Mushrooms and Mushroom

Cultivation
Shu-Ting Chang, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Secondary article
Article Contents
. Introduction
. Biodiversity of Mushrooms
. Poisonous Mushrooms

A mushroom is a macrofungus with a distinctive fruiting body, which can be found either
above ground (epigeous) or below ground (hypogeous), large enough to be seen with the
naked eye and to be picked by hand. Cultivation of mushrooms starts from spawn, which is
used to inoculate substrate. Under optimum conditions, mushrooms can be harvested
from 10 days to 6 months after spawning depending upon the strains of species used.

Introduction
Mushrooms have been found in fossilized wood 300
million years old (Editorial, 1997). Almost certainly
prehistoric people used mushrooms as food. The great
early civilizations of the Greeks, Egyptians, Romans,
Chinese and Mexicans prized mushrooms as a delicacy,
appreciated their therapeutic nature and, in some cases,
used them in religious rites. The association of mushrooms
with thunderstorms was common in mythology, and it was
formerly believed that mushrooms were formed by lightning and thunderstorms. Although some wild poisonous
mushrooms became objects of fear and distrust, it is not
surprising that the intentional cultivation of edible mushrooms had a very early beginning. Literature references
indicate (Miles and Chang, 1997) that Auricularia auricula
was cultivated in China as early as ad 600 on wood logs.
Other wood-rotting mushrooms such as Flammulina
velutipes and Lentinula edodes were later grown in similar
manner, but the biggest advance in mushroom cultivation
came in France around 1600 when Agaricus bisporus was
cultivated upon a composted substrate. In the Western
world A. bisporus (champignon or button mushroom) has
remained the mushroom that is produced in the greatest
amounts, but now other species long popular in Asia (e.g.
Lentinula edodes, Pleurotus spp.), and produced there in
large numbers, are making inroads into Western markets.
Mushroom cultivation provides both nutritious protein
rich food and medicinal products. Cultivated mushrooms
have now become popular all over the world. In 1994, the
total world production of edible and medicinal mushrooms
was estimated to be over ve million tonnes, with a value of
over 14 billion US dollars. The bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass to food and useful products by mushrooms has already had an impact at national and regional
levels, and the predictions are that this impact will continue
to increase. Being without adverse legal, ethical or safety
eects, this form of bioconversion technology has only
favourable socioeconomic and employment impacts.
Mushrooms, like all other fungi, lack chlorophyll. They
are unable to convert solar energy to organic matter like

. Edible Mushrooms
. Mushroom Hunting
. Cultivation of Mushrooms

green plants, but they can convert the huge agricultural and
forest waste materials into human food. The byproducts,
spent substrates, can be used as animal feed and crop
fertilizers. Therefore, sustainable development of mushroom cultivation can be called the non-green lignocellulosic revolution, because mushroom cultivation can
generate equitable economic growth and protect and
regenerate the environment.

Biodiversity of Mushrooms
Mushroom biology is the branch of mycology that deals
with mushrooms. Fungi have been placed in a kingdom of
their own called the Myceteae. The word mushroom may
mean dierent things to dierent people in dierent
countries. In this article, the term mushroom is dened
(Chang and Miles, 1992) in the broad sense as a
macrofungus with a distinctive fruiting body which can
be either epigeous or hypogeous and large enough to be
seen with the naked eye and to be picked by hand. Thus,
mushrooms need not be Basidiomycetes, nor aerial, nor
eshy, nor edible. Some mushrooms belong to the
Ascomycetes, grow underground and have a noneshy
texture. The most common type of mushrooms is umbrella
shaped with pileus (cap) and stipe (stem), e.g. Lentinula
edodes (Figure 1), and some species additionally have a
volva (cup), e.g. Volvariella volvacea (Figure 2), or annulus
(ring), e.g. Agaricus campestris (Figure 3), or both, e.g.
Amanita muscaria (Figure 4). Furthermore, some mushrooms are in the form of pliable cups while others are round
like golf balls. Some are in the shape of small clubs; some
resemble coral; others are yellow or orange jelly-like
globes; and some even resemble the human ear. In fact,
there is a countless variety of forms. The structure that we
call a mushroom is in reality only the fruiting body of the
fungus. The vegetative part of the fungus, called the
mycelium, comprises a system of branching threads and
cord-like strands that branch out through soil, compost,
wood log or other lignocellulosic material on which the

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SCIENCES 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. www.els.net

Mushrooms and Mushroom Cultivation

Figure 1 Lentinula edodes, a typical mushroom, with pileus and stipe

only.

