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Kompedium Frosio
Kompedium Frosio
TEXT BOOKLET
06/13
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Knowledge
To be able to perform the job as a paint inspector a lot of basic knowledge is required. Among
these:
Corrosion
Materials
Pre-treatment requirements
Paints and coatings
Application requirements
Health and safety issues
Specifications
Standards for surface preparation and inspections
Other corrosion preventing methods; hot dip galvanising, thermal spray, passive fire
protection
Often, as is the case with this course, the inspector must be certified. This involves a general course
on corrosion protection and an examination. There are different levels of paint inspectors often
based on relevant experience.
Duties
The inspector must be updated in standards, specifications and new developments in the field of
corrosion protection. A paint inspector has many duties and must be able to perform the following
tasks.
Specification
Be able to read and understand the specification and make sure that the correct specification
is used.
Be able to evaluate a specification with regards to suitability
Procedure
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Must know and understand the relevant standards required by the specification
Use of normative references in standards (these are the additional standards required)
Equipment
Be able to have some basic knowledge of paint pumps, blast cleaning equipment, water
jetting equipment a swell as other equipment and to be able to determine if it is suitable
Confirm that the used equipment is according to the specification (e.g. brush for primer
coat)
Log and monitor the equipment used (e.g. type on nozzle and pressure during airless spray)
Pre-treatment
preparation of steel surfaces, e.g. rounding of sharp edges, grinding of surface defects,
removal of weld spatter etc. is in accordance with the specification
Using the standards to determine cleanliness, surface profile, any contaminations
Checking the climatic conditions
Logging results of inspection
Make sure that it is according to specification at the time the application starts.
Application
Final inspection
Check final result for paint defects, film thickness, adhesion and so on according to
requirements in the specification
Calibration of instruments
Reporting
Surveys
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Behaviour
How an inspector behaves is of utmost importance. It is an advantage to work together with the
operators and earn their respect. This respect can be earned by proving that you have the skills and
knowledge required. There will always be some difficulties during corrosion protection and we
have to make the best of it. This may involve some compromises, but an inspector should never
deviate from the specification. Earning trust from the operators will usually increase the quality, the
job is after all a joint effort by many parts who all want the best possible result.
The inspector should be frank and straightforward and try to establish good communication with
the people he/she will be working with. Presence when the work is being carried out will enable the
inspector to draw the correct conclusions, thus avoiding many delays.
The way an inspector behaves on site is another way to gain respect. Attend meetings and be
constructive, be organized and be polite. The inspector is often a lonesome wolf, and very often
on his/her own, and has few people within the company present to discuss things with.
As an inspector it is important at all times to take notes of ongoing events. Not necessarily when
present on the worksite - this can affect the working relationship with the operators. Everything
should be recorded in logs e.g. daily or weekly reports, progress reports.
It is also important that the inspector is capable of understanding what is actually possible to
achieve and what is not. During painting operations you will always measure variations in DFT
over a construction - the variations may be caused by several things, not only the operators. All
instruments we use have uncertainties - this should be kept in mind during inspection.
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MATERIAL SELECTION
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0.2 %
2 4 %.
By alloying iron with small amounts of other elements such as chromium, nickel, phosphor,
molybdenum, and vanadium we will achieve a wide variety of steels, called low-alloyed steels. The
total percentage of other elements than iron in low-alloyed steel is seldom higher than a few percent
(2-3 %).
The corrosion resistance of carbon steels and low-alloyed steels are more or less the same.
The mechanical properties of carbon steels are good, but without protection they corrode under
atmospheric conditions when the relative humidity rises above approximately 60 70 %. The
corrosion rate of steel depends upon time of exposure in the atmosphere, humidity, pH-value and
air pollution.
During production of the steel in the hot rolling mill, the steel reaches high temperatures and mill
scale is created on the steel surface. The mill scale can be seen as a blue-black coloured metallic
coating on the steel surface. The mechanical properties are poor. It is very brittle and easily starts to
flake of. Another negative property with the mill scale is that it is nobler than the steel itself. If
there become cracks in the mill scale there can be problems with galvanic corrosion. Therefore it is
often removed, either with blast cleaning or during the cold rolling process. As long as it is intact
on the steel surface it protects the steel.
After the coarse rolling process, the steel can either be warm or cold rolled. Usually steel rolled at
temperatures above 600 oC is hot rolled (mill scale is formed) and those below 600 oC are cold
rolled. The cold rolling process provides the steel with greater hardness and strength as well as a
smooth surface, the mill scale is also removed. The thickness of the cold rolled steel are normally
below 4 mm thick, while the hot rolled steal plates are thicker then 4 mm.
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These terms ferritic. austenitic and martensitic refer to the crystalline structure of the steels.
Duplex stainless steels have a combination of austenitic + ferritic crystalline structure with high
strength, toughness and corrosion resistance.
The main alloying element in stainless steels is chromium. When iron is alloyed with chromium a
very thin film of chromium oxide is created on the metals surface. In order to achieve this thin
protecting film the steel must have a chromium content of minimum 13 % and it is this passive
layer that makes the steel stainless. Therefore stainless steel is also referred to as a passive
material.
The corrosion protection of stainless steels is in addition to chromium very dependent on the
content of nickel and molybdenum. Stainless steels containing molybdenum are in some countries
referred to as acid proof stainless steels. Molybdenum makes it more sea water resistant.
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18 % Chromium, 8 % Nickel
18 % Chromium, 8 % Nickel and 3 % Molybdenum
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cement
fine aggregate e.g. sand
coarse aggregate gravel or crushed rock
water
The cement is the binder in the concrete. The cement reacts with the water and a hydratisation
process occurs. The most common cement types are Portland cement and modified Portland
cement.
The water-cement ratio is connected to the mechanical strength of the concrete. Approximately 0.4
kg of water is needed to bind 1 kg of cement, but to get a workable, free flowing paste we must
higher w/c ratios, in the range of 0.5 or higher.
There are different kinds of concrete, depending on where the concrete is used. The curing time of
the concrete prior to painting is generally thought to be minimum 28 days.
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CORROSION
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Summing up, corrosion can be viewed as the process of returning metals to their natural state- the
ores from which they were originally obtained.
Metals will degrade under many different conditions, but we normally talk about aqueous
corrosion, which reduce the temperature range to below 100C. Under these circumstances there
are three things that must be present to get corrosion. This is metal, electrolyte and oxygen.
Electrolyte/
Humidity
Metal
Oxygen
An electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that make the substance electrically
conductive. The most typical electrolyte is a solution consisting of water and salts; here the salts
make the water conductive. Other examples of electrolytes are sea water, soil, polluted fresh water,
acids, alkalis. Pollution from the air can also dissolve in water and make it conductive. If the
presence of one of the three elements in the triangle can be eliminated the corrosion process stops.
This we will get back to in the chapter about avoiding corrosion.
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Electrolyte
Seawater
Seawater
Seawater
KCl
Potential [volts]
- 0.78
+ 0.25
+ 0.32
+ 0.245
As can be seen from the table above, the measured value must be corrected if the potential should
be compared with the literature.
An example of a widely used table from the literature is the Galvanic series in sea water. Here,
the potential of many kinds of metals and alloys have been measured and arranged in a table. As
can be seen from the table, the materials that are in the same potential range are grouped together.
These materials may be used together without significant risks of galvanic corrosion.
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- 0.6 0.7V
Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminium alloys
Mild steel, cast iron
Low alloy steels
Austenitic nickel cast iron
18Cr 8Ni stainless steel (active)
18Cr 8Ni 3Mo stainless steel (active)
Lead soldering
Lead
Tin
- 0.1 0.2V
Nickel (active)
Inconel (active)
Hastelloy B(60 Ni 30 Mo 6 Fe 1 Mn)
Chlorimet 2 (66 Ni 32 Mo 1 Fe
Admirality brass, aluminium brass
Copper
Manganese bronze
Cu-Ni alloys (60Cu 40Ni), (90Cu 10 Ni)
Monel (70Ni 30Cu)
Silver solder
Nickel (passive)
Inconel (80Ni 13Cr 7Fe)
18Cr 8Ni stainless steel (passive)
18Cr 8Ni 3Mo stainless steel (passive)
Hastelloy C(62Ni 17Cr 15 Mo)
Chlorimet 3 (62Ni 18Cr 18 Mo)
+ 0.1 V
+ 0.2-0.3 V
Silver
Titanium
Graphite
Gold
Platinum
Noble
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cathode. As shown in the figure, a voltmeter can be placed between the two metals to measure the
potential difference (shown by a V in the figure). The anode degrades while the cathode is
unaffected. It may therefore look like there is nothing happening at the cathode, but this is not the
case. Parallel to the degradation happening at the anode, the solution around the cathode becomes
alkaline (OH-). Consequently two processes happen at the same time, one at the anode and one at
the cathode. The reaction occurring at the cathode contains oxygen:
Cathode:
The reaction on the anode contains the metal that is degraded. (In this example we used iron, and
iron ions (Fe2+) are made):
Anode:
When the iron ions react with the hydroxyl ions (OH-) rust is formed (Fe(OH)2:
Fe2+ + 2 OH- = Fe(OH)2
The reactions above are shown to explain what is happening, but is not important to remember.
