The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization established on 24 October 1945 to

promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the
organization was created following the Second World War to prevent another such conflict. At its
founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The UN Headquarters is situated
inManhattan, New York City and enjoys extraterritoriality. Further main offices are situated
in Geneva, Nairobi and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary
contributions from its member states. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and
security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the
environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict.

United Nations and agencies

The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA, GA, or, from the French Assemble Gnrale,
"AG") is one of the six principalorgans of the United Nations and the only one in which all member
nations have equal representation. Its powers are to oversee the budget of the United Nations,
appoint the non-permanent members to the Security Council, receive reports from other parts of the
United Nations and make recommendations in the form of General Assembly Resolutions.[2] It has
also established a wide number ofsubsidiary organs.
The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Westminster Central Hall in London and
included representatives of 51 nations.
The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United
Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers include
the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the
authorization of military action through Security Council resolutions; it is the only UN body with the
authority to issue binding resolutions to member states. The Security Council held its first session on
17 January 1946.
The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) (French: le Conseil conomique et
social des Nations unies;CSNU) constitutes one of the principal organs of the United Nations. It is
responsible for coordinating the economic, social and related work of 14 UN specialized agencies,
their functional commissions and five regional commissions. The ECOSOC has 54 members; it holds
one four-week session each year in July. Since 1998, it has also held a meeting each April with
finance ministers heading key committees of the World Bank and the International Monetary
Fund (IMF).
The United Nations Secretariat (French: le Secrtariat des Nations unies) is one of the principal
organs of the United Nations, an intergovernmental organization charged with the promotion of
aiding states to collectively maintain international peace and security; it serves as a forum for
member-states to discuss and resolve pressing issues in the international field through primarily
diplomatic resources.
The International Court of Justice (French: Cour internationale de justice; commonly referred to as
the World Court or ICJ) is the primary judicial branch of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace
Palace in The Hague, Netherlands. Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it
by states and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized
international branches, agencies, and the UN General Assembly.

The United Nations Trusteeship Council (French: Le Conseil de tutelle des Nations unies), one of
the principal organs of the United Nations, was established to help ensure that trust territories were
administered in the best interests of their inhabitants and of international peace and security
The UN also includes various Funds, Programmes and specialized agencies:
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO; French: Organisation des
Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture, Italian: Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite per
l'Alimentazione e l'Agricoltura) is an agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to
defeat hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum
where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is also a source
of knowledge and information, and helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize
and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring goodnutrition and food security for
all.
Headquarters

Palazzo FAO, Rome, Italy

The International Labour Organization (ILO) is a United Nations agency dealing

with labour issues, particularly international labour standards and decent work for all.[1] 185 of the
193 UN member states are members of the ILO.
In 1969, the organization received the Nobel Peace Prize for improving peace among classes,
pursuing justice for workers, and providing technical assistance to other developing nations. [2]

Headquarters

Geneva, Switzerland

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO, pronounced /akeo/; French: Organisation
de l'aviation civile internationale, OACI), is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It codifies the
principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of
international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth.[2] Its headquarters are located in
the Quartier International of Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
he International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an international organization that seeks to
promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose,
including nuclear weapons. The IAEA was established as an autonomous organization on 29 July
1957. Though established independently of the United Nations through its own international treaty,
the IAEA Statute,[1] the IAEA reports to both the United Nations General Assembly and Security
Council.
The United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC) was founded on 24 January 1946
by Resolution 1 of the United Nations General Assembly "to deal with the problems raised by the
discovery of atomic energy.

The IAEA has its headquarters in Vienna, Austria. The IAEA has two "Regional Safeguards Offices"
which are located in Toronto, Canada, and in Tokyo, Japan. The IAEA also has two liaison offices
which are located in New York City, United States, and inGeneva, Switzerland. In addition, the IAEA
has three laboratories located in Vienna and Seibersdorf, Austria, and in Monaco.
The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical cooperation in the
peaceful use of nuclear technology andnuclear power worldwide. The programs of the IAEA
encourage the development of the peaceful applications of nuclear technology, provide international
safeguards against misuse of nuclear technology and nuclear materials, and promote nuclear
safety (includingradiation protection) and nuclear security standards and their implementation.
The IAEA and its former Director General, Mohamed ElBaradei, were jointly awarded the Nobel
Peace Prize on 7 October 2005. The IAEA's current Director General is Yukiya Amano.
he United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF; /junsf/ EW-ni-sef)[1] is a United Nations Program
headquartered in New York Citythat provides long-term humanitarian and developmental assistance
to children and mothers in developing countries. It is one of the members of the United Nations
Development Group and its Executive Committee.[2]
UNICEF was created by the United Nations General Assembly on December 11, 1946, to provide
emergency food and healthcare to children in countries that had been devastated by World War II. In
1953, UNICEF became a permanent part of the United Nations System and its name was shortened
from the original United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund but it has continued to
be known by the popular acronym based on this previous title.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (French: Organisation des
Nations unies pour l'ducation, la science et la culture; UNESCO; /junsko/) is a specialized
agency of the United Nations (UN).
Its purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through
education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and
human rights along with fundamental freedom proclaimed in the UN Charter.[1] It is the heir of
the League of Nations' International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation.
UNESCO has 195 member states[2] and nine associate members.[3][4]
Most of the field offices are "cluster" offices covering three or more countries; there are also national
and regional offices.

UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs: education, natural sciences, social
and human sciences, culture, and communication and information.
Projects sponsored by UNESCO include literacy, technical, and teacher-training programmes;
international science programmes; the promotion of independent media and freedom of the press;
regional and cultural history projects; the promotion of cultural diversity; translations of world
literature; international cooperation agreements to secure the world cultural and natural
heritage (World Heritage Sites) and to preserve human rights, and attempts to bridge the worldwide
digital divide. It is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.[5]
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (French: Organisation des
Nations unies pour l'ducation, la science et la culture; UNESCO; /junsko/) is a specialized
agency of the United Nations (UN).
Its purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through
education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and
human rights along with fundamental freedom proclaimed in the UN Charter.[1] It is the heir of
the League of Nations' International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation.
UNESCO has 195 member states[2] and nine associate members.[3][4]
Most of the field offices are "cluster" offices covering three or more countries; there are also national
and regional offices.
UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs: education, natural sciences, social
and human sciences, culture, and communication and information.
Projects sponsored by UNESCO include literacy, technical, and teacher-training programmes;
international science programmes; the promotion of independent media and freedom of the press;
regional and cultural history projects; the promotion of cultural diversity; translations of world
literature; international cooperation agreements to secure the world cultural and natural
heritage (World Heritage Sites) and to preserve human rights, and attempts to bridge the worldwide
digital divide. It is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.[5]

The UN maintains various offices:

United Nations Headquarters (New York City)

United Nations Office at Geneva

United Nations Office at Nairobi

United Nations Office at Vienna

Environmental organizations[edit]
See also: List of supranational environmental agencies

Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP)

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA)

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

World Nature Organization (WNO)

Financial, trade, and customs organizations[edit]

See also: International financial institutions, Trade bloc Lists of trade blocs, List of free trade
agreements, Central bank, Bretton Woods system and Cartel

Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI)

African Development Bank

Asian Development Bank

Bank for International Settlements

Black Sea Trade and Development Bank (BSTDB)

Caribbean Development Bank (CDB)

Inter-American Development Bank

International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)

International Energy Agency (IEA)

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)

International Development Law Organization (IDLO), headquartered in Rome (www.idlo.int)

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Islamic Development Bank (IDB)

Netherlands Development Finance Company (FMO)

Nordic Development Fund (NDF)

Nordic Investment Bank (NIB)

OPEC Fund for International Development (OPEC Fund)

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

International Organization for Economic Development (IOED)

Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries (OPEC)

West African Development Bank (BOAD)

World Bank Group

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

International Development Association (IDA)

International Finance Corporation (IFC)

Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)

International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)

World Customs Organization (WCO)

World Trade Organization (WTO)

The International Energy Agency (IEA; French: Agence internationale de l'nergie) is

a Paris-based autonomous intergovernmental organization established in the framework of
the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) in 1974 in the wake
of the 1973 oil crisis. The IEA was initially dedicated to responding to physical disruptions in
the supply ofoil, as well as serving as an information source on statistics about the
international oil market and other energy sectors.

The IEA acts as a policy adviser to its member states, but also works with non-member
countries, especially China, India, and Russia. The Agency's mandate has broadened to
focus on the "3Es" of effectual energy policy: energy security, economic development, and
environmental protection.[1] The latter has focused on mitigating climate change.[2] The IEA
has a broad role in promoting alternate energy sources (including renewable energy),
rational energy policies, and multinational energy technology co-operation.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is a regional development bank established on 22

August 1966 which is headquartered inMetro Manila, Philippines to facilitate economic
development of countries in Asia.[3] The bank admits the members of the United Nations
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP, formerly known as
the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East) and nonregional developed countries.[3] From 31 members at its establishment, ADB now has 67
members - of which 48 are from within Asia and the Pacific and 19 outside. ADB was
modeled closely on the World Bank, and has a similar weighted voting system where votes
are distributed in proportion with member's capital subscriptions.

By the end of 2013, Japan holds the largest proportions of shares at 15.67%. The United
States holds 15.56%, China holds 6.47%,India holds 6.36%, and Australia holds 5.81%.[4]

he International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that was initiated in

1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference and formally created in 1945 by 29 member
countries. The IMF's stated goal was to assist in the reconstruction of the
world's international payment system postWorld War II. Countries contribute funds to a pool
through a quota system from which countries with payment imbalances temporarily can
borrow money and other resources. As of the 14th General Review of Quotas in late 2010
the fund stood at SDR476.8bn, or about US$755.7bn at then-current exchange rates.
[1]

Through this fund, and other activities such as surveillance of its members' economies and

the demand for self-correcting policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its
member countries.[2]

The IMF is a self-described "organization of 188 countries, working to foster global monetary
cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment
and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world. [3]The organization's
objectives are stated in the Articles of Agreement[4] and can be summarised as: to promote
international economic co-operation, international trade, employment, and exchange-rate
stability, including by making financial resources available to member countries to
meet balance of payments needs.[5] Its headquarters are in Washington, D.C., United States.

The OPEC Fund for International Development (OFID) is a multilateral development finance
institution established in 1976 by the Member States of the Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC). OFID was conceived at the Conference of the Sovereigns and
Heads of State of OPEC Member Countries, which was held in Algiers, Algeria, in March
1975. A Solemn Declaration of the Conference reaffirmed the natural solidarity which unites
OPEC countries with other developing countries in their struggle to overcome
underdevelopment, and called for measures to strengthen cooperation between these
countries. [1]

OFIDs objective is to reinforce financial cooperation between OPEC Member Countries and
other developing countries, by providing financial support to the latter for their socioeconomic
development. The institution's central mission is to foster South-South Partnership with
fellow developing countries worldwide with the aim of eradicating poverty. [2]OFID's
headquarters are located in Vienna, Austria. The current Director-General is Suleiman Jasir
Al-Herbish of Saudi Arabia.

he Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

(French: Organisation de coopration et de dveloppement conomiques, OCDE) is
an international economic organisation of 34 countries founded in 1961 to stimulate
economic progress and world trade. It is a forum of countries committed to democracy and
the market economy, providing a platform to compare policy experiences, seek answers to
common problems, identify good practices and coordinate domestic and international
policies of its members.