Figure 2 Volvariella volacea, with volva.

Figure 3 Agaricus campestris, with annulus.

Figure 4 Amanita muscaris, with an annulus near the top and with the
bulbous base adorned with several concentric zones of white scales
representing the volva (courtesy of Mrs Helena Pereira Lima Caruccio,
Brazil).

fungus may be growing. After a period of growth and

under favourable conditions, the established (matured)
mycelium produces the fruit structure that we call the
mushroom.
Mushrooms can be divided into four categories: (1)
those that are edible and eshy fall into the edible
mushroom category, e.g. Agaricus bisporus; (2) those that
are considered to have medicinal applications are referred
to as medicinal mushrooms, e.g. Ganoderma lucidum; (3)
those that are proven to be, or suspected of being,
poisonous are called poisonous mushrooms or toadstools,
e.g. Amanita phalloides; (4) a miscellaneous category that
may tentatively be grouped together as other mushrooms.
This way of classifying mushrooms is by no means absolute
since many kinds of mushrooms are not only edible but
also possess tonic and medicinal properties. Of the fungi
recognized so far, it has been suggested that over 10 000
species produce fruiting bodies of sucient size and
suitable texture to be considered as macrofungi (Kendrick, 1985). Of these species, about 50% are considered to
possess varying degrees of edibility and approximately
10% are poisonous, of which some 30 species are
considered to be lethal (Miles and Chang, 1997).
As yet, no ascomycetous mushroom has been cultivated
commercially with complete success. The true (genus
Tuber) is successfully farmed, and patents have been issued
for a cultivation method that produces fruiting bodies of
the morel (genus Morchella) and commercial production is
close at hand.
In the class Basidiomycetes the commercially cultivated
members belong to 14 genera (Agaricus, Coprinus,
Flammulina, Lentinula, Pleurotus, Hypholoma, Kurhneromyces, Pholiota, Stropharia, Volvariella, Dictyophora,
Hericium, Auricularia and Tremella) under 10 families

Mushrooms and Mushroom Cultivation

(Agaricaceae, Coprinaceae, Tricholomataceae, Hypholomataceae, Strophariaceae, Pluteaceae, Phallaceae, Hericiaceae, Auriculariaceae and Tremellaceae) placed in ve
orders (Agaricales, Phallales, Aphyllophorales, Auriculariales and Tremellales) and two subclasses (Holobasidiomycetidae and Phragmobasidiomycetidae).
One of the basic requirements for breeding better quality
mushrooms in higher yields is the wider availability of a
large reserve of phenotypic variations (traits) which can be
used for selection purposes both by researchers and by the
mushroom industry. Since the mushrooms themselves are
the only source of this genetic material, extinction of a
single strain or species would mean the potential loss of
many thousands of unique genes that could be used for
breeding desirable new strains. The genes contained in
existing mushroom strains and species represent the total
genetic resource, i.e. the entire pool of mushroom
germplasm, which can be preserved by in situ conservation
and ex situ preservation. The maintenance of mushrooms
in natural preserves as part of a strategy for protecting an
ecosystem constitutes in situ conservation. Mushroom
germplasm can also be preserved ex situ as fungal spores or
tissue in the form of a culture collection or gene bank. The
process of collection and classication of information
pertaining to the morphological, physiological, biochemical and genetical characteristics of individual mushroom
strains, and the storage of this information in computer
databases, would provide valuable and readily accessible
information for breeding programmes and academic
research.

Poisonous Mushrooms
Poisonous mushrooms are often called toadstools. However, like the term mushroom, toadstool also may mean
dierent things to dierent people. To some it means any
mushroom except the eld mushroom (Agaricus campestris) or cultivated mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), to others
it is any inedible or poisonous mushroom. Scientically the
term has no meaning at all. It is suggested that the term
toadstool be dropped altogether in order to avoid
confusion and the terms edible, medicinal and poisonous
mushrooms used instead.
It has been estimated that the number of poisonous
mushroom species is fairly large, i.e. about 1000 species, of
which some 30 species are known to be lethal. Since there is
no known eld test to determine if a mushroom is edible or
not, people should never eat any mushroom unless they are
absolutely certain of its identity (Figure 5). Amateurs should
aim to have the mushrooms checked by a competent
mycological authority.
The toxins contained in various species are very dierent
in chemical composition, and thus the eects of poisoning
dier considerably according to the species involved. In

These mushrooms
are not to be
consumed as food.
They are a recipe
for disaster.

