to
historical tours and shopping places. The multicultural population also implies that
festivals are held all year round. The Moon Cake Festival (celebrated by the
Chinese), Thaipusam (celebrated by the Hindus), Hari Raya (celebrated by the
Muslims), and Christmas (celebrated by the Christians) are among the numerous
trademark festivals in Penang.
3.4 Research Method
Cross sectional study was implemented in order to accost the hypothesis of this
research. Self-doled paper based questionnaires were used for data collection. Selfadministered paper based questionnaires are widely used in behaviour science, and
surveys are the commonly utilized form of data collection (Carlbring et al., 2007).
Surveys are more appropriate when detail responses are desired, and they are more
advantageous but reasonably economical(Dillman, 1991) and relatively more
accurate when related with execution of the experimental design. Some other
experienced researchers (Aladwan, Bhanugopan, & Fish, 2013; Y.-K. Lee, et al.,
2006) have employed this procedure, hence, this technique was supposed to be
applicable for data collection needed to check the hypotheses.
76

3.5 Permission and Approval

The approval from hotels administration was obtained through official letter
before the study was carried out (Appendix F). In addition, as this study conducted
inside the hotels, the cooperation of the hotel administration was affirmed.
3.6 Paper based Questionnaire Design
The main method used in this research to collect primary data was the use of
questionnaire. Questionnaire is a self-report data instrument that each respondent fills
out as part of participation in a research study (Teddlie & Tashakkori,
2009)Researchers use questionnaires to obtain information about the attitudes,
feelings, behaviours, perceptions, experiences, and personalities of participants
(Johanson, et al., 2010). The questionnaire could be purely quantitative based on a
structured and close-ended questionnaire, where all participants fill out the same
questionnaire and all items provide the same option of answers from which
respondents have to select. The questionnaire is structured around a type of scale like
the Likert scale (Likert, 1932). The second type of questionnaire is a mixed
questionnaire(Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003). This type of questionnaire is similar to
the pure quantitative type, but comprises a blend of absolutely close and open ended
items. Moreover, a solo element can also be termed mixed. In constructing a
questionnaire, the researcher must consider some important principles of
questionnaire format to allow respondents to answer the questions fairly easily and
quickly. Table 3.2 provides the major principles of questionnaire construction.

77

Table 3:6: Principles of Questionnaire Format

Make sure the questionnaire items match the research objectives

Understand the research participants
Use natural and familiar language
Write items that are clear, precise, and relatively short
Do not use leading or loaded questions
Avoid double negatives
Avoid double-barreled questions
Determine whether an open-ended or closed-ended question is needed
Use mutually exclusive and exhaustive response categories available for

closed-ended questions
Consider the different types of response categories available for closed-ended

questionnaire items
Use multiple items to measure abstract constructs
Consider using multiple methods when measuring abstract constructs
Use caution if you reverse the wording in some of the items to prevent

response sets in multi-item scales

Develop a questionnaire that is easy for the participant to use
Always pilot-test the questionnaire
Source: Adapted from Johnson and Christensen (2010)
According to Dornyei and Taguchi(2010), a questionnaire is a tool in written form
that offers responders with a number of statements or questions that are typically
factual, behavioural, or attitudinal, which they have to respond by writing or
selection from the answers given. For Sekaran(Uma & Roger, 2003)a questionnaire
is a verbalized set of questions responded with answers from the sample people.
There are a number of reasons why questionnaires are appropriate instruments of
measurements used in research. Questionnaires are the most widely used in research
for data collection. In addition, questionnaires can provide evidence of patterns
amongst large populations when recording their answers(Adejimi, Oyediran, &
Ogunsanmi, 2011). Similarly, Veal (2006) noted that questionnaires are widely used
in research on tourism, also pointed out that it was relatively easy to understand and

78

administer and could cover a comprehensive area of inquiry, thus providing a more
complete picture.
This study made sure that the above-mentioned generic principles were carefully
considered when constructing the questionnaire. Such consideration allowed easy
cooperation from participants. Questionnaires are often important components and
have their own strengths and weaknesses as shown in Table 3.4. The researcher
should maximize the utilization of the questionnaires strengths and minimize the
weaknesses as much as possible to produce valid and reliable data.
Table 3:7: Strengths and Weaknesses of Questionnaires

Strengths
Good for measuring attitudes and
eliciting other content from research

Weaknesses
Need validation
Must be kept short
Might have missing data
Possible reactive effects (e.g. response

participants
Usually inexpensive (especially mail

questionnaire)

Can administer to probability samples

Quick turnaround
Can be administered to groups
Perceived anonymity by respondents

possibly high
Moderate high-measurement validity

differences in verbal ability and

for well-structured and well-tested

obscuring the issues of interest

Data analysis sometimes time

questionnaires
Low dross rate for closed-ended

questionnaires.
Ease of data analysis for closed-ended

sets social desirability)

Non-response to selective items
Response rate possibly low
Open-ended items possibly resulting
in vague answers
Open-ended items possibly reflecting

consuming for open-ended items

items
Source: Adapted from Teddlie and Tashakkori (2003)

79

After a thorough study of related literature, a questionnaire was prepared

(Hoinville et al., 1982,(Kristensen, Kanji, & DahlGaard, 1992). This questionnaire
comprised of a structure-disguised and self-administered questions. This involved
subjects responding to the questions that were not essential for this investigative
study to control for common method biases (Williams, 2011). Common method bias
happens when the respondent answers both independent and dependent variables
(Williams, 2011). Some data has been retained for the future analysis. Respondents
answered questions related to their perception using liker point capacity levels,
which is also constant for other studies, which incorporated ratings of the responders
about their perception in hotel jobs (Abdul Jalil, 2002; Tsaur, et al., 2004).
Length of the questionnaire is considered very important. Studies have found that
a longer questionnaire is not having a dexterous impact on the number of response
(Scott & Dorling, 1965). Current instrument design maintains moderate magnitude to
characterize the point of interest and to contend high level of validity. Respondents
found to answer short instruments more valid than long ones (Burisch, 1984). In
addition, final decisions about questionnaire length were made after executing a trial
study. Each question was given with some simple instructions to avoid
misunderstanding (Frazer & Lawley, 2000). The questionnaire is featured in
Appendix E. To encourage their participation, they were explained about the
objectives of the research, and inform them that information would be used solely for
the purpose of research (W. G. Zikmund, McLeod, & Gilbert, 2003). The
questionnaire as illustrated in Table 3.5 was divided into five sections (A, B, C, D,
and E), consisting fifty two items.
Table 3:8: The Questionnaire Design

80

Section and
Determinants

Items
1. Prosocial behaviour (Bettencourt & Brown, 1997)
2. Employee Empowerment (Spreitzer, 1995)
3. HRM Practices (Gould-Williams, & Mohamed, 2010)

Section (A) 3-7

Section (B) 8-19
Section (C) 2039

4. Organisation commitment (Ahsan, Fie, Foong, & Alam,

2013)
5. Self-efficacy(Riggs et al., 1994)
Total

Section (D) 4044

Section (E) 45-54
52 Items

3.7 Covering Letters

During the data collection, to elucidate the objectives of the research to the hotel
management, a covering letter was attached with the questionnaire to assure them
about the privacy and confidentiality of the data and to highlight the value of their
voluntary participation. Responders were guaranteed about their privacy and secrecy
of the information (Heneman III & Schwab, 1985), and that it will not be used for
any other purposes rather than academic without their permission. University
letterheads were used to print the letters on high quality papers in accomplishment to
the belief that it will have a healthier response ,(Jobber, Allen, & Oakland, 1985;
Kanuk & Berenson, 1975).

3.8 Measurement Instrument for Constructs

The measurement instrument for constructs was designed to measure five main
factors, which are (Prosocial behaviour, organization commitment, self-efficacy,
HRM practices and employee empowerment). Four lower order constructs (LOC)
were made to estimate the HRM practices as higher order construct (HOC), which

81

were (recruitment and selection, good and safe working conditions, training and
development and same work opportunities) (Edgar & Geare, 2005).
3.8.1 Prosocial Behaviour Scale
The items of Pro-social behaviour construct are adapted from Bettencourt and
Browns(1997)study. A 5 point recording pattern was made to evaluate the items,
from level 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree. Five items assessed the Prosocial behaviour through the opinions of staffs for extra-role customer service (Y.-K.
Lee, et al., 2006). The employee asked for example to rate his/her level of agreement
regarding the following statement "I willingly help clients even if it is beyond the
work requirement".
3.8.2 HRM Practices
HRM practices are calculated as higher order constructs (HOC) containing lower
order constructs (LOCs) (J.-M. Becker, Klein, & Wetzels, 2012a). LOCs are
measured through employee perception toward hotelman experiment using four
constructs as suggested by Edgar and Geare(2005) which are

(secure work

conditions, Recruitment and selection, same job opportunities, Training and

development). Five items adapted from Edgar and Geare(2005) (2005) to measure
each construct. The total number of the items is 20 using a 5-point Likert scale
format ranging from 1= strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. For example, the
worker asked to rate his/her level of agreement regarding the good and safe working
conditions "My job conditions are satisfactory here". Recruitment and selection "The
selection and recruitment procedures in this hotel are unbiased". Equal employment
opportunities (EEO) "The hotel gives sufficient time and money for EEO

82

understanding and EEO associated trainings" and training and development "The
company encourages me to develop my skills".
3.8.3 Organization Commitment
The items of prosocial behaviour construct are adapted from Jaworski and Kohli
(1993) study. A 5-point pattern was organized to measure the items counting from
1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree. Five items assessed the employees
commitment level toward the hotel that they work in. The employee asked to rate
his/her level of commitment regarding the following statement "I think my future is
closely connected with the hotel".
3.8.4 Employee Empowerment
The items of Employee Empowerment construct are adapted from Lytle, Hom,
and Mokwa(1998). A five-point format was considered to compute the items with
1= strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Two items assessed the level of
employee empowerment towards the hotel that they work in. The employee asked for
example to rate his/her level of perceived employee empowerment based on the
following statement "Hotel staff can effectively motivate the customer in decision
making
3.8.5 Self-Efficacy
The measurement items of self-efficacy adapted from Foa, Riggs, Massie, and
Yarczower(1995). Riggs, Warka, Babasa, Betancourt, and Hooker(1994) who formed
these items to be consistent with the theoretical definition of Brandura's(1994)and
Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorellis(1996)self-efficacy theory. A 5-point
format was considered to compute the items with 1= strongly disagree to 5 =
strongly agree. Ten items assessed the level of employee's self-efficacy in their

83

jobs. The employee asked for example to rate his/her level of self-efficacy based on
the following statement "I have confidence in my ability to do my job ". Negatively
worded items from the original instrument were changed to positively worded items
as it changes the response precision (Barnette, 2000). Questions responded
negatively provided lower consistency when integrated with positively responded
items (Barnette, 2000).
3.9 Reflective versus Formative Measurement Orientation
Two types of parameters are found in literature i.e. Formative (causative) and
reflective (effect), but we also have a third one, which is a mix of these two. They
will be discussed here separately. Firstly, the reflective measures, also mentioned as
Mode A representation(Esposito Vinzi, Chin, Henseler, & Wang, 2010).
Unobservable variables are reflected by indicants in the latent. According to Bollen
and Lennox(1991), latent variables defines the indicators and the causal direction
moves from latent variables towards reflective pointers ( Figure 3.3 [1a]). Formative
pointers are bases of the construct, caused by the changes in measurement resulting
in change in construct (Williams et al. 2003, p. 906) (see Figure 3.3[1b])

Figure 3:5: Dominant Measurement Orientations

The study measures were all treated as reflective as were specified in initial mode.
According to Claes Fornell and Bookstein,(1982), constructs like attitude or
84

personality, are regarded as essential factors that generate something, which is

observed. Their indicators must be labeled as reflective.

3.10 Unidimentional versus Multi-Dimentional Constructs

Unidimensional construct define one entire domain of the idea. While Multidimensional constructs are extensive in structural study. Construct is multidimensional if it mentions diverse but linked dimensions dealt as a solo hypothetical
concept (Law, Wong, & Mobley, 1998). Unidimensional and multi-dimensional
constructs may be differentiated from each other as it points to a particular
theoretical concept (Edwards, 2005). Aladwan, et al.(2013) stated that "researchers
face a trade-off between theoretical soundness (i.e., including those relationships that
are strongly supported by theory) and model parsimony (i.e., using fewer
relationships)."
Multidimensional constructs called higher-order constructs (HOCs) in structural
equation modelling techniques measured by the lower order constructs (LOCs) that
come along with parsimonious approach. Hair et al, (2013)suggested the
parsimonious approach to theoretical specification by mentioning that "the focus was
on drawing less arrows between the constructs to grasp more useful and meaningful
results. While parsimonious approach has its advent experience in research as
pointed out by Falk and Miller (1992). A parsimonious approach to theoretical
specification is far more powerful than the broad application of a shotgun (p. 24).
To enhance the understanding in the relationship between HRM practices and
organization commitment, both constructs were operationalized as higher order
constructs (HOCs). Other studies in organization HR such as Way et al. (2012)
conceptualized human resource flexibility as higher order construct, which explains

85

unique variance. (Testa & Bellacosa, 2001). They investigated the mediating role of
organization commitment using SEM by modelling organization commitment as a
multidimensional construct, which gives meaningful results. All other constructs in
the current study were treated as being Unidimentional constructs which supported
by theory.
3.11 Population and Sampling
To understand population-sampling techniques, we first need to know the
population. According to Sekaran (2003), complete set of things or people of same
interest to be investigated by a researcher is called population. While, Gay and
Ariasan (2003) declared it as the group of interests of people to which the results of a
researcher will perfectly generalize.
Sampling methods are the base of any reliable and valid research findings.
Random sampling gives better results as all the population have equal chances of
being selected in sample (Veal, 2006) but the suitable sample size depends upon the
method of analysis and number of variables. Theoretical and practical knowledge of
sampling and its possibilities are needed for a researcher to understand (Hedges
2004). Proper selection of sample size is utmost important for a study for the
reliability and suitability of the analysis of the observed data (Hair, Tatham,
Anderson, & Black, 2006)Selection process of the participants from a larger group as
a representative for the quantitative research is known as sampling (Meredith et al.,
2003). For this study, front line hotels employee in Malaysia participated
in this study.
Penang is a famous state that is recognized for its tourism; hence, numerous hotels
are situated on this island. These hotels range from small to large hotels and from
86

three- to five-star hotels depending on their infrastructure, facilities, and quality of

services of the hotel management and staff. Several hotels are located in the city and
regularly accommodate guests on business in Penang. Bay View City, Shangri-La
Hotel, Agora Hotel, and Oriental Hotel are among the city hotels in Penang. Most of
the other hotels are at the beach areas, which are most visited during holiday festivals
among Malaysians, tourist agencies, and tourist groups from all parts of the world.
The Batu Feringghi area has a large number of hotels that range from small, medium,
and large hotels. Among the large hotels are the Mutiara Beach Resort, Shangri-La
Rasa Sayang Hotel, and Shangri-La Golden Sands Hotel. Some of the medium hotels
are Penang Bayview Beach Resort, Park Royal Penang, Sandy Bay Paradise,
whereas the smaller hotels include Casuarina Beach Resort, Copthorne Hotel, and
Princess Hotel (Ghaderi, et al., 2012). A few new medium hotels are also located
along Gurney Drive, a famous beach area. Roughly 20 hotels in Penang are regularly
visited by tourists. Hotel facilities and services are the most important factors that
ensure that customers will visit them again for another stay at their hotel, but only if
the customer is contented with the facilities and services delivered. Staff members
therefore require regular training and guidance in delivering professional skills in
performing their work. The success of food safety programs in hotels in accordance
with quality assurance policies relies on the effective training of hotel employees.
The hotel, lodging, or accommodation industry is a compulsory component in the
tourism industry. The hotel industry in Penang develops along with tourism
development. A range of hotels, from the conventional bed and breakfast operations
to luxurious all-suite hotels, is available in Penang. The hotels are also located all
over the islandfrom the city center and beach side to areas near the airport. A total
of 148 hotels operated in Penang in 2012 (Malaysia Monthly Manufacturing
87

Statistics, 2013) (see Table 3.5). For the purpose of the current study, only three-,
four-, and five-star hotels were used as the sample, and among the 32 hotels, 11 are
five-star hotels, whereas 12 are four-star hotels. The room supply in Penang
amounted to 13,770 in 2012 (Malaysia Monthly Manufacturing Statistics, 2013).
Penang has the third largest room supply in Malaysia after Kuala Lumpur, the capital
of Malaysia. This distinction is a definite indication of the prosperity of the tourism
industry in Penang. The sampling frame of this study consisted of the Tourism
Malaysias Directory of Star Rated Hotels, which was used to identify hotel
organizations to be used in the study. To ensure that the lodging properties have
similar characteristics, the hotels with rating of five, four and three stars with 50
rooms and aboveand.

