C O N C E P T U A L

Relational-Cultural Theory for

Middle School Counselors
Young adolescents (ages 11-14), typically in the middle school grades, face life tasks involving connections
and belonging with their peer group along with the
development of their individual identity (Henderson
& Thompson, 2010). Learning to negotiate through
these developmental tasks, they face myriad relational
challenges. This article explores the application of
Relational-Cultural Theory (RCT) with early adolescents. It provides implications and recommendations
for school counselors.
abrielle is a seventh-grade student who has come
to see her middle school counselor in tears. She
explains that she is fighting with her ex-friends.
A group of girls with whom she was once close friends
are now ignoring her at lunch, deleting her texts without responding, and whispering about her in the hallways. Gabrielle is saddened by the loss of these friendships and the isolation she is now feeling. For her part,
Gabrielle reports that she originally found comfort in
being part of this circle of friends. Soon, one of the
other girls in the group, Neveah, started to send texts
to other friends about Gabrielle, questioning her sexual reputation. Beginning to doubt her relational safety, Gabrielle started gossiping about Neveah on her
Facebook site. Gabrielle reports, I thought, whats the
big deal? We all gossip about each other all the time.
Its always so hard to tell who really has your back.

Traditional models of human growth and development focus on separation and individuation as
core components of healthy maturation. In contrast,
Catherine Tucker, Ph.D., is an assistant professor with
Indiana State Universitys Counseling Area Programs,
Terre Haute, IN. E-mail: catherine.tucker@indstate.edu
Sondra Smith-Adcock is an associate professor in
Counselor Education with the University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL. Heather C. Trepal, Ph.D., LPC-S, is an
associate professor of Counseling and Educational
Psychology at the University of Texas San Antonio, San
Antonio, TX.

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Relational-Cultural Theory (RCT) is an approach to

understanding development within the context of
relationships. This approach emphasizes the healthy
expansion and deepening of relationships as the goal
of development rather than separation and individuation (Miller & Stiver, 1997). Disconnection is
viewed as the primary source of human suffering,
while healthy connections are seen as key components of satisfaction and growth.
Young adolescents, typically in the middle school
grades, are facing life tasks involving connections
and belonging with their peer group along with the
development of their individual identity. As they are
learning to negotiate through these developmental
tasks, they face myriad relational challenges. This
article explores the application of RelationalCultural Theory with early adolescents in the middle
school grades and provides a brief overview of concepts.

RELATIONAL-CULTURAL THEORY
At the core of RCT is the notion that all people,
throughout the lifespan, grow in connection with
others. When people are able to be authentic in relationships, and when others are able to be authentic
in return, a cycle is created in which mutual empathy, connection, and growth are possible. Mutual
empathy, or the two-way ability to put oneself in
anothers position and allow others through the selfboundary (Jordan, 1991), leads to mutual empowerment and growth. According to Ruiz (2005),
through this process, individuals realize that they
have an impact on each other (p.35). RelationalCultural Theory further purports that growth
through connections fosters what are referred to as
the five good things (Miller, 1986, p. 2). Miller
(1986) defined these five good things as 1) each person feels a greater sense of zest (vitality, energy),
2) each person feels more able to act and does act,
3) each person has a more accurate picture of
her/himself and the other person(s), 4) each person