Figure 5 Know your poisonous mushrooms.

any case, suspected mushroom poisoning should never be

regarded lightly and medical assistance should be sought at
once. The following summary of mushroom poisonings is
based on Chilton (1978), and Shepherd and Totterdell
(1988).
1. Amanita-type poisoning. Unquestionably the most
dangerous type of mushroom poisoning is caused by
the Amanita phalloides group. The toxins belong to the
phallotoxin and amatoxin complexes. The majority of
recorded deaths from mushroom poisoning have been
caused by this group. The general symptoms of this
type of poisoning are severe abdominal pains, violent
vomiting, diarrhoea, cold sweats and excessive thirst.
These may last for 48 h, with dehydration, cramps and
anuria.
2. Muscarine-type poisoning. Two toxins, muscarine and
ibotenic acid, are involved. They occur in Amanita
muscaria, A. pantherina and also in a number of
Inocybe and Clitocybe species. The symptoms usually
appear soon after eating the mushrooms, with vomiting, diarrhoea and salivation. The most characteristic
symptoms are nervous excitement, diculties in
breathing, shivering and a tendency to collapse.
3. Psychotropic or hallucinogenic poisoning. Several
dierent toxins are involved, including psilocin and
psilocybin, which are found in species of Psilocybe,
Conocybe and Stropharia. The symptoms are varied,
including vomiting, increased heartbeat and hallucinations.
4. Coprinus poisoning. Several Coprinus species, such as
C. micaceus and C. atramentarius, if consumed with an
alcoholic drink, are unpleasant, but not dangerous.
3

Mushrooms and Mushroom Cultivation

The symptoms include reddening of the face, increased

heartbeat, and in some cases, vomiting and diarrhoea.
5. Poisoning from external sources. The poisoning is not
caused by the mushrooms themselves but by toxic
substances that have accumulated in the mushrooms.
The principal causes are: (1) heavy metals due to
polluting environmental conditions where the mushrooms are harvested; and (2) radioactive contaminants
due to pollution by radioactive material; these are
becoming a serious problem in certain areas for
mushrooms hunting and consumption. The best
publicized case was in the areas surrounding Chernobyl.

A very healthy
and therapeutic
dish of the day!

Edible Mushrooms
Of the 10 000 or more species of macrofungi (mushrooms),
about 5000 are considered to possess varying degrees of
edibility (Miles and Chang, 1997) and more than 2000
species from about 31 genera (Table 1) are regarded as
prime edible mushrooms (Figure 6). Of these, only about
100 are experimentally grown, 50 economically cultivated,
and around 30 commercially cultivated (Table 2); and only
ve or six species are cultivated on an industrial scale.
The moisture content of fresh edible mushrooms varies
in the range 7095% depending upon the harvest time and
environmental conditions, whereas it is about 1013% in
dried mushrooms. The protein content of cultivated
species ranges from 1.75 to 5.9% of their fresh weight,

Table 1 Genera of prime edible mushrooms

Basidiomycetes
Agaricus
Agrocybe
Amanita
Armillaria
Auricularia
Boletus
Cantharellus
Calvatia
Clitocybe
Coprinus
Cortinarius
Dictyophora
Flammulina
Gloestereum
Grifola
Hericium

Hypholoma
Hypsizygus
Lactarius
Lentinula
Lepista
Lyophyllum
Marasmius
Pleurotus
Pholiota
Polyporus
Russula
Stropharia
Termitomyces
Tremella
Tricholoma
Volvariella

Ascomycetes
Morchella

Tuber

Figure 6 Know your edible mushrooms.