Table 3:9: Hotel and Rooms Supply in Penang, 2012

Hotels

Rooms

148
Source: Property Stock Report, 2014.

13,770

This study focused on the rates of hotels (five, four and three stars) for three
reasons. First, excellent services are an integral aspect of the hotels experience, and
giving consumers a good impression is essential. Second, the hotels industry meets
diversified consumer needs. Finally, the employees in rates of hotels have high
standards in terms of the consumers services.Table 3.6 showing the list of
hotels.
This field work was conducted over a period of three months, from January 20,
2014 to April 30, 2014. This period was selected because it came after numerous
88

holidays, such as Eid al-Adha, Eid al-Fitr, Islamic New Year, and Christmas
celebrations, turning it into the busiest season for the tourist market. Therefore,
meeting the employees and ensuring the completion of questionnaires became
convenient for the researcher.
Table 3:10: List of Respondents
1
2

Hotels name
1926 Heritage Hotel
Armenian St. Heritage

star
***
***

Location
George Town
George Town

3
4
5
6

Hotel
Hotel Continental
Chulia Heritage Hotel
Hotel Continental
Bayview Beach Resort

***
***
***
****

George Town
George Town
George Town
Batu

Copthorne Orchid Hotel

****

8
9
10

Penang
Banana Boutique Hotel
Hotel Penaga
Flamingo By The Beach

****
****
****

11

Penang
Four Points by Sheraton

****

12

Penang
Yeng Keng Hotel

****

Bungah
George Town

13

Georgetown
Golden Sands Resort

****

Batu

14

Holiday Inn Resort Penang

15

Vistana Penang Bukit

16

****

Ferringhi
Tanjung
Bungah
George Town
George Town
Tanjung
Bungah
Tanjung

Ferringhi
Batu

Responds
6
5
9
8
9
13
6
5
4
7
5

****

Ferringhi
Bayan Lepas

Jambul
The Northam All Suite

****

George Town

17

Penang
Rainbow Paradise Beach

****

Tanjung

18
19
20

Resort
Hotel Royal Penang
Hotel royal penang
Hydro Hotel Penang

****
****
****

Bungah
George Town
George Town
Batu

8
9
3

89

21

The Gurney Resort Hotel &

****

Ferringhi
George Town

22
23

Residences
Eastern & Oriental (E&O)
Shangri-La's Rasa Sayang

*****
*****

George Town
Batu

9
10

24

Resort & Spa

Parkroyal Penang Resort

*****

25
26
27
28

G Hotel Penang
Chong Tian Hotel
Hotel Equatorial Penang
Evergreen Laurl Hotel

*****
*****
*****
*****

Ferringhi
Batu

10

Ferringhi
Gurney Drive
George Town
Bayan Lepas
George Town

penang
Total

17
5
7
7
202

3.12 Sample Size

Selection of units from population of interest is called sampling. So the data
collected can be related to the population from where it was taken (Denscombe,
2010; Sekaran, 2000; W. G. Zikmund, et al., 2003). Selected samples can be grouped
into two: those which are random (probability theory) and those which are not (nonprobability sampling) (W. L. Neuman, 1997) .
The rule of thumb for the sample size in SEM-PLS is equivalent to saying
that the minimum sample size should be 10 times the maximum number of
arrowheads pointing at a latent variable anywhere in the PLS path model (J. F.
Hair, G. T. M. Hult, C. M. Ringle, & M. Sarstedt, 2013). The maximum number of
arrowheads pointing at a latent variable in the current model is 4 arrows; therefore
the minimum sample size required is (4 arrows 10 = 40 respondent). While the 10
times rule offers a rough guideline for minimum sample size requirements,
PLS-SRM like any statistical technique requires researchers to consider the sample
size against the background of the model and data characteristics (J.F. Hair,
90

Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011). Specifically, the required sample size should be
determined by means of power analyses based on the part of the model with
the largest number of predictors (J. F. Hair, et al., 2013). Following Cohens (1992)
recommendations for multiple OLS regression analysis or running a power analysis
using the G*Power program, while the maximum number of arrowheads pointing at
a latent variable in the current model is 4, the minimum sample size is 65
observations to achieve a statistical power of 80% for detecting values of at least
0.25 (with a 5 % probability of error). Current study fulfilled with the requirement of
sample size by having 216 observations. Sample size is the major concern in PLS
research, which is still not yet explored for the high order constructs of PLS models
(Wilson & Henseler, 2007a, 2007b) but for small samples it can calculate the
estimates ,(A. Barclay, Gill, & Rosen, 1997; W. W. Chin & Newsted, 1999; Hulland,
1999). However, advantages of PLS as a strong small sample method is being
interrogated in the literature (Goodhue, Lewis, & Thompson, 2006; Wilson &
Henseler, 2007a,2007b).
Regression methods are studied by numerous researchers. Previous techniques of
solving problems and rules are now altered (Bentler 1993; Tanaka 1987)(Mueller,
1997). If the ratio of subject parameter is less than 5:1, the results may not be
statistically stable, that is why 10:1 ratio is preferred (Kline, 1998). In this research, 4
is the maximum number of paths pointing at pro-social behaviour, therefore the
minimum sample size is 4 x 10 = 40 respondents.
However, these rules of thumb are vulnerable by some simple decision heuristics.
In this model, utmost arrowheads that can point at latent are 4 while the smallest
sample size is 65, to achieve 80% statistical power for perceiving values for at least
0.25 (with 5% probability error). As regards the sample size for the current study,
91

300 respondents were selected through convenient sampling method. The reason of
distributes this number of questionnaires were that some hotels apologized for
administrative privacy. A total of 216 respondents returned the questionnaire
representing a response rate 72 per cent.
3.13 Sample Criteria
Sampling is the process of selecting units (individuals, groups, organizations)
from a population of interest, so that by studying the data collected, the results may
be generalized back to the population from which they were chosen, (Denscombe,
2010; Sekaran, 2000; W. G. Zikmund, et al., 2003). Samples can be divided into two
groups: those that are based on the principles of randomness from probability theory
and those that are not, and called non-probability sampling (S. Neuman, 2003). Table
3.7highlights differences between the two groups.The simple random sample is a
type of probability sampling technique in which a set of individuals is chosen from a
larger set. Individuals are randomly selected and all the individuals are numbered
sequentially (Daniel, 2011).
Convenience sampling is a kind of non-probability sampling in which samples are
chosen from the population part, which is near to hand or easily available(W. G.
Zikmund, et al., 2003)Sample size of 300 is suggested by Field(2000) to deliver
authentic results for analysis of factors. Bearing in mind regarding sampling
procedure, a convenience sampling method was used in this study based on inclusion
and exclusion criteria.

92

Table 3:11: Types of Samples

Source: Adapted from Neuman (1997)

3.14 Pilot Study

Reliability of the study is tested by carrying out the pilot study;Dillon, Madden,
and Firtle,(1994)refer it as the accuracy with which the measurement scores can be
created with periodic measurement.
The reliability of the construct items was specified with Cronbachs alpha.
Cronbachs coefficient alpha values for the constructs in the pilot test ranged from
0.723 to 0.873, surpassing the conventional suggested cutoff criterion of 0.70
(Nunnally, 1978). The consequences of the pilot analysis indicated that it was
feasible to proceed.Item analysis was then carried out to determine
preliminarily the internal consistency of the constructs. The results
are presented inTable 3:12.
Table 3:12: Summary of Descriptive Statistics

93

Number
Variable

Cronbach's alpha

Prosocial behaviour
Empowerment- Impact
Empowerment- Self-determination
Empowerment- Competence
Empowerment- Meaning
HRM Practices- Good and safe working

of items
5
3
3
3
3
5

0.723
0.758
0.873
0.869
0.801
0.730

conditions
HRM Practices- Recruitment and selection
HRM Practices- Equal employment opportunities

5
5

0.817
0.806

(EEO)
HRM Practices- Training and development
5
Organisation commitment
5
Self-efficacy
10
Overall Cronbach's alpha

0.754
0.712
0.855
0.953

3.15 Data Collection

The data collection for this study employed quantitative mean. The printed
questionnaire survey (See Appendix E) was collected fromPenang hotel in Malaysia.
A number of procedures were followed to collect data for the main study.
Firstly, before proceeding to data collection, a letter that details the study purpose
and a copy of the questionnaire were send to the human resource management in the
hotels, to facilitate obtaining their informed permission to conduct this research at
their respective hotels, after the approval, the researcher visited the hotels and briefly
elucidated the objective of the study for the human resource office. And to arrange
the time for administer the questionnaires.
Secondly, the questionnaire was only distributed to front office employee
from Penang state hotels. This was done because the front office employee the front
line interacts with the tourist.
94

Thirdly, the researcher administered the questionnaires in

booklet form to be completed by the respondents. They were
notified that the questionnaire could be completed in 30 minutes
and that answers to questions would be treated as confidential. The
duration for the data collection process was three month from 20
January to the end of April 2014. And the questionnaires was collected a
week after distribution at the office of human resource.
Finally, in order to achieve a higher response rate, a small token of appreciation,
as a gesture of gratitude, were given out to the respondents upon completion of the
questionnaires. In total, 300 questionnaires were distributed out of which 202 were
given for analysis based on the calculation of an adequate sample size as discussed
earlier in this chapter. See table 3.9. After collect and reviewed the collected survey
the data was entered on SPSS file manual.
Table 3:13: Questionnaire Distribution and Response Rate
Distributed questionnaires
Returned
Returned and Usable
Returned and Unusable
Response Rate
Rate of usable Responses

300
216
202
14
72%
67.3%

3.16 Analytical Methodology

This section discusses structural equation modeling (SEM). This section picks a
proper analytical method after the weaknesses and strengths are highlighted for each
technique. In SEM, models are tested for their reflective constructs and variables for
establishing validity and reliability. This model is commonly termed as block;
95

(Fornell & Cha, 1994; Kmenta & Ramsey, 1980). Thus, block is a set of markers
consisted of specific latent constructs (Falk & Miller, 1992). Overall, the structural
model examines the hypothesized relationships between constructs.
The first technique is known as the LISREL24 model which is Covariance Based
Structural Equation Modeling (CBSEM) (Brown & Holmes, 1986; Jreskog &
Srbom, 1996). Second analytical technique is Partial Least Squares (PLS) (H. Wold,
1974, 1975). (Falk & Miller, 1992) labeled every approach soft versus hard
modeling. The PLS system is very hard, but also soft at the same time as it creates
no sample size, distributional or measurement assumptions (Falk & Miller, 1992).
3.17 Justification for Selecting Structural Equation Modelling
Structural Equation Modelling is very general statistical modelling technique, and
very powerful multivariate analysis technique, which is widely used in the
behavioural sciences. It can be viewed as a combination of factor analysis, multiple
regressions, (M) ANOVA and many others. The purpose of this study was to test the
relationship between the variable simultaneously. Based on that Structural Equation
Modelling used in this study because other test such as ANOVA, MNOVA,
ANCOVA, T-test, linear regression not suitable for testing the model simultaneously.
Two structural equation modelling methods are critiqued in the next section. The
first analytical technique is Covariance Based Structural Equation Modelling
(CBSEM) and is also known as the LISREL24 model (Brown & Holmes, 1986;
Jreskog & Srbom, 1996) . The second analytical technique is Partial Least Squares
(PLS) (H. Wold, 1974, 1975). (Falk & Miller, 1992) label each of the approaches
hard versus soft modelling. The mathematics underlying the PLS system are
rigorous, but the mathematical model is soft in the sense that it makes no
96

measurement, distributional, or sample size assumptions (Falk & Miller, 1992)p.3).

It has long been established by the founders of both techniques, Karl Jreskog and
Herman Wold, that these methods are complementary.
3.18 Covariance-Based Structural Equation Modelling
The aim of CBSEM is to compare the difference between observed and estimated
data matrices for its relevance to the question (K. A. Bollen, 1990; Shook, Ketchen,
Hult, & Kacmar, 2004). Estimated parameters try to replicate the observed measures
covariance matrix (Jreskog & Srbom, 1996). It indicates that theoretical
development is safe (Falk & Miller, 1992) to produce the covariance matrix for the
observed data (K. A. Bollen, 1990). For this method, observed variables follow
multivariate distribution while the observed data is independent from each other (S.
Wold, Martens, & Wold, 1983).
CBSEM has many appropriate statistics which can assess models (K. A. Bollen,
1990; FoxWasylyshyn & ElMasri, 2005;Kline, 1998). CBSEM is ascribed for its
requirement of quality data and higher developmental ideas(McArdle & Aber, 1990).
CBSEM assessment is hard if the data of the complex models show distributional
problems(Aad et al., 2012; W. W. Chin, 1998;Wilson & Henseler, 2007a) The second
SEM technique is now outlined.

3.19 PLS Structural Equation Modelling

PLS is same like least squares regression, (W. Chin, Marcolin, & Newsted, 1996;
Lohmller, 1989) that assesses by simultaneous modeling of measurement (outer)
paths and the structural (inner) paths(W. W. Chin & Newsted, 1999). In a recent
study, European Customer Satisfaction Index (ECSI) mobile phone data was tested
97

compact form of complete ECSI model for the comparison of PLS and LISREL
estimates (Tenenhaus & Vinzi, 2005; Tenenhaus, Vinzi, Chatelin, & Lauro, 2005).
PLS is regarded as proficient for complex model elucidation (Fornell &
Bookstein, 1982) while LISREL seems to have limits when observing complex
models (W. W. Chin & Newsted, 1999). PLS is strong against abnormalities of the
normal distribution (Cassel, Hackl, & Westlund, 1999)and can manage minor size
samples (Wittingslow & Markham, 1999). It is not able to be employed for common
causative models (Carmines & McIver, 1981). Table 3.10 relates both SEM
perspectives. Main differences of both techniques are defined for the moderate
hypothesis testing. Following segment explains the PLS path modeling selection

Table 3:14: Comparison of CBSEM and PLS (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt,
2013; Wilson, 2011)
Covariance-Based
Partial Least Squares
Dimension

Structural
(PLS)

Objective

Required
Theory Base

Estimator
Approach
Assumptions

Equation Modelling
Parameter oriented.

Prediction oriented

Therefore, optimal for parameter

(maximises variance).

accuracy

Therefore, optimal for

Requires strong theory base.

prediction accuracy.
Applicable in newly

Usually based around many

developing theoretical

replication studies and suitable

domains. Appropriate for

for confirmatory studies.

exploratory and confirmatory

studies.
Variance-based

Covariance-based
Stronger Assumptions needs

Weaker Assumptions

data normality and independent

distribution free method.

98

observation assumptions.

Observations do not have to be

Model

Identification problems

independent.
Model specification is

Identification

without constraints and careful

straightforward. Empirical

model design. More pronounced

identification for reflective and

with formative models but also

formative model is simply

needs 4 items for reflective

specified.

Parameter
Estimate Accuracy

models.
Consistent in all large sample
conditions

Consistent at large; both

number of indicants and
sample size must increase
Can estimate and converge

Model

Can estimate and converge

Complexity

with models of small to moderate

with very complex models

complexity (e.g., around 100

(e.g., many constructs and

indicants).
Can be estimated but

1000+ indicants).
Can be estimated as a

Scores
Relationship

generally indeterminate
Can estimate both reflective

function of estimation
Can estimate in reflective

between Latent

and formative models. Model

and formative modes. No

Variable and

identification is more

identification issues.

Indicators

problematic and becomes

Latent Variable

complex for formative

Model Evaluation

representations.
Many Goodness-of-Fit

Focus on Prediction. High

Statistics are calculated for

R2, cross-validation tests for

model selection.

predictive capabilities,

When alternative models are

involved: nested difference tests.

significance of estimates from

bootstrapping. When
alternative models are
involved, effect size statistics
can evaluate alternative models

99

Sample Size

Normally in the range of 200-

(Cohen 1988).
Can converge with very

300+ when data displays

small sample sizes even for

normality and is being used for a

rather complex models

rather simple model without too

Conclusion

many indicants
Technically and operationally

Operationally simpler,

demanding, data normality

results are consistently

conditions often not met, and

obtained given data non-

computational solutions may not

normality and greater model

be obtained.

complexity.

3.20 Justification for Selecting PLS Path Modelling

Complex models were supposed to be selected with moderate effects to grip the
issues. The full model incorporates:

Model complication is improved with the high order abstract relationships.

Model complication is greater for testing of modern hypothesis.

The study data is not uniformly distributed.

Emphasis is on causative predictive analysis.
The analytical process inspecting the structural and measurement models will
be described in next chapter.
3.21 The Two-Step Modelling Approach
The two-step modeling approach is selected to involve the measurement model
prior to attempt the structural model analysis (D. Barclay, Higgins, & Thompson,
1995)Measurement models are also tested for the constructs validity under
investigation (Fornell & Cha, 1994; Hattie, 1985; Yue & Wilson, 2004). Chin
(1998)Fornell and Cha(1994), and Hattie (1985) stated that measurement model
100

estimation takes place discretely for high order construct domains (Wilson &
Henseler, 2007a).
The structural model relationships can be finalized after the suitable selection of
measurement models, which offers scheming of validity (W. W. Chin, 1998; Fornell
& Bookstein, 1982; Tenenhaus & Vinzi, 2005). This approach is effective when
models are not completely established and high order constructs are fully involved
(Venaik, 1999).
3.22 Statistics for PLS Model Evaluation
For the structural and measurement model assessment, PLS needs statistics that
can evaluate predictions and path estimate (Geisser & Eddy, 1979; Stone, 1974). The
aim of the PLS is to predict the increased variance (D. Barclay, et al., 1995). PLS
evaluations incline to display some bias (Cassel, et al., 1999; W. W. Chin,
1998;Fornell & Cha, 1994). The estimator sums the values and as a part of this
procedure, measurement error is involved in the assessment of the structural and
loadings parameters. PLS models have errors, which compel researchers to select
high-end reliabilities (Falk & Miller, 1992). Parameter significance assessment is
done by bootstrapping and it is also used to stabilize the estimates.

3.23 Measurement (Outer) Model Evaluation

PLS results were highlighted to explain the statistics used in chapter 4 and 5.
3.23.1 Loadings Reflective Indicants
Loading characterizes the link between the indicants and the construct. Falk and
Miller(1992) propose the loadings to be more than 0.55 for indicators on constructs.

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Thus, it is recommended that measures and construct share 50% of variance, which
will reduce the error lesser than 50% (D. Barclay, et al., 1995). In current studies,
loadings will range from 0.5 - 0.6 (D. Barclay, et al., 1995; W. W. Chin & Newsted,
1999).

3.23.2 Maximised or Composite Reliability (Internal

Consistency)
For internal consistency, the first measure is Cronbachs Alpha (Cronbach, 1951)
and lower limits estimate of reliability (Raykov, 1997). The normal reliability cut out
is 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). More reliability will show lesser effect of error variance
(Raykov, 2001). Werts, Linn and Jreskog (1974) prepared this complex reliability
statistic, which equally loads indicant impact (unlike Cronbachs Alpha, which is
unitary weighted). It is also known as construct validity,(Claes Fornell & David F
Larcker, 1981; Holmes-Smith & Rowe, 1994).
Chin (1998b) believes the cut-off for maximised/composite reliability should be
0.7. Discriminant validity represents the extent to which indicators of a given latent
variable differ from indicators/constructs of the other latent (Campbell & Fiske,
1959). The correlation between constructs (off-diagonal elements) needs to be lower
than the reliability estimates (diagonal elements) (Gaski & Nevin, 1985; Ocass &
Frost, 2002; OCass & Grace, 2003;Patterson & Smith, 2003).

3.23.3 Cross-Loadings In PLS Analyses

To evaluate the validity of discriminant, cross loading should be reviewed.
Relations among the unrelated construct measurements are generally indicative
which classifies the validities (DeVellis)Elucidation of both cross loadings; intended
102

construct and relevant construct is similar but should be loaded better ((Agarwal &
Karahanna, 2000; W. W. Chin, 1998)
3.23.4 Aver experience Variance Extracted Statistic
Aver experience Variance Extracted (AVE) is a statistic composed by Fornell and
Larcker(1981) to measure the validity of the convergent. Greater value of 0.5 reveals
the total of variance procured by the construct is greater than the variance due to data
measurement error (Claes Fornell & David F Larcker, 1981). Thus, AVE should be
higher than 0.5 to point the convergent validity.
3.23. 5 Assessing Parameter and Loading Significance
Parameters significance can be estimated by two resampling methods i.e.
jackknife or bootstrapping (W. W. Chin, 1998). Bootstrapping method is the most
acceptable method and was used to calculate the parameter significance in this study
(Efron & Tibshirani, 1993). Five hundred samples were set in bootstrap method
surpassing the Chins (1998) recommendation of 200. The experimental z-value for
two-tail tests should be 1.96 to support the hypotheses at 0.05 level.

