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Stoker G. (1995) : Regime Theory and Urban Politics'
Stoker G. (1995) : Regime Theory and Urban Politics'
Stoker G. (1995)
Regime Theory and Urban Politics
Regime theory gives us a new approach to the study of Urban Politics and the issue of power.
It provides us a framework to understand causal relationships and behaviour in urban politics.
Regime theory focuses on the cooperation and coordination of governmental and nongovernmental actors and their interdependence. In spite of differences between countries,
any advanced capitalist society needs some form of public/private cooperation in a moment
when the competition between cities for investment, decentralization of responsibilities,
financial problems or privatization of services have created many complexities in local
governments.
Regime theory provides a new perspective on the issue of power, and how is power applied
for achieving common purposes. Regime analysis focuses on the conditions which make longterm coalition emerge to achieve public purposes.
Regime theory; pluralism and neo-pluralism
Regime theory assumes that governmental institutions are subject to some degree of popular
control, while economy is mainly (not exclusively) guided by private investments decisions.
Regime theory have influence of neo Marxist (70s), who say that private business have
control over investment decisions. This control over gives them a privileged position in
governmental decision-making Systemic power.
The main premise of regime theory is that public decision-making have certain degree of
autonomy, but systemic power has influence in the process. This organisation of politics leads
to an inadequate forms of control and makes governments less responsible of disadvantaged
groups.
Regime theory has also influence of neo-pluralists, who accept the privileged position of
business, and this position limits effective democratic politics.
The contribution of regime theory
Regime theory starts approaching four questions from the side of pluralism strains:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What
What
What
What
Regime theory offers different answers to these questions and provides a framework for
analysis to examine the variety of politics within cities.
Clarence Stone: He applied in an advanced way regime analysis. But his main ideas are
related to details of his study case of Atlanta, and have an exclusive focus in the USA.
In regime perspective, complexity is in the centre. Urban Systems are characterized by
complex relationships between different actors and institutions, patterns of interdependence,
fragmentation and lack of coordination. This kind of society doesnt tend to auto-control. A
large domain is needed and only some segments of the society can take this social control.
Regime politics study how those segments of the society combine forces for a significant
result.
Because of this fragmentation and complexity, government cannot act as a controller. It can
act as a coordinator of forces. This activity of coordination is the objective of the regime
analysis. Sometimes, the government can impose its decision, some other times has to
negotiate it (bargaining) as a part of urban politics. Urban politics is making general objectives
and look for cooperation to make those objectives be achievable. Government needs nongovernmental actors, and this is the point. So governments and actors make regimes to
facilitate this activity.
Relationships within regimes tend to be long-term relationships, because politics is not issueby-issue. Those relationships need efforts to be built.
Politics is about achieving governing capacity, and this capacity have to be created and
maintained. Power to, no power over: The important is not the power to control (power over).
The important is the power to act (power to).
Urban regime theory argued that not all the groups are capable to exercise control. The
structure of society privileges the participation of certain interests in coalitions. There are
requirements: 1) possession of strategic knowledge of social transactions, and 2) control of
resources that makes a group attractive for a coalition.
In US-based literature, there are identified 2 main actors: public official and business. But
there are other groups with community interests based on minorities. But a 4 th collective of
actors, such are the professional/technical collective (like planners?) may be influential,
especially in Europe but also in USA.
Regime theory focuses in the relationships within the government, not between government
and citizens. When coalitions work, power is applied and doesnt matter if citizens agree or
not with this situation.
Regime theory gives also importance to elections and participation processes. When there are
social movements against the established agenda or when incorporate marginal groups.
The main task of regime formation is achieve a shared purpose and direction, so coalition
must agree about what is possible to achieve and what no, and what is possible depends of
the sources. Objectives more easily achievable will be over those who are more difficult to
achieve. A successful governing coalition must be able to mobilize enough sources to develop
their agenda the iron law (Stone 1993).
As more changes proposed, more sources mobilization is required. In American cities 4
different regimes can be found:
-
Stones region theory argues that public policies are shaped by three factors:
1) Composition of the governing coalition of the society
2) The relationship between the members of this coalition government
3) The resources that the members of this coalition government contributions:
level, and even in neighbourhood level. The concept has been used to examine whether or
how various interests are incorporated into governing coalitions (women, lesbians and gays,
African-Americans, neighbourhoods and the black middle class). Later the Regime analysis
has been used in new settings and for answering new questions. The authors of this article
want to examine and give critique on the use of the regime theory in this article.