The OECD originated in 1948 as the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC),[1] led by Robert Marjolin ofFrance, to help administer the Marshall
Plan (which was rejected by the Soviet Union and its satellite states[2]). This would be
achieved by allocating American financial aid and implementing economic programs for the
reconstruction of Europe after World War II, where similar efforts in the Economic
Cooperation Act of 1948 of the United States of America, which stipulated the Marshall Plan
that had also taken places elsewhere in the world to war-torn Republic of China and post-

war Korea,[3] but the American recovery program in Europe was the most successful one. [4]
[vague]

In 1961, the OEEC was reformed into the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development by the Convention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development and membership was extended to non-European states. Most OECD members
are high-income economies with a very high Human Development Index (HDI) and are
regarded as developed countries.

The OECD's headquarters are at the Chteau de la Muette in Paris, France.

OPEC (/opk/ OH-pek) (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) is

an international organization and economiccartel whose mission is to coordinate the policies
of the oil-producing countries. The goal is to secure a steady income to the member states
and to collude in influencing world oil prices through economic means.[2] [3]

OPEC is an intergovernmental organization that was created at the Baghdad Conference on

1014 September 1960, by Iraq,Kuwait, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. Later it was
joined by nine more governments: Libya, United Arab
Emirates, Qatar,Indonesia, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador, Angola, and Gabon. OPEC was
headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland before moving toVienna, Austria, on September 1,
1965.[4]

The World Bank Group (WBG) is a family of five international organizations that make
leveraged loans to poor countries. It is the largest and most famous development bank in the
world and is an observer at the United Nations Development Group.[2] The bank is based
in Washington, D.C. and provided around $30 billion in loans and assistance to "developing"
and transition countries in 2012.[3] The bank's stated mission is to reduce poverty.[3]

The World Bank's (the IBRD and IDA's) activities are focused on developing countries, in
fields such as human development (e.g. education, health), agriculture and rural
development (e.g. irrigation and rural services), environmental protection (e.g. pollution
reduction, establishing and enforcing regulations), infrastructure (e.g. roads, urban
regeneration, and electricity), large industrial construction projects, and governance (e.g.
anti-corruption, legal institutions development). The IBRD and IDA provide loans at
preferential rates to member countries, as well as grants to the poorest countries. Loans or
grants for specific projects are often linked to wider policy changes in the sector or the
country's economy as a whole. For example, a loan to improve coastal environmental
management may be linked to development of new environmental institutions at national and

local levels and the implementation of new regulations to limit pollution, or not, such as in the
World Bank financed constructions of paper mills along the Rio Uruguay in 2006. [4]
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise
and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under
the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which
commenced in 1948.[5] The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating
countries by providing a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements and a dispute
resolution process aimed at enforcing participant's adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed
by representatives of member governments[6]:fol.910and ratified by their parliaments.[7] Most of the
issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from
the Uruguay Round (19861994). The South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC) is an economic and geopolitical organization of eight countriesthat are
primarily located in South Asia.[10] The SAARC Secretariat is based in Kathmandu, Nepal.[11]
The idea of regional political and economical cooperation in South Asia was first raised in 1980 and
the first summit was held inDhaka on 8 December 1985, when the organization was established by
the governments of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives,Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.[12][13] Since
then the organization has expanded by accepting one new full member, Afghanistan,[14]and several
observer members.[12]
The SAARC policies aim to promote welfare economics, collective self-reliance among the countries
of South Asia, and to acceleratesocio-cultural development in the region.[15] The SAARC has
developed external relations by establishing permanent diplomatic relations with the EU, the UN (as
an observer), and other multilateral entities.[15] The official meetings of the leaders of each nation are
held annually whilst the foreign ministers meet twice annually.[15] The 18th SAARC Summit is
scheduled to be held in Kathmandu in November 2014. [16]
The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation (BIMSTEC) is an international organisation involving a group of countries in South
Asia and South East Asia. These are: Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri
Lanka,Thailand, Bhutan and Nepal.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations[5] (ASEAN /si.n/ AH-see-ahn,[6] /zi.n/ AHzee-ahn)[7][8] is a political and economic organisation of ten countries located in Southeast Asia,
which was formed on 8 August 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia,
thePhilippines, Singapore and Thailand.[9] Since then, membership has expanded to
include Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma) and Vietnam. Its aims include
accelerating economic growth, social progress, sociocultural evolution among its members,

protection of regional peace and stability, and opportunities for member countries to discuss
differences peacefully.[10]

Worldwide[edit]

Earth System Governance Project (ESGP)

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

World Nature Organization (WNO)

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)

Greenpeace

The Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) [1][2][3] is an autonomous
organization [4][5] or governmental agency under the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
[6]

Government of India. Headquartered in Dehradun, its functions are to conduct forestry research;

transfer the technologies developed to the states of India and other user agencies; and to impart
forestry education. The council has 9 research institutes and 4 advanced centres to cater to the
research needs of different bio-geographical regions. These are located at Dehradun, Shimla,
Ranchi, Jorhat, Jabalpur, Jodhpur, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Allahabad, Chhindwara, Aizawl,
Hyderabad and Agartala.[7]
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is an Indian government ministry. The Minister
of Environment and Forests holdscabinet rank as a member of the Council of Ministers. The
ministry portfolio is currently held by Prakash Javadekar, Union Minister of Environment and Forests.
The ministry is responsible for planning, promoting, coordinating, and overseeing the implementation
of environmental and forestryprogrammes in the country. The main activities undertaken by the
ministry include conservation and survey of the flora of India and fauna of India, forests and
other wilderness areas; prevention and control of pollution; afforestation, and land
degradation mitigation. It is responsible for the administration of the national parks of India.
The Civil Services, Indian Forest Service (IFS) is under the administration and supervision of the
Ministry of Environment and Forests.