3.23.6 Statistics to Assess The PLS Structural (Inner)

Model(PLS Structural Model Assessment Statisitcs)
Parameter estimates are initially scrutinized for its statistical significance, sign
and size. Other statistics include Stone-Geisser Q square test to assess the predictive
relevancy and R2 to calculate the predictiveness of the structural model (Stone,
1974). Evaluating the proportion of R2 linked with each construct gives a signal of
nomological validity (Sarkar, Echambadi, Cavusgil, & Aulakh, 2001).Q square

103

statistic is important to calculate (Geisser & Eddy, 1979; Stone, 1974) that how the
data is collected in estimated parameters by the model (W. W. Chin, 1998).
It is also necessary to calculate the Q-Square statistic (Geisser & Eddy, 1979;
Stone, 1974). The QSquare is a statistic of how well the observed values are
reconstructed by the model in the estimated parameters (W. Chin, et al., 1996)These
statistics are now briefly outlined.
3.23.7 Interpretation of Statistics for Assessing PLS Inner
Model(PLS Inner Model Interpretation of Statistics)
PLS estimates are required to check the hypothesis for significance and sign. In
behavioural and social studies (S. Cohen & Hoberman, 1983) outline R2 values 0.25
= large, 0.09 = medium and 0.01 = small. Chin (1998b) summaries R2 values of 0.7
as strong, 0.3 as moderate, and 0.2 as weak. The Chins (1999) sorting is ideal
as it is created on PLS methods.
Secondly, R2 linked with other variables is reported. When a variable is added or
removed, size of the effect can also be computed with the following equation.

R2included when the latent variable is included

R2included when the latent variable is excluded

If the effect size is considered suitable, that is, a value of 0.35 for a large effect,
0.15 for a medium and 0.02 for a small effect(F. Cohen, 1997),then it helps assess
whether the inclusion of that construct has utility or not.

104

Lastly, the predictive ability of the models is important to know. Stone Geisser
evaluates the predictive model as altogether (Dijkstra et al., 1983)to estimate the
prosocial behaviour(Geisser & Eddy, 1979; Stone, 1974) after neglecting the
observations. Apel and Wold recommend Q2 values from 0.4 - 0.6 as suitable and 0.7
- 0.8 as excellent.
3.24 Data Preparation for Analysis
This is undertaking detail data comparisons, to identify relationships between
various data that will help you understand more about your respondents, and guide
you towards better decisions.
3.25 Preliminary Data Analysis
Before conducting any detailed analysis, it is important to carry out a initial or
investigative data analysis. This analysis can help to pick up mistakes in the data.
Items like the sample size, missing variables, absence of outliers, and normality were
tested to detect glaring omissions and inaccuracies or to discover unexpected data.
3.25.1 Missing Data
By default, missing values are excluded and percentages are based on the
number of non-missing values. Few missing values (less than 5%) should be
considered with when using PLS-SEM as is the practice in statistical analyses.
Missing values were treated using mean substitute through missing value analysis
(MVA) in SPSS 20.0 (SPSS, 2011). In the present study, most of the items do not
have any percentage missing data

while

across all measurement items, the

percentages of missing values in the 216 cases were lower than 0.5 % (see Appendix
A). In the mean replacement expectation maximization technique, Maximum
likelihood algorithm is suggested (Enders, 2001; Hair, et al., 2013).
105

3.25.2 Outliers
In statistics, outliers are observation point that is distant from other observations
which are detected by Univariate and Multivariate analysis. Presence of outliers
could change the results of data analysis hence are omitted. While Univariate outliers
are cases with an unusual value for a single variable, the multivariate outliers are
cases with unusual combination of values for a number of variables. Using Z scores
analysis, the data does not present any univariate outliers (Tabachnick et al., 2012)
(see Appendix B) while 14 multivariate outliers at level of statistical significance less
than p < .001 were detected (regression analyses using SPSS with a cutoff
Mahalanobis) and removed from the final data leaving 202 respondents for the
subsequent analyses.
3.25.3 Multivariate Normality
It is worthwhile to consider distribution instead of assumption when working
with the statistical technique (structural equation modelling SEM-PLS) (Hair, et al.,
2013). In the present study the kurtosis and skewness analysis for each variable
shows value that are within the acceptable range 1 which indicate that normality
assumption is present in the current data set (See Appendix C) while the study does
not assume the normality of the data set . Figure 3.4 shows an example of normality
curve for item Q10, while Table 3.11 shows Skewness and Kurtosis values for the
variables after combining the items of each variable together.

Table 3.11 shows Skewness and Kurtosis values for each variable are within the
acceptable range 1 which indicate that normality assumption is present in the
current data set. However the statistical technique (structural equation modelling
SEM-PLS) that employed in the current study does not assume the normality of the
106

data set, but it is worthwhile to consider the distribution of the data because the
extreme violation of normality can distort the results ( Hair, et al., 2013).

Figure 3:6: Normality Curve of Item Q10

Table 3:15: Skewness and Kurtosis values for the variables

Skewness

Kurtosis

Statistic Std. Error Statistic

Std.

-0.0036

0.171

-0.524

Error
0.341

0.022

0.171

-0.504

0.341

Self-determination (ES)

-0.244

0.171

-0.516

0.341

Competence (EC)

-0.109

0.171

-0.667

0.341

Meaning (EM)

-0.448

0.171

-0.309

0.341

-0.149

0.171

-0.333

0.341

0.048

0.171

-0.232

0.341

Equal employment opportunities

-0.403

0.171

-0.199

0.341

(HRM_EE)
Training
and development (HRM_T)

-0.300

0.171

-0.316

0.341

0.179

0.171

-1.133

0.341

-0.687

0.171

0.738

0.341

Prosocial Behaviour (PB)

Employee Empowerment
Impact (EI)

HRM Practises
Good and safe working conditions
(HRM_GS)
Recruitment and selection (HRM_RS)

Organization commitment (OC)

Self-efficacy (SE)

107

3.25.4 Multicollinearity
The correlated result obtained which involve two or more statistical predictor in
a multiple regression model could be is ambiguous (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2012).
This phenomenon termed Multicollinearity. Could relaxed by calculating Variable
Inflation Factor (VIF) for each independent variable after running a multivariate
regression using one of the IVs as the dependent variable, and then regressing it on
all the remaining IVs. Then swap out the IVs one at a time. It was reported that VIF
are as follows: (VIF < 3: not a problem, VIF > 3; potential problem, VIF > 5; very
likely problem) (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2012). From the present study, higher order
construction was used giving VIF values ranging from 1.682 to 4.931, which gives
VIF value below 5 indicating potential problem (see Appendix D) (J. F. Hair, et al.,
2013).

3.26 Participant Characteristics

216 frontline respondents were obtained from employees drawn from 27 highly
ranking hotels in penang-Malaysia participated in the survey of which 14
respondents were screened out. Higher respondents were obtained from the female
which constituted 59.9% followed by the male which amount to 40.1% of the total
202 respondents showing that females are more costumer friendly as frontline staff
as reported by (Mathies & Burford, 2009).
The study further revealed a diversify working experiences of the respondents in
which the lowest percentage of the respondents have 15 Years and above in
services while the highest percentage of the respondents have just 5 years of working
experience. Table 3.12 presents the descriptive statistics of valid cases (202) and
valid percentages for the demographic variables.
108

Table 3:16: Participants Characteristics (N=202)

Characteristics

Classification

N.

Percentage%

Gender

Male
Female
less than 5
5 to less than 10
>10 to less than 15
15 and more

81
121
78
63
39
22

40.1
59.9
38.6
31.2
19.3
10.9

Years of service in current

company

3.27 Conclusion
This chapter allocated the methodology usedin this study. It provided an
overview of the studys research design, sample, sampling procedure, instrument
used, procedure, and data analysis. Data collection techniques, that integrated a
survey questionnaire and case studies, are also layout to enhance the reliability of the
data collection. Moreover, the issues of validity for the instruments are presented. It
also highlights comprehensiveexplanations of the SEM statistical methods that
utilized for the data analysis. This chapter is followed by chapter four which presents
the results and finding for the analysis.

109

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the results and analysis of the present study. A wide range
of independent variables has been used to explain levels of prosocial behaviour (as
the dependent variable), including Human Resource Management (HRM) practices
and employee empowerment. The data obtained in this study are consisting of two
sections: descriptive data such as percentage and simple statistical descriptive value
and analytical data of a related variable. It begins with a discussion on the response
rate of the study. Subsequently, the validated measures would be subjected to an
aggregation of their respective variables. The direct relationships of independent
variables, and the impact on dependent variable, were explored and tested. A simple
regression was conducted to explore the relationship between prosocial behaviour
and Human Resource Management (HRM) practices and employee empowerment.

4.2 Reliability and Validity of the instrument

Accuracy of scientific research design cannot be over emphasized. While
reliability refers to the reproducibility of the research tool, the validity of any
research tool is the productivity of the design tool (U Sekaran & R Bougie, 2010) .
The reliability and validity appraisal of the instrument used in the current study will
be in discussed subsequent sections.
4.2.1 Reliability
Based on the Cronbachs Alpha value which determines the internal consistency
or average correlation of items in a survey instrument to gauge its reliability, it can
be deduced that the measurement items are reliable and have internal consistency in
110

capturing the meaning of the constructs (Santos, 1999). Although the higher the
score, the more liable the generated scale (Nunnaly, 1994), the minimum reliability
for an instrument depends on the purpose of the result. Hence a reliability coefficient
for all constructs in Table 4.1 has high reliability level ranging from (0.757 to 0.923)
which higher than the acceptable range of 0.5-0.6

(Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh, &

Sorensen, 2010, p. 249).

Table 4:17: Summary of Reliability test (N=202)

Component

Number of
items

Mean

Cronbach's
Alpha

Impact

3.465

0.757

Self-determination

3.671

0.761

Competence

3.206

0.856

Meaning

3.888

0.807

HRM Practises
Good and safe
Recruitment
Equal employment
Training
Organization commitment

5
5
5
5
5

3.945
3.502
3.740
3.703
3.631

0.830
0.894
0.923
0.908
0.905

Self-efficacy

10

3.725

0.851

Overall

0.975

DV

VariablesMediating

Independent variables

Employee Empowerment

Prosocial behaviour

4.2.2 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

Despite the importance of using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) analysing
validity (J. M. Conway & Huffcutt, 2003) and checking dimensionality of the
variables within the different population and different study site (UCLA, 2014), the
present study adapted measurement instrument that is already developed and
validated in previous studies. , EFA represented by the principal components
analysis (PCA) with Varimax method which attempts to minimize the number of
variables that have high loadings on each factor (Pallant, 2010) for organizational
111

research, current study is not developing and instrument but rather. All required
criterion were achieved. Kaiser-Guttman criterion was applied regarding the number
of factors to be extracted which they are only factors with eight values equal or
greater than one can be extracted (Kaiser & Dickman, 1959). The items with only
loading 0.400 or greater were consider as acceptable (J. F. Hair, Black, Babin, &
Anderson, 2010)The following sections will present the EFA test for the variables
under the focus of current study.
4.2.2.1 Prosocial Behaviour
The use of principal component analysis as a means of extracting the Prosocial
behaviour is shown inTable 4.2. While the KMO score of 0.800 gave good sampling
adequacy, thetotal variance accounted by one factor by 62.91% indicates good
component validity.

Table 4:18:Exploratory Factor Analysis for Prosocial Behaviour

Items

Loading

Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
KMO
Variance
Approx. ChiSquare

0.779
0.839
0.709
0.808
0.824
0.800
62.91
444.278

112

4.2.2.2 Employee Empowerment

The questionnaire items for Employee Empowerment demonstrated a good
component validity when EFA of the four basic dimensional items(Impact, Selfdetermination, Competence, and Meaning) was processed in the questionnaire,
additional four factors were generated with all items loaded on their respective
dimension except Q8 which was purposely deleted for having high cross loading
value with another dimension. Loadings for remain items and KMO score of 0.846
with total variance accounted for by the three factors was 76.54% which indicated a
good sampling adequacy as shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4:19: Exploratory Factor Analysis for Employee Empowerment

Q9 Impact
Q10
Q11 Self-determination
Q12
Q13
Q14 Competence
Q15
Q16
Q17 Meaning
Q18
Q19
KMO
Variance
Approx. Chi-Square

1
0.82
1
0.81
5

Component
2
3

0.797
0.759
0.731
0.800
0.805
0.770
0.779
0.795
0.812
0.846
76.54
1023.721

4.2.2.3 HRM Practises

After loading all the items (good and safe, recruitment, equal employment and
training) in HRM practises and running EFA for the four dimensions , 16 items
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were extracted into the four factors. Q20 was removed due to low loading value
(0.438) while Q21, Q29, and Q38 were equally removed due to cross loading with
other dimension . Table 4.4With the total variance accounting to 72.80% from three
factors, the result of loading all items on their respective factor, the questionnaire
items from HRM practices demonstrated good component validity.
Table 4:20:Exploratory Factor Analysis for HRM Practices
Component
2
3

1
Q20 HRM-Good and safe
Q22
Q23
Q24
Q25 HRM-Recruitment
Q26
Q27
Q28
Q30 HRM-Equal
employment
Q32
Q33
Q34
Q35 HRM-Training
.808
Q36
.859
Q37
.853
Q39
.811
KMO
.819
variance
72.80
Approx. Chi-Square
3602.854

4
.438
.864
.803
.793

.705
.835
.712
.806
.766
.695
.730
.656

4.2.2.4 Organization Commitment

In the case of organization commitment, the result obtained by EFA using
principal components as means of extraction, indicate a very good adequacy as

114

shown in Table 4.5 with 0.821 KMO score. The total variance accounted by one
factor was 72.91% indicating good component validity.

Table 4:21: Exploratory Factor Analysis for Organization Commitment

Items

Component

Q40
Q41
Q42
Q43
Q44
KMO
Variance
Approx. Chi-Square

0.784
0.892
0.862
0.878
0.850
0.821
72.91
677.142

4.2.2.5 Self-efficacy
For Self-efficacy determination, table 4.6 shows the result of the EFA carried out
using principal component to extract 10 items into one dimension, revealed a very
good sampling adequacy with KMO score of 0.937. Good component validity is
obtained as a result of the total variance contributed by one factor was 60.31% .

Table 4:22: Exploratory Factor Analysis for Self-efficacy

Items

Compone
nt

Q45
Q46
Q47
Q48
Q49
Q50
Q51
Q52
Q53
Q54

0.769
0.765
0.766
0.819
0.771
0.720
0.783
0.788
0.792
0.787
115

Items

Compone
nt

KMO
0.937
variance
60.31
Approx. Chi-Square 1181.486

EFA conducted on the present data to checked the dimensionality of the constructs
after deleting six items (Q8, Q20, Q21, Q29, Q31, and Q38), revealed that; while
each one of these constructs is unidimentional (Prosocial behaviour, Organization
commitment, and Self-efficacy), both constructs (Employee Empowerment, and
HRM Practises) are multidimentional constructs and will be modelled in further
analysis as Higher-order construct (HOC).

4.3 Describing the Approaches for Higher-order Construct Models HOC in

Partial Least Squares Modelling (PLS)
The present study revealed that there are two higher-order construct (HOC) model
(Employee Empowerment, and HRM practices). By applying exploratory factor
analysis, both were reported to have four dimensions which are the lower order
constructs LOC (first order) of HRM practices. Based on (Diamantopoulos &
Siguaw, 2006) guidelines, Employee Empowerment are reflective in nature these
dimensions are highly correlated and can be used interchangeably, and even to a
certain extent be discarded (Henseler & Fassott, 2010) while HRM practices are
formative in nature. Hence there is need to reduce the number of relationships in the
structural model, making the PLS path model more parsimonious and easier to grasp
(Hair et al. (2013) this is because according to Falk and Miller (1992), A

116

parsimonious approach to theoretical specification is far more powerful than the

broad application of a shotgun.

Figure 4:7: Hierarchical Component Model of Employee Empowerment Follows

Reflective-Reflective, Type I
Moreover, these dimensions are not expected to be correlated with one another
which infers that it this dimensions has formative properties in SEM modelling hence
they are not expected to be correlated with one another. The hierarchical component
model of HRM practices follows Reflective-Formative, Type I based on Becker et
al. (2012b), Type II based on Becker et al. (2012b), using repeated item approach
(see Figure 4:7). While using repeated item approach as shown in
, the hierarchical component model of HRM practises follows reflectiveformative type II (Becker et al. (2012b).

117

Figure 4:8: Hierarchical Component Model of HRM Practices Follows ReflectiveFormative, Type II

4.4 Common Method Variance Analysis

If the research design requires that the independent and dependent variables
cannot be obtained from different sources and measured in different contexts,
common method Variance (CMV) will be a concern (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, &
Podsakoff, 2003). Common Method variance can either inflate or deflate observed
relationships between components, thus leading to errors (Podsakoff, et al., 2003).
However, there are several techniques were employed as suggested by
Podsakoff et al. (2003). When the data was collected, the facilitator informed the
respondents that the survey is anonymous and there are no right or wrong answers,
so that respondent anonymity can be protected and evaluation apprehension can
be reduced.
Harmans single factor test was performed to check for the possible effects of
common methods bias after data collection (Harman, 1976). Harmans single factor
test is arguably the most widely known approach for assessing common method
118

variance in a single-method research design (Malhotra, Kim, & Patil, 2006). In

general, this test is used to see if a single factor will emerge from the factor analysis
or if there is one general factor that explains the majority of the covariance in the
independent and dependent variables (Pavlou & Gefen, 2005). The basic assumption
is that if a single factor emerges from the factor analysis that explains a significant
amount of the variance in the data, there is strong evidence of common method bias.
Following this approach, all the variables from the research model were loaded into
an exploratory factor analysis. Using principle axis factoring method for extraction,
and fixed the number of factors to extracted within one factor (Pavlou & Gefen,
2005). The method of factor rotation was set to be none. Results show that, the
highest variance value was 38.43%, which infers that, neither a single factor nor a
general factor accounts for the majority of the covariance in the measures. As a first
step of testing hypothesis of current research, outer model should be validated first to
ensure reliable and valid results in further analysis. Outer model validation covers
measurement scales assessment. Next section presents the measurement model
assessment.