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Corrosion rate
If two metals are submerged in a liquid that conducts electricity (an electrolyte), both metals will
corrode at a certain corrosion rate. If we connect these two metals with each other, the corrosion
rate will increase on the most ignoble metal and decrease on the most noble metal
The corrosion rate e.g. in air, fresh water and seawater will vary for the different metals. The
corrosion rate will amongst other things depend on the following:
Type of metal
Environment
Contact with other metals
Surface films on the metal
Temperature
Submerged in a liquid
Often the corrosion rate is measured in m/year. In the table below there is shown an example with
four metals: Steel, aluminium, copper and zinc. All materials were exposed at a test rig close to the
sea on the west coast of Sweden. The corrosion rate (in m/yr) was determined after 2, 5 and 10
years. As can be seen from the table, there is a great difference in the corrosion rates of the four
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Table 3 Corrosion rates in m/year for different metals after exposure for 2, 5 and 10 years to marine atmosphere
on the West Coast of Sweden.
Material
Steel
Aluminium
Copper
Zinc
2 years
5 years
10 years
51.1 m
32.8 m
20.7 m
0.48 m
0.76 m
0.35 m
1.8 m
1.1 m
0.71 m
3.6 m
2.6 m
1.7 m
The differences in corrosion rate relates to the properties of the different materials. All the metals
will form oxide layers, but some will form a more protective layer then others in reaction with
oxygen / during the corrosion process. The oxides are the corrosion product in any case. Rust is the
oxide formed on iron, while white rust is the oxide on zinc. These oxides will not protect the
material, so it will continue degrading. On titanium, aluminum and stainless steel the oxide layers
are more protective. Thats because the oxide formed is a passive layer, much more protective
than rust or white rust. The materials that forms this passive layer is often called passive materials.
If it is damaged, the fresh surface will react with the oxygen in the air and reveal itself.
The corrosion rate is also influenced by the environment. The different types of environment or
corrosivity classes are listed in ISO 12944 Part 2; Classification of environments. This standard
will be discussed in a separate chapter. A short summary is that the environment are divided in two:
Atmospheric corrosivity categories
Submerged corrosivity categories
In both cases, there are definitions on different categories based on the corrosivity in the
environment. In general we can say that for the atmospheric categories the corrosivity increases as
the salt/humidity/contamination level increase. For the submerged categories, corrosivity will also
increase with the salt level. One material can behave differently in the two categories.
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Neutral
Alkaline
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
The pH scale is a logarithmic scale, meaning that a decrease from e.g. 7 to 6, indicates that the
value is 10 times more acidic than at pH=7. If the value had increased from 7 to 9, the value will be
10 x 10 = 100 times more alkaline than at pH = 7.
Examples on acidic solutions
Hydrochloric acid (HCl),
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Citric acid
Examples on alkaline solutions
Sodium hydroxide,
Caustic soda (NaOH)
Cement
Epoxy hardener
Corrosion attacks of some metals will be affected by the pH. In some cases the metal will corrode
in both an acidic and alkaline solutions (e.g. zinc and aluminium), whilst others metals (e.g. steel)
will corrode in acidic solution, but be passivated in alkaline solutions. This is why steel
reinforcement bars are used in concrete; it is passivated and will not corrode in the alkaline cement.
Two know if a material is passivated or not is dependent on the nature of it. This has been carefully
mapped bye a lot of experimental testing, and fortunately summarized in books.
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General corrosion is as the name says a general attack over large areas on a metal surface. This is
one of the most common types of corrosion, and can occur at all metals to some extent. It is
normally characterized by a chemical or electrochemical reaction, which proceeds uniformly over
the entire surface or over a large area; therefore it is also called uniform corrosion. As the metal
suffers from corrosion, it becomes thinner and thinner, ant finally it fails, but since the degradation
is predictable, it is easy to handle.
With this type of attack on a surface, both the anodic and the cathodic processes are evenly
distributed over the metal surface. The location of anodic and cathodic areas shifts from time to
time, as discussed in earlier chapters.
A general corrosion attack leads to a reduction of the materials thickness linear with time. The rate
of penetration can be calculated i.e. from corrosion data. This makes it easy to predict the lifetime
of a material, as long as you know the corrosion rate in the given environment. If you have a
specification that requires a lifetime of at least 15 years, you can calculate the extra thickness of the
material you need to add to the required construction thickness. This extra material is the corrosion
allowance for the construction. The extra material, the corrosion allowance is the material that can
be gone while the equipment is still capable of working as designed.
For example a corrosion rate of 0.13 mm/yr (5 m) would result in a metal loss of 1.52 mm
(0.060") in a twelve-year period. A corrosion allowance of 1.59 mm (1/16 ") is often adequate to
provide 12 years of service in process exposures, perhaps 25 years in storage tanks.
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Original thickness
Change of materials
Use of paints or coatings
Use of inhibitors (in systems with liquids)
Cathode
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Serious problems have occurred on welded pipes where the welding electrodes used were more
ignoble than the pipes. In this case the welds are more anodic than the surrounding steel pipes
which results in a severe attack on the welds due to galvanic corrosion. The area effect accelerates
the galvanic effect.
Problems have also occurred on the Statue of Liberty in New York City that was erected in 1886.
The steel armature was originally insulated from the copper skin using shellac-impregnated
asbestos. This of course has broken down during more than 100 years of exposure, causing a
metallic coupling between the copper and the steel. The asbestos absorbed water and no longer
insulated the two metals caused great damage on the steel armature. During rehabilitation in 1981 1986 large amounts of the steel was changed with stainless steel and Teflon was used for insulating
the parts.
Galvanic corrosion may be reduced / prevented by:
CATHODIC PROTECTION
You may have asked yourself why this section is taken in to the corrosion chapter. The reason is that
cathodic protection and galvanic corrosion is more or less the same, from two different points of view.
We use the same theory here, as you learned about in the galvanic corrosion section. But this time it is
planned so, that the coupling of different materials result in protection of steel, and sacrifice of another
material.
Consequently, cathodic protection is a way of protecting steels by making the steel we wish to protect
the cathode in a galvanic cell. As we have seen previously in connection with the galvanic corrosion -
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When steel is put into seawater the steel corrodes. When zinc is put into seawater, the zinc
corrodes. When the steel is electrically connected to zinc, zinc will corrode and send off energy.
The steel will consume this energy. Since steel is given energy at all times, it is impossible for the
steel to send off energy, hence the zinc protects the steel. In this case, zinc will be the anode and
steel the cathode.
Cathodic protection can be achieved in two ways:
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Protective
current
Steel
Zinc
Normally the sacrificial anodes are made of zinc- or aluminium alloys. Both of these can be used
for protection of steel in seawater.
- DC rectifier +
Seawater
Protective
current
Steel
Cathode
Platinized titanium
anode
Reference
electrode
When impressed current systems are used, automatic control is usually required. This control will
at all times check the potential of the steel against a reference electrode. When changes occur the
current will be altered.
The numbers of anodes are much fewer when using impressed current systems, because they are
designed for high current outputs. This will result in overprotection of areas close to the anodes and
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Pitting corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a form of localized attack that results in holes in the metal. These holes may be
small or large in diameter, but in most cases they are relatively small. They may result in
perforation of a metal or alloy, which is very risky, because it is difficult to se the seriousness of the
corrosion attack without looking at the cross-section of the material. Pits are sometimes isolated or
so close together that they look like a rough surface. Generally a pit may be described as a cavity or
hole with the surface diameter about the same as, or less than, the depth. Pitting is one of the most
insidious forms of corrosion. It causes equipment to fail because of perforation with only a small
percent weight loss of the entire structure.
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Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a type of intense localized corrosion frequently occurring within crevices and
other shielded areas on metal surfaces exposed to corrosive liquids. The type of attack is usually
associated with small volumes of stagnant solution caused by holes, gasket surfaces, lap joints,
and crevices under bolt and rivet heads. As a result, this form of corrosion is called crevice
corrosion or, sometimes, deposit corrosion.
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Metal
Electrolyte with salts
High oxygen content
No corrosion
Acidic environment
Low oxygen content
Crevice corrosion
Mental
The corrosion starts in small crevices with stagnant water. Over time the oxygen level decrease
because it is used to maintain the oxide film. When there is no oxygen left, the oxide film can not
repair itself and therefore becomes vulnerable. The salt in the liquid starts to destroy the oxide film
and at the same time, the environment inside the crevice becomes acidic, so the environment gets
even more aggressive, hence the material corrodes.
It is not always necessary to have crevices - this type of corrosion attack may also occur on a metal
surface covered with sand, mud or dirt. This also results in low oxygen contents underneath the
sand, mud e.g.
Sand, mud etc.
Narrow gap
Metal surfaces
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Erosion corrosion
Erosion corrosion is a form of corrosion that occurs when a metal is attacked because of a relative
motion between an electrolyte and a metal surface. Metal is then constantly removed from the
surface or its corrosion products are removed by the electrolyte. Soft metals are particularly
vulnerable to this form of attack, for example copper, brass, pure aluminium and lead, but most
metals are susceptible to erosion corrosion in particular flow situations. If the corrosion products or
sand particles follow the flow further, the probability to get corrosion problems is larger, because of
the solids.
