Robust Design & Prototyping

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Robust Design and Quality in the

Product Development Process

Planning
Planning

Concept
System-Level
System-Level
Concept
Development
Design
Design
Development

Robust Concept
and System
Design

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Detail
Detail
Design
Design

Robust
Parameter
Design

Testing
Testingand
and
Refinement
Refinement

Production
Production
Ramp-Up
Ramp-Up

Quality efforts are

typically made here,
when it is too late.

Definition of Robust Design

A robust product (process) performs as intended even
under non-ideal conditions such as manufacturing
process variations or a range of operating situations.

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Goals for Designed Experiments

Modeling
Understanding relationships between
design parameters and product
performance
Understanding effects of noise factors

Optimizing
Reducing product or process variations
Optimizing nominal performance
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Robust Designs
A robust product or process performs
correctly, even in the presence of noise
factors.
Noise factors may include:
parameter variations
environmental changes
operating conditions
manufacturing variations
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Robust Design Example:

Seat Belt Experiment- Submarining Problem

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Who is the better target shooter?

Sam

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John

Who is the better target shooter?

Sam

John

Sam can simply

adjust his sights.

John requires
lengthy training.

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Exploiting Non-Linearity to Achieve

Robust Performance
fA

Response to
Factor A

A1

A2

fB

Response to
Factor B

B1

B2

Response = fA(A) + fB(B)

What level of factor B gives the robust response?
How do we use factor A?

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Five Steps of DOE based Robust design

process
To develop a robust design through DOE, seven steps are
suggested:
1- Identify control factors, noise factors, and performance metrics
2- Formulate an objective function
3- Develop the experimental plan
4- Run the experiment
5- Conduct the analysis
6- Select and confirm factor set-points
7- Reflect and repeat

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Robust Design Procedure

Step 1: Parameter Diagram

Step 1: Select appropriate controls,
response, and noise factors to explore
experimentally.
Control factors (input parameters)
Noise factors (uncontrollable)
Performance metrics (response)

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The P Diagram

Control Factors

Product
or
Process

Performance Metrics

Noise Factors

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Parameter Diagram
Control Factors
Belt webbing stiffness
Belt webbing friction
Lap belt force limiter
Upper anchorage stiffness
Buckle cable stiffness
Front seatback bolster
Tongue friction
Attachment geometry

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Passenger
Restraint
Process
Noise Factors

Performance Metrics
Back angle
Slip of buttocks
Hip rotation
Forward knee motion

Shape of rear seat

Type of seat fabric
Severity of collision
Wear of components
Positioning of passenger
Positioning of belts on body
Size of passenger
Type of clothing fabric
Web manufacturing variations
Latch manufacturing variations

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Example: Brownie Mix

Control Factors
Recipe Ingredients (quantity of eggs, flour,
chocolate)
Recipe Directions (mixing, baking, cooling)
Equipment (bowls, pans, oven)

Noise Factors
Quality of Ingredients (size of eggs, type of oil)
Following Directions (stirring time, measuring)
Equipment Variations (pan shape, oven temp)

Performance Metrics
Taste Testing by Customers
Sweetness, Moisture, Density
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Robust Design Procedure

Step 2: Objective Function

Step 2: Define an objective function (of the
response) to optimize.
maximize desired performance
minimize variations
target value
signal-to-noise ratio ->measure robustness
Taguchi formula for signal-to-noise:
A ratio with desired response in the numerator and
the variance of the response as denominator
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Types of Objective Functions

Larger-the-Better
e.g. performance
= 2

Smaller-the-Better
e.g. variance
= 1/2

Nominal-the-Best
e.g. target
= 1/(t)2

Signal-to-Noise
e.g. trade-off
= 10log[2/2]

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Robust Design Procedure

Step 3: Plan the Experiment

Step 3: Plan experimental runs to elicit
desired effects.
Use full or fractional factorial designs to
identify interactions.
Use an orthogonal array to identify main
effects with minimum of trials.
Use inner and outer arrays to see the
effects of noise factors.
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Experiment Design: Full Factorial

Consider k factors, n levels each.