4.5 Measurement Model Assessment

An important step before testing the hypotheses in structural model is the
assessment of the accuracy of the measurement model. The purpose of the
measurement model assessment is to ensure that measures used are valid and
adequately reflect the underlying theoretical components. In another word, how well
a set of measured items actually reflect the theoretical latent component they are
designed to measure which called component validity (U. Sekaran & R. Bougie,

119

2010, p. 324). Component validity is made up by assessing the convergent and

discriminant validity.
4.5.1 Convergent Validity
Convergent validity testifies in which multiple items to measure the same concept
are in agreement. As suggested by Hair et al. (2010), this study used the factor
loadings, composite reliability and average variance extracted AVE to assess
convergent validity.
Fornell and Larcker (1981) recommended the values that achieve convergent
validity of the scales, this study testifies these values in both models as the following;
Firstly, all the factor loadings for all items should be greater than 0.5, the
recommended level is 0.7. An item with loading less than 0.7 should be scrutinized to
determine whether the item should be deleted or not to enhance the level of Average
variance extracted AVE (J. F. Hair, et al., 2013). In general, items with loadings of
less than 0.5 should be dropped (Hulland, 1999). Results show that all factor loading
values are greater than the acceptable level (0.5).
Secondly,the composite reliability (CR) values of the components (ranging from
0.866 to 0.942) exceeded the generally accepted value of 0.70. Cronbachs Alpha
values shows better reliability than before in reliability test.
Finally, the AVE values (ranging from 0.618 to 0.817) are higher than the general
accepted value of 0.5. Thus, criteria fulfilled and the empirical data in this study
assure convergent validity as shown in Table 4:23.

120

Table 4:23: Results Summary for the Measurement Model

Component
Prosocial behaviour

Employee Empowerment
(HOC)

Impact
Self-determination
Competence
Meaning

Item

Main
loading
0.793
0.852
0.718
0.794
0.873

Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Impact
(0.677)
Self-determination
(0.796)
Competence
(0.828)
Meaning
(0.777)
Q9
0.915
Q10
0.865
Q11
0.863
Q12
0.891
Q13
0.716
Q14
0.897
Q15
0.858
Q16
0.897
Q17
0.864
Q18
0.842
Q19
0.845

HRM Practices (HOC)

Good and safe working
conditions
Recruitment and
selection
Equal employment
opportunities
Training and
development
Organization
commitment

Self-efficacy

Q22
Q23
Q24
Q25
Q26
Q27
Q28
Q30
Q32
Q33
Q34
Q35
Q36
Q37
Q39
Q40
Q41
Q42
Q43
Q44
Q45
Q46
Q48
Q49

121

0.894
0.922
0.899
0.875
0.946
0.842
0.824
0.879
0.854
0.886
0.881
0.867
0.918
0.893
0.925
0.777
0.892
0.865
0.874
0.856
0.764
0.788
0.826
0.787

0.628

Composit
e
Reliability
0.894

0.595

0.854

0.792

0.884

0.684

0.866

0.778

0.913

0.722

0.887

AVE

Formative
0.817

0.931

0.743

0.920

0.766

0.929

0.802

0.942

0.729

0.931

0.618

0.919

Component

Main
loading
0.728
0.813
0.799

Item
Q50
Q53
Q54

AVE

Composit
e
Reliability

Note: AVE = Average Variance Extracted

CR = Composite Reliability

4.5.2 Discriminant Validity

Discriminate validity which is the extent to which two or more are empirically
distinguished is assessed in two ways which are :- cross loading and Fornell-Larker
approach (J. F. Hair, et al., 2013)
4.5.2.1 Cross Loading Assessment
By examining the cross loadings of the indicators, the cross loading approach was
performed. The differences between the indicators outer loading and the all of its
loadings within the comparing related construct should not be less than 0.1 (J. F.
Hair, et al., 2013). From Table 4.8, the outer loading is greater than 0.527 in all cases
which is greater than 0.1.

Q6
Q7
Q9
Q1

0.384
0.538
0.500
0.485
0.297

0.35
6
0.46
2
0.38
4
0.46
3
0.38
9
0.32
2
0.17

122

0.43
1
0.50
4
0.54
3
0.43
0
0.35
7
0.30
5
0.15

0.546

0.462

0.649

0.492

0.379

0.707

0.465

0.298

0.550

0.457

0.314

0.501

0.429

0.319

0.503

0.393
0.161

0.405
0.274

0.455
0.213

Self-efficacy

Meaning
0.39
3
0.42
8
0.26
3
0.37
2
0.37
6
0.41
6
0.22

commitment Organization

0.38
0
0.40
2
0.21
1
0.31
6
0.29
9
0.38
6
0.43

developmentTraining and

0.523

Competence

Impact

determinationSelf0.432

opportunities Equal employment

Q5

0.3
55
0.3
56
0.2
79
0.2
93
0.3
35
0.9
15
0.8

selection Recruitment and

Q4

0.7
93
0.8
52
0.7
11
0.7
94
0.8
07
0.4
58
0.2

working Good and safe

Q3

behaviour Prosocial

Item

Table 4:24: Item Cross Loadings

0.44
0
0.56
1
0.43
9
0.59
3
0.56
9
0.42
4
0.30

0.716
0.460
0.434
0.448
0.490
0.341
0.335
0.482
0.494
0.467
0.437
0.430
0.514
0.398
0.343
0.424
0.352
0.365
0.324
0.150
0.331
0.301
0.304
0.499
0.587
0.487

123

8
0.42
5
0.46
8
0.38
5
0.25
6
0.27
0
0.31
7
0.32
2
0.44
0
0.34
2
0.43
9
0.46
9
0.34
5
0.87
5
0.90
5
0.84
2
0.82
4
0.51
8
0.52
8
0.57
1
0.59
8
0.37
3
0.32
8
0.40
3
0.41
1
0.32
5
0.55
1
0.56
3
0.41
2

0.411

0.313

0.528

0.357

0.251

0.489

0.274

0.198

0.325

0.293

0.338

0.367

0.230

0.303

0.245

0.260

0.383

0.309

0.395

0.529

0.534

0.382

0.405

0.429

0.293

0.397

0.326

0.429

0.183

0.422

0.467

0.231

0.522

0.509

0.289

0.536

0.600

0.374

0.513

0.567

0.385

0.533

0.520

0.373

0.489

0.489
0.87
9
0.85
4
0.88
6
0.88
1

0.326

0.520

0.616

0.697

0.556

0.723

0.526

0.615
0.591

0.612

0.559
0.86
7
0.91
8
0.89
3
0.90
3

0.595

0.502

0.624

0.430

0.618

0.533

0.651

0.572

0.543
0.585
0.566

0.526
0.531
0.536
0.560
0.77
7
0.89
2
0.86
5
0.87
4

Self-efficacy

commitment Organization

1
0.41
9
0.51
8
0.36
9
0.41
6
0.36
3
0.40
7
0.33
3
0.54
5
0.35
0
0.8
90
0.9
22
0.8
99
0.47
6
0.34
7
0.40
9
0.35
4
0.43
3
0.45
9
0.47
8
0.44
7
0.33
5
0.19
2
0.12
4
0.27
5
0.32
6
0.53
9
0.48
7
0.47
6

developmentTraining and

Meaning
8
0.35
5
0.50
7
0.25
1
0.46
5
0.44
2
0.49
2
0.8
64
0.8
40
0.8
45
0.41
4
0.41
4
0.47
0
0.36
3
0.39
4
0.35
3
0.37
8
0.38
2
0.37
3
0.34
9
0.37
4
0.53
3
0.46
2
0.45
1
0.43
9
0.39
7
0.41
7
0.39
1
0.52
2

opportunities Equal employment

0.891

Competence

determinationSelf0.863

2
0.40
0
0.45
6
0.40
6
0.89
7
0.85
8
0.89
1
0.44
1
0.46
8
0.44
2
0.42
9
0.39
7
0.39
3
0.31
6
0.21
1
0.26
8
0.30
5
0.21
6
0.26
4
0.29
9
0.26
0
0.46
4
0.32
2
0.30
5
0.29
8
0.21
0
0.29
1
0.32
8
0.36
0

selection Recruitment and

65
0.4
52
0.4
34
0.1
92
0.4
22
0.3
47
0.4
32
0.4
01
0.2
97
0.2
38
0.2
16
0.2
57
0.2
98
0.1
80
0.2
60
0.1
92
0.2
99
0.2
53
0.3
73
0.2
57
0.2
55
0.3
88
0.2
83
0.3
99
0.3
23
0.3
46
0.2
75
0.3
15
0.4
02

working Good and safe

52
0.5
90
0.5
73
0.2
84
0.3
83
0.3
58
0.3
49
0.4
38
0.4
18
0.3
26
0.4
80
0.4
85
0.4
42
0.5
31
0.4
80
0.4
65
0.4
91
0.5
38
0.5
39
0.5
10
0.5
27
0.4
33
0.3
57
0.3
86
0.4
35
0.5
62
0.6
66
0.6
59
0.6
17

Impact

behaviour Prosocial

Item
0
Q1
1
Q1
2
Q1
3
Q1
4
Q1
5
Q1
6
Q1
7
Q1
8
Q1
9
Q2
2
Q2
3
Q2
4
Q2
5
Q2
6
Q2
7
Q2
8
Q3
0
Q3
2
Q3
3
Q3
4
Q3
5
Q3
6
Q3
7
Q3
9
Q4
0
Q4
1
Q4
2
Q4
3

9
0.64
7
0.49
4
0.37
6
0.51
6
0.39
3
0.51
3
0.40
4
0.38
1
0.21
1
0.45
2
0.48
8
0.46
2
0.39
5
0.31
1
0.35
1
0.40
4
0.47
5
0.53
5
0.52
8
0.55
9
0.50
0
0.42
5
0.43
7
0.47
3
0.43
5
0.59
9
0.70
6
0.68
2

0.500
0.457
0.478
0.493
0.538

0.708

0.534

0.85
6

0.512

0.410

0.560

0.530

0.348

0.572

0.448

0.461

0.545

0.516

0.424

0.545

0.344

0.287

0.516

0.432

0.436

0.514

0.506

0.454

0.653

Self-efficacy

commitment Organization

0.65
6
0.31
2
0.34
5
0.29
0
0.36
0
0.37
6
0.25
3
0.38
6

developmentTraining and

0.49
0
0.41
8
0.50
5
0.40
2
0.43
4
0.33
9
0.39
0
0.35
6

opportunities Equal employment

0.488

0.45
7
0.31
1
0.26
9
0.36
7
0.33
6
0.20
9
0.33
2
0.34
9

selection Recruitment and

0.440

0.29
5
0.40
7
0.41
0
0.53
0
0.45
7
0.34
0
0.48
6
0.34
1

Meaning

Competence

0.446

working Good and safe

0.3
29
0.3
07
0.3
30
0.3
59
0.2
61
0.2
77
0.4
27
0.3
37

determinationSelf-

0.6
53
0.4
74
0.5
49
0.4
93
0.5
05
0.5
71
0.4
57
0.5
56

Impact

behaviour Prosocial

Item
Q4
4
Q4
5
Q4
6
Q4
8
Q4
9
Q5
0
Q5
3
Q5
4

0.59
3
0.7
60
0.7
88
0.8
26
0.7
87
0.7
28
0.8
13
0.7
99

4.5.2.2 Fornell-Larcker Criterion

Discriminant validity of the scales is satisfied when the square root of the Average
variance extracted (AVE) values from the component is greater than the variance any
of the inter-component correlations (Fornell and Larcker (1981) . As shown in Table
4:25, the discriminant validity was fulfilled for all components, and inner model is
ready for hypothesis testing this is because AVE values on the diagonal are greater
than the correlation coefficient of that component with all the other components in
the model. Furthermore, since reflective constructs couldbe evaluated using the
Fornell-Larcke, as shown in the final measurement model results. Figure 4.4 shows
the assessment covers the reflective construct while HRM Practices will be assessed
in the step after being formatively measured by four first-order components.

Table 4:25: Correlations and Discriminant Validity N 202

Empowerme
nt

HRM
Practices

124

Organization
commitment

Prosocia
l
behavio
ur

Empowerment

0.771

HRM Practices
Organization
commitment
Prosocial
behaviour

0.644

Formative

0.585

0.797

0.965

0.615

0.677

0.741

0.946

Self-efficacy

0.647

0.650

0.711

0.656

Note: Square root of the AVE on the diagonal

Figure 4.3 shows the final measurement model results. The assessment covers the
reflective construct. Although, the measurement assessment of formative constructs
(HRM Practices) requires procedures shown next.

125

12
6

Figure 4:9: Measurement Model Assessment

126

4.6 Assessment of Formative Constructs (HRM Practices)

HRM practices being a higher order constructs (HOC) is formed by the
formatively measured first-order components (Good and safe working conditions,
Recruitment and selection, Equal employment opportunities, and Training and
development). Assessment of significance and relevant of outer weights along with
the collinearity among dimensions is very pertinent (J. F. Hair, et al., 2013, p. 97)) .
The assessment of these formative dimensions is further examined at the next section
shows.

4.6.1 Collinearity among Dimensions of HRM Practices

Collinearity

is the variance inflation factor (VIF), is the reciprocal of the

tolerance and is derived from the square root of the VIF being the degree to which
the standard error has been increased due to the presence of collinearity (J. F. Hair,
et al., 2013). It could be assessed by first performing repeatedformative dimension
regressed on all remaining dimensions in the same block using SPSS (2011) followed
by testifying the significance of outer weights of the four dimensions for its absolute
contribution. Collinearity assessment on the present study shows no critical levels of
collinearity between the four dimensions (VIF < 5, and Tolerance > 0.2) (J. F. Hair, et
al., 2013). Table 4.10 present the Collinearity Assessment for HRM.

127

Table 4:26: Collinearity Assessment for the Formative Construct (HRM practices)
Tolerance
VIF
Good and safe working
.608conditions 1.645

Dimension
Recruitment and selection
Equal employment
opportunities
Training
and development
Equal employment
opportunities
Training
and development
Good and safe working
conditions
Training and development
Good and safe working
conditions and selection
Recruitment
Good and safe working
conditions and selection
Recruitment
Equal employment
opportunities

.432
2.315
.584
1.713
Recruitment and selection
.454
2.204
.576
1.736
.726
1.377
Equal employment
opportunities1.224
.817
.786
1.272
.691
1.447
Training and development
.706
1.416
.583
1.714
.543
1.842

4.6.2 Relevance of Outer Weights for the First-order

Constructs of HRM Practices
Measurement model shows high path coefficient values between the first order
and second order constructs (Figure 4:10). With respect to the measurement model,
the results of the smart PLS bootstrapping analysis show that all the weights of the
formative first-order constructs are significant. Applying bootstrapping method
approach (5000 samples, sample size 202) to calculate the t-values, the result gave
lowest t value is 9.495 which is significant at level p<0.001 for one-tailed test (

) and also ensuring the validity and reliability of measurement items. Next step is
to conduct hypotheses testing through structural model assessment.

128

Figure 4:10: Measurement

Model Assessment for HRM Practices

Figure 4:11: Bootstrapping Assessment for the Outer First-order Formative

Constructs
By ensuring the validity and reliability of measurement items, next step is to
conduct hypotheses testing through structural model assessment.

4.7 Structural Model Assessment

With a satisfactory measurement model (inner model), the study proceeded to
test the structural model which includes estimates of the path coefficients indicating
the strength of the relationships between model constructs; and estimates of the

129

R2values, which represent the amount of variance in the dependent variable

explained by the independent variables.

To examine the specific hypotheses proposed in the research model, the t-statistics
was assessed for the standardized path coefficients by running bootstrap with 5000
re-samples. One-tailed t-tests was assumed because corresponds are extreme
negative or extreme positive.

Table 4:27 show Hypotheses testing results. Six hypotheses were supported
significantly while two more hypotheses were not. Results show that Employee
Empowerment affects positively on Prosocial behaviour (H1a: = 0.193, p < 0.001).
It means that when hotel management gives authority and power for employee in
which they are allowed, they will present more prosocial behaviours towards
customers in service encounters. Surprisingly on the other side, employee
empowerment does not affect significantly on organization commitment (H2a: =
0.123, p > 0.05), meaning that; even though hotel management gives authority and
power for employee, but this still not efficient to cultivate the sense of organization
commitment. In the same manner, HRM Practices have no significant effect on
prosocial behaviour (H1b: = 0.109, p > 0.05). Although, HRM Practices could
affect indirectly on prosocial behaviour through the mediator (organization
commitment). The path coefficient between HRM Practices and Organization
commitment is relatively high ( = 0.718), and path coefficient between Organization
commitment and Prosocial behaviour is also high ( = 0.434). Therefore, there is a
possibility that organization commitment is absorbing part of relationship strength
toward prosocial behaviour. Mediating effect of organization commitment between
HRM Practices and prosocial behaviour will be assessed in further analysis.
130

Hypothesis H2b was supported showing that employee empowerment affects

positively on self-efficacy (H2b: = 0.391, p < 0.001). This infers that procedures
taken by hotel administration to empower employee -and gives them authorities and
power- affect positively on employees' interpersonal quality and beliefs in his or her
abilities to accomplish tasks efficiently. Hypothesis H2c was supported showing that
HRM Practices affects positively on Organization commitment ( = 0.718, p <
0.001). HRM Practices conducted by hotel administration which are (Good and safe
working conditions, Recruitment and selection, Equal employment opportunities, and
Training and development) have high significant and positive effect on employees'
commitment toward hotels. Furthermore, hypothesis (H3a) shows that Organization
commitment affects positively on prosocial behaviour ( = 0.434, p < 0.001).
Increasing employee's commitment toward working place is beneficial for employee
performance being more closely matched to the hotel and customer needs. Selfefficacy affects positively on prosocial behaviour (H3b: = 0.152, p < 0.05), however
it has less in path coefficient strength comparing with Organization commitment.
Finally, Organization commitment is affected positively by HRM Practices (H2c: =
0.718, p < 0.001). Organization commitment is playing an important role in the
proposed model.

The estimates of the R2 values represent the amount of variance in the dependent
variable explained by the independent variables. In general, R2 values of 0.75, 0.50,
or 0.25 for the endogenous constructs can be described as respectively substantial,
moderate, and weak (J. F. Hair, et al., 2013). The estimates of the R2 values represent
the amount of variance in the dependent variable (Prosocial behaviour) explained by
the independent variables. As shown in figure 4.6, the proposed model explains
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61.3% of variance for Prosocial behaviour which considered moderate. Both

employee empowerment and HRM Practices explain 64.3% of variance for
Organization commitment, and 51.1% of variance for self-efficacy which considered
moderated. Next step is to measure the strength of these relationships using
predictive relevance Q2 and effect size f2 assessment.

