Chapter - 4

Soil water plant relationships

Instructional objectives
On completion of this lesson, the student shall learn:
1. The soil and water system that is needed for plant growth
2. Classification of soils with regards to agriculture
3. Classification of water held within soil pores
4. Soil water constants and their significance
5. Watering interval for crops
1.0 Introduction
The basic soil, water, and plant relationships are important to agricultural producers, but
especially to irrigation users that desire to use best management practices such as irrigation
scheduling. Irrigation scheduling determines when and how much water needs to be added to a
crops root zone to promote optimum yields.
Both soil and water are essential for plant growth. The soil provides a structural base to the
plants and allows the root system (the foundation of the plant) to spread and get a strong hold.
The pores of the soil within the root zone hold moisture which clings to the soil particles by
surface tension in the driest state or may fill up the pores partially or fully saturating with it
useful nutrients dissolved in water, essential for the growth of the plants. The roots of most plants
also require oxygen for respiration. Hence, full saturation of the soil pores leads to restricted root
growth for these plants. (There are exceptions, though, like the rice plant, in which the supply of
oxygen to the roots is made from the leaves through aerenchyma cells which are continuous from
the leaves to the roots).
2.0 Soils Physical Characteristics
The various physical characteristics of soil affect the interaction between soil, water, and air.
2.1 Composition. A unit of soil is a combination of solid material, composed of mineral and
organic matter, and open space, called pores. By volume, most soils are roughly 50 percent solids
and 50 percent pore space.

The mineral matter makes up about 45 to 47 percent of the total soil volume. This mineral matter
consists of small particles of sand, silt, or clay.
Organic matter is made up of decaying plant and animal substances and is distributed in and
among the mineral particles. Organic matter can account for up to about 5 percent of the overall
soil makeup by volume, but many agricultural soils have less than 1 percent organic matter.
The pores, spaces that occur between the mineral particles, are important because they store air
and water in the soil.
Figure 1 shows the approximate relationship between the substances in the soil composition,
with the pore space shown split between air and water. The amount of water and air present in
the pore spaces varies over time in an inverse relationship. This means that for more water to be
contained in the soil, there has to be less air. The amount of water and air in soil pore space is
essential to crop production.

Fig. 1 Typical soil composition by volume

2.2 Soil texture: The size of the particles that make up the soil determine soil texture.
The traditional method of determining soil particle size consists of separating the particles into
three convenient size ranges:

sand,

silt, and

clay.

Generally, only particles smaller than 2 mm (1/12 inch) in size are categorized as soil particles.
Particles larger than this are categorized as gravel, stones, cobbles, or boulders.
Sand particles range in size from 2 mm to 0.05 mm. There are subcategories assigned to this
range that include coarse, medium, and fine sand.

Silt particles range in size from 0.05 mm down to 0.002 mm. The physical appearance of silt is
much like sand, but the characteristics are more like clay.
Clay particles are less than 0.002 mm in size. Clay is an important soil fraction because it has the
most influence on soil behavior such as water-holding capacity. Clay and silt particles cannot be
seen with the naked eye.
Soil texture is determined by the mass ratios or the percent by weight of the three soil fractions.
The soil textural triangle, Fig. 2, shows the different textural classes and the percentage by
weight of each soil fraction. For example, a soil containing 30 percent sand, 30 percent clay, and
40 percent silt by weight is classified as a clay loam.

Fig. 2 USDA textural classification chart

Organic soils vary in organic matter content from 20 percent to as high as 95 percent. They
generally are classified on the basis of degree of decomposition of the organic deposits. The
terms peat, muck, and mucky peat are used for organic materials in a manner similar to the way
in which mineral textural terms are used.
Muck is well-decomposed organic soil material.
Peat is raw undecomposed organic materials in which the original fibers constitute almost all of
the material.

Mucky peat material is intermediate between muck and peat.

Mucky is used to modify mineral soil texture. The term implies the presence of enough organic
matter to give the material some properties of organic soil combined with the properties of the
mineral material. The material does not, however, have enough organic matter to be "muck."
Mucky material is usually dark, friable, and retentive of moisture; it is mineral in basic
composition. The organic matter content is commonly more than 10 percent.
2.2 Soil structure:
Soil structure is the arrangement and organization of soil particles into natural units of
aggregation that soil scientists call peds.
Peds are separated from one another by planes of weakness that persist through cycles of wetting
and drying in place. Most peds are large enough to be seen without magnification.
Structure influences the rate at which water and air enter and move through the soil; it also
affects root penetration and the nutrient supply of the soil.
Structure type (Fig. 3) refers to the particular kind of particle grouping that predominates in a
soil horizon.

Fig. 3 Types of Soil Structure and Their Effect on Downward Movement of Water
Single grained and massive soils are structureless. In single-grained soils, such as loose sand,
water percolates very rapidly.

