Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Unit 1 Summary Notes As Biology
Unit 1 Summary Notes As Biology
Lilac/purple/mauve/violet;
of
Describe how you could use Benedicts reagent to test a urine sample for the
presence of glucose.
Add (Benedicts) reagent (to urine sample) and heat / heat the mixture;
red/ brown/ orange/ green/ yellow;
Describe a further biochemical test to find out if a substance is a non-reducing
sugar.
Heat with acid, then neutralise / hydrolyse using enzyme;
(heat) with Benedicts (solution);
Star
pho
Microscopes
What is resolution and why is it better in Electron |Microscopes than in light
Ability to distinguish points (close together), Electrons have a shorter wavelength;
Scientists use optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes
(TEMs) to investigate cell structure. Explain the advantages and the limitations
of using a TEM to investigate cell structure.
Advantages:
1 Small object can be seen;
2 TEM has high resolution;
3 Wavelength of electrons shorter;
Limitations:
4 Cannot look at living cells;
5 Must be in a vacuum;
6 Must cut section / thin specimen;
7 Preparation may create artefact
8 Does not produce colour image;
Measuring the size of an object under a microscope
Measure with an eyepiece graticule
Calibrate with the stage mcirometer (an object of a known size)
Repeat and calculate an average
Cell fractionation
Starting with some lettuce leaves, describe how you would obtain a sample of
undamaged chloroplasts. Use your knowledge of cell fractionation and
ultracentrifugation to answer this question.
1. Chop up (accept any reference to crude breaking up);
2. Cold; (reduces enzyme activity)
3. Buffered solution; (prevents pH affecting enzymes)
4. Isotonic / same water potential; (prevents osmosis and possible lysis or shrinkage of
organelles)
5. Filter and centrifuge filtrate;
6. Centrifuge supernatant;
7. At higher speed;
8. Chloroplasts in (second) pellet;
Ribo
syn
Sha
for C
Describe the part played by cell surface membranes in regulating the movement of
substances into and out of cells. (6)
Non-polar/lipid soluble molecules move through phospholipid layer/bilayer;
Small molecules/water/gases move through phospholipid layer/bilayer;
Ions/water soluble substances move through channels in proteins;
Some proteins are gated;
Reference to diffusion;
Carriers identified as proteins;
Carriers associated with facilitated diffusion;
Carriers associated with active transport/transport with ATP/pumps;
Explain how three features of a plasma membrane adapt it for its functions.
1. Phospholipid bilayer (as a barrier);
2. Forms a barrier to water soluble / charged substances / allows non-polar substances to pass
OR
Maintains a different environment on each side / compartmentalisation;
3. Bilayer is fluid;
4. Can bend to take up different shapes for phagocytosis / form vesicles / self-repair;
5. Channel proteins (through the bilayer)/intrinsic protein;
6. Let water soluble/charged substances through / facilitated diffusion;
7. Carrier proteins (through the bilayer);
8. Allow facilitated diffusion / active transport;
9 surface proteins / extrinsic proteins, glycoproteins / glycolipids;
10 cell recognition / act as antigens / receptors;
11cholesterol;
12 regulate fluidity / increases stability;
Describe how the distribution of cell membranes in a prokaryotic cell such as a bacterium
differs from that in a cell from a plant leaf. (4)
Absence of nuclear envelope/membrane;
Membrane bounded organelles;
Such as mitochondria/chloroplast/vacuole/lysosome;
and membrane systems/endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi;
Mesosomes in prokaryotes;
Enzymes
Many reactions take place in living cells at temperatures far lower than those required for
the same reactions in a laboratory. Explain how enzymes enable this to happen.
lowers activation energy;
relevant mechanism e. g. brings molecules close together / reaction in smaller
steps / change in charge distribution / proton donation or acceptance / induced
fit ensuring substrates brought in correct sequence;
including relevant reference to active site;
Explain how a substrate is broken down by the enzyme.
Substrate enters active site;
Complimentary shapes / Lock and Key;
(Binding) to form enzyme-substrate complex;
Lowering of activation energy;
Conformational / shape change;
Breaking of bonds in substrate;
Products no longer fit active site and so are released;
Describe
the condensation reaction can be catalysed by an enzyme.
enzyme has an active site;
with a complementary shape to the substrate molecules;
enzyme-substrate complex formed;
lowering the (activation) energy for the reaction;
glycosidic bond formed/bringing together hydroxyl groups/water
molecule removed;
products leave the active site;
enzyme unchanged;
how
Use your knowledge of protein structure to explain why enzymes are specific and
may be affected by non-competitive inhibitors.