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India is a statutory organisation under the Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MoEF). It was established in 1974 under Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974. CPCB is also entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services
to the Ministry of Environment and Forests of the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986. It Co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards by providing technical assistance and
guidance and resolve disputes among them. It is an apex organization in country in the field of
pollution control, as technical wing of MoEF.[4][5] The board is led by its chairman, who is nominated
by the Central Government.[6] The current acting chairman is Susheel Kumar.[7]
CPCB has its head office in New Delhi, with seven zonal offices and 5 laboratories. The board
conducts environmental assessment and research. It is responsible for maintain national standards
under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with zonal offices, tribal, and local
governments. It has monitoring the water and air quality and maintains respective quality data. The
agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a wide variety of voluntary pollution
prevention programs and energy conservation efforts. It advise the central government to prevent
and control water and air pollution. It also advise the Governments of Union Territories about an
industry or the pollution source causing water and air pollution. CPCB along with its counterparts
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) are responsible for implementation of legislations relating to
prevention and control of environmental pollution.[8][9]

1.Chairman of Peoples Republic of China Mao-Tse-Tung

2. President of the Chinese Republic Dr. Sun Yat Sen
3. President of U.S.A George Washington
4. Chinese Traveller to India Fahein
5. Foreign Invader to India Alexander the Great
6. Person to reach South Pole Amundsen
7. Person to reach North Pole Robert Pearey
8. Person in Space Yuri Gagarin
9. Person on Moon Neil Armstrong
10. Lady to climb Mount Everest Junko Taibei

11. European to visit China Marco Polo

12. Place where atom bomb was dropped Hiroshima - See more at:
13. Man to walk in Space Alexei Leonov
14. Woman cosmonaut in Space Valentina Tereshkova
15. Woman Prime Minister of a country Mrs. Srimavo Bhandarnaike
16. Woman President of a country Maria Estela Peron
17. Woman to Command a Space Mission Colonel Eileen Collins (U.S.A.)
18. The first residents of International Space station Bill Shepherd (USA),
Yuri Gidzanko and Sergei Krikalev (Russia)
19. The first blind man to scale Mt. Everest Erik Weihenmayer (USA, May 25,
2001)
20. The first Muslim woman to become the Secretary General of Amnesty
International lrine Zubeida Khan
21. The first space astronaut to go into space seven times till date Jerry
Ross (U.S.A.)
22. The first South African to become the second space tourist Mark
Shuttleworth
23. The first woman Prime Minister of South Korea Ms. Chang Sang
24. The first youngest grandmaster of the world in chess Sergey
Karjakin (Ukraine)
25. The first adventurer flying successfully across the English Channel
without aircraft Felix Baumgartner (July 2003)
26. China's first man in space Yang Liwei
27. The first Muslim woman to receive Nobel Prize Shirin Ebadi (Nobel Peace
Prize 2003)

28. The woman with the highest individual Test score making a new world
record Kiran Baloch (Pakistani cricketer,
scoring 242 runs playing women's
cricket test against West Indies in Karachi in March, 2004)
29. The first woman of the world to climb Mt. Everest four times Lakpa
Sherpa (Nepali)
30. The first woman to cross seven important seas of the world by swimming
Bula Chaudhury (India)
31. The first aircraft pilot to round the entire world non-stop by his 2 engine
aircraft in 67 hours Steve Fossett (March 2005)
32. The first woman to be appointed as a Governor of a province in
Afghanistan Habiba Sorabhi
33. The first woman of the world to swim across five continents Bula
Chaudhury (India) (April 2005)
34. The first woman athlete to touch 5.0 meter mark in pole vault Ms. Yelena
Isinbayeva (Russian, July 2005)
35. The first Hindu Chief Justice of Pakistani Supreme Court Justice Rana
Bhagwan Das
Took over on Sept. 2, 2005 as
Acting Chief Justice
36. The first duly elected woman President of an African country Allen
Johnson Sirleaf (elected President of Liberia in Nov. 2005)
37. The first woman Governor of the State Bank of Pakistan Shanshad
Akhtar
38.The first woman Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel
(Took over in Nov. 2005) 39. The first woman President of Chile Dr. Michelle
Bachelet
40. The first woman Prime Minister of Jamaica Portia Simpson Miller (Feb.
2006)

41. The first woman foreign Secretary of England Margaret Backett (May
2006)
42. The first double amputee to scale Mt. Everest Mark Inglis (May 15,
2006) - See more at:

Tribes and Races of the World

Adivasis : A tribe in Bastar Distt. (Madhya Pradesh).

Afridis : The tribals inhabiting the Pak-Afghan border area.

Afrikaner : The Dutch-born in South Africa.

Bantus : People of a black race of South Africa.

Bhils : Ancient Dravidians living in Central India and Rajasthan.

Bedouins : Nomads of Arabia and North Africa.

Berbers : People of a race of North West Africa.

Boers : Dutch settlers of South Africa.

Dravidians : Very Ancient people (non-Aryans) living in South India.

Eskimos : Natives of Greenland and Arctic region.

Filipinos : Natives of Philippines Islands.

Flemings : People of Belgium.

Garos : A tribe in Assam and Nagaland.

Gonds : A tribe in Bihar.

Khasis : A hill tribe of Meghalaya.

Lepchas : Tribals of Tibetan origin in Sikkim.

Kiwis : People of New Zealand.

Magyars : Natives of Hungary.

Moplahs : People of tribe of Malabar Distt. (Kerala)

Mayas : American Indians found in the highlands of Guatemala.

Maoris : Natives of New Zealand.

Nagas : People of Nagaland, India.

Papuans : Tribals of New Guinea.

Red Indians : Original inhabitants of North-America.

Santhals : Aboriginal natives of Orissa and Chotta Nagpur.

Todas : Natives of Nilgiri Hills (Tamil Nadu)

Zulus : Natives of Natal (North Africa).