Water moves very slowly through massive soils such as some clays. The more favorable water
relations are usually in soils that have prismatic, blocky, and granular structure; platy structure
impedes the downward movement of water.
Unlike texture, structure of the soil can be changed to the depth of tillage. Excellent structure
develops in the surface layer of soils high in organic matter and on which perennial grass is
growing. Cycles of wetting and drying or of freezing and thawing improve structure in the plow
layer. On the other hand, cultivation of medium- or fine-Irrigation water that contains large
amounts of sodium causes very undesirable structure by dispersing the soil aggregates.
The physical condition of the soil in relation to plant growth and ease of tillage is commonly
referred to as tilth. It depends on both the degree and stability of soil aggregates.
Good, fair, and poor are the common descriptive terms for tilth. They refer to the ease with
which a soil can be tilled and the rate it takes in water. Good soil tilth can be achieved on most
soils by using good soil management practices.
The classification of soil structure is done according to three indicators as: Type:

there are four types of primary structures - platy, prism-like, block like and
spheroidal.

Class: there are five recognized classes in each of the primary types. These are very fine,
fine, medium, coarse and very coarse.
Grade: this represents the degree of aggradation that is the proportion between aggregate
and unaggregated material that results when the aggregates are displaced or gently
crushed. Grades are termed as structure less, weak, moderate, strong and very
strong depending on the stability of the aggregates when disturbed.
2.3 Soil classification
Soils vary widely in their characteristics and properties. In order to establish the interrelation
ship between their characteristics, they need to be classified. In India, the soils may be grouped
into the following types:
Alluvial soils: These soils are formed by successive deposition of silt transported by rivers
during floods, in the flood plains and along the coastal belts. This group is by far the
largest and most important soil group of India contributing the greatest share to its
agricultural wealth. Though a great deal of variation exists in the type of alluvial soil

available throughout India, the main features of the soils are derived from the deposition
laid by the numerous tributaries of the Indus, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra river
systems. These streams, draining the Himalayas, bring with them the products of
weathering rocks constituting the mountains, in various degrees of fineness and deposit
them as they traverse the plains. Alluvial soils textures vary from clayey loam to sandy
loam. The water holding capacity of these soils is fairly good and is good for irrigation.
Black soils: This type of soil has evolved from the weathering of rocks such as basalts,
granites and gneisses. Black soils are derived from the Deccan trap and are found in
Maharashtra, western parts of Madhya Pradesh, parts of Andhra Pradesh, parts of Gujarat
and some parts of Tamilnadu. These soils are heavy textured with the clay content
varying from 40 to 60 percent. The soils possess high water holding capacity but are poor
in drainage.
Red soils: These soils are formed by the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rock
comprising gneisses and schists. They comprise of vast areas of Tamil nadu, Karnataka,
Goa, Daman & Diu, south-eastern Maharashtra, Eastern Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and
Jharkhand. They also are in the Birbhum district of West Bengal and Mirzapur, Jhansi and
Hamirpur districts of Uttar pradesh. The red soils have low water holding capacity and
hence well drained.
Laterites and Lateritic soils: Laterite is a formation peculiar to India and some other
tropical countries, with an intermittently moist climate. Laterite soils are derived from the
weathering of the laterite rocks and are well developed on the summits of the hills of the
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, the eastern ghats of Orissa, Maharashtra, West
Bengal, Tamilnadu and Assam. These soils have low clay content and hence possess good
drainage characteristics.
Desert soils: A large part of the arid region, belonging to western Rajasthan, Haryana,
Punjab, lying between the Indus river and the Aravalli range is affected by the desert
conditions of the geologically recent origin. This part is covered by a mantle of blown
sand which, combined with the arid climate, results in poor soil development. They are
light textured sandy soils and react well to the application of irrigation water.
Problem soils: The problem soils are those, which owing to land or soil characteristics
cannot be used for the cultivation of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures.

Highly eroded soils, ravine lands, soils on steeply sloping lands etc. constitute one set of
problem soils. Acid, saline and alkaline soils constitute another set of problem soil.
2.4 Soil Salinity and Sodicity
Saline and sodic soils are most common in arid and semiarid regions, because rainfall is
inadequate to meet the potential evapotranspiration requirement of plants. These soils occur
when salts are not leached and accumulate to levels detrimental to plant growth. Salt problems
can develop in subhumid and humid regions, particularly near coastal regions. It is estimated that
as much as one-third of all irrigated lands in the world (about 70 million hectares) have salt
problems.
There are three main natural sources of soil salinity, namely:

mineral weathering,
atmospheric precipitation, and
fossil salts.