Regime theory is more a concept or a model rather than a theory because it has limited ability
to explain or predict variation in regime formation, maintenance, or change. Later some
modifications has been proposed to give the model more prediction and explanation power.
This can also be done by comparing different cases. For example, the urban regime concept
does not explain regime change, but a cross-case analysis reveals that regime formation and
change is related to demographic shifts, economic restructuring, federal grant policies and
political mobilization. The urban regime concept has developed through case studies.
The genius of the concept is its synthesis of elements of political economy, pluralism, and
institutionalism. This synthesis, however, creates complexity. The authors use Stones (1989)
main ideas to examine the conceptualization of urban regimes.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The local business constituency for regimes is often smaller and less active in
European cities. This is partly because business is less localized than in the United
States.
There is more national influence in local growth politics as well, which could be
expected to alter the amount of local autonomy available for governing coalitions.
Partisan politics is more important in local politics throughout Europe, and it provides
linkages to national politics at the local level, sometimes resulting in ideological
conflict between central or local government or local policy shifts that follow changes
in national party platforms.
HOW CRITICAL IS BUSINESS PARTICIPATION IN DEFINING REGIMES?
Given the more limited business participation in European local development, some
scholars have debated whether the urban regime concept requires that business must
be a dominant partner or whether business involvement should be extensive or
broadly representative of the business community. Stone made the point that not all
private interests are business interests, and other nongovernmental participants are
included: Although the nature of business involvement extends from the direct and
extensive to the indirect and limited, the economic role of businesses and the
resources they control are too important for these enterprises
to be left out completely. DiGaetano and Lawless asserted that Stones social
production model reflects an American bias because American local governments are
dependent on the private sector for critical resources.
Even though European local governments are less fiscally dependent on own-source
revenues, it is unnecessary to surrender the idea that urban regimes include business
as a partner. There is ample evidence that some government- business partnerships
do exist in Europe. It can be useful to distinguish between cities that feature regimes
and those that do not, even if regimes do not represent the norm or if cities seem to
be developing only emerging forms Regimes may be most likely to form in cities
where there is a more localized business base (which varies from city to city within
countries). On the other hand, an indigenous and locally dependent business sector
may not be required. In some cases, studies have found that the branch plant
executives or small business owners involved were not locally dependent in the
sense that they had restricted mobility or profits tied to place.
APPLICATION TO NEW CONTEXTS
The urban regime concept was developed to describe interactions at the city level,
although much of the focus has been on economic development policy within that
context. This framework has begun to travel to other new contexts, such as regional
coalition building, urban education policy, and lesbian and gay politics. When
concepts are used at a different scale, careful application is needed to avoid
generating conceptual muddle or concept stretching. So far, however, these new
applications have indicated that regime analysis can be used productively in other
areas.
CORE CRITERIA AND CONCEPTUAL CHOICE
Stones usage of urban regimes provides a complex and nuanced concept that
synthesizes a number of ideas, promoting widespread application and also
subsequent modification in the course of its evolution. The identification of new
regime types or further specification of the concept can refine our understanding of
urban. Modifications are problematic, however, if they ignore or distort important
aspects of the concept.
Urban regimes are coalitions based on informal networks as well as formal
relationships, and they have the following core properties:
- Partners drawn from government and nongovernmental sources,
requiring but not limited to business participation;
- Collaboration based on social productionthe need to bring
together fragmented resources for the power to accomplish tasks;
- Identifiable policy agendas that can be related to the composition of
the participants in the coalition;
- A longstanding pattern of cooperation rather than a temporary
coalition.
Because urban regimes bring together resources in a complex policy environment
where government action alone is insufficient, they will by definition include
nongovernmental actors. The exact composition of regimes will vary because the
institutional resources available and the division of those resources will vary from one
city (and one country) to the next. Urban regimes, however, exist within a political
economy framework rather than a pluralist one, according to Stone, and so governing
coalitions that are specifically regimes will include participants from business.
To qualify as a regime requires that a coalition meet all of the above criteria. On the
issue of stability, however, short-term collaboration may be described as an emerging
regime or a failed regime, depending on the context. Regimes are also capable of
fading or deteriorating.