feels a greater sense of worth, and (5) each person

feels more connected to other persons and exhibits a
greater motivation to connect with others (p. 3).
According to RCT, all people have an intense
desire for connection. In spite of this yearning, people often block connections with others by using
behaviors that keep them from the very thing they
desire. Relational-Cultural Theory refers to this as
the central relational paradox (Miller & Stiver,
1997, p. 81). To explain further, each person has a
relational template, or series of learning experiences
rooted in past relationships. How individuals
approach relationships is based on this template. In
order to circumvent hurt, people employ strategies
of disconnection. For example, some disconnecting
behaviors include withdrawing, isolation, and blaming (Hartling, Rosen, Walker, & Jordan, 2000). By
utilizing these strategies of disconnection, people are
able to protect themselves from perceived danger in
emotionally charged situations.
In the case of Gabrielle, although she desired connection with her group of friends and was experiencing a disconnection with Neveah and some of the
others, she chose to gossip and act in an inauthentic
manner. In this example, by choosing the behavior
of lying, Gabrielle was distancing herself both from
her feelings about the situation and from the others
involved in the situation. As Gabrielle explained to
her counselor, she does not know whom to trust. If
Gabrielle explored her relational templates with a
counselor, she might find that she has experienced a
lack of trust in relationships before. Further, she may
learn that, although she desires a genuine connection, she blocks herself from fully engaging with
others because she fears not being accepted. If
unable to work through the disconnections, she may
become stuck in a cycle of condemned isolation or
locked out of the possibility of connection (Miller
& Stiver, 1997, p. 72).
In order to grow, and, according to RCT, to grow
in connection with others, people must learn how to
work through unhelpful relational templates and the
strategies of disconnection that have protected them
over time (Miller & Stiver, 1997). They must continue to examine the ways in which they approach
relationships because disconnections, or rough periods in relationships, are bound to happen.
According to this approach, routine disconnections
or everyday, normal ruptures exist in relationships
and are products of living. Examples of routine disconnections include general disagreements, letdowns, and conflicts of opinion. These daily disconnections are the most amenable to prevention and
remediation in the school environment. Conversely,
disconnections that are prolonged and severe may
be the result of trauma or abuse. In these instances,
a chance to repair the relationship almost never

occurs, and to try to do so would lead to becoming

stuck in a cycle of despair and confusion, sometimes
leading to chronic, severe disconnections that are
labeled psychopathology.
Relational-Cultural Theory and Diversity Issues
Mutual empathy and mutual empowerment are central in RCT. The theory grew out of feminist theories in the 1970s and places strong emphasis on the
role of culture and oppression on the development
and psychology of women (Miller, 1986). In particular, theories that pathologized womens desire for
relationship and mutual growth were questioned by
the early RCT scholars Jean Baker Miller, Irene
Stiver, and others. Jordan (1991) challenged the
notion of self-boundaries that categorized enmeshment with another person as unhealthy and re-conceptualized as a strength the ability to lose oneself in
anothers experience (i.e., empathy), such that both
parties can grow relationally. This concept may resonate with individuals from collectivist cultures. In
such cultures, competition and individual achievement are not valued; ones role is seen as interdependent within the group or family. Thus, according
to Ruiz (2005), one can apply RCT to describe
collectivism in terms of the emphasis on remaining
connected to others (p.38). Specific cultural values
and scripts may also hold keys to understanding disconnections (Ruiz, 2005).
Walker (2002) asserted that people and relationships are composed of multiple social identities (p.
2). The dominant culture values, or devalues,
aspects of differences in social identities including
race, sex, gender, physical ability, spirituality, and
class, among others (Walker). The dominant culture
forms an arrangement in which difference is stratified into dominant and subordinate, superior and
inferior (p.2). In this way, dominant groups and
members of these groups exert power over others in
an attempt to maintain their status and perpetuate
the ascribed value of differences (Walker).
Relational-Cultural Theory focuses on the role of
power in relationships and strategies of relating.
Negotiating issues of power is central to RCT. Not
only are relationships viewed as central to growth,
but balanced or shared power is central to forming
healthy relationships. When imbalances in power
and privilege are unexamined in relationships, and in
society, relationships suffer and relational strategies
that lead to disconnection are common.

Disconnection is
viewed as the
primary source of
human suffering,
while healthy
connections are
seen as key
components of
satisfaction and
growth.

EARLY ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

AND COUNSELING
Developmental changes in early adolescence, which
spans approximately ages 11 to 14, make RelationalCultural Theory particularly useful for this age
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Dramatic changes
in physical,
cognitive, and
relational abilities
of the middle
school child mean
that interventions
should address
topics such as anger
management,
decision making,
and conflict
management.