Table 2 Species of commercially cultivated edible mushrooms

Agaricus bisporusa
Agaricus bitorquisa
Agaricus blazei
Auricularia auricula
Auricularia fuscosuccinea
Auricularia polytricha
Coprinus comatus
Dictyophora duplicata
Dictyophora indusiata
Flammulina velutipesa
Grifola frondosa
Hericium erinaceus
Hypsizygus marmoreus
Lentinula edodesa
Lyophyllum ulmarium

Pholiota nameko
Pleurotus citrinopileatus
Pleurotus cornucopiae
Pleurotus cystidiosus
Pleurotus djamor
Pleurotus eryngii
Pleurotus orida
Pleurotus ostreatusa
Pleurotus sajor-caju
Stropharia rugoso-annulata
Tremella aurantia
Tremella fuciformis
Volvariella diplasia
Volvariella esculenta
Volvariella volvaceaa

Species have reached an industrial scale.

with an average value of 3.54.0%. This means that the

protein content of edible mushrooms, in general, is about
twice that of onion (1.4%) and cabbage (1.4%) and four
times and 12 times that of oranges (1.0%) and apples
(0.3%), respectively. In comparison, the protein content of
common meats is as follows: pork, 916%; beef, 1220%;
chicken, 1820%; sh, 1820%; and milk 2.93.3%. On a
dry weight basis, mushrooms normally contain 1935%
protein as compared to 7.3% in rice, 12.7% in wheat, 9.4%
in corn and 38.1% in soybean. Therefore, in terms of the
amount of crude protein, edible mushrooms rank below
most animal meats but well above most other foods,
including milk, which is an animal product. Furthermore,

Mushrooms and Mushroom Cultivation

the mushroom protein contains all nine amino acids that

are essential for humans. In addition to their high quality
protein, mushrooms are a relatively good source of the
following individual nutrients: phosphorus, iron, and
vitamins including thiamin, riboavin, ascorbic acid,
ergosterine and niacin. They have a low crude fat content
with a high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (72
85%) relative to total fatty acids. They are low in calories,
carbohydrates and calcium.
The recent upsurge of interest in traditional remedies for
various physiological disorders and the recognition of
numerous biological response modiers in mushrooms has
led to the coining of the term mushroom nutriceuticals
(Chang and Buswell, 1996). A mushroom nutriceutical is a
rened/partially dened mushroom extractive which is
consumed in the form of capsules or tablets as a dietary
supplement (not a food) and has potential therapeutic
applications. A regular intake may enhance the immune
responses of the human body, thereby increasing resistance
to disease and, in some cases, causing regression of a
disease state.

Mushroom Hunting
The fungi are found just about everywhere. Mushrooms
are rather more selective than other fungi in that the size of
the fruiting body requires the availability of more nutrients
than are required for the production of asexual spores by
microfungi. In damp places, such as tree-fern gullies and
areas of rain forest, plentiful moisture leads to mushroom
formation. They can be collected at most times of the year,
but in drier regions they occur only after seasonal rains. In
these areas there may be a particular ora of mushroom
species associated with the seasons of autumn, summer and
spring. Relatively few mushrooms are produced during the
cold winter months although there are perennial fruiting
bodies that persist during the winter. Formation of
mushroom fruiting bodies depends very much on the
pattern of rain and, in some years, there may be virtually a
complete lack of fruiting.
Mushroom hunters, in addition to bringing basic
equipment and eld guide reference, which will vary
depending on personal requirements and regional conditions, should record such items as date, time, location,
smell, substrate (host) colour, milk (if present), habitat and
anything at all unusual about the specimen. Some
important characteristics for identication disappear
rapidly as the mushroom matures; these characteristics
have to be recorded accurately at the time of collection.
Ecologically, mushrooms can be classied into three
groups: the saprophytes, the parasites and the mycorrhizae. There are only a few parasitic mushrooms. Most of
the cultivated gourmet mushrooms are saprophytic fungi.
Some are mycorrhizal mushrooms, e.g. Perigold black

true, Tuber melanosporum, and matsutake mushroom,

Tricholoma matsutake. It is dicult to bring these pricey
wild gourmet species into cultivation because they are
mycorrhizal. These mushroom species have a symbiotic
relationship with some vegetation, particularly trees, i.e.
there is a relationship of mutual need.
Whatever their motives (amateur, gourmet, scientic
study), collectors should take some basic precautions to
keep their materials in proper condition. The majority of
fresh mushrooms are relatively fragile, and they should be
protected from vibration and impact by careful packing. In
general, plastic bags are unsuitable for collection of
specimens, as they lead to sweating and rapid deterioration. Scientic collections may be made for the purpose of
immediate examination and discarded, or they may be
preserved for future reference. Although preservation is
best achieved by drying, collections are often lost through
the growth of moulds. Particularly in subtropical and
tropical areas, collectors should be aware that it is essential
to add paraformaldehyde or naphthalene to all collections.
In addition, eshy mushrooms should not be dried at
temperatures above 35408C, since the hyphae and other
microscopic structures become too strongly agglutinated,
making later microscopical studies dicult.