Lion emblem countries:

India Belgium Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Sierra leone Sri lanka

Places Associated with

Bardoli Sardar Patel
Chittore Rana Pratap
Corsica Napoleon Bonaparte
Fatehpur Sikri Akbar the Great
Haldighati Rana Pratap
Hiroshima Dropping of First Atom Bomb
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of Indians by the British on April 13, 1919
Jerusalem Jesus Christ
Kapilvastu Buddha

Lumbini Buddha
Macedonia Alexander
Mecca Prophet Mohammed
Pearl Harbour Japan's attack on the U.S.A. during World War II in 1941
Pawnar Ashram Achara Vinoba Bhave
Pondicherry Aurobindo Ghosh
Porbunder Mahatma Gandhi
Rajghat Mahatma Gandhi
Srirangpattam Tipu Sultan
Shantiniketan Rabindra Nath Tagore
Shaktisthal Smt. Indira Gandhi
Shantivan Jawahar Lal Nehru
Talwandi Guru Nanak
Trafalgar Nelson
Virindavan (U.P.) Lord Krishna
Vijay Ghat (Delhi) Lal Bahadur Shastri
Veer Bhumi Rajiv Gandhi
Waterloo Napoleon
Wardha Mahatma Gandhi
Functions of Reserve Bank
1. Issue of Notes The Reserve Bank has the monopoly of note issue in the country. It has the sole right to issue
currency notes of various denominations except one rupee note. The Reserve Bank acts as the only source of legal
tender money because the one rupee note issued by Ministry of Finance are also circulated through it. The Reserve

Bank has adopted the Minimum Reserve System for the note issue. Since 1957, it maintains gold and foreign
exchange reserves of Rs. 200 crore, of which at least Rs. 115 crore should be in gold.
2. Banker to the GovernmentThe second important function of the Reserve Bank is to act as the Banker, Agent
and Adviser to the Government. It performs all the banking functions of the State and Central Government and it also
tenders useful advice to the Government on matters related to economic and monetary policy. It also manages the
public debt for the Government.
3. Banker's BankThe Reserve Bank performs the same function for the other banks as the other banks ordinarily
perform for their customers. It is not only a banker to the commercial banks, but it is the tender of the last resort.

4. Controller of CreditThe Reserve Bank undertakes the responsibility of controlling credit created by the
commercial banks. To achieve this objective it makes extensive use of quantitative and qualitative techniques to
control and regulate the credit effectively in the country.
5. Custodian of Foreign ReservesFor the purpose of keeping the foreign exchange rates stable the Reserve Bank
buys and sells the foreign currencies and also protects the country's foreign exchange funds.
6. Other FunctionsThe bank performs a number of other developmental works. These works include the function of
clearing house arranging credit for agriculture, (which has been transferred to NABARD) collecting and publishing the
economic data, buying and selling of Government securities and trade bills, giving loans to the Government buying
and selling of valuable commodities etc. It also acts as the representative of Government in I.M.F. and represents the
membership of India.

Printing of Securities and Minting in India

1. India Security Press (Nasik Road)Postal Material, Postal Stamps, Non-postal Stamps, Judicial and Nonjudicial Stamps, Cheques, Bonds, NSC, Kisan Vikas Patra, Securities of State Governments, Public Sector
Enterprise and Financial Corporations.
2. Security Printing Press (Hyderabad)Established in 1982 for meeting the demand for postal material by
Southern States. It also fulfils the demand for Union Excise Duty Stamps of the Country.
3. Currency Notes Press (Nasik Road)Since 1991, this press prints currency notes of Rs. 1, Rs. 2, Rs. 5, Rs. 10,
Rs. 50, and Rs. 100. (Earlier printing of Rs. 50 and Rs. 100 currency notes was not done here).
4. Bank Notes Press (Dewas)Currency notes of Rs. 20, Rs. 50, Rs. 100 and Rs. 500 are printed here.
5. Modernised Currency Notes PressTwo new modernised currency notes press are under establishment at
Mysore (Karnataka) and Salboni (West Bengal).
6. Security Paper Hoshangabad (Established in 1967-68) makes production of Bank and Currency notes paper.
7. Coins are minted at four placesMumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad and Noida.

SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India) was initially constituted on April 12, 1988 as a nonstatutory body
through a resolution of the Government for dealing with all matters relating to development and regulation of
securities market and investor protection and to advise the Government on all these matters. SEBI was given
statutory status and powers through an ordinance promulgated on January 30, 1992.
The statutory powers and functions of SEBI were strengthened through the promulgation of the Securities Laws
(Amendment) ordinance on January 25, 1995 which was subsequently replaced by an Act of Parliament. In terms of
this Act, SEBI has been vested with regulatory powers over corporates in the issuance of capital, the transfer of
securities and other related matters. Besides, SEBI has also been empowered to impose monetary penalties on
capital market intermediaries and other participants for a range of violations.
SEBI is managed by six membersone chairman (nominated by Central Government), two members (officers of
central ministries), one member (from RBI) and remaining two members are nominated by Central Government. The
office of SEBI is situated at Mumbai with its regional offices at Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai. In 1988 the initial capital

of SEBI was Rs. 75 crore which was provided by its promoters (IDBI, ICICI, IFCI). This amount was invested and
with its interest amount day-to-day expenses of SEBI are met. All statutory powers for regulating Indian capital market
are vested with SEBI itself.

Functions of SEBI
1.

To safeguard the interests of investors and to regulate capital market with suitable measures.

2.

To regulate the business of stock exchanges and other securities market.

3.

To regulate the working of Stock Brokers, Sub-brokers, Share Transfer Agents, Trustees, Merchant Bankers,
Underwriters, Portfolio Managers etc. and also to make their registration.

4.

To register and regulate collective investment plans of mutual funds.

5.

To encourage self-regulatory organisations.

6.

To eliminate malpractices of security markets.

7.

To train the persons associated with security markets and also to encourage investors' education.

8.

To check insider trading of securities.

9.

To supervise the working of various organisations trading in security market and also to ensure systematic
dealings.