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group. Changes in childhood relationships (moving

away from family and connecting more meaningfully with peers) and the beginnings of a more mature
sense of individual identity mark early childhood
development (Henderson & Thompson, 2010).
Cognitively, early adolescence marks the beginning
of the transition from concrete to abstract thinking
skills, and the beginning of the ability to understand
events from another persons point of view
(Henderson & Thompson, 2010). The human brain
goes through a dramatic reorganization during this
period, and that can lead to inconsistencies in behavior that can be frustrating for both the adolescent
and the adults in his or her life (Wigfield, Lutz, &
Wagoner, 2005). These changes in the brain, which
are not completed until late adolescence, allow for
much greater abstract thinking, critical reasoning,
and social competence (Wigfield, Lutz, & Wagoner,
2005), but also may be frustrating to the young adolescent and the adults in the young persons life.
At the same time that adolescents are developing
a heightened awareness of social belonging, they
also develop a specific type of egocentrism that
Elkind labeled the imaginary audience (1994). The
imaginary audience concept implies that, as people
move through adolescence, they do so with a perception that they are always being watched by others and are the center of everyones attention. The
imaginary audience, combined with Elkinds notion
of adolescents as risk-takers who see themselves as
immune from harm, can lead to an inflated sense of
self-importance and invulnerabilitymaking the
development of healthy relationships both complicated and essential. The emphasis on others perceptions and the beginnings of adult identity formation
can lead to exaggerated concerns about being disrespected or disliked by peers or adults and can lead to
explosive conflicts over seemingly minor slights
(Wigfield, Lutz, & Wagoner, 2005).
The physical and social-emotional changes of early
adolescence do not happen uniformly, making for
very uneven distributions of attributes among students in a middle school classroom (Vernon &
Clemente, 2005). In order to reach all students in
middle school, counselors need to deliver flexible,
comprehensive programs designed around the developmental themes of early adolescence (Henderson &
Thompson, 2010). For example, Akos (2005) recommended that dramatic changes in physical, cognitive, and relational abilities of the middle school child
mean that interventions should address topics such as
anger management, decision making, and conflict
management, and that peer programming is critical.
These recommendations for counseling young adolescents are consistent with, if not indicative of, the
need for relationally focused intervention in middle
schools. Viewing anger management, decision mak-

ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING

ing, and conflict management through a relational

lens also can enhance existing counseling programs.
For example, peer mediation programs, often used in
middle schools because of the developmental importance of peer relationships, are focused primarily on
problem solving and conflict management. In conducting peer mediation programs, ignoring the relational templates of the students involved and the
issues of power and dominance that exist between
them may theoretically and practically limit their
effectiveness, even potentially worsening bullying
and relational aggression. The following section
examines the application of RCT to school counseling and suggests specific use of relational interventions in middle schools.

APPLYING RCT TO MIDDLE SCHOOL

COUNSELING
Counseling and RCT
Relational-Cultural Theory (RCT) is a natural complement to school counseling as it supports the professions foundational principles and philosophies
such as wellness and focusing on clients strengths,
developmental level, and contextual factors (Duffey
& Somody, in press). Relational-Cultural Theorys
focus on recognizing and building health patterns of
relating to others is particularly appropriate for
young adolescents who are struggling with issues of
social belonging (Akos, 2005). Partially derived
from the recommendations of others (Duffey &
Somody, in press; Jordan, 2009; Trepal, 2010), the
authors offer the following general suggestions for
school counselors who wish to incorporate RCT
into their practice.
According to Jordan (2009), RCT therapy is
largely based on a change in attitude and understanding rather than a set of techniques (p. 5).
Counselors who adhere to this model work to
enable their clients to help themselves in terms of
their relational patterns and relational images.
Further, they encourage clients to develop relational awareness, thus encouraging and deepening connections, and enhancing both the capacity and skills
for developing new relationships (Jordan, 2009).
The basic skills involved in putting RCT into practice can be summarized using five words that begin
with the letter E. The five Es include: 1) encourage (self-empathy, or self-acceptance without blame,
is a precursor to examining ones relational templates. Empathy for self, understanding self in relation to others, must be present before empathy for
others can be built.); 2) explore students relational
images; 3) educate students about power; 4) explain
disconnections (routine, cultural/societal, and traumatic) and conflict; and 5) expand students relational capacities.