In addition, salts are added to soils by irrigation and agricultural and industrial wastes. Salts are
commonly transported from areas of over-irrigation to accumulate in poorly drained areas. As
drainage water or irrigation return-flows evaporate, high concentrations of salts remain.
Both evaporation and transpiration increase the residual concentration of dissolved salts. Salt
concentration normally increases with soil depth in well-drained soil. As the proportion of
irrigation water passing through the root zone (the leaching fraction) is increased, salt
accumulation in the lower profile decreases.
When soils are irrigated with waters containing large amounts of sodium, the exchangeable
sodium levels may become quite high. Such soils frequently crust severely and swell or disperse,
which greatly decreases the hydraulic conductivity or permeability of the soils to water.
2.5 Categories of Salt-Affected Soils
The classification of salt-affected soils is based on the soluble salt concentrations in extracted
soil solutions.
Electrical conductivity (EC) of a saturated extract is the standard measure of salinity. Table 1
gives the salinity class associated with electrical conductivity of soil saturation extracts that are
in use by the Soil Conservation Service.

Table 1 Classification of salt-affected soils.

Class

Electrical conductivity
(EC)* in
Siemens per meter (S/M)

Very slightly saline

Slightly saline
Moderately saline
Strongly saline

0 - 0.4
0.4 - 0.8
0.8 1.6
>1.6
*Corrected to a temperature of 25 degrees C.

The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is the standard measure of the sodicity of a soil; it replaces
the previously used exchangeable sodium percentage. The sodium adsorption ratio is calculated
from the concentrations (in milliequivalents per liter) of sodium, calcium, and magnesium ions in
the saturation extract according to the following relationship:
SAR

Na

Ca Mg / 2 1 2
(1)

3.0 Soil and water interactions

Soil acts like a reservoir that holds water and nutrients plants need to grow. Some soils are large
reservoirs with more holding capacity that release water and nutrients easily to plants, while
other soils have limited reservoirs. Soil water is frequently described in terms of content in units
of gravimetric percent, percent on a volume basis, or equivalent water depth per unit of soil
depth.
As stated earlier, water may occur in the soil pores in varying proportions. Some of the
definitions related to the water held in the soil pores are as follows:
Gravitational water: A soil sample saturated with water and left to drain the excess out by
gravity holds on to a certain amount of water. The volume of water that could easily drain
off is termed as the gravitational water. This water is not available for plants use as it
drains off rapidly from the root zone.
Capillary water: the water content retained in the soil after the gravitational water has
drained off from the soil is known as the capillary water. This water is held in the soil by

surface tension. Plant roots gradually absorb the capillary water and thus constitute the
principle source of water for plant growth.
Hygroscopic water: the water that an oven dry sample of soil absorbs when exposed to
moist air is termed as hygroscopic water. It is held as a very thin film over the surface of
the soil particles and is under tremendous negative (gauge) pressure. This water is not
available to plants.
The above definitions of the soil water are based on physical factors. Some properties of soil
water are not directly related to the above significance to plant growth.
3.1 Soil water content
Soil water content is the amount of water stored in the soil at a given time. For a particular soil,
certain soil water proportions are defined which dictate whether the water is available or not for
plant growth. These are called the soil water constants, which are described below.
3.1.1 Saturation capacity: This is the total water content of the soil when all the pores of the soil
are filled with water. It usually occurs immediately after a heavy rainfall or an irrigation
application. It is also termed as the maximum water holding capacity of the soil. At saturation
capacity, the soil moisture tension is almost equal to zero.
3.1.2 Field capacity: This is the water retained by an initially saturated soil against the force of
gravity. Hence, as the gravitational water gets drained off from the soil, it is said to reach the
field capacity. At field capacity, the macro-pores of the soil are drained off, but water is retained
in the micropores. Though the soil moisture tension at field capacity varies from soil to soil, it is
normally between 1/10 (for clayey soils) to 1/3 (for sandy soils) atmospheres. This is not a
definite soil water point; therefore, field capacity often is defined as approximately one-third
atmosphere tension.
3.1.3 Permanent wilting point: Plant roots are able to extract water from a soil matrix, which is
saturated up to field capacity. However, as the water extraction proceeds, the moisture content
diminishes and the negative (gauge) pressure increases. At one point, the plant cannot extract any
further water and thus wilts.
Two stages of wilting points are recognized and they are:
Temporary wilting point: this denotes the soil water content at which the plant
wilts at day time, but recovers during night or when water is added to the soil.

 Ultimate wilting point: at such a soil water content, the plant wilts and fails to
regain life even after addition of water to soil. It occurs at the hygroscopic
water content, hence it is also called hygroscopic coefficient. It is about 2/3 rd
of the permanent wilting point.
Soil that has been oven dried is used as a reference point for determining soil water content.
It must be noted that the above water contents are expressed as percentage of water held in the
soil pores, compared to a fully saturated soil. Figure 4 explains graphically, the various soil
constants; the full pie represents the volume of voids in soil.
As shown in Fig. 4, the available water for plants is defined as the difference in moisture content
of the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting point.

Fig. 4 Classification of soil water

Water may also be classified based on the availability of soil water to crop.
(i)

Unavailable water: It refers to hygroscopic water which is not available to crops due
to its inability to move by gravity or capillary forces. It is the soil moisture held so
firmly by molecular forces that it cannot ordinarily be absorbed by plant roots with

(ii)

sufficient rapidity to produce growth.