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Table 4:27: Hypotheses TestingResults

H. No.

H1a
H2a
H1b
H2b
H2c
H3a
H3b
H2d

Hypotheses
Employee Empowerment
-> Prosocial behaviour
Employee Empowerment
-> Organization commitment
HRM Practices
-> Prosocial behaviour
Employee Empowerment
-> Self-efficacy
HRM Practices
-> Organization commitment
Organization commitment
-> Prosocial behaviour
Self-efficacy
-> Prosocial behaviour
HRM Practices
-> Self-efficacy

path coefficient
0.193
0.123
0.109
0.391
0.718
0.434
0.152
0.398

Standard Error
0.054
0.076
0.085
0.077
0.053
0.096
0.076
0.0674

t value
3.553***
1.625
1.286
5.093***
13.554***
4.515***
2.006*
5.8953***

* p<0.05 when t-value 1.645 one-tail test, ** p<0.01 when t-value 2.326 one-tail test, *** p<0.001 when t-value 3.091 one-tail test

1
33

133

Decision
Supported
Not support
Not support
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported

1
34

* p<0.05 when t-value 1.645 one-tail test, ** p<0.01 when t-value 2.326 one-tail test, ** p<0.001 when t-value 3.091 one-tail test

Figure 4:12: Results of Bootstrapping (t-values)

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4.7.1 Predictive Relevance Q2

According to Hair et al. (2013), Q2 values above zero imply predictive relevance
hence the result of the blind folding process performed using smart PLS on three
endogenous constructs (Prosocial behaviour, self-efficacy, and Organization
commitment) gave Q2 values (0.380, 0.316,and 0.465 respectively ) show
predictive relevance.

4.7.2 Effect Size f

The final assessments address the f2 and q2 effect sizes. Effect size is a measure of
the strength of a phenomenon, by estimating the relationship between each two
endogenous variables in a statistical population(Kelley & Preacher, 2012). Cohen
(1988) propose an equation to estimate the effect size as the following;
Effect f 2 =

R2incl R 2excl
1R2incl

R2incl is the R-squared when including specific predecessor of that endogenous latent variable
R2excl is the R-squared after deleting a specific predecessor of that endogenous latent variable

The computation of the q2 effect size is an analogous procedure. However, instead

of the R2 values, the values of the predictive relevance are used as inputs as shown in
the next equation (J. F. Hair, et al., 2013):
q 2=

Q2incl Q2excl
1Q2incl

Q2incl is the Q-squared when including specific predecessor of that endogenous latent variable
Q2excl is the Q-squared after deleting a specific predecessor of that endogenous latent variable

The f2 and q2 values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 indicate an exogenous construct small,
medium, or large effect, respectively, on an endogenous construct (J. F. Hair, et al.,
2013).
As shown inTable 4:28, all constructs (Employee Empowerment, Organization
commitment, and Self-efficacy) have small effect size on Prosocial behaviour except
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Self-efficacy which has small to no effect size. HRM Practices which was excluded
in the test because it does not have significant effect on Prosocial behaviour. The
effect size of Organization commitment is the highest among the other constructs
and close to be medium with a value of f2=0.145.

The computation of the q2 effect size implies that (Employee Empowerment and
Organization commitment) have small effect size on Prosocial behaviour. While Selfefficacy has no effect size on Prosocial behaviour. However, there still a practical
importance even for small effect sizes.

Table 4:28:Results of Effect Size f2 and q2

Prosocial behaviour
Path
coefficient

f2 Effect
size

q2 Effect
size

Employee Empowerment

0.193

0.047

0.019

Organization commitment

0.434

0.145

0.053

0.152

0.018

Predictor

Self-efficacy
2

0.011
2

Note: Effect sizes f and q >0.35 large effect; f and q >0.15 medium effect; f and q >0.02 small effect

4.8 Mediation Effect Assessment

A significant mediator variable may to some extent absorb a cause-effect
relationship. Examining mediating variables enables researchers to better understand
the relationships between dependent and predictor constructs. The purpose of
mediation effect assessment is to examine the strength of mediating variables (Selfefficacy and Organization commitment) in mediating the relationship between
independent variables (Employee Empowerment and HRM Practices) and dependant
variable (Prosocial behaviour). Mediation focuses on a theoretically established

136

direct path relationships between two factors (Employee Empowerment -> Prosocial
behaviour) and (HRM Practices -> Prosocial behaviour), as well as on an additional

introduced theoretical relevant components which are (Self-efficacy and

Organization commitment). The last two components work as mediators and explain
the relationships between IVs and DV. For testing mediating effects, Hair, et al.
(2013) suggests bootstrap the sampling distribution of the indirect effect because this
approach exhibits higher levels of statistical power (J. F. Hair, et al., 2013).

To begin with the direct effect between IVs and DV estimated without the
mediators (Hayes, 2009). Path coefficient value between Employee Empowerment
and Prosocial behaviour was 1= (0.299) show significant relationships by running
bootstrapping with 5000 re-sampling (t value = 4.836). Path coefficient value
between Employee Empowerment and Prosocial behaviour was 1= (0.487) show
significant relationships by running bootstrapping with 5000 re-sampling (t value =
8.721). So the direct effects between IVs and DV were significant.

Next step is to include the mediators (Self-efficacy and Organization

commitment) which could absorb portion of cause-effect relationship. It has been
noticed that the direct relationship between HRM Practices and Prosocial behaviour
became not significant which indicate that the mediator (Organization commitment)
absorbs high amount of the cause-effect relationship. On the other hand, Self-efficacy
absorbs part of cause-effect relationship between HRM Practices and Prosocial
behaviour. In addition of mediating the relationship between Employee
Empowerment and Prosocial behaviour. The condition for these mediator can be
confirmed by having significant indirect effect for the relationships between

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IVs>Mediator>DV. The significance of indirect effects calculated manually and

show in Table 4:29. The indirect effect (Employee Empowerment > Organization
commitment > Prosocial behaviour) was excluded because the relationship between
IV and Mediator (Employee Empowerment > Organization commitment) was not
significant ( = 0.123 t value =1.625).
Table 4:29: t Values of Indirect Effects
Relationship

t value

Employee Empowerment >Self-efficacy> Prosocial behaviour

1.888*

HRM Practices> Self-efficacy > Prosocial behaviour

1.819*

HRM Practices> Organization commitment > Prosocial behaviour

4.026**

* p<0.05 when t-value 1.645 one-tail test, ** p<0.001 when t-value 3.091 one-tail test

The final step is to determine the strength of this mediation. This kind of
assessment can be done by using the VAF (J. F. Hair, et al., 2013). VAF is the size of
the indirect effect relative to the total effect (J. F. Hair, et al., 2013). VAF would be
less than 20% refers to no mediation takes place. A situation in which the VAF is
larger than 20% and less than 80% can be characterized as partial mediation. While
when the VAF has very large outcomes of above 80%, it can assume a full mediation
(J. F. Hair, et al., 2013). The VAF equals the indirect effect divided by the total effect.
The total effect is the summation of direct and indirect effect. As shown in Table
4:30, the strength of mediation effect of self-efficacy in mediating the relationship
between Employee Empowerment and Prosocial behaviour was (VAF = 23.4%),
inferring Partial mediation. Furthermore, Self-efficacy is partially mediating
relationship between HRM Practices and Prosocial behaviour (VAF = 35.5%).
Organization commitment is partially to fully mediate the relationship between HRM

138

Practices and Prosocial behaviour (74.28%). While Organization commitment has no

mediating effect between Employee empowerment and Prosocial behaviour.

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Table 4:30: Strength of Mediation Effect

Direct
IV>DV

Indirect
(IV>M)(M>DV)

Total
(direct+indirect
)

VAF
%

Strength of
mediation

Employee Empowerment >Self-efficacy> Prosocial behaviour

0.193

0.059

0.252

23.4

Partial
mediation

HRM Practices> Self-efficacy > Prosocial behaviour

0.109

0.060

0.169

35.5

Partial
mediation

HRM Practices> Organization commitment > Prosocial

behaviour

0.109

0.312

0.420

74.28

Partial to
full
mediation

Relationship

Note: VAF <20 % no mediation, VAF between 20 to 80-partial mediation, VAF >80% full mediation

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4.9 Moderation Effect

The third variable that modifies the strength of a casual relationship is Moderation
effect which is characterized as an innate attribute. (i.e gender or experience ) (Wu &
Zumbo, 2008).The could be evaluated by conducting multi-group comparison test
determine whether there is significant change in the direction and/or strength of the
relationships between the factors in the proposed model.
Within the PLS path model framework, three approaches to multi group analysis
was proposed (Sarstedt, Henseler, & Ringle, 2011), which include: parametric
approach (Keil et al. (2000) which assume data is normal distributed, nonparametric
approach (Henseler (2007), which consider distribution-free of the data and directly
compares group-specific bootstrap estimates from each bootstrap sample and
permutation-based approach Chin (2003) which consider distribution-free of the
data. Despite normal distribution in data set, the permutation-based approach is
usually as powerful as the most powerful parametric test especially when the
compared groups do not have balanced group size.(Noreen, 1989).
From this study, the gender has (81 Male and 121 Female). Level of experience
has four groups (less than 5, 5 to less than 10 >, 10 to less than 15, 15 and more)
since it was divided into two groups (moderate experience with less than 10 years,
and high experience with more than 10 years). These two groups are presented in the
data as (141 moderate experience, 61 high experiences).
Applying permutation analysis based on 5000 re-samplings in all tests, on each
moderator separately. The items Q8, Q20, Q21, Q29, Q31, and Q38 were excluded
based on previous assessment of factor analysis. Data were generated using plspm

141

package in RStudio (2012) to test whether the differences in path coefficient between
categorical groups are significant or not.
4.9.1 Gender as a Moderator
From the study conducted on 81 Male and 121 Female. The result shows that
these two groups show slight differences in the relationships between the
independent variables, mediators and the dependant variable Figure 4.7. Despite the
fact that employee empowerment affects positively on prosocial behaviour for female
frontline employee (= 0.4868) in hotels more than male (= 0.3081), the difference
in path coefficient between male and female groups was not significant (see Table
4:31) meaning no significant different with a p-value (0.2914). it could be concluded
that gender does not moderate the relationships in the proposed model, and results
can be interpreted on both genders without any caution.

Table 4:31: Path Differences between Female and Male Frontline Employees
Hypothesis
EMP->SELF
EMP->OC
EMP->PB
HRM->SELF
HRM->OC
HRM->PB
SELF->PB
OC->PB

Females
0.4868
0.1282
0.1898
0.3144
0.7175
0.1344
0.1629
0.4000

Males
0.3081
0.1488
0.2347
0.4623
0.7393
0.0896
0.1123
0.4434

142

Diff.abs
0.1786
0.0205
0.0449
0.1478
0.0218
0.0448
0.0506
0.0434

p.value Sig 0.05

0.2914
no
0.8962
no
0.6926
no
0.3293
no
0.8184
no
0.8164
no
0.7605
no
0.8144
no

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

Female

0.2

Male

0.1
0

Figure 4:13: Barplot of Path Coefficients Differences between Female and Male
of Frontline Employees
4.9.2 Experience as a Moderator
Data set consist of 41 employee having (10 years and more) experience whom
considered with high experience, and 161 employee less than 10 years experience
whom considered with low experience. These two groups show differences in the
relationships between the independent variables, mediators and the dependant
variable. The only two significant differences in the path coefficients were in
between HRM practices and Organization commitment, and Organization
commitment on Prosocial behaviour. HRM practices affects positively on
Organization commitment for frontline employee with less experience (=0.8233)
more than frontline employee with high experience (=0.6068) (see Table 4:32).
This infers that employee with long years of working in hotel industry perceive and
interact with HRM practices conducted by the administration of hotel in different
way than new employee or whom still having low experience. On the other hand,
Organization commitment found to affect positively on Prosocial behaviour for
frontline employee with high experience (=0.6231) more than frontline employee

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with low experience (=0.1038) (see Figure 4:14). This result infers that the
commitment of frontline employee toward the place they worked in reflected truly on
their prosocial behaviour. The experience leads to the confidence to go beyond their
job description to serve customers wholehearted.

Table 4:32: Path Coefficient Differences between High Level and Low Level
Experience
High
Low
Sig
Hypothesis
Diff.abs
p.value
0.05
experience experience
EMP->SELF
0.3904
0.3969
0.0066
0.9621
no
EMP->OC
0.2100
0.0722
0.1378
0.3393
no
EMP->PB
0.1161
0.2492
0.1332
0.2675
no
HRM->SELF
0.4102
0.3901
0.0202
0.9162
no
HRM->OC
0.6068
0.8233
0.2166
0.0476
yes
HRM->PB
0.0668
0.3144
0.2476 0.1737
no
SELF->PB
0.0214
0.2606
0.2393 0.1657
no
OC->PB
0.6231
0.1038
0.5193 0.0080
yes

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4

High

0.3

Low

0.2
0.1
0

Figure 4:14: Barplot of Path Coefficients Differences between High and Low
Levels Experience of Frontline Employees
4.10 Summary of Results
Current study proposed eight hypotheses to examine the relationships between
independent factors (IVs) which was Employee empowerment and HRM practices,

144

mediating variables which was (organization commitment and self-efficacy) and the
dependant factor (Prosocial behaviour). The first set of hypotheses examined the
relationships between the independent variables and the dependant variable. The first
hypothesis (H1a) was supported stating that; Employee Empowerment influences
positively on Prosocial behaviour. Hypothesis testing infers any increase in
Employee Empowerment will significantly increase Prosocial behaviour. The path
coefficient between Employee Empowerment and Prosocial behaviour is significant
(= 0.193) at level of p-value=0.001. The second hypothesis (H1b) proposed that,
HRM practices influence positively on prosocial behaviour. Result was not supported
and shows low value of path coefficient (= 0.109). It should be noticed that
introducing the mediating variable (organization commitment) is the cause for this
relationship to be not significant by absorbing substantial part of the direct
relationship and turn it to indirect relationship between HRM practices influence and
prosocial behaviour through organization commitment. Second set of hypotheses
testify the relationships between independent and mediating variables. The third
hypothesis (H2a) stated that, Employee empowerment influences positively on
organizational commitment. The hypothesis was not supported (= 0.123, p-value
>0.05) and shows that any increase of Employee empowerment will not significantly
increase Organization commitment. However the relationship was supported with the
next mediating variable (self-efficacy). It can be seen in the fourth hypothesis (H2b)
which stated that, Employee empowerment influences positively on self-efficacy.
The hypothesis was supported (= 0.391, p-value <0.001) and shows that any
increase of Employee empowerment will significantly increase self-efficacy. The
fifth hypothesis (H2d) was supported (= 0.718, p-value <0.001), which stated that
HRM Practices influences positively on Organization commitment. Any increase in

145

HRM Practices for frontline employees in hotel will increase their commitment
toward the hotel. The sixth hypothesis (H2d) was supported (= 0.398, pvalue<0.001), showing that HRM Practices influences positively on Self-efficacy.
These two mediating variables are important in explaining the relationships between
IVs (Employee empowerment, and HRM practices), and DV (prosocial behaviour).
The third sets of hypotheses testify the relationships between mediators and
dependant variable. The seventh hypothesis (H3a) was supported (= 0.434, p-value
<0.001) telling that, Organization commitment influences positively on Prosocial
behaviour. The last hypothesis (H3b) was supported (= 0.152, p-value <0.05) which
stated that, Self-efficacy influences positively on Prosocial behaviour. Self-efficacy
found to partially mediate the relationship between Employee empowerment and
Prosocial behaviour and hypothesis (H4a) was supported. Hypothesis (H4b) stated that,
Organization commitment mediates the relationships between HRM practices and
prosocial behaviour was supported. While the hypothesis (H4c) Organization
commitment mediates the relationships between employee empowerment and
prosocial behaviour was not supported. The last hypothesis in testing mediation
effect (H4d) was supported and stated that, Self-efficacy mediates the relationships
between HRM practices and prosocial behaviour. While Organization commitment
found to partially mediate the relationships between both variables (Employee
empowerment, and HRM practices) from one side as IVs and Prosocial behaviour the
dependant variable from the other. Gender as moderator (H5a) shows slight
differences in path coefficients in the proposed model but none of them was
significant. While experience (H5b) shows significant differences in two path
coefficients among the eight paths. The first significant different was in the path
coefficient between HRM practices and Organization commitment. HRM practices

146

affects positively on Organization commitment for frontline employee with less

experience (=0.8233) more than frontline employee with high experience
(=0.6068). The second significant different was in the path coefficient between
Organization commitment and Prosocial behaviour. Organization commitment found
to affect positively on Prosocial behaviour for frontline employee with high
experience (=0.6231) more than frontline employee with low experience
(=0.1038). These results will be discussed in the next chapter.

4.11 Conclusion
In this chapter, the results have been provided. Based on the data, SEM analysis
was performed to test on eight hypotheses concerning the relationships among
variables. The final structural model showed that two hypothesized relationships
between variables were not supported by the data. The next chapter is included
discussion of research questions, implications, and ended by
conclusion of the study.

CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

147

5.1 Introduction
The age of globalization and liberalization alongside tremendous development in
the service sector has transformed the world around us. These advancements have
brought the tourism industry to the center of importance in which human resource
management (HRM) and human resource development (HRD) are perceived as
specific issues for proper service. The point of HRM and HRD is to ensure the
appropriate deployment of human resources, such that the quality of culture is
maintained and the customers are satisfied both in the local context and at a global
level. The effective and efficient use of human capital has become the utmost priority
in the competitive business environment. The preliminary assignment of every
business is to identify, recruit, channel, and incorporate skilled human resources into
its operations to improve productivity and increase functional efficiency. The tourism
industry is a rapidly growing industry that has become abundant and profitable
across the world, engaging organizers and agencies that are in charge of tourist
services. Each stakeholder requires thousands of staff members to work efficiently.
This study primarily focused on the characteristics of tourism, its key concepts, and
factors that foster the relationships among tourists, tour organizers, governments, and
local communities. More specifically, this study analyzed the prosocial behaviours of
employees in the Malaysian tourism and hospitality industry in general and the frontline staff in particular to determine how the behaviour is linked to the hotel industry
and how such behaviour can promote the quality of the services offered by staff
members. However, the key focus of this research was to build and evaluate a
conceptual model for predicting and describing prosocial behaviour. This chapter
discusses the conclusions and recommendations as well as proposes the future
potential scope for further study.

148

5.2 Discussion of Research Questions

Managing employees is an HR process for retaining the talented employees of an
organization. However, the hotel industry faces severe and stricter competition in the
global marketplace than ever before. Hence, HRM is regarded as important by
current organizations such as hotels. If a hotel can select the perfect and most
suitable type of workers, then the business can progress. In fact, in managing human
resources, knowing the process and practice has thus become the key source of core
competency for this industry. Focusing on the hotel industry, this research considered
that front-line employees of the hotel industry play an important role in forming
consumer opinions through their service delivery. For this reason, the decisions they
tend to make while serving customers affect their rapport with these customers.
Sometimes, the decisions can be made at the expense of contravening the
organizational regulations. As discussed in the previous chapters, when a staff
service violates the rules and regulations to handle or supply customer needs, the
employee displays prosocial behaviour. In the hotel industry, the interaction between
the front-line employees and the consumers can be an antecedent of the prosocial
behaviour of front-line employees. To justify the underlying issues of this study, this
section illustrates the research questions that strengthen the research plot and are
required to meet the prerequisite of content validity. The following section discusses
the research questions.
5.2.1 First Research Question:
How do employee empowerment and HRM practices influence on prosocial
behaviour of Front-line employees in tourism and hospitality industry?