In summary, according to RCT, although growth

occurs through connection, individuals need to
establish empathy for self and then empathy for others in order for healthy growth to occur. The concepts of connection, disconnection, and mutual
empathy, and the role of culture and power, take
center stage in this approach to human development. As previously mentioned, early adolescence is
a time of growth and establishing oneself and ones
own identity. The peer group becomes vitally important; thus, adolescence could be termed as relationally challenging both with the self (i.e., discovering
ones authentic self) and with others (i.e., connecting with ones peer group and exploring different
types of relationships).
RCT and the ASCA National Model
The ASCA National Model (2005) divides the work
of the school counselor into four areas: foundation,
management system, delivery system, and accountability. RCT can be employed primarily in the areas of
foundation and delivery system. The foundation
area represents the beliefs and philosophies on which
a school counseling program is built, while the delivery system encompasses the classroom guidance curriculum, individual student planning, and responsive
services. Within the delivery system, student outcomes are further divided into academic, career, and
personal domains.
For middle school counselors to adopt RCT as a
foundation, a first step is to examine the nature of
multiple relationships in their school. Because of the
dramatic developmental changes in adolescents
relationships, relational cultural theorists have suggested that middle schools ought to be cultures of
connection that foster growth in relationship, or a
free space in which to interact and learn from people
who treat students as equals (Robb, 2006).
Currently, many middle schools foster cultures of
disconnection (Hartling & Sparks, 2008) that are
marked by dominant-subordinate and power-over
relationships among adults, between adults and students, and among students. Therefore, school counselors may benefit from examining the ways in which
connection and disconnection exist within relationships in the school. To what extent do individual
students experience growth-fostering relationships?
To what extent do school counselors, teachers,
administrators, and other staff members perceive the
relationships in the school as connected? Where do
school counselors see examples of disconnecting
strategies among students or between students and
faculty? This initial relational assessment will guide
the further development and implementation of
RCT responsive services. An assessment of this type
could easily be added into the schools annual climate survey through the addition of a few questions

such as those mentioned above. Informal interviews

of teachers, administrators, students, and parents
might also be used to develop an overall picture of
the relational atmosphere of the school.
When providing responsive services, middle
school counselors using RCT view the problems students describe as being based in relational issues,
often disconnections, which may be chronic or
acute. Children desire connected relationships with
significant adults in their lives and thrive in relation
to caring parents and teachers (Spence, Jordan, &
Sazama, 2002). Developmentally, their experience
with peers is indisputably formative. The relationships children have outside of the schoolsuch as
with parents or other family membersalso can be
of concern. The school counselor who uses an RCT
approach may implement strategies common to all
school counselors, such as group and individual
counseling and classroom guidance, as a part of the
school counseling programs responsive services.
The difference between other school counseling
approaches and RCT would be in the counselors
focus on relationships as the key to both creating
and resolving student concerns.

USING THE FIVE Es IN MIDDLE

SCHOOL COUNSELING
The application of RCT, especially in school settings,
requires further description. To illustrate how RCT
can be put to practical use in a middle school setting,
we will return to the vignette of Gabrielle and her circle of friends using the five Es (i.e., encourage client
self-empathy; explore clients relational images; educate clients about power; explain disconnections and
conflict, and expand clients relational capacities).
The counseling implications offered can be used as a
brief or longer-term approach and in a variety of
modalities (e.g., individual or small group counseling). Recommendations for universal guidance programs follow.
Encourage client self-empathy. Jordan (1991)
defined self-empathy as the process of developing
empathy for ones own experiences without criticism
or blame. For young adolescents, this may be an
arduous task as they are in a heightened stage of selfconsciousness, identity development, and social
adjustment. To facilitate self-empathy, the school
counselor begins by listening to Gabrielles story
without judgment. She is authentic, expressing her
own reaction to the story and expressing compassion for the student. The counselors authenticity
fosters a healthy relationshipa bond that lacks
judgment and advice giving but is rich in authenticity and mutuality.
When Gabrielles experiences are valued and her
story is heard without judgment, she is better pre-

Counselors who
adhere to this
model work to
enable their clients
to help themselves
in terms of their
relational patterns
and relational
images.