Available water: It refers to the capillary water which readily contributes to the plant

(iii)

roots.
Superfluous water: It refers to the gravitational water that drains down so deeper that
plant roots cannot draw it.

3.2 Soil Water Tension. The ease by which water can be extracted from the soil depends on the soil
water tension.

Water being held in pores by the capillary storage is held in the soil at a certain tension. The
same is true for water held with the adsorption phenomenon. As the soil dries, these tensions
become larger. It is easier for a plant to extract water being held at lower tensions.
The tensions that correspond to the soil-water equilibrium points discussed above are a good
example of water tensions affecting plant water use. At saturation, the soil water tension is
approximately 0.001 bar. One bar tension is equivalent to 1 atmosphere of pressure (14.7 psi).
Thus, from the above discussion, it would be easy for a plant to extract water from a saturated
soil. Saturation only lasts a short time, so plants extract only a small portion of the water above
field capacity.
Field capacity is defined to be at approximately one-third atmosphere pressure or approximately
0.3 bar. At this content, it is still easy for the plant to extract water from the soil.
The wilting point occurs when the potential of the plant root is balanced by the soil water
potential; thus, plants are unable to absorb water beyond this tension (approximately 15 bars). As
soil water approaches the wilting point, plants will exhibit increasing symptoms of water stress,
such as wilting and leaf senescence. Prolonged exposure will result in plant death.
As a reference, the soil water tension in an oven-dried soil sample is approximately 10,000 bars.
The relationship between the soil water content value, percent available soil water, and soil
tension for a silty clay loam soil is illustrated in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Soil water tension

3.3 Soil water constants expressed in depth units:

In the last section, the soil water constants were mentioned as being expressed as weight
percentages of the moisture content (that is amount of water) held by the water at a certain state
with respect to the weight of the dried soil sample. The same may also be expressed as volume of
water stored in the root zone of a field per unit area. This would consequently express the soil
water constants as units of depths. The conversion from one form to the other is presented below:
Assume the following:
Root zone depth =

(m)

Specific weight of soil =

Specific weight of water =

Area of plot considered =

3
(kg/m )

3
(kg/m )

1m 1m

Hence, the weight of soil per unit area would be:

s 1 D

(kg)

The weight of water held by the soil per unit area would be equal to:
Where

w 1 d

is equivalent depth of water that is actually distributed within the soil pores.

Hence the following constants may be expressed as:

Field capacity

FC

Weight of water held by soil per unit area

Weight of soil per unit area
=

w 1 d
s 1 D

Thus, depth of water,

s
D FC
w

(2)

d FC

held by soil at field capacity

FC

(3)

d
wp

Similarly, depth of water

held by soil at permanent wilting point

PWP

s
D PWP
w

(4)

d aw
Hence, depth of water

available to plants

s
D FC PWP
w

(5)

Therefore, the depth of water available to plants per meter depth of soil

s
FC PWP
w

(6)

It may be noted that plants cannot extract the full available water with the same efficiency. About
75 percent of the amount is rather easily extracted, and it is called the readily available water.
The available water holding capacity for a few typical soil types are given as in the following
table:
Soil Texture

Sandy
Sandy loam
Loam
Clay loam
Clay

Field

Capacity Permanent

Bulk Density( )
s

(FC)

Wilting Point

percent

(PWP)

3
Kg/m

5 to 10
10 to 18
18 to 25
24 to 32
32 to 40

percent
2 to 6
4 to 10
8 to 14
11 to 16
15 to 22

1500 to 1800
1400 to 1600
1300 to 1500
1300 to 1400
1200 to 1400

Available

water

per meter depth of

soil profile(m)
0.05 to 0.1
0.09 to 0.16
0.14 to 0.22
0.17 to 0.29
0.20 to 0.21

Example: The root zone of an irrigation soil has dry weight of 15 kN /ml a field capacity of
30%. The root zone depth of a certain crop, having permanent wilting percentage of 8% is 0.8 m.
Determine:
a) depth of moisture in the root zone at capacity
b) depth of moisture in the root zone at permanent wilting point, and
c) depth of water available.
Solution:

(a) Depth of water in root zone at field capacity, per meter depth of soil

s
FC 15 0.3
w
9.81
=

= 0.459 m/m = 459 mm/m

(b) Depth of water in root zone at permanent wilting point, per m depth of

s
PW 15 0.08
w
9.81
=

= 0.122m/m = 122mm/m

(c) Depth of water available in root zone

s
D FC PWP 15 0.8 0.3 0.08
w
9.81
=

= 0.269 m = 269 mm

Example: The (leld capacity of a certain soil is 15% and the moisture content of the soil before
irrigation is 8%. Determine the depth upto which the soil profile be wetted with an application of
60 mm of water. Take the dry unit weight soil as 15.3kN/m3.