The core contribution of the urban regime concept, at least in terms of the impact of
its application, takes different forms in North America and beyond. Within North
America, the key contribution is to have broken the deadlock created by the stalemate
between the pluralist and elitist perspectives. The concept has helped analysts
develop a new understanding of the way that power works in urban settings, with its
emphasis on power to rather than power over. In a fragmented urban world, pressed
in by global forces from above and challenged by an active, if imperfect, democracy
from below, politics cannot be reduced to the control of the few, but equally the label
pluralist cannot assumed to be adequate. In cities today, a key power is the capacity
to mobilize a long-term coalition that is capable of achieving change on the ground.
Urban regimes are not simply networks or interorganizational collaboration.
Mollenkopf, J. (1992)
How to study Urban Political Power
Editors Introduction
J. Mollenkopf is one of the founders of the Program on Urban Studies, and now a professor of
political science and Director of the Public Policy Program at the Graduate School of the City
University of New York.
An important question since the Industrial Revolution is: Is Urban politics worth studying at
all, or is the urban political realm so subordinate to, dependent on, and constrained by its
economic and social context that factors from this domain have little independent explanatory
power?
Mollenkopf put the analysts of city politics into two camps (Urban political theory is a backand-forth struggle between the contending conceptual frameworks):
1. Pluralist = See urban politics as an autonomous realm that possessed real authority
and commanded important resources
2. Structuralists = Argue that the pluralist dispersion of power, especially to inner-city
minority communities, was mostly illusion, and that the imperatives of capitalism, in both the
economics and social structural realms, repeatedly and inevitably established the basic
parameters of local development policy. So they stress about the importance of underlying
economic forces. But some people think they lack in a well-developed theory of the state and
thus economy centred theorizing must always be tempered by polity centred thinking.
Mollenkopf proposes a synthesis that simultaneously avoids the pitfalls of one-dimensionality
and recognises the legitimate claims of each school. He ask himself the question: How can
we develop a vocabulary for analysing politics and state action that reconciles the political
systems independent impact on social outcomes with its observed systemic bias in favour of
capital? (than he comes back to the beginning question)
The article
There are 4 important questions to be asked about the debate between pluralists and their
critics: see page 259
Robert Dahl (book: Who Governs?) lacked a context in economic and political
development and he denied that economic and social inequalities would overlap and
reinforce each other in the political arena.
- Other pluralist did not recognize the possibility that nonelite elements of the urban
population would feel systematically excluded from power and would react by pressing
for greater representation and more vigorously redistributive policies
After 1960, Urban politics as a kind of market equilibrium-reaching mechanism seem
anachronistic (stedelijke politiek als een mechanisme voor markt-evenwicht werd gezien als
anachronistisch, wat betekent dat het in strijd is met de tijd)
-
Structuralist critiques
A lot of structuralist critiques came;
- Bachrach & Baratzs: Two faces of power. They attacked pluralists for focusing on the first
face (its exercise) while ignoring the second face (the way that the relationship between the
state and the underlying socioeconomic system shapes the political agenda
- Stone: The unequal distribution of private resources creates a differential capacity among
political actors to shape the flow of benefits from the basic rules of the game, the construction
of particular agendas and the making of specific decisions
- Manley Marxist: Lacking a theory of exploitation and an objective standard of a just or equal
distribution.
So the structuralist provided the missing social and economic context from pluralism. And
they highlighted the ways that private property, market competition, welth and income
inquality, the corporate stystem, and the stage of capitalist development pervasively shape
the terrain on which political competition occurs
The structuralist studies:
flawed by economic determinism
are factually on target in observing and describing mechanisms that generate
systematic, cumulative, political inequality.
(this had a more profound impact on outcomes that the coalition patterns studied by
pluralists.)
-
Neo-Marxist critiques
Critiques to pluralism:
-
They refute the pluralist retort that non-decisions either must be studied just like
decisions or else are unobservable ideological constructs.
They have tended to argue that the mode of production stamps its pattern more or less
directly on the organization of the state and on the dynamics of the political
competition
Neo-marxist work is quite similar to Manley Marxist, both stressed the systematic
subordination of the state and politics to capital accumulation and de privat market.