Test all combinations of the factors.
The number of experiments is nk .
Generally this is too many experiments, but
we are able to reveal all of the interactions.
Expt # Param A Param B
1
A1
B1
2
A1
B2
3
A1
B3
4
A2
B1
5
A2
B2
6
A2
B3
7
A3
B1
8
A3
B2
9
A3
B3

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2 factors, 3 levels each:

nk = 32 = 9 trials
4 factors, 3 levels each:

nk = 34 = 81 trials

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Experiment Design: Fractional Factorial

A small fraction of the full factorial.
It is still balance. This means that for the several
trials at any given factor level, each of the other
factors is tested at every level the same number
of times.

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Experiment
Design:
Fractional
Factorial

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Experiment Design: Orthogonal Array

Smallest fractional factorial plan. Taguchi popularized it.

Consider k factors, n levels each.
Test all levels of each factor in a balanced way.
The number of experiments is order of 1+k(n-1).
This is the smallest balanced experiment design.
BUT main effects and interactions are confounded.
Named according the number of rows, L4,L8,L9,L27 and so on.
Expt # Param A Param B Param C Param D
1
A1
B1
C1
D1
2
A1
B2
C2
D2
3
A1
B3
C3
D3
4
A2
B1
C2
D3
5
A2
B2
C3
D1
6
A2
B3
C1
D2
7
A3
B1
C3
D2
8
A3
B2
C1
D3
9
A3
B3
C2
D1
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4 factors, 3 levels each:

1+k(n-1) =
1+4(3-1) = 9 trials
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Experiment Design: One Factor at a Time

Consider k factors, n levels each.
Test all levels of each factor while freezing the
others at nominal level. (And the first trial
having all the factors at the nominal level)
The number of experiments is nk+1.
BUT this is an unbalanced experiment design.
Expt # Param A Param B Param C Param D
1
A2
B2
C2
D2
2
A1
B2
C2
D2
3
A3
B2
C2
D2
4
A2
B1
C2
D2
5
A2
B3
C2
D2
6
A2
B2
C1
D2
7
A2
B2
C3
D2
8
A2
B2
C2
D1
9
A2
B2
C2
D3
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4 factors, 2 levels each:

nk+1 =
2x4+1 = 9 trials

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Using Inner and Outer Arrays

Induce the same noise factor levels for each
combination of controls in a balanced manner
4 factors, 3 levels each:
L9 inner array for controls
A1
A1
A1
A2
A2
A2
A3
A3
A3

B1
B2
B3
B1
B2
B3
B1
B2
B3

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C1
C2
C3
C2
C3
C1
C3
C1
C2

D1
D2
D3
D3
D1
D2
D2
D3
D1

3 factors, 2 levels each:

L4 outer array for noise
E1
F1
G2

E1
F2
G1

E2
F1
G2

E2
F2
G1

inner x outer =
L9 x L4 =
36 trials
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Robust Design Procedure

Step 4: Run the Experiment

Step 4: Conduct the experiment.
Vary the control and noise factors
Record the performance metrics
Compute the objective function

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Robust Design Procedure

Step 5: Conduct Analysis

Step 5: Perform analysis of means.
Compute the mean value of the objective
function for each factor setting.
Identify which control factors reduce the
effects of noise and which ones can be
used to scale the response. (2-Step
Optimization)

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Analysis of Means (ANOM)

Plot the average effect of each factor level.
Choose the
best levels of
these factors

Factor Effects on S/N Ratio

15.0
14.0

B1
A1

C3

13.0
12.0
11.0

A3

C2

B3
C1

A2

D2
D1

D3

B2

Scaling factor?
10.0

Prediction of response:
E[(Ai, Bj, Ck, Dl)] = + ai + bj + ck +dl
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Case Study: Factors and the selected L8 array

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Case Study: Obtained data

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Factor Effects by Analysis of Mean

Case Study: Factor effects charts

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Robust Design Procedure

Step 6: Select Setpoints

Step 6: Select control factor setpoints.
Choose settings to maximize or minimize
objective function.
Consider variations carefully.
Advanced use:
Conduct confirming experiments.
Set scaling factors to tune response.
Iterate to find optimal point.
Use higher fractions to find interaction effects.
Test additional control and noise factors.
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Confounding Interactions

S/N

Generally the main effects dominate the response.

BUT sometimes interactions are important. This is
generally the case when the confirming trial fails.
To explore interactions, use a fractional factorial
experiment design.