Solution:

s 15.3

1.56
w 9.81

Depth of water applied

s
D
w

[Field capacity - moisture content before irrigation]

60 1.56 D 0.15 0.08

From which

D 550 mm

Example: Find the field capacity of a soil for the following data:
Root zone depth

=2m

Existing water content

= 5%

Dry density of soil

= 15 kN/m3

Water applied to the soil

= 500 m3

Water loss due to evaporation and deep percolation = 10%

Area of plot

= 1000 sq. metres.

Solution: Total water applied = 500 m3

Loss of water = 10%

50
Water used iri the soil =
Weight of water used =

450 9.81

Total dry weight of the soil =

% of water added =

90
100

= 450 m3
= 4414.5 kN

1000 2 15

4414 .5
100
30000

= 30000 kN

= 14.72%

New water content = 5% + 14.72% = 19.72%

Field capacity = 19.72%
Example: A loam soil. has field capacity of 22% and wilting coefficient of The dry unit weight
of soil is 15 kN/m3. If the root zone depth is 70 cm, determine the storage capacity of the soil.
Irrigation water is applied when moisture content falls 4%. If the water application efficiency is
75%, determine the water depth required to be applied in the field.

Solution: Given,

d 15kN / m 3

; also,

w 9.81kN / m 3

Maximum storage capacity = Available moisture

s
15
D FC WC
0.70 0.22 0.10
w
9.81

= 128 m = 12.8cm

Depth of irrigation water,

s
15
D FC W
0.70 0.22 0.14
w
9.81

Field irrigation requirement,

= 0.086m = 86mm

86
115 mm
0.75

4.0 Water absorption by plants

Water is absorbed mostly through the roots of plants, though an insignificant absorption is also
done through the leaves. A plants root system must provide a negative tension (pressure) to
extract water from the ground. This tension must be equivalent to the tension that holds the water
in the soil. For example, if the water in the soil is at 0.3 bars (around field capacity), the plant
must provide at least 0.3 bars of negative tension to pull the water from the ground.
Plants normally have a higher concentration of roots close to the soil surface and the density
decreases with depth as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Typical root density variation

In a normal soil with good aeration, a greater portion of the roots of most plants remain within
0.45m to 0.60m of surface soil layers and most of the water needs of plants are met from this
zone. As the available water from this zone decreases, plants extract more water from lower
depths. When the water content of the upper soil layers reach wilting point, all the water needs of
plants are met from lower layers.
Since there exists few roots in lower layers, the water extract from lower layers may not be
adequate to prevent wilting, although sufficient water may be available there. When the top
layers of the root zone are kept moist by frequent application of water through irrigation, plants
extract most of the water (about 40 percent) from the upper quarter of their root zone. In the
lower quarter of root zone the water extracted by the plant meets about 30 percent of its water

needs. Further below, the third quarter of the root zone extracts about 20 percent and the
lowermost quarter of root zone extracts the remaining about 10 percent of the plants water.
It may be noted that the water extracted from the soil by the roots of a plant moves upwards and
essentially is lost to the atmosphere as water vapors mainly through the leaves. This process,
called transpiration, results in losing almost 95percent of water sucked up. Only about 5percent
of water pumped up by the root system is used by the plant for metabolic purpose and increasing
the plant body weight.
A plant has different water needs at different stages of growth. While a plant is young, it requires
less water than when it is in the reproductive stage. As a plant approaches maturity, its water
needs drops. Curves have been developed that show the daily water needs for most types of
crops. Figure 7 shows a typical crop water curve. Perennial crops, such as alfalfa, have crop
water-use curves similar to those in Fig. 7, except that the crop water use is altered when the crop
is cut or harvested. The water use would drop dramatically at cutting and recover with regrowth,
making the water-use curve appear in a sawtooth-shaped pattern.

Fig. 7 Typical plant water use curve by stage of growth

5.0 Methods Used for Characterizing Soil Water
The best and most effective way of determining when to irrigate is to measure or to estimate the
water level in the soil. By knowing the amount of water that is available, the irrigator who has

knowledge of and experience with a particular crop on a particular soil can accurately determine
when irrigation is needed
5.1 Gravimetric - Here, soil samples are taken from a desired depth at several locations in a field
for each soil type. Samples are weighed, dried in an oven for 24 hours at 105 to 1 10 degrees
centigrade, and then weighed again. The difference in weight is the amount of water, dry weight
basis, in the soil, which can be converted to inches or centimeters of water remaining in the soil.
Although this method gives good results, it is not used generally by growers. Its accuracy
depends on the number of samples taken and on the skill used in obtaining and handling the
samples. It requires using facilities not ordinarily owned by growers and requires much time and
labor. The method is used principally in experimental work and is a standard against which other
methods of soil water determination can be compared.
5.2 Feel and Appearance Method- How soil samples taken in the field from appropriate locations
and depths, feel and look gives some indication of water content. A shovel can be used
to get samples, but for some soils a soil auger or a sampling tube is better. The reaction of the
soil to three field tests are recorded and compared to locally developed feel and water content.
These three tests are as follows:

the ball test where the soil is squeezed several times into a firm ball, and then dropped

from several heights and the effects are recorded;

the rod test where the soil is rolled to form a 0.10-inch (3 mm) diameter rod and then it is

held out vertically and the effect on the length is measured and recorded; and
the ribbon test where the soil material is smeared out between the thumb and first finger
and the length of the resulting ribbon is recorded.