10. To promote research and investigations for ensuring the attainment of above objectives.

Worlds largest dam

Three Gorges China
Syncrude Tailings Canada
Chapetn Argentina
Pati Argentina
New Cornelia Tailings United States
Tarbela Pakistan
Local Time
Parallels of longitude determine the time at a place. Local time is 12 noon when the sun is exactly overhead. Local
time varies, from Greenwich time (London) at the rate of four minutes/degree of longitude. The time of a place
depends on whether it lies east or
west of Greenwich. As the earth rotates from west to east, the places that lie to the east of Greenwich are the first to
receive sunlight. The earth rotates through 360 in 24 h or15 in1hor 1 in 4 min. Therefore the local time varies at the

rate of 4 min/degree of longitude from the Greenwich time.

For example, Kolkata is approximately 90 east of Greenwich. So, Kolkata will be (90 x4) or 6 h ahead of the time in
London.
Standard Time is the uniform time fixed by each country. As the local time is found to vary constantly from one plain
to another, there is an arrangement by which all places in a certain region agree to use the same time. It is the
uniform time fixed in relation to the mean time of a certain meridian which passes through it.
For this purpose, the earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each, being 15 or 1 h apart in time. The zero is at
Greenwich (London) which gives us the Greenwich Mean Time {GMT). The 12th zone is divided by the 180th
meridian, the International Date Line.
The zones to the east of this line are numbered from 1-12 with the prefix minus (-) indicating the number of hours to
be subtracted to obtain the Greenwich Time. The zones to the west are also numbered 1-12 with the prefix plus (+)
which means the number of hours that must be added to get the Greenwich Time.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

Greenwich Mean Time is the UK standard time. It is based on the local time of the meridian passing through
Greenwich near London.

International Date Line

The 180 east meridian and 180" west meridian are one and the same line, running over the Pacific Ocean, deviating
at Fiji, Samoa, and Gilbert Islands. The International Date Line roughly corresponds to 180 east or west , meridians
of longitude, which fall on the opposite side of the Greenwich meridian. When one crosses the date line from east to
west, date is to be advanced by one day.
Similarly, when one crosses the date line from west to east, the date is to be set back by one day.

Bharat Ratna Awardees

Bharat Ratna is the highest civilian honour, given for exceptional service towards advancement of Art, Literature and
Science, and in recognition of Public Service of the highest order. The provision of Bharat Ratna was introduced in
1954.
The first ever Indian to receive this award was the famous scientist, Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman. Since then,
many people, each a whiz in varied aspects of their career, have received this coveted award.
List of all Bharat Ratna awardees so far:

S.N
o
1.

Name

Birth /
death

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 1888

Awarde
d
1954

Notes
Second President, First Vice President,

Indian state or
country
Tamil Nadu

1975

Philosopher.

2.

Chakravarti
Rajagopalachari

1878
1972

1954

Last Governor-General, Freedom Fighter.

Tamil Nadu

3.

C. V. Raman

1888
1970

1954

Nobel-prize winning Physicist

Tamil Nadu

4.

Bhagwan Das

1869
1958

1955

Philosopher, Freedom Fighter

Uttar Pradesh

5.

Sir Mokshagundam
Visvesvarayya

1861
1962

1955

Civil Engineer

Karnataka

6.

Jawaharlal Nehru

1889
1964

1955

First Prime Minister, Freedom Fighter,

Author.

Uttar Pradesh

7.

Govind Ballabh Pant

1887
1961

1957

Freedom Fighter, Home Minister

Uttar Pradesh

8.

Dhondo Keshav Karve

1858
1962

1958

Educationist, Social Reformer

Maharashtra

9.

B. C. Roy

1882
1962

1961

Physician, Politician

West Bengal

10.

Purushottam Das Tandon

1882
1962

1961

Freedom Fighter, Educationalist.

Uttar Pradesh

11.

Rajendra Prasad

1884
1963

1962

First President, Freedom Fighter, Jurist

Bihar

12.

Zakir Hussain

1897
1969

1963

Former President, Scholar.

Andhra Pradesh

13.

Pandurang Vaman Kane

1880
1972

1963

Indologist and Sanskrit scholar

Maharashtra

14.

Lal Bahadur Shastri

1904
1966

1966

Posthumous, Second Prime Minister,

Freedom Fighter

Uttar Pradesh

15.

Indira Gandhi

1917
1984

1971

Former Prime Minister

Uttar Pradesh

16.

V. V. Giri

1894
1980

1975

Former President, Trade Unionist.

Andhra Pradesh

17.

K. Kamaraj

1903
1975

1976

Posthumous, Freedom Fighter, Chief

Minister-Tamil Nadu.

Tamil Nadu

18.

Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu

(Mother Teresa)

1910
1997

1980

Naturalized Indian citizen, Nobel Laureate

(Peace, 1979).

West Bengal

19.

Acharya Vinoba Bhave

1895
1982

1983

Posthumous, Social Reformer, Freedom

Figher.

Maharashtra

20.

Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan

1890
1988

1987

First non-citizen, Freedom Fighter.

Pakistan

21.

M. G. Ramachandran

1917
1987

1988

Posthumous, Chief Minister-Tamil Nadu,

Actor.

Tamil Nadu

22.

B. R. Ambedkar

1891
1956

1990

Posthumous, Architect-Indian Constitution,

Leader of Buddhist people of India

Maharashtra

23.

Nelson Mandela

b. 1918

1990

Second non-citizen and first non-Indian,

Leader of Anti-Apartheid movement.

South Africa

24.

Rajiv Gandhi

1944
1991

1991

Posthumous, Former Prime Minister

New Delhi

25.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

1875
1950

1991

Posthumous, Freedom Fighter, First Home

Minister of India.

Gujarat

26.

Morarji Desai

1896
1995

1991

Former Prime Minister, Freedom Fighter.

Gujarat

27.

Maulana Abul Kalam

Azad

1888
1958

1992

Posthumous, Freedom Fighter, Educator.