149

This question had been answered by testing two hypotheses (H1a and H1b). The
first hypothesis is as follows:
H1a: Employee empowerment positively affects prosocial behaviour.
Employee empowerment means giving due credit to employees for their true
value by allowing them to participate in the decision-making and planning processes,
by admiring them, and by constantly providing them with sufficient feedback,
training, and support. When employees are allowed to think for themselves and assist
the company in the planning process, this situation actually refers to employee
empowerment, which denotes the process of granting an authority to a person to
think, act, be in charge of his action, and decide autonomously. In this study,
employee empowerment was found to positively affect prosocial behaviour (H1a: =
0.193, p < 0.001), which implies that if employees are given the authority and power
by the management in different suitable and allowable fields of their work, then they
can deliver more prosocial behaviours to the customers while encountering services.
The results of this research indicated that employee empowerment shapes the
prosocial behaviours of the staff of the hotel and hospitality industry, which are
classified into two major categories. The prosocial behaviours in the first category
contribute to the improvement of the individual characteristics of the staff members,
whereas those in the second category are determined by the organization and
improve the prosocial behaviour of the staff. However, the findings of this study are
consistent with those of (Ackfeldt & Wong, 2006), who found that employee
empowerment positively predicts prosocial service behaviours among employees in a
travel service organization. The present finding is consistent with those of other
research, including that of SH Tsaur (2004), who found that empowerment is a

150

precursor for the prosocial behaviours that belong to the five branches of a wellknown chain of tourist hotels located in Taiwan.
In previous research in the field of service encounters, interaction emphasized the
significance of subordinates (employees) who are being cooperative and can easily
adapt their behaviour to fulfill the changing demands and queries of customers.
Employees necessarily understand and recognize customer needs, and any
inappropriate or poor action in these situations can generate dissatisfactory outcomes.
Thus, employees should behave properly in terms of service behaviours (i.e., extrarole and role-prescribed services) while dealing with different customer behaviours
in their service encounters.

Front-line (customer-contact) employees are primarily responsible for being in

control of the quality of their service while dealing with customers. The major
parameter for the success of companies that provide services is the ability of their
customer-contact employees to realize the changes in the needs and requests of
customers. In short, in addition to the condition of positive service behaviour,
customer-contact employees should also have the capability to provide satisfaction
and to improvise services for the customers.

The proper and adjustable behaviour of front-line employees is the key parameter
for the evaluation of service quality by customers. Hotels substantially depend on
these specific types of employees to increase the provision of the overall service
quality. The results revealed that employee empowerment improves the prosocial
behaviour of front-line hotel employees, such that they act to the benefit of
customers. The administration of any hotel has a lesser understanding about customer
desires and thus needs the front-line employees. Therefore, when employees receive

151

the authority and power from the hotel administration, they will behave better and go
beyond their job description without any hesitation. By contrast, employees will be
reluctant to perform well when they lack empowerment from the hotel
administration. Employee empowerment can be achieved via four factors, namely,
impact, self-determination, competence, and meaning. However, in line with the
result of this research, the core definition of empowerment might be assumed that
someone should be empowered by another in a higher position, often a manager.
From this definition, employees expect to be empowered to undertake an action,
whereas managers wish the staff members to act in an empowered manner. Such a
difference in the interpretation of the concept of empowerment in many
organizations induces widespread displeasure with this concept. Organizations are
responsible for providing a stimulating and favorable environment in which their
staff members can develop their abilities and can be encouraged to act in an
empowered fashion, which is the feeling of self-empowerment that decides about
ones own future. Taking empowerment as something that someone does for
another, which is one of the problems that organizations face regarding this concept,
should be avoided.

Alternatively, impact is conceptualized as one of the dimensions of employee

empowerment in this study. Impact implies the hotel involvement of employees and
reflects whether they feel that they are making a difference in their hotels. It involves
a trend of advancement toward an objective, and employees trust that their activities
make a difference in their hotels, which contributes to their prosocial behaviour. Selfdetermination, the second dimension of employee empowerment, bestows control on
front-line employees in their work. It is also a voice overwork-related process that
makes decisions, which induces prosocial behaviour in the hotels. Competence, the

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third dimension of employee empowerment, is related to the effortperformance

expectancy, personal mastery, and agency beliefs, according to Bandura (1994). The
term self-determination signifies the extent to which front-line hotel employees
sense a causal obligation for work-related activities, in the feeling of possessing a
choice in initializing and altering actions. Hence, empowerment helps employees
make better decisions while they offer services, and it motivates them to guarantee
the overall quality of services to the customers in the hotel industry. Moreover,
empowerment inspires a prompt response to a customer request and generates
constructive ideas for satisfactory services as a whole.

H1b: HRM practices positively affect prosocial behaviour.

HRM practices are the core of a business that refer to the internal management of
an organization. With regard to managing human resources who are within the
current indulgence of organizations, the achievements of employees now seem
dependent on their capabilities to create a center of attention. Thus, focusing
especially on the hotel industry, HRM practices should carry various effective
programs with technical and desk service-related knowledge and create other
management programs. In addition, hotels can create the value of tourism and the
importance of service, providing capacities to the recruiting people in such a way
that they can be satisfied with their job because job satisfaction generates better
performance. From this viewpoint, human resources and managing them play a vital
role in developing vision and mission, determining goals, identifying short- and longterm plans, and preparing implementation tactics to achieve the overall goals of the
industry. In this case, however, the HRM practices did not positively affect prosocial
behaviour (H1b: = 0.109, p > 0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis was not supported,

153

that is, HRM practices do not positively affect the prosocial behaviour of front-line
employees. However, the outcomes of the existing study do not support the previous
research of the promotion of tourist hotels and several South African organizations
for the quality of service: the role of behavioural service and HRM practices. The
contradicting results could be attributed to the improper application of HRM
practices in hotels in Penang. Theresults of the present study have some propositions
for researchers and managers in the hospitality industry. Using the results, hotel
managers can promote the prosocial behaviour of their front-line employees. They
should inform their staff members about the type of motions and appearances that
can assist and serve consumers. Some positions may exist in which prosocial
behaviour is expected, and other positions may exist in which such behaviour is not
truly beneficial. Nevertheless, if a rule is frequently being waived, then hotel
managers need to assess or revise that rule.
5.2.2 Second Research Question:
How do employee empowerment and HRM practices influence selfefficacy and organizational commitment in the tourism and hospitality
industry?
This question was answered by testing four hypotheses (H2a, H2b, H2c, and
H2d). The first hypothesis is as follows:

H2a: Employee empowerment positively influences organizational commitment.

Employee empowerment is likely to promote service delivery encounters and

amend the prosocial behaviour of hotel and hospitality staff; the assumption that
employee empowerment positively influences organizational commitment when

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employee engagement is merely an upshot of organizational commitment is

relatively premature. However, the aforementioned factors may have positive
implications for promoting the effects of staff empowerment. In this respect, four
factors positively contribute to the acceptability of these strategies. Factors such as
the employment of improper strategies, limited understanding of inequality related to
benefits, fragile trust between the stakeholders, and a limited organizational and
professional support negatively influence the staff perceptions of the strategies that
claim to serve a collective purpose. More importantly, the extent to which the
strategies can involve staff members emotionally and psychologically in their job
activities should be considered. The feelings of having personal authority for the staff
and contentment for the customers contribute to employee empowerment.

H2b: Employee empowerment positively influences self-efficacy.

Employee empowerment can inspire and motivate the staff to set individual goals,
positively affect the organizational output, induce satisfactory services and high
levels of performance, and positively affect self-efficacy (H2b: = 0.391, p < 0.001).
This result implies that if the hotel management provides authority and control to
employees who are eligible in particular fields, then they would enhance self-efficacy
toward customers in service encounters. From the findings, employee empowerment
can be generalized to be a managerial strategy in hotels and hospitality enterprises
related to a serious concern of improving service quality in a competitive
environment. Staff members are encouraged to take initiative in responding to
customer requests for hotel services. Accordingly, they are acceptable and are
compensated with incentives for their extraordinary performance. However, the
findings of this study are consistent with those of Conger and Kanungo (1998), who

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found that employee empowerment positively predicts prosocial service behaviour

among hotel employees. The present findings are consistent with those of Scott and
Bruce (1994), who found that empowerment is a precursor to self-efficacy.

For instance, self-efficacy is enhanced as judgment permits employees to make

the best decision for their customers. Moreover, when empowerment is understood,
the employees become more adaptive. In fact, employees additionally get
accommodated, serve customer requests with the empowerment, and can accomplish
the expected service quality. In this sense, empowerment can be defined as a preconditional element for successful quality initiatives, which should be included into
the service delivery process; this inclusion addresses the needs of customers more
rapidly and resolves customer problems more efficiently. Furthermore, the
employees will consider and feel a sense of pride in their job; they will be able to
provide better service quality if they are trusted and empowered to resolve any guest
service issue. Spreitzer (1995) identified the four dimensions of employee
empowerment.

Employee empowerment is a managerial perception that deals with the transition

from the stage of control to the stage of commitment. The meaning of empowerment
depends on the conditions of a job and the beliefs, values, and behaviours of
individuals. However, the values of employees are perceived as a quality. Thus, they
pay more attention to what they are doing for their task and what else they could do.
As a result, these tasks become promising for them, and they become dedicated and
feel proud of what they are doing, which implies that they work better. Conversely,
empowering the staff may diminish the control of the organization over the
empowered staff. Empowerment is related to the self-control and commitment of the

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staff while rendering quality services. This situation occurs when the organization
relinquishes its control and allows its staff to experience a sense of self-control and
commitment. The empowering strategy, which has been facilitated by organizational
commitment, encourages the staff to undertake more responsibility not only for
action, but also for organizational development.

Competence is the ability and the self-confidence of people to properly perform

their work. In a different sense, competence is the belief of employees that they are
capable and adequately proficient in performing the allocated responsibilities and
providing the expected performance. In addition, the tact and skills inherited by the
staff from the organization can substantially assist in improving the output of the
organization and in satisfying customers. However, some of the efforts of
organization to gain the commitment of the staff overlap or interfere with the
empowerment process. Some measurements and strategies can be carried out to gain
the genuine commitment and obligation of the staff. Such strategies include
developing the prosocial behaviour of staff members, preserving their jobs, and
increasing their job satisfaction through some positive feedback. Some major
changes in the job design through job improvement, along with the sincere
engagement and participation of staff members, can also develop their prosocial
behaviours. Hence, the workers similarly judge themselves that they can efficiently
use the resources offered by the hotels to perform their duties and responsibilities.

Self-determination is understood as the management of employees over their

work. In this particular understanding, the feelings of employees are defined as
sufficiently free and empowered to make any decision and act in different situations.
However, some other factors interact with and determine self-determination and

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greater commitment to accomplish the objectives of customer service quality and to

engender the positive feelings among the staff.

Impact describes the features of the emotion of a person or the abilities that have a
significant control over the results and consequences. Alternatively, if the employees
are careless in their essential roles in hotels, then they experience a lack of authority
and/or power in their jobs. Several researchers pointed out that prosocial behaviour at
work is one of the most imperative outcomes of employee empowerment. However,
research conducted through real experiments by collecting real field data, which
referred and supported a relationship between empowerment and prosocial
behaviour, claimed that empowerment goes along with the commitment of
employees, who are more empowered and loyal.
H2c: HRM practices positively influence organizational commitment.
The role of management leadership cannot be overemphasized because it is
instrumental in effecting and nurturing the change in the mindset of employees; such
leadership is required for an enhanced operational performance culminating in
effective HRM practices. In addition to being actively involved in crafting strategies
vis--vis organizational commitment, the managers in the higher echelon of an
organization should also nurture practices that would foster the participation of
employees working at other levels. Such an active participation makes employees
feel empowered and enhances their commitment toward their particular work as well
as toward inculcating the virtues of continual learning and teamwork. In addition,
HR efforts could induce the desirable behaviours expected by employers.
Organizational commitment has been extensively investigated in this respect. In fact,
emotionally involved and committed employees are less absent from work and are

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reluctant to give up their jobs, as mentioned in the previous chapters. Committed

employees are also more productive and more dependable for extra responsibilities in
offering services to their customers. Therefore, the result achieved from this study
shows that HRM practices positively influence organizational commitment (H2c: =
0.718, p < 0.001), which means that when the hotel management provides the same
employment

opportunities,

training

and

improvement,

non-toxic

working

environment, performance reviews, awards, and compensations, employees enhance

and improve their organizational commitment toward customers in service
encounters. The findings of this study are consistent with those of Chew and Wong
(2008), who found HRM practices to positively influence organizational commitment
among employees in the hotel industry (Tsaur and Lin, (2004).
The most probable cause of building an association between the organizations and
the employees is the affirmative perception of employees about the organization or
the employer with whom they work. Through this path, employees may sense a good
environment and feel safe. Thus, they can give their best for the development and
improvement of their HRM practices, which would deliver a major improvement for
organizational development in financial terms.

H2d: HRM practices positively influence self-efficacy.

This study revealed various indications in terms of the importance of HRM
practices and self-efficacy, especially for the processes and practices of prosocial
behaviour. However, HRM practices are conducted for the developmental aspect of
staff and the organization set by the top management, including the involvement in
assessing training plans and policies, the motivation of the staff, and the creation of a
suitable working environment. Proper management practices are decisive in securing

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funds that are required for educating and training the employees to enable them to
appreciate the importance and efficacy of HRM practices. This study reported that
HRM practices positively influence self-efficacy (H2d: = 0.398, p < 0.001), which
means that when the hotel management provides a good and safe working
environment, equal employment opportunity, and allowable training for employees,
employees enhance and improve their self-efficacy toward customers in service
encounters. Thus, people with high levels of self-efficacy effectively control their
sentiments, feelings, and emotions about social contexts. High emotional selfefficacy positively affects the effective management of ones professional matters. In
dealing with such matters, developing interpersonal relationships is a crucial element
to guarantee organizational success. High emotional self-efficacy encourages the
staff to become increasingly involved in organizational issues, relying on the interand intra-personal relationships with co-workers in the organization. Therefore, the
findings of this study are consistent with those of (Ackfeldt & Wong, 2006), who
asserted that HRM practices positively influence self-efficacy among employees in a
travel service organization. The present findings are consistent those of (Galperin,
2002), who determined that HRM practices are a precursor to self-efficacy.
According to Edgar and Geare (2005), the term training fulfillment has a
positive relationship with vital parameters, such that the HRM literature focuses on
recruitment and selection, training and development, good and safe working
conditions, performance appraisal, awards and compensation, equal employment
opportunities, post-training, organizational commitment, physical self-efficacy, and
academic self-efficacy, which are the primary features and components from the
employer perspective. However, some people are unwilling to display prosocial
behaviour if it demands them to pay great costs and make sacrifices. However, self-

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efficacy also improves over time through education and new experiences. Therefore,
the organizational measures for improving the performance of employees have been
based on developing the self-efficacy of employees, a positive psychological asset.
Therefore, this on-going study is focused on the employee perception of the direction
of HRM practices in the hotel industry.

5.2.3 Third Research Question:

How do self-efficacy and organizational commitment of employees in the
tourism and hospitality industry influence prosocial behaviour?

This question was answered by testing two hypotheses (H3a and H3b). In fact,
an imperative feature in a good organization is the efficiency of self-efficacy, in
which prosocial behaviours are defined as volitional behaviours or actions that intend
to assist or bring benefits to others. The idea of self-efficacy is primarily derived
from the theory that yielding a position of authority to staff members to decide
whenever this situation is required and allowing them to take action result in
employees who are more self-assured, more competent, and make every effort to
work more efficiently. However, the term empowerment should be clarified and
defined. By contrast, prosocial behaviour deals with the outcomes of a persons
actions instead of the impetus underlying those actions. The actions comprise
sharing, soothing, saving, and assisting. However, prosocial behaviour should be
differentiated from self-sacrifice. Prosocial behaviour is concerned with an action,
whereas self-sacrifice or altruism is perceived as a motivation to help others to fulfill

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their needs. Therefore, the result of this study indicates that organizational
commitment positively affects prosocial behaviour (H3a: = 0.434, p < 0.001),
which means that when organizational commitment in a hotel is allowed for
employees, they demonstrate better prosocial behaviour toward customers in service
encounters. The findings of this study are consistent with those of OReilly(1986),
who reported that organizational commitment positively predicts the prosocial
service behaviours among employees in a university. The present findings are
consistent with those of other studies that indicated that organizational commitment
is a precursor to the prosocial behaviour among contact employees.

Organizational commitment is a three-dimensional construct that exhibits the

relationship of an employee with an employer. The three dimensions are as follows:

belief in achieving organizational goals and values;

strong desire to maintain an association with the organization; and

enthusiasm to exert full efforts and energy toward the organization.

Moreover, organizational commitment has been identified as an attractive and

necessary research theme, in which employee commitment is identified as a major
determinant of organizational effectiveness, higher levels of job performance, lesser
turnover, and lower rate of absenteeism in the organization.
5.2.4 Fourth Research Question:
How do self-efficacy and organizational commitment mediate the relationship
between employee empowerment and HRM practices on prosocial behaviour?

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This research question was answered by testing the significance level of the
indirect effect and the strength of the mediation effect using VAF. The following subhypotheses answer this question:

H4a: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between employee empowerment

and prosocial behaviour.
This study introduced self-efficacy as a mediator in the relationship between
employee empowerment and prosocial behaviour. The results indicated that selfefficacy partially mediates the relationship (VAF = 23.4%). The indirect effect
between employee empowerment and prosocial behaviour was significant (t value =
1.888, p-value <0.05). These results inferred the necessity of not only giving
employees the authority and power in doing their tasks when they deal with
customers, but also cultivating the sense of self-efficacy. When employers feel the
lack of skills from employees, then self-efficacy will be the motivator to push them
to develop new skills. This behaviour encourages employees to gain more experience
and maintain high-quality service. Employee empowerment and self-efficacy induce
the prosocial behaviours of front-line employees.

H4c: Organizational commitment mediates the relationship between employee

empowerment and prosocial behaviour.
H4d: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between HRM practices and
prosocial behaviour.
H4b: Organizational commitment mediates the relationship between HRM
practices and prosocial behaviour.