Although gauging water conditions by feel and appearance is not the most accurate method, with
experience the irrigator should be able to estimate the soil water content level within 10 to 15
percent. This method is inexpensive, but acquiring the soil samples is a lot of work.
5.3 Tensiometers: Tensiometers (Fig. 8) work on the principle that a partial vacuum is created in
a closed chamber when water moves out through a porous ceramic cup to the surrounding soil.
Tension is measured by a water manometer, a mercury manometer, or a vacuum gauge.

Fig. 8 Tensiometers
The scales are generally calibrated in either hundredths of an atmosphere or in centimeters of
water. Tensiometers that utilize a mercury manometer are usually preferred as research tools
because they afford great precision. Because of their simplicity, tensiometers equipped with
Bourdon vacuum gauges are better suited to practical use and to irrigation control on particular
soils. The cup of the tensiometer is placed in the soil at the desired depth, after which the
instrument must be filled with water. Water moves through the porous cup until water in the cup
and the water in the soil reach equilibrium. Any increase in tension that occurs as the soil dries
causes the above ground vacuum-gauge reading to increase.
Conversely, an increase in soil-water content reduces tension and lowers the gauge reading. The
tensiometer continues to record fluctuations in soil-water content unless the tension exceeds 0.85
atmosphere; at which point, air enters the system and the instrument ceases to function. If this
occurs, the instrument must again be filled with water before it can operate after an irrigation or
rain.
Some experience is required to use a tensiometer. If air enters the unit through any leaks at the
rubber connections, measurements are not reliable. Air leaks can also result from faulty cups as
well as at the contact points of the setscrews used to secure the porous cup to the metal support.

Tensiometer readings reflect soil water tension only; that is, they indicate the relative
wetness of the soil surrounding the porous tip. They do not provide direct information on

the amount of water held in the soil.

Tension measurements are useful in deciding when to irrigate, but they do not indicate
how much water should be applied. A special water-characteristic curve for the particular
soil site is needed to convert water-tension measurements into available water

percentages.
Tensiometers do not satisfactorily measure the entire range of available water in all soil

types.
They are best suited to use in sandy soils hecause in these soils a large part of the water

available to plants is held at a tension of less than 1 atmosphere.

Tensiometers are less well suited to use in fine-textured soils in which only a small part
of the available water is held at a tension of less than 1 atmosphere. Tensiometers are
usually installed in the lower half of the root zone in finer textured soils in order that the
readings are within the gauge range even though appreciable water has been extracted.

5.4 Electrical-Resistance Instruments-These instruments use the principle that a change in water
content produces abchange in some electrical property of the soil or of an instrument in the soil
(Fig. 9). They consist of two electrodes permanently mounted in conductivity units, usually
blocks of plaster of Paris, nylon, fiber glass, gypsum, or combinations of these materials.

Fig. 9 Electrical resistance soil water meters

Electrodes in the blocks are attached by wires to a resistance or conductance meter that measures
changes in electrical resistance in the blocks.
When the units are buried in the soil, they become almost a part of the soil and respond to
changes in the water content of the soil. The amount of water in the blocks determines electrical
resistance; thereby, measurement of any change in resistance is an indirect measure of soil water
if the block is calibrated for a particular soil.
Nylon and fiber-glass blocks are more sensitive in the higher ranges of soil water than plaster of
Paris blocks, but often their contact with soil that is alternately wet and dry is not very good.
Nylon blocks are most sensitive at a tension of less than 2 atmospheres. Plaster of Paris blocks
function most effectively at a tension between 1 and 15 atmospheres; fiberglass blocks operate
satisfactorily over the entire range of available water. A combination of fiber glass and plaster of
Paris provides sensitivity in both the wet and dry ranges and provides good contact between the
soil and the unit.
There may be a lag between the soil water change and that in the block, especially in sandy
textured soils. This is particularly true with gypsum blocks. Lag times of 1 to 3 days have been
measured.
Electrical-resistance instruments are sensitive to salts in the soil; fiber-glass blocks are more
sensitive than plaster of Paris. Electrical resistance readings, therefore, are also affected by
concentrations of fertilizer. Where fertilizer is spread in bands, electrical-resistance instruments
should be placed well to one side of the bands. Temperature affects readings in all units.
Experience and careful interpretation of instrument readings are needed to get a good estimate of
soil-water conditions.
5.5 Neutron Scattering-The neutron scattering procedure to estimate soil-water content has
gained wide acceptance. It has some advantages over the gravimetric method because repeated
measurements may be made at the same location and depth, thus minimizing the effect of soil
variability on successive measurements. It also determines water content on a volume basis, the
volume of soil involved being influenced by soil type and wetness by the particular instrument
used.
Disadvantages are the initial high investment in equipment, Federal operating regulations, and
the time required per site to install access tubes.