1 each enzyme/protein has specific primary structure / amino acid sequence;
2 folds in a particular way/ has particular tertiary structure;
3 active site with unique structure;
4 shape of active site complementary to/ will only fit that of substrate;
maximum of three marks for inhibition, points 5 8
5 inhibitor fits at site on the enzyme other than active site;
6 determined by shape;
7 distorts active site;
8 so substrate will no longer fit / form enzyme-substrate complex;
Digetsion
Describe the role of the enzymes of the digestive
system in the complete breakdown of starch.
Amylase;(salivary/pancreatic)
(Starch) to maltose:
Maltase;(built into the membrane of the small intestine)
Maltose to glucose;
Hydrolysis;
(Of) glycosidic bond;
Explain how the small intestine is adapted to its function in the absorption of the
products of digestion.
Large surface area provided by villi /
microvilli;
long / folds increase surface area / time
for absorption;
thin epithelium;
short diffusion pathway;
capillary network absorbs amino acids /
sugars;
lacteal for absorption of digested fats;
Maintains a steep concentration
gradient
mitochondria supply ATP / energy for
active transport;
carrier proteins (in membranes);
Describe the processes involved in the absorption of the products of starch digestion.
Glucose moves in with sodium (into epithelial cell);
Via (carrier/channel) protein/symport;
Sodium removed (from epithelial cell) by active transport/sodiumpotassium pump;
Into blood;
Maintaining low concentration of sodium (in
epithelial cell) /
maintaining sodium concentration gradient
(between lumen
and epithelial cell);
Glucose moves into blood/out of the epithelial
cell;
By (facilitated) diffusion;
The mucosa, which secretes digestive juices and absorbs digested food. It is
often folded to increase its surface area. There is a layer of columnar epithelial
cells lining the mucosa. These epithelial cells contain microvilli, membrane
proteins for facilitated diffusion and active transport, mitochondria, and
membrane-bound enzymes. Epithelial cells are constantly worn away by
friction with food moving through the gut, so are constantly being replaced.
The submucosa, which contains blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves to
control the muscles. It may also contain secretory glands.
1. Mouth (Buccal cavity). The teeth and tongue physically break up the
food into small pieces with a larger surface area, and form it into a ball or
bolus. The salivary glands secrete saliva, which contains water to
dissolve soluble substances, mucus for lubrication, lysozymes to kill
bacteria and salivary amylase to digest starch. The food bolus is
swallowed by an involuntary reflex action through the pharynx (the back
of the mouth). During swallowing the trachea is blocked off by the
epiglottis to stop food entering the lungs.
2. Oesophagus (gullet). This is a simple tube through the thorax, which
connects the mouth to the rest of the gut. No digestion takes place here.
There is a epithelium, no villi, a few glands secreting mucus, and a thick
layer of circular and longitudinal muscle to propel the food by peristalsis.
Peristalsis is a wave of circular muscle contraction, which passes down
the gut and is completely involuntary. The oesophagus is a soft tube that
can be closed, unlike the trachea, which is a hard tube, held open by
rings of cartilage.
4. Small Intestine. The first 30cm of the small intestine is called the duodenum.
Although this is short, almost all the digestion takes place here, due to two
secretions: pancreatic juice and bile. Pancreatic juice is secreted by the pancreas
into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice contains
numerous amylase, protease and lipase enzymes. Bile is secreted by the liver,
stored in the gall bladder, and released into the duodenum through the bile
duct. Bile doesnt contain any enzymes, but it does contain bile salts to aid lipid
digestion, and the alkali sodium hydrogen carbonate to neutralise the stomach
acid. This alkali gives chyme in the duodenum a pH of around 7.5, so the
pancreatic enzymes can work at their optimum pH. The mucosa of the
duodenum has few villi, since there is no absorption, but the submucosa
contains glands secreting mucus and sodium hydrogen carbonate. The rest of
the small intestine is called the Ileum. This is the site of final digestion and
absorption. To maximise the rate of absorption the ileum has the three features
dictated by Ficks law: large surface area, short diffusion distance and a steep
cponcentrtain gradient sustained by movement of fluids on both sides of
exchange surface (see sheet above for detail).
Pulmonary fibrosis: when scars form on the epithelia that are damaged, increasing the
diffusion pathway, loss of elasticity in lung tissue, which reduces the concentration
gradient, narrowing of vessels, reducing air flow and concentration gradient. Results in
shortness of breath, dry cough, tiredness (insufficient oxygen for respiration)
Asthma is caused by physical factors called allergens in the environment. These
allergens include pollen, dust mites faeces and fur.