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HRM practices deal with different people, different HR aspects, or both. Such
aspects in HRM include performing job analysis, recruiting, screening, training,
paying salaries, rewarding, and evaluating staff. However, this study introduced
organizational commitment as a mediator in the relationship between HRM practices
and prosocial behaviour. The results indicated that organizational commitment partly
mediates the relationship (VAF = 74.28%). Although the mediation is partial, it is
more likely to be a full mediation because the VAF value is close to 80%, as Hair et
al. (2013) suggested. Moreover, when organizational commandment was introduced
to the model, the direct relationship between HRM practices and prosocial behaviour
became insignificant, indicating that the mediator absorbs a substantial part of the
strength of the relationship. The relationship is directed through organizational
commitment toward prosocial behaviour. According to (Hayes, 2009), the final
condition for this mediation to occur is to ensure that the indirect effect is significant,
and this condition was based on the calculations for the indirect effect. The indirect
effect between organizational commitment and prosocial behaviour was significant (t
value = 4.026, p-value <0.05). This finding was consistent with that of the previous
research by Browning and Browning (2007), who demonstrated that organizational
commitment mediates the relationship between HRM practices and prosocial
behaviour among front-line employees in South African service organizations. These
results inferred that organizational commitment might have played a strong role in
the relationship between the perception of HRM practices and service behaviour.

However, humans are relatively complex to deal with, especially in the

workplace. The reason refers to the diversity of people, their individual differences in
terms of attitudes and behaviours, as well as the relationships that they establish with
others. The insights into the front-line employees influence HRM practices,

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especially on their commitment toward the organization, and they influence the
means of interacting with customers. This premise maintains the confidence that the
perception of employees, which controls the manner in which they serve customers,
is taken care of mentally and emotionally. Hence, organizational commitment has an
important function in the relationship between the perceptions of front-line employee
on HRM practices and service behaviour. By structuring an understanding of ability
and self-assurance for front-line employees and by identifying and gratifying their
contributions, HRM practices improve the level of employee commitment to the
organization to deliver excellent customer service. By performing these steps, the
hotel enterprise meets serious challenges in employing and keeping qualified staff
with diverse characteristics. Such challenges may include staff absenteeism or staff
turnover. The Malaysian tourism and hotel industry is not exempted from the
challenges.
5.2.5 Fifth Research Question:
Do gender and experience moderate the relationship between employee
empowerment and HRM practices on self-efficacy, organizational commitment,
and prosocial behaviour?
Prosocial behaviour is occasionally known as good citizenship behaviour or extrarole behaviour in the workplace (Baruch & Holtom, 2008; Brief & Motowidlo, 1986;
Organ & Ryan, 1995). These types of behaviours involve several aspects, such as
cooperating, helping, contributing, and volunteering to create and protect the wellbeing of others (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986). According to Cameron et al. (2003),
prosocial behaviour is an aspect of positive organizational behaviour; however, this
behaviour can be considered functional or dysfunctional. Functional prosocial

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behaviour contributes to the achievement of the goals and vision of the organization,
whereas dysfunctional prosocial behaviour distracts employees from the capability of
the organization to achieve its goals (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986). Hence, the
relationships of employees with other colleagues and their perceptions of HRM
performance, in which the major concern of a hotel is to offer first-rate guest
services, directly influence their prosocial behaviour. Such services require staff
empowerment to secure productivity and business survival.

However, successful HRM demands the cooperation and assistance of the staff in
this issue. Training and instruction given to the front-line staff on treating the
customers in the hotel are important because these provisions contribute to shaping
the prosocial behaviour of the staff, namely, waiters and other staff members in a
hotel. Prosocial behaviour is performed by an individual of the organization and is
engaged toward an entity, group, or organization with whom the person interacts
while performing the organizational role and executing it with the purpose of
upholding the well-being of the person, group, or organization.

5.3 Conclusion
This chapter started with the identification and verification of the hypotheses by
considering the findings from the collected data.

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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to draw conclusions regarding this study. First, it
provides conclusions and implications of research. Limitations of study and
recommendations for future research are suggested.

6.2 Conclusion
The hotel business is labor-intensive. For hotel management activities, the
necessity of complete and up-to-date facilities is important, demonstrating how to
offer excellent services to customers through the courteous behaviour of front-line
employees. For hotel owners, this research recommends that creating an empowering
environment can be a good beginning for the industry. Therefore, employees who
receive the authority and power from the hotel administration behave better and go
beyond their job description without any hesitation; by contrast, they become
reluctant to effectively perform when they lack empowerment from the hotel
administration. Employee empowerment can be achieved by four factors, namely,
impact, self-determination, competence, and meaning. If a hotel can increase the
degree of employee autonomy and strengthen the empowerment of its culture, then
the service quality perceived by customers would be substantially promoted through
the excellent service behaviours offered by customer-contact employees. However,
hotels must provide employees with a healthy environment for learning and growing
and offer them additional career development opportunities. In addition, hotels or
any business in other service industries should frequently scrutinize everything that is

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related to the employees and the rules or regulations that may adversely affect the
service delivery process.

Hotels should provide customer service properly through their employees with
more influences in their own department. Organizations heavily rely on these
employees to improve the overall service quality provision because the customer
assessment of service quality is almost always based on the behaviours of front-line
employees. Employees who are motivated to expand their job domain through the
contribution of various group-based activities for establishing the responsibility and
creativity and benefitting from such activities enable them to feel their influence and
contribution toward organizations such as hotels. Moreover, improving the abilities
and autonomy of employees and encouraging them to take initiative in solving
problems with their own judgments would allow them to ascertain the confidence in
performing their respective jobs.

Service behaviour can be understood through front-line employees who typically

serve the customers directly with conversation and who display their courtesy and
attitudes. During the service encounter, the emotions of employees would be
expressed to customers through contact, and employees generate a momentary and
instantaneous effect on customers. Providing service to customers and making them
feel comfortable could be termed as service behaviour, which is a type of prosocial
behaviour.

However, service behaviours can also be categorized into role-prescribed service

behaviour and extra-role service behaviour. Role-prescribed behaviour refers to the
expected behaviour of employees in serving the customers of the firm. Expectations
of this behaviour may be derived from implied norms in the workplace or from

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explicit obligations specified in organizational documents, such as job descriptions

and performance evaluation forms. Presumptions in terms of role-prescribed service
behaviour may be derived from the unwritten rules in workplaces, or they may be
listed explicitly in organizational documents, such as job obligations in the job
description and role-evaluation scales. This behaviour includes exhibiting common
courtesy, demonstrating accurate knowledge of policies and products, addressing
customers by name, greeting and saying thank you to customers, and cross-selling
the services of the firm. Marketing studies reinforce the importance of similar
behaviour for customer satisfaction, service quality perceptions, loyalty, and sales
performance. Extra-role service behaviour refers to the discretionary behaviour of
hotel employees that extend beyond the formal role requirements in serving
customers.

In the context of enhancing the service industry, this study considers several
critical issues related to HRM and HRD. This study tests the effects of
empowerment, organizational support, and developmental experiences given to
employees regarding customer direction and performance outcomes. Developmental
experience, organizational support, and empowerment have different effects on
outcome measures, such as customer orientation, sense of pride, and performance.

By contrast, the literature focuses on the importance of hotel employees

delighting the customers by providing little extras, extra attention, and
spontaneous exceptional service during the service encounter to satisfy customers
and provide positive emotional responses. Empowered employees exhibit customeroriented behaviour because they become more flexible and adaptive in the face of
changing customer needs. Consequently, the service behaviour of customer-contact

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employees can be affected by the conditions of employee empowerment. For this

reason, this research recommends the subsequent assumption; that is, the interaction
between customers and service providers has a substantial effect on customer
satisfaction with the service provided.

According to the results of this study, the managers of tourist hotels should allow
customers to make contact with the employees. This recommendation is proposed to
significantly control the occurrences in their work, with the intention that they can
follow and maintain the ideal service by fulfilling their responsibilities. This
responsibility should be aimed at the customers, as specified in their job description.
In addition, practitioners in tourist hotels should reduce procedures that might
interfere with accomplishing goals and activities, and they should provide employees
with a substantial prospect for autonomy and freedom in service encounters. These
factors may assist employees in being trusted, and they can be sufficiently equipped
with professional information to willingly help customers and go beyond their job
requirements. Furthermore, customer-contact employees should have noteworthy
self-sufficiency in determining the best means of performing their jobs, such that
they think about the individual needs of the customers and offer adapted service
while they would eagerly go out of their way to make a customer satisfied.

The degree of service behaviour of employees has an important practical

dimension. The results obtained from this study support the finding that the service
behaviour of employees partly intervenes in the relationship between employee
empowerment and service quality. The hotel industry expresses a strong confidence
if a service organization endows its employees with sufficient empowerment, and
this approach would make employees exhibit their role-prescribed and extra-role

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service behaviours to provide customers with proper, high-quality service through

their service behaviours.

The findings of this study suggest several directions for further research. First,
this study investigated the relationship among variables using cross-sectional data,
but the perceptions of employees or customers may change and interact because of
the time factor. In the future, researchers may consider a longitudinal investigation to
demonstrate the causal relationship. Second, future researchers may consider
additional industries as a sample, instead of only considering the hotel industry, or
they can conduct pragmatic studies for additional service industries for comparison.
The effect of organization-related variables such as corporation culture can be
incorporated to examine their influence on the entire structure. Finally, the constructs
in this study were measured through the viewpoints of employees and customers; the
responses of the employees and the customers were finally aggregated to the
department level for analysis. Future studies might consider adopting the pair-wise
method to investigate the interaction effect.

In addition, being knowledgeable in the area of prosocial behaviour only is

insufficient. Employee empowerment and HRM practices on self-efficacy and
organizational commitments are certainly beneficial in helping hotel managers meet
the challenges of improving prosocial behaviours in the industry. Thus, monitoring
self-efficacy and organizational commitment has become an important aspect for all
managers in the hotel industry. Any failure to distinguish the power of self-efficacy
and organization commitment, especially the emotions of employees, could destroy
the power of prosocial behaviours. Therefore, the most important challenge for hotels

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not only lies in attracting customers but can also be found in identifying customer
satisfaction individually.

6.3 Implications of the Study

As a source of business and economic development of a country, the tourism and
hospitality industry not only increases the income and strengthens the economy of
the country, but also affects the ecological, social, cultural, and political values of its
citizens. The Malaysian tourism enterprise has been growing rapidly for the last three
decades. In this regard, this study investigated the various features of tourism, such
as its characteristics, key concepts, and factors that foster the relationships among
tourists, tour organizers, governments, and local communities. More specifically, this
study contributes to understanding the prosocial behaviour of the staff in the
Malaysian tourism and hospitality industry in general and of the front-line staff in
particular to determine how the behaviour is linked to the hotel industry and how it
can promote the quality of the services offered by employees. However, this study
has theoretical and practical implications that are discussed accordingly in the
subsequent sections.
6.3.1 Theoretical Implications
The results gained from this particular study uphold the findings of preceding
studies on the prosocial behaviour of front-line employees in the hotel industry.
Hotels heavily rely on front-line employees to improve the overall service quality
provision. However, considerable literature that focuses on the enhancement of
service quality lacks detail when examining the effects of HRM practices and
employee empowerment on the prosocial behaviour of employees. In fact, this study
introduced two mediators to explain more clearly the relationship between the

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independent variables and the dependent variable. These mediators (self-efficacy and
organization commitment) were confirmed to be important and to partially mediate
the relationships among employee empowerment, HRM practices, and prosocial
behaviours.

The results from this study indicated that the hotel industry emphasizes its
competence and its qualified staff members who display prosocial behaviours.
Improving staff qualities, including skills, knowledge, behaviour, and attitude, results
in employees contributing to the development of the hotel industry. To attain this
purpose, standardized hotels rely on the professional training of their staff as an
important development strategy. They believe that adopting such a strategy can
modify the prosocial behaviour of employees. Focusing on the importance of the
work of the staff in the organization, the top management of the hotel industry
motivates the employees to provide better services. In addition, they attempt to
provide equal employment opportunities and avoid any type of discrimination by
reason of religion, race, gender, age, disability, and nationality. This policy is
implemented by adopting a work plan.

Overall, this study makes a significant contribution to the prosocial behaviour in

hotel services by investigating the relationship between HRM practices and
employee empowerment. It also reports the impact of external factors such as gender
and experience, in which the intervening factors are organizational commitment and
self-efficacy. In addition, empirical data demonstrate that training activities modify
the attributes of the organizations and the employees, such as attitudes and
motivation, and that empowerment positively affects the performance of teams and
their members.

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Finally, this study used several theories and related models that established the
relationship between competitive strategies and HRD, which have been extensively
addressed in the literature on strategic HRM. These models illustrated strategic HRD
as a constituent of HRM, dealing with the alignment between competitive strategies
and HRM practices. This approach differentiated between internal and external
alignment. The research was conducted in Penang, and it emphasized hotel service
operations. This study also supported the growth of a global perspective on the role
of HRM in service organizations.
6.3.2 Practical Implications
This study illustrated that the prosocial behaviours of front-line employees
considerably matters and needs to be monitored. Monitoring the prosocial behaviour
of front-line employees is indispensable; however, they have been hardly supervised
and monitored during working hours as a result of poor HR practices, which also
result in offering sub-standard services or products to customers. In the hotel or
hospitality industry, the quality of services provided to customers is dependent on the
quality of human resources. Thus, cultivating the prosocial behaviour of front-line
employees in the hotel industry is important. In addition, the aforementioned claims
require a practical implementation by the hotel management and related authorities.
The hotel industry would not be successful without the contribution of a large
number of staff members with prosocial behaviours. Therefore, the front-line staff
has a critical role in offering quality goods and services to tourists. Service quality is
an indicator of the predictability of an organization and works consistently in
meeting the needs of customers, who have a variety of expectations and descriptions
of quality service. As the potential benefits of prosocial behaviour have been
discussed, this study suggested that hotel administrations focus on developing the

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prosocial behaviour of front-line employees to ensure the quality of service provided.

Further empirical research on prosocial behaviour in relation with staff
empowerment and staff quality is probably required. However, this research has
shown the direction of the top management and HR people on where to go and how
to do it. Additionally, given that front-line employees are liable for offering services
to hotel customers, they can build and enhance the positive image of the hotels by
assuring quality services. This study also pointed out that for quality services and
high levels of satisfaction to be offered to customers, front-line employees need to be
skilled and encouraged. Similarly, high-quality human resources are desperately
required to adopt effective measures for addressing the needs of the front-line staff to
guarantee excellent customer service. Front-line staff members whose efforts are
appreciated and who have the support of the organization are likely to invest more
energy in offering quality services to the customers by exhibiting more desirable
prosocial behaviours. Finally, the mediatory role of service behaviour in such a
relationship has been examined, and the result must be beneficial for policy makers.

6.4 Limitations and Future Studies

This study has a number of limitations that suggest directions for future research.
The results of this study are basically derived from self-reported data and
perceptions. Common method variance may be an issue because the data are
obtained from a single source and are quite subjective. Caution should be observed in
inferring a set of results generated from a single organization.
Additionally, this study focused on hotels in Penang, being an important city that
attracts numerous tourists every year. Future studies could include more cities and
determine whether differences exist from the proposed model based on geographic

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locations. This study focused on four- and five-star hotels. Therefore, future studies
should consider one- to three-star hotels.

Another major limitation is the sampling method, which could have resulted in
some bias from the awareness of the respondents. In addition, the sample size is quite
limited, such that it would actually be described as optimistic when the results of this
research are generalized to all service industries instead of only hotels. Nevertheless,
the findings illustrate the current situation in the hotel industry, in which future
research on the management of service organizations is still expected.

Moreover, future research should be expanded to include more organizations from

a larger geographic region to check the generalizability of the results. Chebat et al.
(2002) reported that payment has a direct and positive effect on role-prescribed and
extra-role behaviours. The effect is related to a stronger behavioural control, which
influences the prosocial behaviour of service employees. However, this research did
not investigate the effect of payment especially for service employees. Thus, future
research should consider measuring the effect on employee behaviour because
management has a better control of pay-related policies.

In addition, future research could engage a wider selection of service sectors with
other recognized industries instead of hotels only. Cross-cultural research may
identify the influence of socio-political, national, and ethnic cultural values of frontline employees on their expectations for HRM practices and management
behaviours. Future studies could be imperative and could be most certainly
significant in measuring the influence of payment, recognition, and rewards on
service behaviour to steer the managers toward quality service management. Other
organizational commitment structures and promising elements, such as self-efficacy,

176

perceptions, service behaviour, and HRM practices, could be considered in future

research.

This study considers the influence of human capital development on performance

outcomes. In fact, job performance and the number of promotions, in which the
traditional performance indicators such as prot, market share, and others were
unused, are recognized and understood. Thus, further studies may also inspect the
relationship using objective performance measures. However, HRD has an important
effect on customer orientation and pride, which is evident in this study.

Finally, this study did not examine the other vital dimensions, such as the
influence of the expected communication between employees and customers on
performance. These issues will require a more vigorous exploration in the future.

6.5 Conclusion
This chapter of the thesis discussed the conclusions and recommendations with
sufficient explanation.. The chapter subsequently suggested several directions for
further research. Finally, the chapter concluded with the justifications of
empowerment and prosocial behaviour that will enhance the service quality of the
hotel industry.

177

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197

APPENDIX
APPENDIX A
Missing data report
N
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Q8
Q9
Q10
Q11
Q12
Q13
Q14
Q15
Q16
Q17
Q18
Q19
Q20
Q21
Q22
Q23
Q24
Q25

216
216
216
216
215
214
215
215
213
216
216
216
216
215
214
216
215
216
216
216
216
215
216

Mean
3.75
3.69
3.64
3.71
3.71
3.68
3.58
3.61
3.56
3.79
3.86
3.77
3.81
3.50
3.99
4.11
4.01
4.06
3.97
3.84
3.98
4.43
3.63

Std.
Deviation
.947
.895
.959
1.004
1.065
1.023
.982
.988
1.108
.890
2.989
1.217
1.075
1.168
.847
.866
.806
.744
.780
1.042
.675
4.969
.906

Missing
Count
Percent

198

0
0
0
0
1
2
1
1
3
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0

.0
.0
.0
.0
.5
.9
.5
.5
1.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
.5
.9
.0
.5
.0
.0
.0
.0
.5
.0

No. of Extremesa
Low
High
6
4
7
9
12
7
4
5
11
0
4
0
0
20
0
0
8
9
.
0
.
.
6

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.
0
.
.
0

Missing
No. of Extremesa
Count
Percent
Low
High
Deviation
Q26
214
3.60
.977
2
.9
6
0
Q27
216
3.68
.908
0
.0
5
0
Q28
214
3.03
1.117
2
.9
0
0
Q29
214
3.47
1.082
2
.9
10
0
Q30
214
3.65
.966
2
.9
7
0
Q31
214
3.93
.922
2
.9
0
0
Q32
214
3.64
1.001
2
.9
4
0
Q33
216
3.85
.889
0
.0
3
0
Q34
214
3.76
.802
2
.9
0
0
Q35
215
3.93
.974
1
.5
0
0
Q36
214
4.01
.856
2
.9
0
0
Q37
216
3.83
.976
0
.0
0
0
Q38
215
3.70
.940
1
.5
4
0
Q39
215
3.84
.954
1
.5
0
0
Q40
215
3.59
1.055
1
.5
8
0
Q41
215
3.49
1.032
1
.5
9
0
Q42
212
3.56
1.022
4
1.9
8
0
Q43
215
3.82
.917
1
.5
0
0
Q44
216
3.72
.940
0
.0
0
0
Q45
215
3.91
1.019
1
.5
0
0
Q46
214
3.46
1.216
2
.9
24
0
Q47
215
3.69
1.123
1
.5
0
0
Q48
214
3.73
1.210
2
.9
0
0
Q49
213
3.73
1.214
3
1.4
0
0
Q50
214
3.25
1.160
2
.9
19
0
Q51
215
3.49
1.168
1
.5
15
0
Q52
213
3.61
1.139
3
1.4
15
0
Q53
216
3.68
1.144
0
.0
0
0
Q54
215
3.54
1.202
1
.5
17
0
a. Number of cases outside the range (Q1 - 1.5*IQR, Q3 + 1.5*IQR).
b. . indicates that the inter-quartile range (IQR) is zero.
N

Mean

Std.