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Although growth
occurs through
connection,
individuals need to
establish empathy
for self and then
empathy for others
in order for healthy
growth to occur.

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pared to examine her patterns of connection and disconnection (Jordan, 2009). In a rush to solve the
frequent disputes among students in middle schools,
many counselors might be inclined to skip these
important first steps in relationship building. But in
this relational, non-blaming environment, students
are free to examine the self in relationship to the dispute with their friends. To foster self-empathy, the
counselor might ask: How do you view yourself and
your friendships? What words do you use to describe
yourself? If Gabrielle expresses self-blame, the counselor might ask her how she would view the situation
if it involved a friend or loved one, thus allowing her
observing self to have compassion and empathy for
what she experienced. Then with compassion for
herself and the advantage of a relational view of what
happened between her and her friends, she is able to
recognize and name the self-destructive behaviors
that have contributed to her present situation.
Explore relational images. According to RCT
(Miller & Stiver, 1997), people develop mental
models (or templates) based on past relationships
that inform future relationships. The counselor
might consider multiple relationships in a young
persons lifefamily, peers, and authority figures.
Gabrielles relational templates influence the situation with Neveah and her other friends. A next step
in RCT with Gabrielle, therefore, is to examine her
own notions of connection and disconnection in her
relationships. A beginning point in examining
Gabrielles relational template is to help her examine
key relationships in her life up to now. How connected are they (authentic, empowering, and mutual)? In what ways does she experience disconnection
in any of her relationships (alienation, disapproval,
inauthenticity)? Which relationships mean the most
to her and why?
Millers (1986) characteristics for growth-fostering
relationships, known as the Five Good Things, are
also easily adaptable to help Gabrielle examine her
past and current relationships. Counselors can readily illustrate these definitions of relational/non-relational qualities to early adolescent children. Using
this framework of good things in relationships, the
counselor and Gabrielle can brainstorm to come up
with specific examples of connection in her relationships. Working through the five good things, she can
relate these definitions to her everyday experience in
friendships and other significant relationships.
Likewise, she can examine in detail the type of disconnections she experiences in her relationships and
her strategies for disconnecting (including the gossiping that she has recently experienced). To do this,
the counselor might ask Gabrielle to think of another time when she gossiped about someone (or felt as
if she needed to retaliate for being hurt). What was
going on for her? What were her fears, hopes, and

ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING

thoughts about the situation? What did she want out

of the situation and what did she get in the end?
Educate about power. From a RelationalCultural Theory perspective, power is analyzed as
political and as directed toward gaining power over
others. Middle schools are microcosms of society in
which a dominant culture values or devalues aspects
of difference (e.g., race, gender, physical ability,
spirituality, class). For middle school students, their
strong need for social belonging and an exaggerated sense of individual identity further complicate
relational power issues that can result in isolation,
exclusion, and trauma for some students. For example, bullying is defined as verbal or physical, direct
or indirect, group or individual aggression that is
repeated, and in which there is a power imbalance,
consistent in direction, between the victim and the
aggressor (Gini & Pozzoli, 2006). When an imbalance of power is present between students, counselors should take this into consideration before
they intervene. For example, finding creative ways
to address difficult topics like privilege,
power/dominance, and difference might include
having students participate in bibliotherapy, art,
photography, or film to allow for consciousnessraising with care for students emotional safety.
Acknowledging issues of difference or privilege
openly allows young people to begin to develop
mutual empathy and empowerment, to appreciate
each others experience, and to work through their
differences. Counselors can infuse discussions about
collaboration and collective goals versus independent, me first thinking into classroom guidance
activities and can explain these differences in individual and small group interventions.
Gabrielle and Neveah, each intent on developing
her individual identity and social status, may overlook how harmful and hurtful their behavior is to
one another, even though they once enjoyed a
friendship. Pressures to belong and/or compete for
status that exist in power-over environments can
overshadow connection and amplify disconnection
between young people. Furthermore, if Gabrielle
and Neveah are from different cultural groups, these
misunderstandings can be deeper and lead to more
damaging relationship problems, as people from different cultures often examine and interpret relational behaviors such as direct communication or expression of anger differently. To help Gabrielle and
Neveah explore issues of power and difference, the
counselor might discuss their broader peer group. In
the dispute that arises between Gabrielle and
Neveah, one of the girls may have more social status
and may thus be able to do more psychological harm
to the other. To fully consider intervention in the
relationship between Gabrielle and Neveah, the
counselor also will examine the context of their