West Bengal

28.

J. R. D. Tata

1904
1993

1992

Industrialist and philanthropist.

Maharashtra

29.

Satyajit Ray

1922
1992

1992

Legendary Indian Film Director

West Bengal

30.

A.P.J. Abdul Kalam

b. 1931

1997

Former President, Scientist.

Tamil Nadu

31.

Gulzarilal Nanda

1898
1998

1997

Freedom Fighter, former Prime Minister.

Punjab

32.

Aruna Asaf Ali

1908
1996

1997

Posthumous, Freedom Fighter.

West Bengal

33.

M. S. Subbulakshmi

1916
2004

1998

Classical singer.

Tamil Nadu

34.

Chidambaram
Subramaniam

1910
2000

1998

Freedom Fighter, Minister of

Agriculture(Father of Green revolution).

Tamil Nadu

35.

Jayaprakash Narayan

1902
1979

1998

Posthumous, Freedom Fighter, Social

Reformer.

Uttar Pradesh

36.

Ravi Shankar

b. 1920

1999

Classical sitar player.

west Bengal

37.

Amartya Sen

b. 1933

1999

Nobel Laureate (Economics, 1998),

Economist.

West Bengal

38.

Gopinath Bordoloi

1890
1950

1999

Posthumous, freedom fighter

Assam

39.

Lata Mangeshkar

b. 1929

2001

Play back singer

Maharashtra

40.

Ustad Bismillah Khan

19162006

2001

Hindustani classical shehnai player

Bihar

41.

Bhimsen Joshi

1922
2011

2009

Hindustani classical singer

Karnataka

42.

C. N. R. Rao

b. 1934

2014

Scientist

Karnataka

43.

Sachin Tendulkar

b. 1973

2014

Cricketer

Maharashtra

Padma Vibhushan

No

Name

Discipline

State

Dr. Raghunath A. Mashelkar

Science and Engineering

Maharashtra

Shri B.K.S. Iyengar

Others-Yoga

Maharashtra

1.

2.

Gallantry Awards

Param Vir Chakra : The highest decoration for valour is the Param Vir Chakra which is awarded for the most
conspicuous bravery or some daring or pre-eminent act of valour or self-sacrifice in the. presence of the enemy,
whether on land, at sea or in the air.
The decoration is made of bronze and is circular in shape. It has, on the obverse, four replicas of "Indra's Vajra"
embossed round the State emblem in the centre. On the reverse, the words "Param Vir Chakra" are embossed both
in Hindi and English with two lotus flowers in the middle.
The decoration is worn on the left breast with a plain, purple coloured riband about 3.2 cm in width.
Mahavir Chakra : Mahavir Chakra is the second highest decoration for valour and is awarded for acts of
conspicuous gallantry in the presence of enemy, whether on land, at sea or in the air.

It is made of standard silver and is circular in shape. Embossed on the obverse is a five pointed heraldic star with
domed centre-piece bearing the gilded State emblem in the centre, The words "Mahavir Chakra" are embossed both
in Hindi and English on the reverse with two lotus flowers in the middle. The decoration is worn on the left breast with
a half-white and half-orange riband about 3.2 cm in width, the orange being near the left shoulder.
Vir Chakra : Vir Chakra is third in the order of awards given for the act of gallantry in the presence of the enemy,
whether on land, at sea or in the air.
The decoration is made of standard silver and is circular in shape. Embossed on the obverse is a five pointed
heraldic star which has an Ashoka Chakra in the centre. Within this chakra, there is a domed centre-piece bearing
gilded State emblem. On the reverse, the words "Vir Chakra" are embossed, both in Hindi and English, with two lotus
flowers in the middle. The Chakra is worn on the left breast with a half-blue and halforange riband, about 3.2 cm in
width, the orange being nearer the left shoulder.
Ashok Chakra : The Ashok Chakra series of awards are open to civilians also. Recommendations received in
respect of civilians from the State Governments/Union territory Administra-tions and Ministries/Departments of the
Central Government are processed by the Ministry of Defence for the consideration of the Central Honours and
Awards Committee chaired by the Defence Minister. These awards are biannual and are given on the Republic Day
and Independence Day.
Kirti Chakra : The decoration is the nation's second highest award for gallantry during peacetime. It is made of
standard silver and is circular in shape. The obverse and the reverse are exactly the same as in Ashok Chakra.
The Chakra is worn on the left breast with a green silk riband, about 3.2 cm in width and divided into equal segments
by two orange vertical lines.
Shaurya Chakra : The decoration is awarded for an act of gallantry. It is exactly like Ashok Chakra, except that it is
made of bronze.
The Chakra is worn on the left breast with a green silk riband, about 3.2 cm in width and divided into four equal
segments by three orange vertical lines.
Param Vishisht Seva Medal, Ati Vishisht Seva Medal, Vishisht Seva Medal : The Vishisht Seva (Distinguished
Service) Medals are awarded to personnel of all the three services in recognition of distinguished service of the "most
exceptional", "exceptional" and "high" order, respectively. Param Vishisht Seva Medal is made of gold, Ati Vishisht
Seva Medal of standard silver and Vishisht Seva Medal of bronze, all circular in shape and 3.5 cm in diameter. Each
medal has on its obverse five pointed stars and on its reverse the Lion Capitol. Its riband is golden with one dark-blue
stripe down the centre for Param Vishisht Seva Medal, two dark-blue stripes dividing it into three equal parts for Ati
Vishisht Seva Medal and three dark-blue stripes dividing it into four equal parts for Vishisht Seva Medal.
President Pranab Mukherjee on 26 January, 2014 conferred awards of 79 Gallantry and other Defence decorations

to Armed Forces personnel and others as part of the 65rd Republic Day Celebrations.
This includes 03 Kirti Chakra, 10 Shaurya Chakra, 1 Bar Sena Medal (Gallantry), 48 Sena Medal (Gallantry), 02 Nao
Sena Medal (Gallantry), 1 Bar to Vayu Sena Medal (Gallantry), 14 Vayu Sena Medal (Gallantry).