199

Appendix B
Outliers
Table B.1 Z score values after cleaning the data from univariate outliers (N=202)
Item

Minimu

Maximu

Zscore: Q3 Prosocial behaviour

-2.87343

1.34790

Zscore: Q4 Prosocial behaviour

-3.03021

1.50388

Zscore: Q5 Prosocial behaviour

-3.05658

1.44199

Zscore: Q6 Prosocial behaviour

-2.86170

1.31204

Zscore: Q7 Prosocial behaviour

-2.79117

1.23824

Zscore: Q8 Empowerment-Impact8

-2.54709

2.93719

Zscore: Q9 Empowerment-Impact9

-2.55682

1.50993

Zscore: Q10 Empowerment-Impact

-2.18465

1.68640

-2.34370

1.31630

-2.03899

1.37435

-2.69603

1.36057

-1.71005

1.40193

-1.84236

1.41503

-1.89543

1.61653

Zscore: Q17 Empowerment-Meaning

-2.18545

1.22157

Zscore: Q18 Empowerment-Meaning

-3.17381

1.06493

Zscore: Q19 Empowerment-Meaning

-2.81499

1.28678

Zscore: Q20 HRM-Good and safe

-2.76105

1.30010

Zscore: Q21 HRM-Good and safe

-2.56237

1.39885

Zscore: Q22 HRM-Good and safe

-1.86651

1.14977

Zscore: Q23 HRM-Good and safe

-2.95757

1.55701

Zscore: Q24 HRM-Good and safe

-2.53018

1.41703

Zscore: Q25 HRM-Recruitment

-2.89478

1.53511

Zscore: Q26 HRM-Recruitment

-2.65539

1.53787

Zscore: Q27 HRM-Recruitment

-3.04977

1.51359

Zscore: Q28 HRM-Recruitment

-1.92263

1.80111

Zscore: Q29 HRM-Recruitment

-2.44473

1.42884

Zscore: Q30 HRM-Equal employment

-2.73147

1.46653

Zscore: Q31 HRM-Equal employment

-3.14812

1.19801

Zscore: Q32 HRM-Equal employment

-2.57567

1.37885

Zscore: Q33 HRM-Equal employment

-3.14328

1.32814

Zscore: Q11 Empowerment-Selfdetermination

Zscore: Q12 Empowerment-Selfdetermination
Zscore: Q13 Empowerment-Selfdetermination
Zscore: Q14 EmpowermentCompetence
Zscore: Q15 EmpowermentCompetence
Zscore: Q16 EmpowermentCompetence

200

Item

Minimu

Maximu

Zscore: Q34 HRM-Equal employment

-2.19423

1.58446

Zscore: Q35 HRM-Training

-2.56927

1.21209

Zscore: Q36 HRM-Training

-3.08611

1.24430

Zscore: Q37 HRM-Training

-2.68577

1.31074

Zscore: Q38 HRM-Training

-2.68697

1.49198

Zscore: Q39 HRM-Training

-2.73296

1.33985

-2.49243

1.35821

-2.56193

1.53899

-2.49116

1.43502

-1.96978

1.31005

-1.87852

1.38332

Zscore: Q45 Self-efficacy

-2.65403

1.16297

Zscore: Q46 Self-efficacy

-2.08542

1.31314

Zscore: Q47 Self-efficacy

-2.04575

1.34929

Zscore: Q48 Self-efficacy

-2.17535

1.22536

Zscore: Q49 Self-efficacy

-2.00349

1.18404

Zscore: Q50 Self-efficacy

-2.06554

1.49463

Zscore: Q51 Self-efficacy

-1.90791

1.43842

Zscore: Q52 Self-efficacy

-2.21016

1.32751

Zscore: Q53 Self-efficacy

-2.13819

1.35203

Zscore: Q54 Self-efficacy

-2.07918

1.25232

Zscore: Q40 Organisation

commitment
Zscore: Q41 Organisation
commitment
Zscore: Q42 Organisation
commitment
Zscore: Q43 Organisation
commitment
Zscore: Q44 Organisation
commitment

201

Appendix C
Normality
Table C.1 Skewness and Kurtosis table test for normality (N=202)

Item

Skewness
Statistic

Kurtosis

Std. Error

Statistic

Std. Error

Q3 Prosocial behaviour

-.659

.171

.463

.341

Q4 Prosocial behaviour

-.451

.171

.162

.341

Q5 Prosocial behaviour

-.357

.171

.050

.341

Q6 Prosocial behaviour

-.833

.171

.730

.341

Q7 Prosocial behaviour

-.948

.171

.764

.341

Q8 Empowerment-Impact8

-.304

.171

.063

.341

Q9 Empowerment-Impact9

-.422

.171

-.191

.341

Q10 Empowerment-Impact

-.151

.171

-.312

.341

-.518

.171

-.244

.341

-.336

.171

-.557

.341

-.559

.171

-.217

.341

Q14 Empowerment-Competence

-.262

.171

-.947

.341

Q15 Empowerment-Competence

-.367

.171

-.699

.341

Q16 Empowerment-Competence

-.254

.171

-.567

.341

Q17 Empowerment-Meaning

-.385

.171

-.658

.341

Q18 Empowerment-Meaning

-.492

.171

-.658

.341

Q19 Empowerment-Meaning

-.609

.171

.096

.341

Q20 HRM-Good and safe

-.736

.171

.851

.341

Q21 HRM-Good and safe

-.456

.171

.074

.341

Q22 HRM-Good and safe

-.688

.171

-.505

.341

Q23 HRM-Good and safe

-.681

.171

1.341

.341

Q24 HRM-Good and safe

-.484

.171

.149

.341

Q25 HRM-Recruitment

-.591

.171

.604

.341

Q26 HRM-Recruitment

-.430

.171

-.029

.341

Q27 HRM-Recruitment

-.698

.171

.606

.341

Q28 HRM-Recruitment

.082

.171

-.950

.341

Q29 HRM-Recruitment

-.121

.171

-.483

.341

Q30 HRM-Equal employment

-.629

.171

.327

.341

Q31 HRM-Equal employment

-.565

.171

-.092

.341

Q32 HRM-Equal employment

-.387

.171

-.492

.341

Q33 HRM-Equal employment

-.715

.171

.484

.341

Q34 HRM-Equal employment

-.527

.171

.030

.341

Q11 Empowerment-Selfdetermination
Q12 Empowerment-Selfdetermination
Q13 Empowerment-Selfdetermination

202

Item

Skewness
Statistic

Kurtosis

Std. Error

Statistic

Std. Error

Q35 HRM-Training

-.382

.171

-.758

.341

Q36 HRM-Training

-.347

.171

-.592

.341

Q37 HRM-Training

-.423

.171

-.490

.341

Q38 HRM-Training

-.641

.171

.124

.341

Q39 HRM-Training

-.445

.171

-.126

.341

Q40 Organisation commitment

-.509

.171

-.163

.341

Q41 Organisation commitment

-.363

.171

-.156

.341

Q42 Organisation commitment

-.532

.171

-.118

.341

Q43 Organisation commitment

-.188

.171

-.895

.341

Q44 Organisation commitment

-.052

.171

-.957

.341

Q45 Self-efficacy

-.601

.171

-.399

.341

Q46 Self-efficacy

-.667

.171

-.385

.341

Q47 Self-efficacy

-.622

.171

-.306

.341

Q48 Self-efficacy

-.569

.171

-.420

.341

Q49 Self-efficacy

-.618

.171

-.628

.341

Q50 Self-efficacy

-.214

.171

-.610

.341

Q51 Self-efficacy

-.221

.171

-.699

.341

Q52 Self-efficacy

-.510

.171

-.337

.341

Q53 Self-efficacy

-.428

.171

-.578

.341

Q54 Self-efficacy

-.492

.171

-.659

.341

203

Appendix D
Multicollinearity test
Coefficientsa
Model

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance
Empowerment.Self.determinat

.350

2.853

Empowerment.Competence

.240

4.164

Empowerment.Meaning

.430

2.324

HRM.Good.and.safe

.369

2.709

HRM.Recruitment

.463

2.159

HRM.Equal.Employment

.237

4.221

HRM.Training

.225

4.435

Organistion.commitment

.203

4.931

Self.efficacy

.259

3.868

ion

VIF

a. Dependent Variable: Empowerment.Impact

Coefficientsa
Model

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance

VIF

Empowerment.Competence

.276

3.626

Empowerment.Meaning

.420

2.379

HRM.Good.and.safe

.379

2.636

HRM.Recruitment

.476

2.100

HRM.Equal.Employment

.251

3.978

HRM.Training

.226

4.423

Organistion.commitment

.212

4.728

Self.efficacy

.262

3.817

Empowerment.Impact

.594

1.682

a. Dependent Variable: Empowerment.Self.determination

204

Coefficientsa
Model

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance

VIF

Empowerment.Meaning

.498

2.010

HRM.Good.and.safe

.414

2.417

HRM.Recruitment

.464

2.153

HRM.Equal.Employment

.239

4.187

HRM.Training

.225

4.453

Organistion.commitment

.254

3.943

Self.efficacy

.343

2.914

Empowerment.Impact

.550

1.817

.373

2.683

Empowerment.Self.determinat
ion

a. Dependent Variable: Empowerment.Competence

Coefficientsa
Model

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance

VIF

HRM.Good.and.safe

.380

2.634

HRM.Recruitment

.467

2.141

HRM.Equal.Employment

.244

4.094

HRM.Training

.238

4.209

Organistion.commitment

.213

4.703

Self.efficacy

.280

3.566

Empowerment.Impact

.587

1.703

Empowerment.Self.determination

.338

2.957

Empowerment.Competence

.296

3.375

a. Dependent Variable: Empowerment.Meaning

205

Coefficientsa
Model

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance

VIF

HRM.Recruitment

.463

2.161

HRM.Equal.Employment

.250

3.996

HRM.Training

.241

4.143

Organistion.commitment

.219

4.556

Self.efficacy

.263

3.807

Empowerment.Impact

.550

1.817

.333

2.999

Empowerment.Competence

.269

3.716

Empowerment.Meaning

.415

2.411

Empowerment.Self.determinat
ion

a. Dependent Variable: HRM.Good.and.safe

Coefficientsa
Model

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance

VIF

HRM.Equal.Employment

.260

3.852

HRM.Training

.225

4.445

Organistion.commitment

.206

4.847

Self.efficacy

.265

3.769

Empowerment.Impact

.551

1.816

.334

2.994

Empowerment.Competence

.241

4.148

Empowerment.Meaning

.407

2.456

HRM.Good.and.safe

.369

2.708

Empowerment.Self.determinat
ion

a. Dependent Variable: HRM.Recruitment

206

Coefficientsa
Model

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance

VIF

HRM.Training

.318

3.140

Organistion.commitment

.211

4.746

Self.efficacy

.259

3.867

Empowerment.Impact

.550

1.817

.344

2.905

Empowerment.Competence

.242

4.130

Empowerment.Meaning

.416

2.405

HRM.Good.and.safe

.390

2.564

HRM.Recruitment

.507

1.972

Empowerment.Self.determinati
on

a. Dependent Variable: HRM.Equal.Employment

Coefficientsa
Model

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance
Organistion.commitment

.213

4.699

Self.efficacy

.264

3.781

Empowerment.Impact

.553

1.809

.327

3.060

Empowerment.Competence

.240

4.162

Empowerment.Meaning

.427

2.343

HRM.Good.and.safe

.397

2.519

HRM.Recruitment

.464

2.157

HRM.Equal.Employment

.336

2.975

Empowerment.Self.determin
1

VIF

ation

a. Dependent Variable: HRM.Training

207

Coefficientsa
Model

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance
Self.efficacy

.338

2.954

Empowerment.Impact

.551

1.815

.339

2.951

.301

3.325

Empowerment.Meaning

.423

2.362

HRM.Good.and.safe

.400

2.499

HRM.Recruitment

.471

2.122

HRM.Equal.Employment

.246

4.058

HRM.Training

.236

4.240

Empowerment.Self.determi
nation
Empowerment.Competenc
1

VIF

a. Dependent Variable: Organistion.commitment

Coefficientsa
Model

Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance
Empowerment.Impact

.550

1.817

.329

3.041

.319

3.137

Empowerment.Meaning

.437

2.286

HRM.Good.and.safe

.375

2.666

HRM.Recruitment

.475

2.106

HRM.Equal.Employment

.237

4.220

HRM.Training

.230

4.355

Organistion.commitment

.265

3.771

Empowerment.Self.determi
nation
Empowerment.Competenc
e
1

VIF

a. Dependent Variable: Self.efficacy

208

Appendix E
Questionnaire

Universiti Sains Malaysia

School of Housing, Building and
planning
January 8, 2014
Dear Participant,
I am a Ph.D. researcher in truism program at the Universiti
Sains Malaysia-USM, and I am conducting a study on
delivering customer-oriented service behaviour. The objective
of this research project is to analyze the structural relationship
between employee empowerment, HRM practices and hotel
commitment, and customer-oriented pro-social behaviour of
hotels employees.
Enclosed with this letter is a brief questionnaire that asks a
variety of questions about your perception toward your job.
I hope you will take a few minutes to complete this
questionnaire. There is no correct or wrong answer so please
answer whatever you feel fits your perception. However, your
participation is voluntary and there is no penalty if you do not
participate.
If you have any questions or concerns about completing the
questionnaire or about participating in this study, you may
contact me at:
(006) 010 430 30 29 or by email: shadiusm@gmail.com
Sincerely,
Shadi Al Hrout, Ph.D. candidate
Department of tourism

209

School of Housing, Building and Planning

Universiti Sains Malaysia USM

210

Your responses to the questionnaire are important; please

respond to ALL the items. Thank you.
1. Personal Information (Please mark an )
Male

Female

2. What is your years of experience

less than 5

5 to less than 10

>10 toless than 15

agree
Strongly

required
I often go above and beyond the
call of duty when serving

6.

customers
I willingly go out of his/her way to

7.

make a customer satisfied

I frequently go out the way to help

8.

a customer
Empowerment (Spreitzer, 1995)
Impact
My impact on what happens in my

9.

requirement
I help customers with problems
beyond what is expected or

5.

Prosocial behaviour (Bettencourt & Brown, 1997)

I voluntarily assist customers even
if it means going beyond job

4.

Agree

3.

Disagree

Statement

Undecided

disagree
Strongly

15 and more

workplace is large
I have a great deal of control over

211

13.

about doing my work.

I have considerable opportunity for
independence and freedom in how

14.

I do my job.
Competence
I am confident about my ability to

15.

do my job
I am self-assured about my

16.

capability to perform my work.

I have mastered the skills

17.

necessary for my job.

Meaning
The work I do is meaningful.

18.

The work I do is very important to

19.

me.
My job activities are personally

meaningful to me.
HRM Practices (Edgar & Geare, 2005)
Good and safe working conditions
20.
My working conditions here are
1
good

212

agree
Strongly

Agree

12.

determining how I do my job.

I can decide on my own how to go

Undecided

11.

what happens in my workplace.

Self-determination
I have significant autonomy in

Disagree

10.

what happens in my workplace.

I have significant influence over

disagree
Strongly

Statement

23.

these conditions
This hotel does what it can to
ensure the wellbeing of its

24.

agree
Strongly

Agree

22.

result of working for this hotel

I always feel safe working here in

Undecided

My health has not suffered as a

Disagree

21.

disagree
Strongly

Statement

employees
This hotel spends enough money
on health and safety-related
matters
Recruitment and selection

25.

The recruitment and selection

processes in this hotel are

26.

impartial
Favouritism is not evident in any of
the recruitment decisions made

27.

here
Interview panels are used during
the recruitment and selection

28.

process in this hotel

This hotel does not need to pay
more attention to the way it
recruits people

213

Undecided

Agree

agree
Strongly

Disagree

29.

disagree
Strongly

employment opportunities in this

hotel
EEO is promoted within this hotel

Statement
All appointments in this hotel are
based on merit (i.e. the best
person for the job is selected

regardless of their personal

characteristics)
Equal employment opportunities (EEO)
30.

The hotel spends enough money

and time on EEO awareness and

31.

EEO-related training
My employer supports employees
with the balancing of work and

32.
33.

34.

family responsibilities
Management are supportive of
cultural difference in this hotel
Men and women have the same

Training and development

35.
36.

My employer encourages me to
extend my abilities
This hotel has provided me with
training opportunities enabling me
to extend my range of skills and

214

agree
Strongly

requirements with my employer

My work pays for any work-related
training and/or development I want

39.

I get the opportunity to discuss my

training and development

38.

Agree

37.

Undecided

abilities

Disagree

disagree
Strongly

Statement

to undertake
This hotel is committed to the
training and development of its

employees
Organisation commitment (Jaworski & Kohli, 1993)(Yong-Ki,
et al., 2005)
40.
I feel as though my future is
intimately linked to that of the
41.

hotel
I would be happy to make personal
sacrifices if it were important for

42.

the hotels well-being

The bonds between the hotel and

43.

its employees are strong

I am proud to work for the hotel

44.

I often go above and beyond the

call of duty to ensure the hotels
well-being

215

46.

do my job
There are no tasks required by my

47.

job that I cannot do well

My performance is high due to my

48.

ability
I have no doubt my ability to do

49.

my job
I have all the skills needed to

50.

perform my job very well

Less people in my line of work can

51.

do this job better than I can

I am an expert at my job

52.

My future in this job is promising

53.

because of my high skills

I am very proud of my job skills

54.

and abilities
I feel confident when others watch
me work

216

agree
Strongly

Agree

I have confidence in my ability to

Undecided

45.

Disagree

Self-efficacy (Riggs, et al., 1994)

disagree
Strongly

Statement

Appendix F
Approval Letter

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233