These allergens trigger an inflammatory response by the immune system.
White blood cells called mast cells release histamines, which cause the smooth circular
muscles of the bronchioles to contract, narrowing the airways (bronchoconstriction).
The epithelial cells also secrete more mucus, which further blocks the airways.
The constricted bronchioles stimulate wheezing and coughing as the lungs try to loosen
the mucus. The constrictions reduce the tidal volume, so alveolar air is only replaced
slowly. The oxygen concentration gradient across the alveolar epithelium is reduced, so
the rate of diffusion in the alveoli is reduced by Ficks law. Less oxygen diffuses into the
blood, so less oxygen is available for cellular respiration throughout the body.
Heart and heart Disease
16
A o rta
12
P re ssu re /
kPa
L e ft
v e n tric le
8
C u rv e X
4
0
2
0 .1
0 .2
0 .3
0 .4
0 .5
0 .6
T im e / s
0 .7
0 .8
0 .9
1 .0
Curve x is the right ventricle, this is clear as the pattern is the same as that of the left
ventricle, but the pressure is lower as a result of the smaller muscle content of the wall.
When the left ventricle pressure crosses the pressure line representing the aorta the
blood flows through the semi-lunar valves. When ventricular pressure drops below the
aorta pressure then the valves shut. This causes the second sound you can hear on a
heart beat (dub).
Cardiac Output
Cardiac Output is the amount of blood flowing through the heart each minute. It
is calculated as the product of the heart rate and the stroke volume:
Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume
The heart rate can be calculated from the pressure graph by measuring the
time taken for one cardiac cycle and using the formula:
Heart rate (beats per minute) =60 cycle time (s)
The stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped in each beat.
Both the heart rate and the stroke volume can be varied by the body. When the
body exercises the cardiac output can increase dramatically so that
Oxygen and glucose can get to the muscles faster
Carbon dioxide and lactate can be carried away from the muscles faster
Heat can be carried away from the muscles faster
What is atheroma? (2)
Plaque/ fatty material/ cholesterol/ foam cells/
lipoprotein build up;
In artery/ blood vessel wall;
Describe how atheroma can lead to an
aneurysm. (2)
Weakens artery wall;
So that it swells/ bursts;
Describe how atheroma may form and lead
to a myocardial infarction.(6)
1 fatty substance / foam cells / cholesterol in
artery wall / under endothelium;
2 formation of plaques / atherosclerosis /
atheroma narrows lumen of
artery;
3 atheroma creates turbulence / damage to
lining of artery;
4 (turbulence) increases risk of blood clot /
embolus;
5 blood clot / thrombus breaks off;
6 (blood clot) lodges in coronary artery;
7 reduced blood supply to heart muscle;
8 reduced oxygen supply;
9 leads to death of heart muscle;
Cigarette smoking and a diet high in saturated fat increase the risk of
myocardial infarction. Explain how.(6)
Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin/causes less
oxygen to be transported;
Decreases concentration of antioxidants in blood;
Increases the damage done to artery walls;
Blood clot may occur;*
Blood pressure increased*
Blocks flow of blood to heart/in carotid arteries;*
Saturated fat associated with cholesterol;
Cholesterol deposited in arteries;
Atheroma formation;
Blood clot may occur*;
Blood pressure increased*
Blocks flow of blood to heart/in carotid arteries*;
*Allow reference to these points only once.
Cholesterol / blood clot causes constriction of coronary arteries;
Less oxygen transported to heart muscle tissue;
Explain how smoking and a high blood cholesterol concentration increase the
risk of developing coronary heart disease. (6)
CHD = heart muscle receives inadequate amount of blood or oxygen / (coronary) blood
supply reduced;
Smoking:
Raises concentration of fibrinogen (in blood) / increased risk of clotting;
Increases viscosity of blood;
(Nicotine) causes platelets to stick together / causes vasoconstriction;
Carbon monoxide associated with plaque formation;
Reduces ability of arteries to dilate / reduces elasticity;
Cholesterol:
Fatty streaks / deposits adhere to wall of arteries;
Atheroma / atherosclerosis / plaque;
Narrows lumen of artery;
Damages endothelium;
Can lead to formation of thrombus / blood clot;
Clots need to be in context
Explain the effect of smoking on blood pressure; (2)
Because arteries cannot dilate / dilate less;
Heart must work harder to force blood through;
Increases blood pressure;
Explain how smoking might lead to the formation of a blood clot. (3)
Higher blood pressure causes damage to blood vessel lining / endothelium/ collagen;
Platelets stick together / form a plug / adhere to collagen fibres;
Release of thromboplastin / thrombokinase;
Fibrinogen converted to insoluble fibrin;
Platelet plug trapped by fibrin mesh;
1) This graph
shows there is
no pattern
between
income and
incidence of
lung cancer
2) This graph
shows a
correlation
between
smoking and
cancer. But it
does not prove
causation as
other factors
can influence
results, age,
diet, and
genetics
3) To show causality
controlled
experiments are
needed. Here
arsenic (component
of cigarette smoke)
inhibits DNA ligase
which repairs
damaged DNA. Thus
in cells this could
lead to cancer, now
we have a
mechanism to
explain graph 2, and
we have evidence
for a causal
relationship
4) There is a
between smoking
correlation between
and cancer.