But this lacked a well-developed theory of the state that either identifies the instrumental
mechanisms that link state actions to the power of capital or grants the relative autonomy to
the state.
A first group of the neo-marxists wanted capital to become more mobile and less tied to
specific locations. A result would be that the need for business to intervene directly in politics
would decrease. But certain classes of business are not mobile.
A second group of neo-marxist stressed the way urban politics serves to dampen and regulate
the conflicts inevitably generated by capitalist urbanization
They differ over how the state coopts movements that challenge urban governments.
They share the idea that this process is a central feature of urban politics in advanced
capitalist societies
Public Choice critiques (form of microeconomics)
An other source of structural criticism next to Neo-Marxism of the pluralist paradigm are the
critiques by the public choice. The critiques are quite similar to neo-marxist critiques of
pluralism, because of the notion that cities compete to attract well-off residents and private
investment.
Structuralism reconsidered
Because of the critiques to pluralism,
-
Cities can no longer be teaken as independent entities isolated from the large economic
and social forces that operate around them.
Analysts can no longer ignore the impact of global and national ecnomic restructuring
on large central cities.
Urban politics can no longer be considered to be unrelated to the cumulative pattern of
inequality in the economy and society
Structuralist focused attention on how the states dependence on private investment
fosters political outcomes that stystematically favor business interests. They explored
specific mechanisms:
o
o
structuralist may not see that political actors can fail to fulfill or to maximize their
supposed imperatives
- stuctural theories tend to have a hard time explaining the real and important variation
over time and across places
- stystematic imperatives might conflict with each onther or generate systemthreatening conflict
- systematic imperatives might conflict with each onther or generate system-threatening
conflict
- to the extent that structuralist theorists held true to the logic of their argument, they
underplayed the importance of politics.
A satisfactory approach must operate at three interrelated levels, this is also an anwer to the
question of Mollenkopf: How can we develop a vocabulary for analyzing politics and state
action that reconciles the political systems indepent impact on social outcomes with its
observed systemic bias in favor of capital?.
-
The 3 levels:
1. how the local states relationship to the economy and society conditions its capacity to act
2. how the rules of the fame of local politics shape the competition among interrests and
actors to construct a dominant political coalition able to exercise that capacity to act
3. how economic and social change and the organization of political competition shape the
mobilization of these interests.
Toward a theoretical synthesis
Political entrepreneurs (who seek to direct the actions of city government) must
contend with 3 distinct sets of interests:
1. Public sector produces interests inside loval government
2. Popular or constituency interests,especially as they are organized in the elctoral
system
3. Private market interests
- Dominant political coalition: it is a working alliance among different interests
that can win elections for executive office and secure the cooperation it needs
from other public and private power centers in order to govern. So it organizes
working control over both its political and its private markter operating
environments.
To become dominant: you must win election to the chief executive office.
To remain dominant: use the powers of government to consolidate its
-
electoral base
This formulation improves both pluralist as structuralist approaches
-
The analysis of how Edward Koch and his allies constructued a new dominant political
coalition in NY must be framed in terms of three broad sets of factors:
1. Building on the structuralists (understand how the local political systems
interaction with private interests creates constraints an imperatives for the
local state but also opportunities that astute political entrepreneurs can
seize)
2. It must go beyond the structuralists (recognizing that how popular
constituencies are organized in the citys political and electoral arena has an
equally strong impact on the strategies pursued by coalition builders)
3. A sound theory must be sensitive to how the oraganization of interest within
the public sector, embodied in political practices as well as formal authority,
also influenced their choices and actions..
Brenner, N. (1999)
of globalization has significantly decentred the role of the national scale. In the current round
of globalization, it is the sub-national urban region that plays a major role, but also the supranational scale. These new territorial configurations lead to a restructuring on the governance
level of both states and cities. Territorialisation thus remains as fundamental as ever and an
important argument is that the state scale is not being eroded, but rearticulated and reterritorialized in relation to both sub- and supra-national scales.
Brenner does see that in order to accelerate circulation, capital has a tendency to eliminate
spatial barriers. However, this accelerated movement of commodities can only be achieved if
relatively fixed and immobile transport and communication systems as well as regulatory
institutions are put in place. In the words of David Harvey: spatial organization is necessary
to overcome space. Both cities and states provide this important territorially fixed
infrastructure. Brenner thus defines the process of globalization as having two dialectic sides;
on the one hand, the acceleration and expansion of the movement of commodities, people,
money etc. and on the other hand, the production and reconfiguration of relatively fixed and
immobile spatial infrastructures to enable such accelerated movement. The term
glocalisation, indicating the combined process of globalization and local-territorial
reconfiguration denotes this dialectic.