friendship group (e.g., to whom is each connected

in their circle of friends? How does the peer group
serve to influence the disconnecting strategies in
which each girl is involved? If your peer group had a
name (title), what would it be?) The counselor then
makes a judgment, in collaboration with Gabrielle,
concerning whether or not to conduct this examination of her friendship alone or with Neveah.
Threshold questions for Gabrielle that might allow
the counselor to make this decision include: Have
you felt safe in your friendship with Neveah? Are
there times when you felt heard and understood in
your friendship? Do you want a better friendship
with Neveah?
Explain disconnections and conflict. Strategies
of disconnection that would commonly occur in
middle schools include withdrawing, blaming, criticizing, isolation, and gossiping. Recent meta-analytic research suggests that these forms of relational
aggression are common in boys and girls (Card,
Stucky, Sawalani, & Little, 2008). Therefore, strategies for explaining disconnection and conflict that
are discussed below, while relevant for counseling
with boys or girls, can be modified based on the presenting concerns of the adolescent or peer group.
Applying the central relational paradox suggests
that neither Gabrielle nor Neveah is getting what
they want from their relationship. Gabrielle and
Neveah regress to disconnecting behaviors because
they are afraid of being harmed. Helping to reframe
disconnecting strategies as a way to protect oneself from hurt also serves to protect either girl from
being blamed for inappropriate behavior. Although
routine disconnection such as gossiping can be normalized, helping clients learn to choose authentic
representation of their own needs and viewpoints to
each other is critical during emotionally charged
times. Also important is differentiating routine disconnection from severe forms of exclusion and trauma (e.g., bullying). When evidence exists that the
latter is the case, that the pattern of behavior is consistent with more severe forms of physical and relational aggression, exploring strategies of disconnection with Gabrielle alone is appropriate. If more
severe forms of aggression are not present, the counselor might bring Gabrielle and Neveah together to
discuss the message that each wanted the other to
hear. Working to explore connection and disconnection with each girl, the counselor will then help
them to speak to each other more authentically
and to participate in resolving their conflict.
Expand students relational capacities.
Counseling interventions using RCT with adolescents includes implementing strategies that address
students relational awareness and increases specific
relational skills. Relational awareness is addressed
(e.g., explore relational images and educate about