alcohol and cancer.
Lab studies have not
found a causal link
between the two, so
alcohol is not a risk
factor. The correlation
is indirect, where
heavy drinkers, tend
to be heavy smokers
Immunity
Phagocytes and lysosomes are involved in destroying microorganisms. Describe how.
Phagocytes engulf pathogens/microorganisms;
Enclosed in a vacuole / vesicle/ phagosome;
Fuses with lysomsome to for a phagolysosome
Lysosomes have enzymes;
That digest/hydrolyse molecules/proteins/lipids/microorganism;
What is an antigen?
Molecule/part of molecule/protein/glycoprotein;
Stimulates immune response;
What is an antibody?(2)
Protein/immunoglobulin;
specific to antigen;
idea of fit/complementary shape;
Antibodies are protein molecules. Explain why protein molecules are particularly well
suited to carry out the role of antibodies.
Large variety of different molecules;
range of shapes;
Tertiary shape;
locks onto / complements specific antigen;
Vaccines protect people against disease. Explain how.(5)
1. Vaccines contain antigens / antigens are injected;
2. Dead pathogens / weakened pathogens;
3. Memory cells made;
4. On second exposure memory cells produce antibodies / become active / recognise pathogens;
5. Rapidly produce antibodies / produces more antibodies;
6. Antibodies destroy pathogens;
7. Herd effect / fewer people to pass on disease;
What is vaccination?
Injection of antigens/toxoids;
(Antigen from) attenuated microorganism/non-virulent microorganisms/dead
Microorganisms/isolated from microorganism;
Stimulates the formation of memory cells;
Give two other methods used to prepare vaccines.
Killed microorganism;
modified toxin;
attenuated/heat treated/UV treated microorganism;
genetically engineered antigens;
isolated antigen;
Vaccines protect against disease by stimulating the production of memory cells.
Describe how memory cells protect the body from disease.
On further exposure to same microorganism;
Antigen recognised;
Faster response;
Greater production of antibodies;
What is a monoclonal antibody? (2)
Reference to hybrid cell from tumour / cancer and
B-lymphocyte/hybridoma;
antibodies all the same / from one type of plasma cell;
specific to / complementary to / fits only one antigen;
Monoclonal Antibodies
The unique tertiary structure of each antibody protein allows it to bind
specifically and tightly to one particular antigen. Scientists quickly realised
that the remarkable specific binding property of antibody proteins in vivo
would make them very useful tools in medicine and research in vitro. [In vivo
means in life, i.e. in a living organism; and in vitro means in glass, i.e. in
a test tube.] Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies of one particular shape
made by a clone of a single B-lymphocyte.
Making Monoclonal Antibodies
Antibody proteins are far too complicated to be synthesised chemically in
vitro: they have to be made by living cells. In 1975 Kohler and Milstein
developed a method to make monoclonal antibody proteins using mice.
1. Inject a mouse with the antigen protein that you want antibodies for. The
mouse will show a primary immune response and make a clone army of Blymphocytes with antibodies specific for that antigen.
2. After a few days, extract B-lymphocyte cells from the rabbits blood. The
blood contains a mixture of thousands of different B-cells, each making their
own specific antibodies, so we need to isolate the B-cell we want. Dilute the
blood cells into hundreds of wells in an immunoassay plate, so that there is
just one cell per well. The cells multiply in their wells and secrete antibodies
a different antibody in each well.
3. Test each well for production of the antibody required and row the B-cells
from that well in a culture flask, where they multiply by mitosis, making
millions of identical cloned cells, each secreting identical antibodies
monoclonal antibodies.