A source of high energy, or fast neutrons, is lowered to the desired depth into a previously
installed access tube. The fast neutrons are emitted into the soil from an americium-beryllium or
radium-beryllium source and gradually lose energy by collision with various atomic nuclei.
Hydrogen, present almost entirely in soil water, is the most effective element in the soil to slow
down the neutrons. Thus, the degree of the slowing down of neutrons is a measure of the soilwater content. The slowed, or thermalized, neutrons form a cloud around the source and some of
these randomly return to the detector, which causes an electrical pulse on a charged wire. The
number of such pulses is measured over a given interval of time with a scalar, or the rate of
pulsation can be measured with a ratemeter. The count rate is approximately linearly related to
the water content. When not in use, the radiation source is housed in a shield that contains a high
hydrogen material, such as polyethylene or paraffin wax. This material serves as a standard by
which proper operation of the instrument can be verified. Inasmuch as instrument variations and
source decay take place, it is more satisfactory to use the count ratio method rather than just a
count. The ratio of sample count to standard count is plotted versus water content. This
eliminates any systematic errors that the instruments may introduce from day to day.
The volume of soil measured depends upon the energy of the initial fast neutrons and upon the
wetness of the soil. With the radium-beryllium source the volume of soil measured is a sphere of
about 6 inches (15 centimeters) in diameter in a wet soil and up to 20 inches (50 centimeters) or
more in a dry soil.
Measurements near the surface may not be accurate because neutrons may be lost through the
surface. It is difficult to accurately detect any sharp change in soil water with depth caused by a
wetting because the sphere of influence integrates individual layers.
5.6 Heat Dissipation - Heat conductivity can be used as an index to water content using the
principle that heat is conducted much faster in water than in dry soil. A constant current may be
passed through a heating element imbedded in a porous block for a given time. The resulting heat
is conducted away from the element, and the temperature of the element can be related to the
water content of the porous block. Temperatures can be measured with a linear diode temperature
sensor which eliminates the need to correct for ambient temperature changes.
The combination of the heating element and temperature sensor is referred to as a soil water
potential sensor. These sensors have essentially been a research tool, although on a limited basis
they are being used for field applications.

6. Watering interval for crops

A plot of land growing a crop has to be applied with water from time to time for its healthy
growth. The water may come naturally from rainfall or may supplemented by artificially
applying water through irrigation. A crop should be irrigated before it receives a set back in its
growth and development. Hence the interval between two irrigations depends primarily on the
rate of soil moisture depletion. Normally, a crop has to be irrigated before soil moisture is
depleted below a certain portion of its availability in the root zone depending on the type pf
plant. The intervals are shorter during summer than in winter. Similarly, the intervals are shorter
for sandy soils than heavy soils. When the water supply is very limited, then the interval may be
prolonged which means that the soil moisture is allowed to deplete below 50percent of available
moisture before the next irrigation is applied. The optimum rates of soil moisture for a few
typical crops are given below:
Maize :

Field capacity to 60 percent of availability

Wheat :

Field capacity to 50 percent of availability

Sugarcane:

Field capacity to 50 percent of availability

Barley :

Field capacity to 40 percent of availability

Cotton :

Field capacity to 20 percent of availability

As for rice, the water requirement is slightly different than the rest. This is because it requires a
constant standing depth of water of about 5cm throughout its growing period. This means that
there is a constant percolation of water during this time and it has estimated that about 50 to 70
percent of water applied to the crop is lost in this way.
For most of the crops, except rice, the amount of water applied after each interval should be such
that the moisture content of the soil is raised to its field capacity. The soil moisture depletes
gradually due to the water lost through evaporation from the soil surface and due to the
absorption of water from the plant roots, called transpiration more of which has been discussed
in the next session. The combined effect of evaporation and transpiration, called evapotranspiration (ET) decides the soil water depletion rate for a known value of ET (which depends
on various factors, mainly climate); it is possible to find out the irrigation interval.
Some of the operational soil moisture ranges of some common crops are given below:
Rice:

This crop is grown both in lowland and upland conditions and throughout the year in some parts
of the country. For lowland rice, the practice of keeping the soil saturated or upto shallow
submergence of about 50mm throughout the growing period has been found to be the most
beneficial practice for obtaining maximum yields. When water resources are limited, the land
must be submerged at least during critical stages of growth. The major portion of the water
applied to the rice crop, about 50-75% is lost through deep percolation which varies with the
texture of the soil. Since the soil is kept constantly submerged for rice growth, all the pores are
completely filled with water through it is in a state of continuous downward movement. The total
water required by the rice plant is about 1.0 to 1.5m for heavy soils and soils with high water
table; 1.5 to 2.0m for medium soils and 2.0 to 2.5 for light soils with deep water table.
Wheat:
The optimum soil moisture range for tall wheat is from the field capacity to 50% of availability.
The dwarf wheat needs more wetness, and the optimum moisture range is from 100 to 60 percent
availability. The active root zone of the crops varies from 0.5 to 0.75m depending upon the soil
type. The total water requirement for wheat plants vary from 0.25m to 0.4 m in northern India to
about 0.5m to 0.6m in Central India.