A1
A2
A3

B1
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B2

B3
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Product Design and Development

Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger
2nd edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2000.
Chapter Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Development Processes and Organizations
3. Product Planning
4. Identifying Customer Needs
5. Product Specifications
6. Concept Generation
7. Concept Selection
8. Concept Testing
9. Product Architecture
10. Industrial Design
11. Design for Manufacturing
12. Prototyping
13. Product Development Economics
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14. 3200U
Managing Projects

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Product Development Process

Planning
Planning

Concept
System-Level
System-Level
Concept
Development
Design
Design
Development

Detail
Detail
Design
Design

Testing
Testingand
and
Refinement
Refinement

Production
Production
Ramp-Up
Ramp-Up

Prototyping is done throughout the development process.

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Concept Development Process

Mission
Statement

Identify
Customer
Needs

Establish
Target
Specifications

Generate
Product
Concepts

Select
Product
Concept(s)

Test
Product
Concept(s)

Set
Final
Specifications

Plan
Downstream
Development

Development
Plan

Perform Economic Analysis

Benchmark Competitive Products
Build and Test Models and Prototypes

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Prototyping Example:
Apple PowerBook Duo Trackball

Trackball

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Four Uses of Prototypes

Learning
answering questions about performance or
feasibility
e.g., proof-of-concept model

Communication
demonstration of product for feedback
e.g., 3D physical models of style or function

Integration
combination of sub-systems into system model
e.g., alpha or beta test models

Milestones
goal for development teams schedule
e.g., first testable hardware
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Physical vs. Analytical Prototypes

Analytical Prototypes
Physical Prototypes
Touchable approximation Mathematical model of the
product.
of the product.
Can only exhibit behavior
May exhibit unmodeled
arising from explicitly modeled
behavior.
phenomena. (However,
Some behavior may be
behavior is not always
an artifact of the
anticipated.
approximation.
Some behavior may be an
Often best for
artifact of the analytical method.
communication.
Often allow more experimental
freedom than physical models.
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Focused vs. Comprehensive Prototypes

Focused Prototypes
Implement one or a few
attributes of the
product.
Answer specific
questions about the
product design.
Generally several are
required.

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Comprehensive Prototypes
Implement many or all
attributes of the product.
Offer opportunities for
complex testing.
Often best for milestones
and integration.

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Alpha and Beta Prototypes

Beta Prototypes
Alpha Prototypes
Early Prototypes are usually built Later Prototypes are usually built with
parts supplied by the intended production
with production-intent parts- parts
but not necessary with the intended final
with the same geometry and
assembly process.
material properties as intended for
the production version but not
Are usually tested by the customers in
necessary with the actual
their own environments.
processes to be used in the
To answer questions about the
production.
performance and reliability.
To test if the product will work as
designed.

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Types of Prototypes
Physical
alpha
beta
prototype prototype

ball
support
prototype

final
product

trackball mechanism
linked to circuit
simulation
Comprehensive

Focused

simulation
of trackball
circuits

equations
modeling ball
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not
generally
feasible

Analytical

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Boeing 777 Testing

Brakes Test
Minimum rotor thickness
Maximum takeoff weight
Maximum runway speed
Will the brakes ignite?
Wing Test
Maximum loading
When will it break?
Where will it break?
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Comprehensive Prototypes
Some comprehensive
prototypes build (and sold?).

One prototype may be

used for verification.

Few or no comprehensive
prototypes are built.

High

Many comprehensive
prototypes are built.

Low

Technical or Market Risk

Anticipated benefits of prototype in reducing risk must

be weighted against the prototyping cost

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Low
High
Cost of Comprehensive Prototype

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Four Steps of Planning for Prototyping

In order to plane for prototyping, four steps are suggested:

1- Define the purpose of the prototype
2- Establish the level of approximation of the prototype
3- Outline an experimental plan
4- Create and schedule for procurement, construction and testing

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Rapid Prototyping Methods

Most of these methods are additive,
rather than subtractive, processes.
Build parts in layers based on CAD
model.
SLA=Stereolithogrpahy Apparatus
SLS=Selective Laser Sintering
3D Printing
LOM=Laminated Object Manufacturing
Others every year...
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Virtual Prototyping
3D CAD models enable many kinds of
analysis:
Fit and assembly
Manufacturability
Form and style
Kinematics
Finite element analysis (stress, thermal)
Crash testing
more every year...
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BMW Virtual Crash Test

From: Scientific American, March 1999

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Traditional Prototyping Methods

CNC machining
Rubber molding + urethane casting
Materials: wood, foam, plastics, etc.
Model making requires special skills.

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