Cultivation of Mushrooms
Cultivation of edible mushrooms had its beginning in
China around ad 600 when Auricularia auricula was rst
cultivated. It is interesting to look at the historical record of
the mushrooms rst cultivated (Table 3). Eight of these
mushrooms, including ve of the currently most popular
species, were cultivated prior to the twentieth century,
while the remaining 31 were rst successfully cultivated in
the twentieth century. The great increase in the number of
species brought into cultivation in the 1980s and 1990s
corresponds with the dramatic acceleration in total
worldwide cultivated mushroom production (e.g. 1975,
0.90 million tonnes (Mt); 1981, 1.26 Mt; 1986, 2.18 Mt;
1990, 3.76 Mt; and 1994, 4.91 Mt from the 10 most popular
species, Agaricus bisporus/bitorgues, Lentinula edodes,
Pleurotus spp., Auricularia spp., Volvariella volvacea,
Flammulina velutipes, Tremella fuciformis, Hypsizygus
marmoreus, Pholiota nameko and Grifola frondosa). In
recent years, several new species of edible mushrooms, e.g.
Hericium erinaceus, Dictyophora indusiata, Stropharia
rugoso-anmulata, Agrocybe aegerita, Coprinus comatus,
Agaricus blazei and Agrocybe cylindracea have also been
commercially cultivated. Although total production by
these new species has been minimal to date, it does reect
the great consumer interest in new varieties of edible
mushrooms. Mushroom scientists are making a great eort
to bring additional wild species under cultivation to satisfy
consumer demand.
5

Mushrooms and Mushroom Cultivation

Table 3 Historical record of cultivated mushrooms

Year rst cultivated

Species

Year rst cultivated

Species

600
800
1000
1232
1600
1621
1700
1800
1900
1950
1958
1958
1958
1960
1961
1962
1969
1973
1974

Auricularia auricula
Flammulina velutipes
Lentinula edodes
Poria cocos
Agaricus bisporus
Ganoderma spp.
Volvariella volvacea
Tremella fuciformis
Pleurotus ostreatus
Agrocybe cylindracea
Pleurotus orida
Pleurotus ferulae
Pholiota nameko
Hericium erinaceus
Agaricus bitorquis
Pleurotus abellatus
Pleurotus cystidiosus
Hypsizigus marmoreus
Pleurotus sajor-caju

1981
1982
1982
1982
1983
1983
1983
1984
1984
1984
1985
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1991
1997

Pleurotus citrinopileatus
Dictyophora duplicata
Oudemansiella radicata
Hohenbuehelia serotina
Armillaria mellea
Grifola frondosa
Pleurotus sapidus
Coprinus comatus
Amanita caesarea
Hericium coralloides
Tremella mesenterica
Sparassis crispa
Morchella spp.
Lyophyllum ulmarium
Lentinus tigrinus
Gloestereum incarnatum
Tricholoma lobayense
Tricholoma mongolicum
Tricholoma gambosum
Cantharellus cibarius

Reproduced with permission from Chang (1993) and Danell and Camacho (1997).

Mushroom cultivation can be relatively primitive or a

highly sophisticated agricultural activity requiring a
sizable capital outlay for mechanized equipment. The
straw mushroom, Volvariella volvacea, is commonly grown
in Southeast Asian countries on small, family-type farms.
In contrast, in many Western nations, cultivation of the
Agaricus mushrooms may be highly industrialized with a
few farms producing a disproportionally large percentage
of a countrys output.
Although simple in concept, various intricacies associated with the process of mushroom cultivation must be
understood for the enterprise to be successful. In every
case, the ultimate aim is to obtain the maximum yield from
a given surface area or a given weight of substrate per
period of time by the use of high yielding strains, by
shortening the cropping period, or by increasing the
number of high yielding ushes. To achieve maximum
yield requires an understanding of: (1) the nature of
mushrooms, ecological habitats in wood and straw (mostly
primary decomposers, directly breaking down a substrate
for growth, e.g. L. edodes and V. volvacea) or dung (mostly
secondary decomposers, relying on the previous activity of
other microorganisms to partially degrade a substrate to a
state wherein they can grow, e.g. A. bisporus); (2) the nature
of substrate materials and their preparation; (3) appropriate control of physical, chemical and biological parameters (e.g. moisture content, pH, temperature,
competitive microora); and (4) proper management of
mushroom beds, including pest and disease control.
6