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Corrosion film
Change of materials
Change of environment (reduction in the water flow)
Avoiding angular bends
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Cavitation is a particular form of erosion corrosion caused by the formation and collapse of vapor
bubbles on the surface. This type for corrosion is often encountered on parts being driven at high
velocity through a liquid, rather than in pipes or tanks where fluid flow occurs across stationary
metal surfaces.
The collapsing vapor bubbles produce shock waves at very high pressures, which in turn produce
deformation of many materials. The appearance may look very similar to erosion corrosion, but it is
possible to distinguish between them. The depression formed here is deep, have a small diameter.
The depressions are often close to each other which give the surface large roughness. The surface
may look like a sponge.
Water turbines, propellers, impellers and hydraulic turbine gear are the most common instances for
encountering corrosion by cavitation. Cavitation damages have been attributed to both corrosion
and mechanical effects.
Collapsing bubbles destroying the film.
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This kind of corrosion is also called selective leaching or parting. One element, generally the most
active one/most ignoble metal, is selectively removed from a solid alloy. As a result the
components of the alloy react in proportions, which differ from a solid alloy. When one component
of an alloy is removed the construction in this way, it may look intact, but it is important to
remember that the strength and properties are changed. To recognize this type of corrosion you
must look after a color change in the material.
Apart from the general term the process is often named after the removed element in the specific
cases, e.g. dezincification of brass, dealuminification of certain aluminium-bronzes. However not in
the case of graphitization of grey cast irons (here the removed element is iron).
A well-known example of dealloying is dezincification of brass. Dezincification is readily
recognized as the alloy assumes a red copper color, i.e. in contrast to the original yellow.
There are two general types of dezincification. One is uniform, or layer type, and the other is
localized, or plug-type dezincification.
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Change of materials
Change of environment
Cathodic protection
Stress corrosion cracking can be defined as crack formation/unexpected sudden failure of normally
ductile metals subjected to a tensile stress in a corrosive environment. It is especially vulnerable at
elevated temperature. The chemical environment that causes SCC for a given alloy is often one
which is only mildly corrosive to the metal otherwise. Hence, metal parts with severe SCC can
appear bright and shiny, while being filled with microscopic cracks. This factor makes it common
for SCC to go undetected prior to failure. SCC often progresses rapidly, and is more common
among alloys than pure metals. The specific environment is of crucial importance, and only very
small concentrations of certain highly active chemicals are needed to produce catastrophic
cracking, often leading to devastating and unexpected failure.
Well-known materials, which may show susceptibility to SCC in chloride environments, are austenitic
stainless steels containing chromium and nickel (e.g. 316 SS) and a number of aluminium alloys.
Generally the susceptibility to SCC increases with increasing temperature. For a number of alloy /
environment combinations a safe temperature can be indicated, below which the susceptibility to SCC
is practically nil.
This corrosion type is recognized on the characteristic cracks that will appear on the surface:
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CUI is a particularly severe form of localized corrosion that has been plaguing chemical process
industries for many years. The key problem in CUI is the intruding of water. Therefore it is
particularly important during design not to promote corrosion by permitting water to enter the
system directly or indirectly by capillary action. Moisture may be external or may be present in the
insulation material itself. Corrosion may attack the jacketing, the insulation hardware, or the
underlying equipment.
For high temperature equipment, water entering an insulation material and diffusing inward will
eventually reach a region of dry out at the hot pipe or equipment wall. This will lead to a zone next
to the dry out area where pores of the insulation are filled with a saturated salt solution. When a
shutdown or process change occurs, and the metal-wall temperature falls, the zone of saturated salt
solution moves into the metal wall. When the temperature then rises again, stress-corrosion
cracking may begin. The drying/wetting cycles in CUI associated problems accelerates the
corrosion damage.
The most common and straightforward way to inspect for corrosion under insulation is to cut
plugs in the insulation that can be removed to allow for ultrasonic testing. However, many times
such plugs can be the source of moisture leakage. The main problem with this technique is that
corrosion under insulation tends to be localized and unless the inspection plug is positioned in the
right spot, the sites of corrosion can be missed. Other techniques that are available include special
eddy current techniques, x-ray, remote TV monitoring, and electro-magnetic devices.
CUI may be reduced / prevented by:
One of the best but most expensive options to prevent corrosion under insulation is the use
of protective coating systems. Special coating system must be utilized that have proven
2
Reference: http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Forms-crevice/CUI.htm
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GALVANIC SERIES
SURFACE PREPARATION
and ABRASIVES
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Steel materials
For structures we usually use carbon steel and stainless steel. Many carbon steels as well as other
types of metals like Titanium, Copper, Aluminium and Nickel compounds may have satisfactory
corrosion protection without coating, but in many cases we also paint or coat these types.
Carbon steel will always corrode in uncontrolled environments and the mill scale from the hot
rolled steel will start to flake of when exposed to weathering. All carbon steel will degrade. The
ISO standard 8501-1 divides the steel into rust grades, depending on the amount of mill scale that
has been removed and or how much the steel has corroded. For newbuilding of ships / offshore
constructions a criteria listed in many specifications is the steel subject to surface preparation on
site shall as a minimum requirement be rust grade B in accordance with ISO 8501-1.
To protect the steel from degrading, a shop primer is often applied. Shop primers shall be regarded
as temporary corrosion protection and shall be removed unless approved by the company. Often
zinc ethyl silicate shop primers are approved for use below the specified system, somewhat
depending on where and what kind of system is used.
Pre-blasting preparations
In order to assure good quality of a coating all over, it is important that all sharp edges, fillets,
corners and welds are rounded or smoothened by grinding (minimum radius = 2 mm). Failure to
grind these areas will lead to failure and is one of the most common causes of defects.
Hard surface layers e.g. resulting from flame cutting shall be removed by grinding prior to blastcleaning.
Any oil and grease shall be removed prior to blasting operation, in accordance with SSPC SP-1.
Major surface defects, particularly surface laminations or scabs detrimental to the protective
coating system shall be removed by suitable dressing. Where such areas have been exposed during
blast-cleaning, and dressing has been performed, the dressed area shall be re-blasted to the
specified standard. All welds shall be inspected and if necessary be repaired prior to final blast
cleaning of the area. Surface pores, cavities etc. shall be removed by suitable dressing or weld
repair.
Steel design
Preferable openings, notches in structural steel should be so large in diameter that water and debris
traps are voided. The dominating issue of corrosion is the wetting time. The longer the wetting
time, the longer the time the corrosion process is talking place. Construction design should be
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Welds
All (especially hand) welds should treated prior to painting in order for the paint to provide the
appropriate protection. The welding work should be carried out in a proper way as to avoid porosity
in the welds, undercuts and cracks. If located, such defects should be repaired. Grind welds smooth
if uneven.
Coating failure is very common along welds. Is it the welder or the painters responsibility to make
sure that there is no weld spatter, porosity etc. present? This is not always obvious and problems are
likely to arise if workers are not from the same company or if this responsibility is not clearly
defined in the procedures.
The welders and painters have their own opinion of how a weld shall appear prior to painting, but
these views are not necessarily the same. Some welders will after welding leave behind both
welding flux and weld spatter. In order to paint weld spatter must be chipped off / grinded and the
area washed prior to painting.
There is a standard recommended practice provided by NACE fabrication details, surface finish
requirements and proper design considerations for tanks and vessels to be lined for immersion
service NACE Standard RP0178-91 visualising 5 different weld preparations (A -E) on butt
weld, fillet welded tee joint and lap weld. Provided with the NACE RP 0178-91 is also a visual
comparator, which illustrates the various degrees of surface.
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Surface wetting
Most people have seen how water pearls on a waxed or fatty surface. Water will make pearls on
waxed surfaces on polished cars or oil on surfaces. The purpose of wax / oil is to reduce/avoid
water accumulating on the surface. If we clean these surfaces well, i.e. we remove all wax and fat,
and then apply water we will see that the water makes a continuous film. This is due to the surface
tension and can be explained as follows: between all solids, liquids and gases in contact with each
other, there are pulling forces. These forces are also present when we apply water on a waxed
surface. However the forces between the molecules in the water are greater than between the water
and the waxed surface. The surface tension of the water pulls the water film apart and the water has
a higher surface tension than the waxed surface. In order to obtain good wetting, the surface tension
of the substrate must be higher than our paint coating. When the wax has been removed from the
surface the water wets the surface better. The surface tension of the substrate increases when we
clean surfaces. This implies that the lower surface tension we have on our paint/coating, the better
adhesion will be achieved for the coating. We want a clean surface so that our paint or coating
will flow smoothly over the entire surface and adhere, or in other words we want our
paint/coating to wet the surface.
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Solvent cleaning
Emulsifying cleaning
Alkali cleaning
Water cleaning
Solvent cleaning
Surface preparation specification no. 1 from the Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) in the
USA covers solvent cleaning. SSPC-SP 1 Solvent cleaning is a method for removing all visible
oil, grease, soil, drawing and cutting compounds, and other soluble contaminants from steel
surfaces. It is intended that solvent cleaning be used prior to the application of paint and in
conjunction with surface preparation methods specified for the removal of rust, mill scale or paint.