The rest of this article examines the various ways in which first, cities, second, states and
third, the European Union, are all currently being rescaled as a response to globalizing
capitalism.
For examining the rescaling of cities Brenner uses the theory on world cities. Global cities, in
the words of Saskia Sassen, are the territorially specific urban places that host (service)
industries and production processes that are crucial to globalization. Global cities provide the
necessary technological, institutional and social infrastructure and have become massive
polycentric urban regions (reterritorialisation). These global cities are prime examples of
glocal space. Important is that these regions are competing worldwide, increasingly
independent of nation states and have created a new global hierarchy. They have become
nodes within a global network that act as the regional motors of the global economy.
Brenner states that the process of reterritorialisation on the national scale has received
far less attention in contemporary urban studies. Most of the existing literature is based upon
a zero-sum conception: as globalization intensifies, the state declines in power. It is assumed
that this will lead to the erosion of state territoriality and a weakened ability to regulate
economic activities. Other authors emphasize the continued importance of state institutions
by stating that they are not fundamentally changing. Instead, they react to globalization by
constructing new forms of national policy to retain control over economic systems. Brenner
steps away from both views. He argues that the territorial organization of the state is indeed
changing in the sense that state power is transferred to both higher (for example the EU) and
lower (urban regional) governance levels which depriveliges nationally organized institutional
arrangements (hollowing out). However, state territoriality remains an important
geographical precondition for capital accumulation. In order to remain competitive in modern
times, the state tends to rescale (up and down) according to the necessities of the economy
and the circuits of capital; something that Lefebvre calls the fusion of economy and politics
and can be regarded as a neo-liberal strategy. The current round of globalization thus
promotes the re-scaling of state territoriality rather than eroding it. Brenner states that this rescaled configuration can be labeled as the glocal state.
Brenner continues on by introducing the concept of new state spaces to delineate
supranational forms of governance that can enhance each states capacity to mobilize their
urban and regional space as a competitive force in the currently by world cities dominated
capitalism. The emergence of supranational unions such as the EU does have implications for
the governance autonomy of member states and the major urban regions or world cities
within these states. Brenner describes how a debate has originated around the politics of
urban regions; since these are both important to the national and the supranational scale,
they gain a lot of bargaining power and are favoured over other regions. Brenner gives
multiple examples of this trend of promoting specific urban areas within different member
states but also on the EU level. This creates a highly hierarchic organization of spaces within
Europe. Finally, in order to deal with the re-scaling processes, a rescaling of politics within the
territorial state is considered necessary. As a consequence of the multiscalar properties of
world cities, Brenner describes how a politics of scale is currently unfolding in which the
appropriate political regulatory institutions of major urban regions is debated. World cities or
urban regions are currently being governed by institutions on administrative levels that cant
always deal with their global reach and influence. Brenner states that in the current debate,
governance and regulation on the regional level are considered the most appropriate.
However, there are some forces that work counter the establishment of such regional or
metropolitan governance. To conclude, Brenner states that problems of urban governance can
no longer be confronted merely on the level of cities or even regions; they must be analysed
with regards to the national, supranational and global scales as well.
Organic regime would be a more generic regime than maintenance regime of Stone. In
this case, a caretaker regime would be subcategories of organic regime. Maintenance
Stones regime is related to low fiscal rates, but organic regime would be maintenance
of the status quo, and it could include maintenance of the elites or racial class
exclusion. It would be just no change.
Instrumental regime its similar to development or progrowth regime in Stones studies.
Reflects the importance of benefits in coalitions.
Symbolic regime includes Stones progressive regime and also revitalizing the city
changing its image. Selective incentive are less informal because its often transitional,
especially revitalization regimes.
Not all the urban systems need to be fit under a regime framework, boundaries have to be
specified.