The major phases of mushroom cultivation can be

briey described as follows.
1. Selection of an acceptable mushroom. There is
considerable variation among edible mushroom species in the temperatures suitable for vegetative growth
(spawn running) and fruiting body development.
2. Selection of a fruiting culture. A fruiting culture is
dened as one with the genetic capacity (e.g. dikaryon)
to form fruiting bodies under suitable growth conditions.
3. Development of spawn. A medium through which the
mycelium of a fruiting culture has grown and which
serves as the inoculum or seed for the substrate in
mushroom cultivation is called the mushroom spawn.
Substrates used in spawn production include various
grains (rye, wheat and sorghum), rice straw cuttings,
and cotton waste. A good spawn should be free of
contamination, have vigorous growth, and survive
storage well.
4. Preparation of substrate. Substrates for cultivating
edible mushrooms normally require varying degrees of
pretreatment in order to promote growth of the
mushroom mycelium to the practical exclusion of
other microorganisms. Dierent substrate types for
dierent mushrooms can be formulated according to
the growing conditions.
5. Mycelial (spawn) running. Spawn running is the phase
during which mycelium grows from the spawn and

Mushrooms and Mushroom Cultivation

permeates the substrate. Good mycelial growth is

essential for mushroom production and will depend on
proper maintenance of the beds and mushroom house
in terms of temperature, moisture content, humidity
and aeration.
6. Mushroom development. The appearance of mushrooms normally occurs in rhythmic cycles called
ushes. Suitable temperature, humidity and ventilation controls must be maintained during the cropping
period since these factors will aect the number of
ushes and the total yield obtained.

Danell E and Camacho FJ (1997) Successful cultivation of the golden

chanterelle. Nature 385: 303.
Editorial (1997) The magic of mushroom. Nature 388: 340.
Kendrick B (1985) The Fifth Kingdom, p. 364. Waterloo, Canada:
Mycologue Publications.
Miles PG and Chang ST (1997). Mushroom Biology: Concise Basic and
Current Developments, p. 193. Singapore: World Scientic.
Shepherd CJ and Totterdell CJ (1988). Mushrooms and Toadstools of
Australia, p. 162. Sydney: Inkata Press.

Cultivation techniques vary for dierent mushroom

species in dierent countries. More information can be
found in Chang and Miles (1989).

Chang ST (1996) Mushroom research and development equality and

mutual benet. In: Royse DJ (ed.) Mushroom Biology and Mushroom
Products, pp. 110. USA: Pennsylvania State University.
Chang ST and Hayes WA (1978) The Biology and Cultivation of Edible
Mushrooms. New York: Academic Press.
Courtecuisse R and Duhem B (1994) Mushrooms and Toadstools of
Britain and Europe. London: Harper Collins.
Groves JW (1962) Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of Canada. Ottawa,
Canada: Canada Department of Agriculture.
Quimio TH, Chang ST and Royse DJ (1990) Technical Guidelines for
Mushroom Growing in Tropics. Rome: FAO.
Ramsbottom J (1953) Mushrooms and Toadstools. London: Collins.
Rumack BH and Salzman E (1978) Mushroom Poisoning: Diagnosis and
Treatment, 263 pp. West Palm Beach, FL: CRC Press.
Stamets P (1993) Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. Berkeley,
CF: Ten Speed Press.
Van Griensven LJLD (1988) The Cultivation of Mushrooms. Rustington,
Sussex: Darlington Mushroom Laboratories.
Young T (1994) Common Australian Fungi: A Naturalists Guide.
Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.

References
Chang ST (1993) Mushroom biology: the impact on mushroom
production and mushroom products. In: Chang ST, Buswell JA and
Chiu SW (eds) Mushroom Biology and Mushroom Products, pp. 320.
Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.
Chang ST and Buswell JA (1996) Mushroom nutriceuticals. World
Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 12: 473476.
Chang ST and Miles PG (1989) Edible Mushrooms and Their Cultivation,
p. 345. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Chang ST and Miles PG (1992) Mushroom biology a new discipline.
The Mycologist 6: 6465.
Chilton WS (1978) Chemistry and mode of action of mushroom toxins.
In: Rumack BH and Salzman E (eds) Mushroom Poisoning: Diagnosis
and Treatment, pp. 88117. West Palm Beach, FL: CRC Press.

Further Reading