In workshops, during dry-docking etc. it is common practice to use rags saturated with solvents
used to wipe surfaces clean from oil and grease. If this is not done properly all you achieve is a
smearing of the oil and grease onto the surface and making it penetrate even more, thus, the new
paint system that might be applied has little or no adhesion to the steel or previous coat. It is very
important to use plenty of rags and changing them often when using this method.
Prior to solvent cleaning, foreign matter (other than grease and oil) should be removed by one or a
combination of the following; brush with stiff fibres or wire brushes, abrade, scrape, or clean with
solutions or appropriate cleaners, provided such cleaners are followed by a fresh water rinse. After
solvent cleaning, remove dirt, dust and other contaminants from the surface prior to application of
paint. Acceptable methods include brushing, blow off with clean, dry air or vacuum cleaning.
If there are heavy oil and grease on the surface remove these using a scraper. Then use one of the
following methods:
Wipe or scrub with rags or brushes wetted with solvent. Use clean solvent and clean rags or
brushes for the final wiping.
Spray the solvent onto the surface. Use clean solvent for the final spraying.
Due to environmental concern this method is often used only on small areas, e.g. spot repair.
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Emulsion or alkaline cleaners may be used in place of the methods described previously.
After treatment, fresh water rinse or steam to remove residues.
Steam clean, using detergents or cleaners and followed by steam or fresh water wash to
remove residues.
Due to environmental concern alternative methods without the use of solvents are often used.
Chlorinated solvents
Chlorinated solvents are generally used in vapour degreasing units for smaller parts in workshops.
The items to be degreased are lowered into a specially designed cabinet with solvent. In the bottom
of the solvent cabinets or tanks heating coils are used to make the solvent boil. In the top are
cooling coils. When cold goods are lowered into the steam zone, the steam condenses on the
surface, and both the fat and the solvents will run off. The surface then dries and clean products
can after a while be removed from the cabinet.
Chlorinated products such as tri-chlorethylene, per- chlorethylene, also known under names such as
chlorotenes are used for vapour degreasing.
Due to environmental concern alternative methods without the use of solvents are often used.
Alkaline cleaning
By far, this is the most commonly used method of degreasing today. Essentially it is strong
soap that dissolves the oil and grease followed by thorough water rinsing to remove it. This
method is water based and more environmentally friendly.
When using alkaline cleaning not only will oil and fat be removed from the surface, but also other
contamination like dirt on the steel surface. Water-soluble salts and some paints will also be
removed.
Alkaline cleaning can be carried out several ways:
Dipping in an alkaline bath
Washing with alkaline solutions
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Type
Tool
Chipping Hammers
Hand scrapers
Hand cleaning tools
Removes/prepares
Rotary de-scalers
Chipping hammers
Needle guns
Power tools
Rotary power tools are rapid cleaning equipment using different kinds of cleaning media for
removal of rust and paint. The most common types are wire brushes, non-woven and woven
abrasives.
Wire brushes
Wire brushes are available in different shapes, wheel types or cup types and are generally used on
equipment operated either by pneumatic or electric motors. Using wire brushes, old paint, rust
scale, weld slag and dirt deposits can be removed.
Non-woven abrasives
Non woven abrasives come in cup, wheel or disc form. Non-woven abrasives are advantageous in
removing coatings, because less tension is added compared to coated abrasives. Using the nonwoven abrasives, old paint, rust scale, weld slag and dirt deposits can be removed.
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Flame cleaning
Some years back it was quite common in many countries to use flame-cleaning for cleaning of
steel. However the use of this process for cleaning steel has decreased and is rarely used today. This
is mainly due to the great amount of steel that is centrifugal blast-cleaned and shop primed in
plants.
Previously the method was quite useful for cleaning larger surface areas outdoors for ship hulls
made from un-primed steel. However the cleaning rate is quite low compared to blast-cleaning and
the blast-cleaned surface is much cleaner. So as time passed by the blast-cleaning process has taken
over most of the flame cleaning.
The flame cleaning process was a thermal process - the flame and the heating of the surface did the
cleaning of the surface. The method had the following advantages:
Remove most of the mill-scale and the rust
Burn off fat and oils from the surface
Dry the surface
Ability to paint on a heated surface
The thermal cleaning process was carried out using a burner operating at a certain speed over the
surface. During the process the mill-scale and the rust-scale expands more than the steel. The
tension that is created cracks the scale and loosens it to some extent. Also smaller amounts of water
trapped under the mill- and rust scale contribute to this when heated.
The heating process by it self will not be able to remove very much mill-scale or rust-scale and the
process always must be finished using power tool wire brushing. Thick layers of rust have to be
chipped away.
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Straight nozzle:
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Ultrahigh-pressure water jetting (UHP WJ) Cleaning performed at pressures above 200
MPa (2000 bar) or 25000 psi
Low-pressure and high-pressure water cleaning at pressures less than 70 MPa removes loose rust,
debris and material in depressions and pits, but black oxide (magnetite) remains.
High-pressure water jetting at pressures of 70 MPa (10000 Psi) will produce a uniform matte finish
which will quickly flash rust unless inhibitors or environmental control is carried out. Black oxides
(magnetite) are slowly removed.
At pressures of 140 MPa (20000 Psi), a uniform matte finish is obtained that will flash rust quickly
unless inhibitors or environmental control is carried out. Black oxides (magnetite), paint,
elastomeric coatings, enamel, red oxide and polypropylene sheet lining are removed. Generally
chemical contaminants will be removed with varying degrees of effectiveness.
At pressures of 235 to 250 MPa (34000 to 36000 Psi), a uniform matte finish is obtained that will
flash rust quickly unless inhibitors or environmental control is carried out. Surface material,
including most mill scale, is removed from the base metal. Extremely well bonded mill scale may
require additional time spent in localised jetting. When an operator carries out this process the
amounts of water must be quite low. Otherwise the recoil will be too high for the operator to
withstand over a longer period of time.
Flash rust can be a problem for paints/coatings and special surface tolerant coatings have been used
e.g. surface tolerant epoxy.
The process will not result in any additional roughness in the steel i.e. the steel must have the
desired roughness in advance (have at some time been blast cleaned), and so far the process has
been in use more or less only in connection with maintenance painting.
This results in a minimum of problems in connection with the job, due to the fact that no dust is
created. At high pressures very small amounts of water are used, maybe only up to 15 -20 litres pr.
minute. However the cleanliness of the steel is very good. The water removes all salts and the
energy created using water, provides a temperature rise of the steel so that dries it quickly.
The operating distance from the object using ultra-high pressure water jetting is small, preferably
the nozzle is held 6 - 13 mm from the surface. At distances further apart the cleaning rate will be
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Grit
Shot
Cylindrical
- angular, irregular
- round
- sharp edged
(G)
(S)
(C)
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Type
Metallic
blast-cleaning
abrasives
Cast iron
Chilled
Cast iron
High-carbon
Low-carbon
Cut steel
wire
Natural
Silica sand
Olivine sand
Staurolite
Garnet
Non-metallic
blast-cleaning
abrasives
Initial
particle
shape
Compar
ator 1)
G2)
S or G
S2)
S
S
2)
S
G
G
G
Remarks
Mainly for compressed air
blast-cleaning
Mainly for centrifugal blastcleaning
(Calcium silicate
slag)
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Surface cleanliness
ISO 8501-1:2007 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints
and related products - Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
Part 1 Rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates and of steel substrates after
overall removal of previous coatings.
The standard has four levels of mill scale and rust (designated as "rust grades") that are commonly found
on surfaces of uncoated steel. It also identifies degrees of cleanliness (designated as "preparation
grades") after surface preparation of uncoated steel surfaces and steel surfaces after overall removal of
any previous coating. The various grades are defined, and together with photographs the rust and
preparation grade is found. 8501-1is applicable to hot-rolled steel surfaces for painting by methods such
as blast-cleaning, hand and power tool cleaning, and flame cleaning.
Rustgrades
A
Preparation grades
Blast-cleaning
A Sa 2
B Sa 1
B Sa 2
C Sa 1
C Sa 2
D Sa 1
D Sa 2
A Sa 3
B Sa 2
B Sa 3
C Sa 2
C Sa 3
D Sa 2
D Sa 3
C St 2
D St 2
B St 3
C St 3
D St 3
Flame cleaning
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A Fl
C Fl
B Fl
D Fl
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ISO 8501-2 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related
products - Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
Part 2 Preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after localised removal of previous
coatings
This standard specifies a series of preparation grades for steel surfaces after local removal of previous
coatings (spot repairs). The various preparation grades are defined by written descriptions and before
and after photographs. Photographs showing examples of preparation grades P Sa 2 and P Ma are
given. The standard is applicable to surfaces prepared by methods such as blast-cleaning, hand-and
power tool cleaning, and machine abrading.
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ISO 8501-4 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related
products Visual assessment for surface cleanliness
Part 4 Initial surface conditions, preparation grades and flash rust grades in connection with
high-pressure water jetting
This part of ISO 8501 specifies a series of preparation grades of steel surfaces after removal of watersoluble contaminants, rust and paint coatings and foreign matter by high-pressure water jetting.
The various grades are defined by written descriptions together with photographs that are representative
examples within the tolerance within each grade as described in words.
5 initial conditions are described:
DC A, DC B, DC C, DP I, DP Z.
There are 3 cleaning grades designated:
Wa1, Wa2, Wa 2 .