power) and, as a result, students are able to develop

and practice new relational strategies.
When students experience disconnection, and the
disconnection is routine and non-traumatic, a goal of
counseling becomes encouraging students to wage
good conflict, or manage their conflict through the
use of connecting rather than disconnecting strategies (Miller, 1986). Gabrielle and Neveah have an
opportunity to work through their relational problems if they can increase their use of authentic relational strategieslistening, empathic responding,
and authenticityand decrease their use of disconnecting strategiesisolating, gossiping, and aggression. According to Miller, when conflict exists
between two people, it often necessitates one person
changing (i.e., giving in) in order to preserve the
relationship. Waging good conflict allows adolescents the freedom to express anger, disappointment,
and frustration with others in a way that is honest
and egalitarian, and teaches healthy connection. The
school counselor helps Gabrielle (and/or Neveah) to
practice strategies of connection, and to examine the
relationship together. Questions such as the following can help open a dialogue about fostering healthful relationships: What was happening for each girl?
What were their fears, hopes, and thoughts about
the situation? What did each girl want out of the situation and what did she get in the end? How does
each girl listen to and hear what the other is saying?
Role-play activities and other social skills practice
also are relevant to increasing relational skills with
Gabrielle and Neveah. Teaching the use of I-messages, problem-solving protocols, and peer conflict
mediation can be easily integrated with RCT. The
objectives of these social skills programs, however,
while consistent with RCT, are not effective substitutes. Teaching social skills strategies are but one
essential part of teaching healthy ways to manage
conflict in relationships. Relational skills are developmental. If waging good conflict is experienced in
these formative years, and authenticity and mutuality is developed in adolescent relationships, the pattern may then become part of young peoples identity development and relational templates and to
continue into their adult relationships.
The five Es and universal guidance programs.
School counselors occupy a privileged position within schools, from which they are able to prevent
problems before they occur by implementing developmentally appropriate social skills education to all
students. Early adolescents, with their emerging
independence and interest in friendships and romantic relationships, are at a key developmental point for
acquiring relational skills. Employing RCT principles to guide the guidance curriculum allows school
counselors to emphasize the skills young people
need to create and maintain connections.

Acknowledging
issues of difference
or privilege openly
allows young
people to begin to
develop mutual
empathy and
empowerment, to
appreciate each
others experience,
and to work
through their
differences.

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Waging good
conflict allows
adolescents the
freedom to
express anger,
disappointment,
and frustration
with others in a
way that is honest
and egalitarian,
and teaches
healthy connection.

School counselors can begin to infuse the principles of RCT into an existing guidance curriculum in
a variety of ways. For example, if the school counselor uses any of the widely available anti-bullying
curricula, the principles of mutual empathy, strategies
of disconnection, and power dynamics might be
added or highlighted to reflect RCT ideas. If the
focus of the lesson sequence is career exploration, the
school counselor might discuss interpersonal characteristics that help people to be successful at work,
along with how to engage in healthy conflict.
Likewise, if the focus is on academic development,
the school counselor could add discussions about the
importance of nurturing healthy connections in
mentoring relationships and providing mutual social
support in managing stress and improving academic
performance.
Counselors also might see the need to create a
classroom guidance unit specifically on the five Es.
Dividing the five Es into five short guidance lessons
would allow counselors to discuss each of the major
concepts in some detail with students, and allow time
for students to practice the skills during and between
each of the five lessons. Role playing and modeling
could be infused into each lesson in order to concretely demonstrate the concepts discussed. These
lessons can also be used throughout the school year
as a universal or primary prevention curriculum.

CONCLUSION
Relational-Cultural Theory has been well-established
in the field of psychology and is emerging as a viable
option in the counseling field (Duffey & Somody, in
press). Given that the counseling profession is
anchored in the concepts of development, wellness,
and multiculturalism, this approach fits easily into the
developmental matrix of school counseling programs
(Duffey & Somody). RCT gives school counselors a
well-defined framework for discussing complex issues
such as power in relationships, empathy, and relational well-being. Furthermore, as middle school
children navigate myriad identity, social-emotional,
and cognitive developmental milestones, using a relational lens to provide school counseling interventions
seems particularly critical. Relational-Cultural
Theory is easily adaptable to counseling young people and can be used to inform individual, smallgroup, group, large-group, and peer programming
interventions in schools. In addition, as school counselors strive to positively impact the school environment, RCT may provide them with additional strategies to do so. This article illustrates the implementation of RCT in middle schools using a case example.
As school counselors implement RCT into their
developmental programs, they should collect and
analyze data to validate its use. Future works might

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examine the use of RCT for specific problems in

schools (e.g., relational aggression, bullying), with
specific populations (e.g., sexual minority youth or
other marginalized groups), and/or specific interventions (e.g., peer mediation, mentoring).

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