The core contribution of the urban regime concept, at least in terms of the impact of its
application, takes different forms in North America and beyond. Within North America, the key
contribution is to have broken the deadlock created by the stalemate between the pluralist
and elitist perspectives. The concept has helped analysts develop a new understanding of the
way that power works in urban settings, with its emphasis on power to rather than power
over. In a fragmented urban world, pressed in by global forces from above and challenged by
an active, if imperfect, democracy from below, politics cannot be reduced to the control of the
few, but equally the label pluralist cannot assumed to be adequate. In cities today, a key
power is the capacity to mobilize a long-term coalition that is capable of achieving change on
the ground.
Urban regimes are not simply networks or interorganizational collaboration.
not organized. Middle strata can be mobilized to achieve their goals, but it will require
coordination and community work, and it will be unstable. While upper strata have
more sources but they are less. Its easier having to deal when a few actors than with a
mass.
3) Social position and life style: Upper strata are well educated, self confident and its
supposed they have better skills for work and concern for the future. Middle strata are
also well-educated but within a limit. Bottom strata are supposed to have cultural
handicaps. Those perceptions through the social class make decision-makers think that
upper strata will be more fruitful to work with than bottom strata, which are less
admirable.
The system of stratification will affect the behavior of Public officials, who want to achieve
their careers and ensure their goals. So when officials make decisions, they take into account
economic considerations (if they need revenues); associational considerations (capacity of
engagement); and social status and life style.
To sum up, upper strata will have more influence in decision making for their position, than for
the actions they may take to influence decision making.
Examining the impact of Systemic Power.
We cannot see the systemic power but we can see their effects in the officials behavior, so
we have to study the decision making. Presence of systemic power results in:
a) Decision taken with a strategic dependence of public officials.
b) Patterns of interaction in which some groups (bottom strata) have more resistance than
others (upper strata)
Public officials actions are bases on popular support, but they need resources located into
upper strata. They act into a dual pressure.
The influence of the upper strata is different depending on the dimension: economical,
associational and social.
1: Business Influence and the Economic Dimension: Business will have more influence
in areas related to revenue production. Urban renewal is related to revenue production, so
influence will be greater than in governmental reform.
2: The Power of the Few and the Associational Dimension: The few are better
positioned to bring off complex projects and achieve tangible goals. It explains why
sometimes officials make decisions that affect badly their supports.
3: Agency Autonomy Reinterpreted in Light of the Social Dimension: Public
administration organisms have a strong autonomy and seem to be isolated from external
pressures. Even in issues like education, community groups dont have much impact. Often
when they have a concession, its frustrated by failures in implementation unmanaged
social conflict ungovernable city (neopluralist interpretation).
Lower strata needs more service, so they tend to be unhappy in service delivered. Then,
social services tend to serve better middle or upper class because they are likely to show their
improvement.
Class Bias in Program Implementation: The "Ungovernable City" Reconsidered:
Public agencies operating in a stratification system, in spite of the autonomy, tend to share
some patterns related to social class.
Local governments have to deal with all the areas of policy. They have to choose where not
act. So they will develop projects which have more pressure to be developed and tend to
leave those who have less support. Efforts to upgrade social housing, or give more
opportunities to poor people are likely to have more opposition, in part because it can make
change the composition of the city, while developing business districts or attractions for
middle and upper class tend to find more support.
When policies are made within apparently autonomous agencies through small decisions, the
accumulative impact has sometimes a class bias. It is incremental.
The Overt Behavior of Political Actors: Public officials tent to serve upper strata when its
not evident in front of the electorate. In Atlanta, pro-business demands were always attended
except when they encountered a strong opposition, while pro-neighborhood demands were
attended only when external pressure was so strong. Opportunity costs were different from
one group to another.
Conclusion:
Upper strata are strategically dominated, so they dont really exercise their influence. Just
officials are more predisposed to serve them.
Brief summary:
1: While public officials enjoy significant autonomy in decision making, their autonomy is
constrained by the fact that they operate in the broad context of a highly stratified
socioeconomic system.
2: This system predisposes officials to favor upper- over lower-strata interests
3: Predispositions are motivated by the officials themselves because they want career
success.
4: Looking for their career success, officials tend to increase opportunity cost for some groups,
and decrease opportunity costs for others.
5: The system influences the predispositions in 3 different ways: economic, associational and
social. In each, the systemic power influence has a different degree of impact.
6: Systemic power is more evident in the last phases of policy-making.
7: Systemic advantage is only a facet of the total community power, but it is so important.