The last picture gives flash rust grades:
Low, medium and high.
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Part 3 Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting (pressure sensitive tape method)
This part of ISO 8502 describes a procedure for the assessment, using a pressure-sensitive tape method,
of the quantity and the particle-size of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting.
Part 4 Guidance on the estimation of the probability of condensation prior to paint application
The standard gives guidance on the estimation of the probability of condensation on a surface to be
painted. It may be used to establish whether conditions at the job site area are suitable for painting or
not. Use either electric or sling psychrometer and determine RH and dew point. Steel should be at least 3
C above the dew point.
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Part 1 Specifications and definitions for ISO surface profile comparators for the assessment of
abrasive blast-cleaned surfaces
This part of the ISO 8503 specifies requirements for ISO surface profile comparators which are intended
for visual and tactile comparison of steel surfaces that have been blast-cleaned with either shot or grit
abrasives. ISO surface profile comparators are for use in assessing, on site, the roughness of surfaces
before the application of paints and related products or other protective treatments.
Part 2 Method for the grading of surface profile of blast-cleaned steel - Comparator procedure
This part of the ISO 8503 describes a visual and tactile method for assessing the grade of the profile that
has been produced by one of the abrasive blast-cleaning procedures described in ISO 8504-2. The
method uses ISO surface profile comparators for assessment, on site, the roughness of surfaces before
the application of paint or other protective treatments.
Part 3 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the determination of
surface profile - Focusing microscope method
The standard specifies the focusing microscope and describes the procedure for calibrating ISO surface
profile comparators complying with the requirements of ISO 8503-1.
Part 4 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the determination of
surface profile - Stylus instrument method
The standard specifies the stylus instrument and describes the procedure for calibrating ISO surface
profile comparators complying with the requirements of ISO 8503-1.
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Film thickness
ISO 2808
The standard reviews and specifies a number of methods that are applicable to the measurement of the
thickness of organic coatings. The standard covers both measurement of wet and dry film thickness.
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Adhesion
ISO 2409 Paints and varnishes - Cross cut test
The standard specifies a test method for assessing resistance of paint coatings to separation from
substrates when a right-angle lattice pattern is cut into the coating penetrating to the substrate. The test
mat be carried out on finished objects and / on specially prepared test specimen.
ISO 4624
This standard specifies methods for carrying out a pull-off test on a single coating or multi-coat system
of paint, varnish or related product. The test result is the minimum tensile stress necessary to break the
weakest interface (adhesive failure) or the weakest component (cohesive failure) of the test assembly.
Mixed adhesive/cohesive failures may also occur.
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This standard covers procedures for determining pores and discontinuities using two types of test
equipment.
Test method A - Low voltage wet sponge (up to 500 m)
Test method B - High voltage spark tester (above 500 m).
This test method describes a solvent rub technique for assessing if ethyl silicate (inorganic) zinc-rich
primers have cured. The technique can be used in the laboratory, field or in the fabricating shop.
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Paints and varnishes - Evaluation of degradation of paint coatingsdesignation of intensity, quantity and size of common type of defects
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Binder(s)
Pigment(s)
Filler/Extender(s)
Solvent(s)
Additive(s)
Many paints can have a combination and several of the main components, typically 7-15 raw
materials. Often 1 binder, 1-3 pigments, 1-3 fillers, 2-3 solvents and 2-5 additives. Most paints are
mixed in a high speed dissolver. Some pigment requires special mills to decrease the particle size to
less than 10 m.
Binder
The binder is the most important component in paints. It provides the main properties,
including strength, curing/drying properties, adhesion, weathering properties etc. It binds
pigments and filler together to provide a uniform film. The binders can be organic, inorganic or a
combination, but does not necessarily have to be the largest component.
The term generic paint refers to the type of binder. Examples of binders are:
Acrylic
Vinyl
Epoxy
Polyurethane
Polysiloxane
Latex
Chlorinated rubber
Silicate
Pigments
We can divide pigments into two categories:
1. Decorative
The decorative pigments give the desired colour and opacity. The opacity is often referred
to as the hiding power, the paints ability to reflect light and give a uniform colour.
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Zinc
Laminar pigments are used in paints to make them more impermeable. When paint is
impermeable it is very dense (watertight) and it is difficult for water, oxygen and corrosive
ions to penetrate through it.
After application of the paint, the pigments will orient themselves parallel to the surface and
overlap, similar to bricks:
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Zinc phosphate
Other synthetic types
These pigments have no opacity, even though they usually look white.
Fillers/Extenders
Fillers or extenders are usually minerals used as finely grained powders in the paint. They provide
the paint with more body (consistency) without breaking down the properties of the paint; they
are cheap and keep the price of the paint down. The powders are often white or grey, but will
usually not provide any hiding power (opacity). Sometimes this component is liquid and we then
usually call them extenders. Typically these are tar modification or tar replacement modification
(hydrocarbon resins) type products
Primers usually have a high amount of fillers and are matt (the surface becomes uneven). Glossy
paint on the other hand have little fillers and have high gloss (the surface is smooth).
Examples of fillers
Solvents
The main reason for solvents in paint is to dissolve the binder. If the binder is solid or has high
viscosity a solvent is necessary to reduce the viscosity so that we are able to apply the paint. This is
more effective if the solvent gives better solvability of the binder.
For environmental purposes we like the solvent content as low as possible. Globally we have VOC
regulations (volatile organic compounds) and solvents are the main contributor to emissions in
paint.
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solvent
diluent
thinner
Additives
Additives are different chemicals used to provide or improve a certain property. Most paint use
additives to give improved properties, and typically there is between 2 and 5 additives in paint. The
dosage is usually small, e.g. between 0-1 %. The additives may improve or provide the following
properties, among others:
air release
pigment wetting
surface wetting
anti sag
thickening
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catalyst
driers
surface flow
adhesion promotion
viscosity reduction
Barrier protection - reduce ability of water and oxygen to reach the surface
Inhibitive protection - passivate the steel surface
Cathodic protection - sacrifice themselves to protect the steel
Barrier systems use paints that are as impermeable (watertight) as possible. This method tries to
prevent oxygen, salt, humidity, ions from passing through the film and reaching the substrate. Even
though we want it as impermeable as possible, no paint is completely impermeable and humidity
will move in and out of the paint film. Barrier protection is improved by the use of laminar
pigments, e.g. MIO, aluminium or glass flakes.
Inhibitive system contains pigments that react with the surface of the steel and passivates or inhibits
the steel by building up a corrosion protective film.
Cathodic protective systems rely on metallic pigments that are less noble than steel. The pigments
are in the primer and when the system is damaged and bare steel exposed, the cathodic protective
paint will send energy to the steel to protect it. As long as there is enough pigment no corrosion will
occur, but when the pigment has been used, corrosion will start.
The principles can be used by themselves or in a combination. Typically they are combined, e.g.:
Primer
Midcoat
Topcoat
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Primer
The primer for the steel must provide good adhesion to the substrate. In addition it often has anticorrosive pigments. It must form a good basis for the intermediate coat. Different binder may give
different adhesion properties and require different surface preparation. Today, epoxy primers are
widely used, e.g. zinc epoxy which gives excellent adhesion and excellent corrosion protection.
Typical film thickness is 50-75 m.
Intermediate coat
For a paint system to perform well we need minimum film thickness. The film thickness is built up
in the mid- or intermediate coat. In this coat we will increase impermeability and often laminar
pigments are used. The easiest way of building thickness is with a high solids paint (this will
require fewer coats to obtain the same thickness compared with a paint with low solids). Epoxy
systems are widely used as an intermediate paint in a heavy duty paint system. A film thickness of
150-200 m is normal.
Topcoat
The top coat or the finish coat provides the paint system with the desired colour and gloss. This
coat should withstand radiation from the sun, rain and chemicals. The most widely used topcoat is
polyurethane for heavy duty corrosion protection. These products have proven performance over
many years and gives good stability against weather, sun radiation and chemicals. Due to their
content of isocyanates they are considered hazardous in many parts of the world and special care
must be taken. Alternatives to polyurethanes are acrylics and polysiloxanes. Topcoat are usually the
most expensive coats and typically only 50-75 m are applied.
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One-component water based systems are usually physical drying, but they will neither dissolve
the binder nor be applicable below zero degrees.
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Steel
Oxygen
When oxidative drying paints have dried the original solvent will not dissolve them, but stronger
solvents can cause problems such as lifting. Both new and old oxidative drying paints e.g. alkyds
may lift when physical drying or chemical curing paints with strong solvents are applied. The
underlying coat will not be dissolved, rather destroyed and adhesion to the substrate or previous
coats will be lost. As a consequence, removal of the damaged coat(s) must be performed before
application of a new coat.
The drying process of oxidative drying paints will proceed at a slower rate at lower temperatures.
Typically they can be applied and will dry down to +5 C.
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Evaporation of solvents
Crosslinking
After mixing the paint is usable only for a certain period of time (from 20 minutes until a few
hours) which we call the pot-life. After this time period the chemical reaction has reached a point
where the paint becomes very viscous or hard, thus we cannot apply it. Do not add thinner to
dilute the paint further. When the temperature increases the pot-life decreases and vice versa.