Barley:
This crop is similar to wheat in its growing habits, but can withstand more droughts because of
the deeper and well spread root system. The active root zone of Barley extends between 0.6m to
0.75m on different soil types. The optimum soil moisture ranges from the field capacity to 40%
of availability.
Maize:
The crop is grown almost all over the country. The optimum soil moisture range is from 100 to
60% of availability in the maximum root zone depth which extends from 0.4 to 0.6 on different
soil types. The actual irrigation requirement of the crop varies with the amount of rainfall. In
north India, 0.1m and 0.15m is required to establish the crop before the onset of monsoon. In the
south, it is found that normal rain fall is sufficient to grow the crop in the monsoon season where
as 0.3m of water is required during water.
Cotton:

The optimum range of soil moisture for cotton crop is from the field capacity to 20% of available
water. The root zone varies upto about 0.75m. The total water requirement is about 0.4m to 0.5m.
Sugarcane:
The optimum soil moisture for sugarcane is about 100 to 50 percent of water availability in the
maximum root zone, which extends to about 0.5m to 0.75m in depth. The total water depth
requirement for sugarcane varies from about 1.4m to 1.5m in Bihar; 2.2m 2.4m in Karnataka;
and 2.0 2.3m in Madhya Pradesh.
7.0 Irrigation water quality
In irrigation agriculture, the quality of water used for irrigation should receive adequate
attention. Irrigation water, regardless of its source, always contains some soluble salts in it. Apart
from the total concentration of the dissolved salts, the concentration of some of the individual
salts, and especially those which are most harmful to crops, is important in determining the
suitability of water for irrigation. The constituents usually determined by analyzing irrigation
water are the electrical conductivity for the total dissolved salts, soluble sodium percentage,
sodium absorption ratio, boron content, pH, cations such as calcium, magnesium, sodium,
potassium and anions such as carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides and nitrates.
Water from rivers which flow over salt affected areas or in the deltaic regions has a greater
concentration of salts sometimes as high as 7500 ppm or even more. The quality of tank or lake
water depends mainly on the soil salinity in the water shed areas and the aridity of the region.
The quality of ground water resources, that is, from shallow or deep wells, is generally poor
under the situations of
high aridity
high water table and water logged conditions
in the vicinity of sea water
On the basis of suitability of water for irrigation, the water may be classified under three
categories, which are shown in the following table:
Class

Electrical

Total

Exchangeable

Chloride

Sulphates

Boron

Conductivit

Dissolved

sodium

(ppm)

(ppm)

(ppm)

Solids

(percentage)

(micro-

(ppm)

ohm/cm)

Remarks

0-1000

II

1000-3000

0-700
700-2000

0-60
60-75

0-142
142-355

0-192
192-480

0-0.5

Excellent to good for

0.5-2.0

irrigation
Good to
suitable

injurious;
only

with

permeable soils and

moderate
Harmful
III

>3000

>2000

>75

>355

>480

>2.0

teaching.
to

more

sensitive crops.
Unfit for irrigation

To evaluate a salt hazard, a water sample should be analyzed for three major factors:

Total soluble salts.

Sodium hazard (SAR).

Toxic ions.

Total soluble salts measures the salinity hazard by estimating the combined effects of all the
different salts that may be in the water. It is measured as the electrical conductivity (EC) of the
water. Salty water carries an electrical current better than pure water, and EC rises as the amount
of salt increases. Many people make the mistake of testing only for chlorides, but chlorides are
only one part of the salts and do not determine the entire problem.
Sodium hazard is based on a calculation of the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). This
measurement determines if sodium levels are high enough to damage the soil or if the
concentration is great enough to reduce plant growth. Sometimes a factor called the
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) may be listed or discussed on a water test; however, this
is actually a measurement of soil salinity, not water quality.
Toxic ions include element like chloride, sulfate, sodium and boron. Sometimes, even though the
salt level is not excessive, one or more of these elements may become toxic to plants. Many
plants are particularly sensitive to boron. In general, it is best to request a water analysis that lists
the concentrations of all major cations (calcium , magnesium, sodium, potassium) and anions
(chloride, sulfate, nitrate, boron) so that the levels of all elements can be evaluated.