Typical for the chemical curing paints are that they are two component (2-pack) paints (even three
pack). When these paints have cured they form a network (cross-linking) so dense that they will not
be dissolved by the original solvent. This gives a very strong and chemical resistant film compared
to the other types.
The drying process of chemical curing paints will proceed at a slower rate at lower temperatures,
consequently quicker at higher temperatures (then pot-life is reduced). Generally chemical curing
paints require minimum + 10 C, but there are cold curing types. Epoxy can cure down to - 5 C
and polyurethane even lower.
TYPES OF PAINT
There are many different paints which have varying properties. The paint manufactures can
customise paints for many uses. We will categorize them as follows:
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Zinc Primers
Primers are very important for a paint system. It will give adhesion to the steel, but some will also
give increased anti corrosion properties.
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Primers
There are many other primers available, and they can be based on alkyd, acrylics, epoxies,
polyurethane or other binders. For heavy duty corrosion protection, the epoxy based primers are
very frequently used. For water based systems the acrylic types are more common.
Etching primers (or wash primers)
Etching primers are used to achieve adhesion on problem substrates or substrates where it is
difficult to achieve adhesion, e.g. aluminium, stainless steel, hot dip galvanized surfaces.
Etching primers are two pack primers. The base contains the binder polyvinyl-butyral (PVB) and
the curing-agent is an alcohol solution with phosphoric acid. The maximum dry film thickness
(DFT) is very low and should not exceed 10 m, which is impossible to measure on site. If the DFT
is above 10 m, the phosphoric acid may be trapped inside, eventually leading to adhesion
problems. This is due to the fact that ingress of water vapour through the coating dissolves the
excess of the water soluble phosphoric acid.
Since these primers contain a lot of acid and is a rather messy job, their use is very limited. Health
and safety issue have made them rarely used. Today these problem substrates are lightly blast
cleaned (or thoroughly degreased) followed by an epoxy polyamide primer to achieve excellent
adhesion.
Epoxy primers
Epoxy primers are characterized by their excellent adhesion and barrier properties. They are twocomponents. The epoxy polyamide cured products provide the best adhesion properties, but other
types of hardener will also give adhesion way above the requirements (provided correct surface
treatment).
Areas of use
Epoxy primers are all-purpose primers for corrosion resistant paint systems. Seldom used alone,
depending on the exposure. Some of the primers are used as a tie-coat on porous surfaces and can
also be used as a holding primer (primer protecting the surface for a limited amount of time).
Acrylic primer
Many one- component primers are based on acrylic binders. These primers give good adhesion and
have shown excellent performance. The solvent is water and this can cause challenges in colder
climates, especially during winter since they must not freeze.
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Polyamides
Polyamines or polyamine adducts
Isocyanate
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Today almost all commercial ships use a self polishing tin free antifouling. There is still cuprous
oxide and various other biocides. As long as these are on the surface no growth will occur. As the
ship is moving the paint is slowly degraded by friction, always leaving fresh biocides at the surface.
Lifetime of such a SPC (self polishing copolymer) is 5 years when applied in approximately
300 m.
Non-slip or foul-release coatings may be the future for fouling prevention. They contain no biocide;
rather a very smooth and slippery surface prevents growth. The growth will fall of as the ship is in
motion. If the ship is not in motion growth can occur, but is easily removed. Special precautions
must be taken during application due to silicone content. These coatings have lower abrasion
resistance than traditional SPC and are more expensive. Even though more expensive than the selfpolishing, many suppliers claim that these expenses may be saved due to low friction, hence, less
fuel consumption.
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ISO 12944-parts1-8
Corrosion Protection of steel
structures by protective paint systems
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ISO 12944
6/11
1
General introduction
Classification of environments
Design considerations
Types of surface and surface preparations
Protective paint systems
Laboratory performance test methods
Executive and supervision of paint work
Development of specifications for new work and maintenance
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ISO 12944
6/11
2
Corrosivity
category
C1
Very low
10
1.3
0.7
0.1
C2
Low
> 10 to 200
> 1.3 to 25
> 0.7 to 5
C3
Medium
>200 to 400
>25 to 50
> 5 to 15
C4
High
>400 to 650
>50 to 80
> 15 to 30
C 5-I
Very high
(industrial)
>650 to 1500
>80 to 200
> 30 to 60
C 5-M
Very high
(marine)
>650 to 1500
> 80 to 200
> 30 to 60
Table 2
Category
Im1
Im2
Environment
Fresh water
Sea or brackish water
Im3
Soil
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ISO 12944
6/11
3
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ISO 12944
6/11
4
2 to 5 years
5 to 15 years
more than 15 years
This part of ISO 12944 has annexes where examples of paint systems for the corrosivity categories
C 1 to C 5 are listed.
ISO 12944 Part 6; Laboratory performance test methods
ISO 12944-6 specifies laboratory test methods that are to be used when the performance of
protective paint systems is to be assessed. It is particularly intended for paint systems for which
sufficient practical experience is not yet available and covers testing of paint systems designed for
application to steel prepared by blast-cleaning, to hot-dip galvanised steel and to thermally sprayed
metallic coatings. Atmospheric environments and immersion in water (fresh, brackish or sea-water)
are also covered.
ISO 12944 Part 7; Execution and supervision of paint work
ISO 12944-7 describes how paintwork is to be carried out in the workshop or on site. It describes
methods for the application of coating materials. Handling and storage of coating materials before
application, inspection of the work and follow-up of the resulting paint system, as well as reference
areas, are also covered. It does not cover surface preparation work (See ISO 12944-4).
ISO 12944 Part 8; Development of specifications for new work and maintenance
ISO 12944- 8 gives guidance for developing specifications for corrosion protection work,
describing everything that has to be taken into account when a steel structure is to be protected
against corrosion. For the convenience of the used, ISO 12944-8 distinguishes between project
specification, paint system specification, paint work specification, and inspection and testing
specification. Various annexes deal with particular aspects such as planning of the work, reference
and inspection, and offer models of forms intended to facilitate the work.
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ISO 12944
6/11
5
Application of paint
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Brush application
The use of brushes for application of paint is often considered to be good practice when the
application is to be done on areas that are difficult or impossible to reach by other means of
application. It is generally used for stripe coating along edges, corners, welds, rat holes etc.
Brushing will also give good penetration into pits, crevices and pores.
The best paint and varnish brushes are generally made from hog bristles. The outer ends of the
bristles are split into two or more fine branches, which results in finer brush marks and greater paint
holding ability.
The size and shapes of brushes vary. Flat brushes are the most commonly employed types of
brushes for work on flat surfaces, their width may be up to 100 - 120 mm. The round and oval types
are preferred for work on rough surfaces, painting rivet heads or for constricted areas.
The use of brushes for application of paint is very time-consuming and therefore expensive. The
paint layers obtained by the use of brushing will vary greatly in thickness depending on the painter
and the accessibility. The normal thickness achieved by the use of brush will be in the order of 40 50 m. Some of the corrosion protective paints can be applied by the use of brush, but some are
very viscous and rapid drying making the application difficult and uneven.
In general brushing may be used for all kinds of paints. For physical drying paints, such as
chlorinated rubber and vinyl, the solvent evaporation the paint will make it very viscous making the
brush marks quite visible. When a second coat is applied onto the primer coat, the fresh coat will
soften or dissolve it and the coats will mix or melt together.
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Spray application
The most effective way of paint application is spraying, and there are two common ways:
When spraying, it is important to keep correct distance (approximately 30 cm) to avoid dry spary,
and always holding the gun perpendicular to get an even paint film.
Conventional spraying
When the paint is applied by the conventional method, compressed air is used to atomize and
transfer the paint onto the steel substrate. This method is gives the best appearance and is used
when the surface finish requirements are high e.g automobiles or other general industry objects.
The appearance is superior to airless spray.
The paint is forced from a small container (cup on top or under the gun) by compressed air. As the
paint passes through the nozzle, the paint is mixed with the air and atomized at pressures of about 2
- 5 kg/cm2 (0.2 - 0.5 MPa). The low pressure requires that the paint has low viscosity, and the paint
must be thinned considerably to be able to atomize in the gun. Modern high build paints will most
likely have to be thinned more than recommended to be able to apply by this method.
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INSTRUCTIONS
STANDARDS AND INSTRUMENTS
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(ISO 8501-1)
(ISO 8501-1)
(ISO 8501-2)
(ISO 8501-3)
(ISO 8501-4)
Surface roughness
(ISO 8503)
(ISO 2808)
(ASTM D 4138)
(ISO 2409)
(ISO 4624)
Holiday detection
(ASTM D5162)
(ASTM D 4752)
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Rust grades:
A
Steel surface largely covered with adhering mill scale but little, if any, rust.
Steel surface which has begun to rust and from which the mill scale has begun to
flake.
Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away or from which it can be
scraped, but with slight pitting visible under normal vision.
Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away and on which general pitting
is visible under normal vision.
Blast-cleaning, Sa
Sa 1
Light blast-cleaning
The surface shall be free from visible oil, grease and dirt, and from poorly adhering mill
scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter (water-soluble salts and welding debris). See
photographs B Sa 1, C Sa 1 and D Sa 1
Sa 2
Thorough blast-cleaning
The surface shall be free from visible oil, grease and dirt, and from most of the mill scale,
rust, paint coatings and foreign matter. Any residual contamination shall be firmly
adhering. See photographs B Sa 2, C Sa 2 and D Sa 2
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Flame cleaning, Fl
The surface shall be free from mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter. Any
residues shall show only as discoloration of the surface (shades of different colors). See
photographs A Fl, B Fl, C Fl and D Fl
ISO 8501-1
Equipment:
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4
Either in good diffuse daylight or in equivalent artificial illumination, examine the steel
surface and compare it with each of the photographs using normal vision.
Place the appropriate photograph close to, and in the plane of, the steel surface to be
assessed.
For rust grades, record the assessment as the worst grade that is evident.
For preparation grades, record the assessment as that grade nearest in appearance to that of
the steel surface.
NOTE
.
In addition to the type of cleaning method used, for example dry blast-cleaning using a
particular type of abrasive, the following factors can influence the result of the visual
assessment:
a)
initial state of the steel surface other than any of the standard rust grades A, B, C
or D
b)
colour of the steel itself
c)
regions of differing roughness, resulting from differential corrosion attack or
uneven removal of material
d)
surface irregularities such as dents
e)
marks from tools
f)
uneven lightning
g)
shadowing of the surface profile caused by angled projection of abrasive
h)
embedded abrasives
Note:
The basis of the appendix is that many different abrasives are used for blastcleaning. Since some of the abrasives are impacted on a blast-cleaned surface, the
colour of the abrasives affects the appearance of the surface.
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Equipment:
Procedure:
1. In the standard a number of preparation grades, indicating the method of surface preparation and
degree of cleaning, are specified.
Localised blast-cleaning of previously coated surfaces, P Sa
Localised hand - and power-tool cleaning of previously coated surfaces, P St (not
machine abrading)
Localised machine abrading of previously coated surfaces, P Ma
2. The surface is compared with pictures in the standard that show examples within some of the
preparation grades.
3. The photographs show examples from blast-cleaning (P Sa 2 ) and machine abrading (P Ma)
ISO 8501-3
Procedure:
By comparing surface with photographs, determine the preparation as follows
P1
Light preparation;
P2
Thorough preparation;
P3
Describes preparation grades of welds, edges and other areas, with steel surfaces with
imperfections. Such imperfections can become visible before and/or after an abrasive blast-cleaning
process.
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Procedure:
In a similar fashion to ISO 8501-1, find the initial condition and compare to the appropriate
photograph in the standard.
5 initial conditions are described:
DC A, DC B, DC C, DP I, DP Z.
There are 3 cleaning grades designated:
Wa1, Wa2, Wa 2 .
The last picture gives flash rust grades:
Low, medium and high.
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Procedure:
1. Carry out a blank titration each time on water, retaining the titrated solution for comparison of
end points. See the standard.
2. Mark out a test area measuring approximately 25000 mm2 (e.g. 250 mm x 100 mm) using a
ruler and chalk.
3. Mark two beakers A and B. Pour 45 ml of water into beaker A (corresponding to grade 3 purity
in accordance with ISO 3696).
4. Soak an absorbent cotton pad with the water in the first container and then thoroughly swab the
test area with the soaked pad. Remove the water from the surface with the absorbent cotton pad
and squeeze the washings into beaker B.
5. Repeat the swabbing procedure with several portions of water, and if the pad is worn out, use a
fresh one. Continue the swabbing procedure until all the water has been used up.
6. Filter the washings, using the filter paper and the funnel and collect the filtrate in the volumetric
flasks of capacity 50 ml. Wash the absorbent cotton pads with water and squeeze the water into
the flasks and make to the mark with water.
7. Shake the volumetric flask and using a pipette, transfer 20 ml of the wash water into a clean
beaker. Determine the chloride content by following the procedure given in the standard.
8. Express the chloride content in milligrams per square meter in nearest 10 mg/m2
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Procedure:
1. Discard the first three turns of tape from the roll and then remove a piece about 200 mm long.
2. Press about 150 mm of the freshly exposed tape on to the surface under test.
3. Place the thumb across one end of the tape and move the thumb, while maintaining a firm
pressure three times in each direction.
4. Remove the tape from the test surface, place it on an appropriate display board and cause it to
adhere to the board by rubbing with the thumb.
5. Assess the quantity of dust on the tape by comparing it visually to an area of the tape with
equivalent areas of the pictorial references shown in the standard. Record the rating
corresponding to the reference that is closest match.
6. Assess the predominating dust particle size on the adhesive tape by reference to table 1 in the
standard which defines six dust particle size classes, designated 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Report any
overall discoloration as size class 1.
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Procedure:
1.
Check the thermometers prior to wetting the wick on the wet bulb thermometer.
2.
3.
Hold the sling psychrometer a little away from your body and whirl it for about 30 seconds
with a rotation of approx. 2 m/s.
4.
Observe and make notes of the wet bulb temperature and then the dry bulb temperature.
5.
6.
Set the wet bulb temperature opposite the dry bulb temperature and determine the relative
humidity at the arrow.
7.
When you know the ambient temperature, the wet bulb temperature and the relative
humidity you can determine the dew point temperature by the use of dew point calculators.
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Procedure:
1.
Take an adhesive patch of appropriate size. Remove the protective paper and the punched
out material.
2.
Press the patch with the adhesive side on to the test surface, in such a way that the minimum
amount of air is trapped in the sampling compartment.
3.
Fill the syringe with solvent - the volume of solvent is proportional to the sampling
compartment area and normally amounts to 2.6 x 10-3 ml / mm2.
4.
Insert the needle at an angle near the outer edge of the patch, through the elastomer film and
the body of the patch into the sampling compartment between the elastomer film and the
test surface. If the patch is so positioned that access to the sampling compartment is
difficult, bend the syringe needle.
5.
Inject the solvent, allowing it to wet and rinse all parts of the test surface.
If necessary to avoid any trace of entrapped air in the sampling compartment, carry out the
injection in two steps as follows:
Inject half of the solvent. Evacuate the air through the needle by reverse operation of the
syringe. Remove the syringe needle from the patch. Holding the syringe with the needle up,
expel the air. Re-insert the syringe needle into the sampling compartment, and inject the
remainder of the solvent.
6.
After a suitable period of time to be agreed between the interested parties, suck the solvent
back into the syringe cylinder
7.
Without removing the syringe needle from the patch, re-inject the solvent into the sampling
compartment, and then suck the solvent back into the syringe cylinder. Repeat until at least
four cycles of injection and sucking back have been completed.
8.
At the end of the last cycle, retrieve and transfer as much as possible of the solvent from the
sampling compartment to a suitable vessel for analysis.
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10.
It is essential that no solvent is lost from the patch or the syringe, due for instance to
inferior-quality materials or improper handling of the materials. If any solvent is lost, the
sample obtained shall be rejected.
Conduct the necessary analysis e.g. conductivity analysis.
ISO 8502-9
Part 9
Field method for the conductometric
determination of water-soluble salts
Procedure:
Use device to measure conductivity, reference water and injected water.
Usually the initial value is subtracted from the value after injection. The given value in S/cm must
be multiplied by 6 to obtain mg/m2.
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ISO 8503-2
Equipment:
Procedure:
1.
Remove all loose dust and debris from the test surface.
2.
Select the appropriate surface profile comparator (either ISO 8503-1 G or S depending on
the kind of abrasive used)
3.
4.
Compare, in turn, the test surface with the four segments of the comparator, using the hand
lens is necessary.
Assess the profiles on the comparator that are nearest to the profile of the test surface and,
from these, determine its grade
Fine
Medium
Coarse
Notes:
When a mixture of shot and grit is used to blast-clean a substrate, the grit-abrasive reference
comparator G should be used.
If visual assessment proves difficult, tactile assessment may provide a useful guide (back of
a fingernail)
In case of dispute, a representative sample of the surface shall be provided and measured as
described in ISO 8503-3 or ISO 8503-4.
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Procedure:
1. Weigh a test portion of 100 g of the abrasive into a 250 ml flask.
2. Add 100 ml of distilled water.
3. Shake for 5 minutes and allow to settle.
4. Let it stand 1 hour.
5. Shake again for 5 minutes and allow to settle. If the liquid is no completely clear, filter by a
suitable method.
6. Determine the conductivity using a conductivity meter
Procedure:
1. Secure in place the white absorbent material at a distance of 60 cm from the nozzle and in the
centre of the air steam.
2. Allow the air stream to flow onto the material for at least one-minute.
3. Visually examine the material for the presence of oil or moisture. Any indication of either is
sufficient cause for not using the compressed air.
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Procedure:
Water
Ultraviolet lamp
Chalk
Procedure:
Water break test:
Apply a fine mist of atomised water onto the test surface.
If the water gathers into droplets within minute, the surface is likely to be contaminated with
grease, oil or other water-insoluble matters.
Ultraviolet light test:
Try to avoid to much light onto the surface when doing the test.
Shine an ultraviolet lamp onto the surface.
Observe for fluorescence. If you see a bright yellow or green fluorescence this indicates
contamination of grease or oil.
Chalk test:
Draw a line with a piece of chalk through an area that you suspect to be a clean area onto an
unclean area. If the line through the suspected area gets thinner, this indicates that the surface is
contaminated with oil or grease.
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Procedure:
Comb gauge
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Immediately after the application of the paint, place the comb gauge firmly onto the
substrate in such a way that the teeth are normal to the plane of the surface and the gauge
does not slip.
Remove the gauge, and examine the teeth to determine which is the shortest one to touch
the wet paint film.
Record the film thickness as lying between the last "touching" tooth and the first "nontouching" tooth as shown on the tooth calibrations marked on the gauge.
Take at least two further readings in different places in a similar manner to obtain
representative results over the painted area.
If none of the teeth or all the teeth are wetted on the comb gauge, either turn the comb or
use another comb with a different scale.
Wheel gauge
1.
2.
3.
Immediately after the application of the paint, place the wheel gauge into the paint film so
that the two outer rims are in contact with the substrate at the point of maximum gap.
Roll the wheel through at least 180 in one direction along the surface and then in the other
direction, and take the mean of the two readings, at the lower scale division, as one reading.
Repeat the procedure at least twice in different places in a similar manner to obtain
representative results over the painted area.
Procedure:
Place the instrument on the calibration standard (chromium plated steel of a known thickness)
preferably with a thickness about the same to be measured.
1.
Using the thumb turn the wheel on the pull-off instrument away from you until the magnet
stays in contact with the metal.
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6.
Hold the instrument to the substrate and carefully turn the wheel against you until you either
see or hear the magnet detaches from the painted surface.
Repeat step 1 and 2 a few times
If the thickness registered on the instrument does not correspond to the actual thickness of
the chromium plated steel, step 5-6 must be carried out.
If the instrument shows too high or too low thickness according to the standard:
Hold the instrument onto the surface of the chromium plated steel. Carefully turn the scale,
the direction depends on whether the value is too high or too low compared to the
chromium plated steel.
Repeat step 1 - 2. If the instrument still does not show the correct value, repeat step 5.
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Procedure:
Paint Inspection Gauge
1.
A test area is marked with a marker pen. Use a marker with a different colour than that of
the topcoat.
2.
Choose the appropriate angled cutting tool for the paint film (depending on the film
thickness).
3.
Place the cutting tool a little above the mark and make a cut across the mark and through all
coats down to the steel.
4.
If there is paint left in the cut, remove them by blowing or with a fine brush.
5.
Turn the instrument, place the instrument above and perpendicular to the cut (marked area).
Use the microscope with illumination to examine the cut.
6.
The width of the cut is examined through the graticule scale in the microscope, and each
coat can then be determined.
7.
The distance between the lines on the graticule scale is the same - it does not make any
difference where on the scale you start your measurements.
8.
The thickness of each coat depends on which of the cutting tools you have used.
Cutting tool 1 Multiply the number of lines with 20 for correct DFT in m
Cutting tool 2 Multiply the number of lines with 10 for correct DFT in m.
Cutting tool 3 Multiply the number of lines with 2 for correct DFT in m.
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The spacing of the cuts in the coating depends on the thickness of the coating. The spacing of the
cuts in each direction shall be equal and depends on the substrate. For hard substrates (steel) the
spacing is as follows:
0 m to 60 m
61 m to 120 m
121 m to 250 m
1 mm spacing
2 mm spacing
3 mm spacing
(The multi-blade tool is not suitable for thick (> 120 m) or hard coatings)
Coatings with a total thickness of over 250 m may be tested by means of a single cross-cut.
Procedure:
1.
Check the film thickness on the panel to be tested and choose the correct spacing of the
knives.
2.
Hold the cutting tool with the blade normal to the test panel surface. With uniform pressure
on the cutting tool and using the appropriate spacing guide, make the agreed number of cuts
in the coating at a uniform cutting rate. All the cuts shall penetrate to the substrate surface.
3.
Repeat this operation, making further parallel cuts of equal number, crossing the original
cuts at 90 to them so that a lattice is formed.
4.
Brush the panel lightly with the soft brush. For hard substrates only apply additionally
adhesive tape. Remove an additional length at a steady state and cut a piece approximately
75 mm long.
5.
Place the centre of the tape over the lattice in direction parallel to one of the cuts and
smooth the tape over the area of the lattice and for a distance of at least 20 mm beyond with
a finger. Rub firmly with a fingertip.
6.
Remove the tape by grasping the free end and pulling it off steadily in 0.5 - 1.0 s at an angle
which is as close as possible to 60. Retain the tape for reference purposes. Examine the cut
area and classify the test area according to table 1.
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Procedure:
1. Degrease the dollies and dry them before use.
2. Lightly abrade the dollies using a sandpaper grade 240 400 and dry them in dry tissue paper
3. Lightly abrade the painted surface with a sandpaper grade 240 - 400.
4. Remove the abraded paint dust from the surface using a clean paper tissue
5. Mix the 2 pack solvent free epoxy glue in the correct ratio before applying it to the dollies.
6. Press the dollies to the surface, with a pressure so that most of the glue is squeezed out.
7. Use either tape or magnets to hold the dollies to the substrate.
8. The 2 pack solvent free epoxy glue must cure for 24 h at room temperature. Cyanoacrylate glue
must be used according to the instructions.
9. Before the pull-off test are accomplished cut through the cured adhesive and the paint coating to
the substrate, round the circumference of the test cylinder using a cutting device.
10. Record both the breaking strength, in megapascal (MPa) and the nature of failure for each pulloff test. Express the results as the percentage area and site of fracture in the system under test in
terms of adhesive, cohesive or adhesive/cohesive failure. Also list the type of instrument used
for the test.
11. For convenience, the following scheme may be used to describe the results observed.
A
A/B
B
B/C
-/Y
Y
Y/Z
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Procedure:
1.
Measure the DFT of the paint system using a non-destructive dry film thickness gauge. If
the DFT is lower than 500 m you can use the low voltage holiday detector, if it exceeds
this value use a high voltage holiday detector.
2.
Saturate the sponge with water. Hold the sponge and squeeze it, as to avoid dripping.
3.
Attach the ground wire from the instrument ground output terminal to the conductive
substrate and ensure positive electrical contact.
4.
Contact a bare spot on the conductive substrate to verify that the instrument is properly
grounded.
5.
Move the sponge over the surface of the coating at a moderate rate approximately 1 ft/s
(30 cm/s), perhaps only 5 - 10 cm /s.
6.
If there are discontinuities in the coating, an audible signal will be heard, and the exact spot
shall be identified with a marker.
7.
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Procedure:
1.
Measure the DFT of the paint system using a non-destructive dry film thickness gauge. If
the DFT is higher than 500 m you can use the high voltage holiday detector, if it below
this value use a low voltage holiday detector.
Adjust the test instrument to the proper voltage for the coating thickness being tested.
Excessive voltage may produce a holiday in the coating film.
3.
4.
Attach the ground wire from the instrument ground output terminal to the conductive
substrate and ensure positive electrical contact.
4.
Contact a bare spot on the conductive substrate to verify that the instrument is properly
grounded.
5.
Move the exploring electrode over the surface of the dry coating at a rate of approximately
1 ft/s (30 cm/s), perhaps only 5 - 10 cm /s.
7.
Discontinuities that require repair shall be identified with a marker that is compatible with
the repair coating or one that is easily removed.
8.
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Procedure:
1.
Measure the dry film thickness of the primer in the selected areas.
2.
Clean the surface with a dry tissue, if necessary slightly soaked with fresh water to remove
loose material.
3.
Immediately fold cheesecloth into a pad containing four thicknesses of the cloth. Saturate
the cloth to a dripping wet condition with the methyl ethyl ketone (MEK).
4.
Rub the test area with the saturated cloth, exerting a moderate stroke pressure with the
thumb, using a 2-in. (50 mm) long stroke that encompasses the test area.
5.
Continue rubbing the surface with the MEK saturated pad, wetting the pad as necessary
without lifting it from the surface, until either the metal substrate is exposed or 50 double
rubs have been completed. Record the number of rubs when the substrate is exposed.
6.
Select an adjacent area to be used as a control. Repeat 1 -5 except use a dry cheesecloth to
establish the effect of burnishing without the influence of MEK
7.
Inspect the test area and the cheesecloth. Rate the results in accordance with table 1.
Table 1
Resistance rating
5
4
3
2
1
0
MEK Test
Description
No effect on surface; no zinc on cloth after 50 double rubs
Burnished appearance in rubbed area; slight amount of zinc on cloth after 50
double rubs
Some marring and apparent depression of the film after 50 double rubs
Heavy marring; obvious depression in the film after 50 double rubs
Heavy depression in the film but no actual penetration to the substrate after
50 double rubs
Penetration to the substrate in 50 double rubs or less
Teknologisk Institutt as
Materials Technology
www.teknologisk.no
A series of pencils
Sanding paper
Procedure:
1.
2.
Flatten the tip of the pencil on a sand paper placed on a flat surface.
3.
Hold the pencil at an angle of 45 degrees to the paint and push it downward into the
coating.
4.
Repeat the test with the next softer pencil until you find the pencil that no longer
scratches the coating.
Cloth
Methyl-Ethyl-Ketone (MEK)
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
Visually examine the cloth. If paint from thermo-setting coatings is on the cloth after test,
then the coating is not fully cured.
Teknologisk Institutt as
Materials Technology
www.teknologisk.no