Nobel Literature Prize Winners

Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry
Nobel Prize Winners in Physics
Nobel Prize Winners in Physiology or Medicine
Nobel Prize Winners in Literature
Nobel Prize Winners in Peace
Nobel Prize Winners in Economics

No. Book

Author

1.

A House For Mr. Biswas

V.S. Naipaul

2.

Aag Ka Dariya

3.

Adha Gaon

4.

Adhe Adhure

5.

All About H. Hatterr

6.

Aranyer Din Ratri

7.

Charandas Chor

8.

Chidamabara

9.

Coolie

10.

Dipshikha

11.

English August

Upamanyu Chatterjee

12.

Family Matters

Rohinton Mistry

13.

Ghasiram Kotwal

Vijay Tendulkar

14.

God of Small Things

15.

Golden Gate

16.

Hajar Churashir Ma

17.

Indulekha

18.

Interpreter of Maladies

19.

Kanthapura

20.

Kayar

21.

Khasakinte Ithihaasam

O.V. Vijayan

22.

Kitne Pakistan

Kamleshwar

23.

Kitni Navon Men Kitni Bar

Ajneya

24.

Krishnakali

Shivani

25.

Kurukku

26.

Kutiyozhikkal

Qurratulain Hyder
Rahi Masoom Reza
Mohan Rakesh
GV Desani
Sunil Gangopadhyay
Habib Tanvir
Sumitranandan Pant
Mulk Raj Anand
Mahadevi Verma

Arundhati Roy
Vikram Seth
Mahasweta Devi
O. Chandu Menon
Jhumpa Lahiri
Raja Rao
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai

Faustina Barna
Vailoppilli Sreedhara Menon

27.

Madhushala

Harivansh Rai Bachchan

28.

Marali Mannige

29.

Midnight's Children

30.

Nilkanthi Broja

31.

Paraja

32.

Parimal

33.

Pather Panchali

34.

Pathummayude Aadu

35.

Raag Darbari

36.

Randamuzham

37.

Rasidi Ticket

38.

Sabdar Akash

39.

Samskara

40.

Shadow Lines

Amitav Ghosh

41.

Swami and Friends

R. K. Narayan

42.

Tamas

43.

Terhi Lakeer

44.

The Flight of Pigeons

45.

Train To Pakistan

46.

Tughlaq

Girish Karnad

47.

Zindaginama

Krishna Sobti

Kota Shivaram Karanth

Salman Rushdie
Indira Goswami
Gopinath Molianty
Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala'
Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay
Vaikom Mohammed Basheer
Shrilal Shukla
M. T. Vasudevan
Amrita Pritam
Sitakant Mohapatra
U. R. Ananthamurthy

Bhisham Sahni
Ismat Chugtai
Ruskin Bond
Khushwant Singh

Hindi:
Shree Lal Shukla, Nirmal Verma (Recipient of Jnanpith Award for 1999). Dr. Ram Vilas Shanna. Krishna Sobti and
Giriraj Kishore, Manglesh Dabral (Winner of Sahitya Academy Award for 2000). P.C.K. Prem. Ramdarsh Misra, Alka
Saraogi (Winner of Sahitya Academy Award, 2001), Dr. Ram Murthy Tripathy (Winner of Shankar Puruskar, 2001),
Rajesh Joshi (Winner of Sahitya Academy Award, 2002), Kamleshwar (Winner of Shlaka Samman 2002-03 and
Sahitya Akademi Award 2003), S. R. Harnot, Dr. Biswambha Pahi, Rajendra Yadav. Viren Dangwal. (Winner of
Sahitya Academy Award, 2004)
Ante date : To give a date prior to that on which it is written, to any cheque, bill or any other document.
Appreciation of Money : It is a rise in the value of money caused by a fall in the general price level.
.
Assets : Property of any kind available towards the discharge of the liabilities of a testator, intestate debtor or
company.
At Sight : A form of notification written on bills or notes denoting that they are not payable on demand but after expiry
of a specified period and allowing three days of grace there after.
Arbitration : A method for compounding dispute, generally of an industrial nature, between the employer and his
employees by reference to disinterested parties-called arbitrators.
Advice : Any notification of a business transaction, apprising an agent, correspondent, or customer that a certain
thing has been done.
Bear : A speculator in the market who believes that price will go down.

Bill of Credit : A letter authorising the advance of money to a specified person, implying thereby the obligation on the
part of the writer to repay that amount.
Black Money : Unaccounted money on which no Income-tax has been paid. The main reason for accumulation of
black money has been the steep rise in rate of taxation : tax evasion becomes attractive and profitable. The business
community, politicians and bureaucrats all have accumulated black money during the last few years. The Government
of India demonetised high denomination notes in Jan. 1978 in order to reduce the evil or black money. Voluntary
Disclosure Income Scheme was introduced in 1977 by the Govt. Over Rs. 10,000 crores were netted by the Govt. by
Feb 28, 1998.
Bond : A written monetary agreement between two persons, or between two governments or between a person and
a government or corporation, or between a corporation and a government.
Bull : A speculator in the stock market who buys goods, in some cases without money to pay with, anticipating that
prices will go up.
Balance of Trade : The difference between the imports and exports of a country. It is favourable when the value of
exported goods exceeds the value of imported goods. And it is unfavourable if the imports exceed exports.
Bankers' Cheque : A cheque drawn by one bank on its own branch.
Bank Rate : The rate at which the Central Bank (Reserve Bank of India) will discount first class bills of exchange.
Basket Currencies : 14 currencies whose average value has been taken to calculate the value of S.D.R. Similarly,
the rupee exchange rate is announced on the basis of average value of half a dozen basket currencies.
Buyers' Market : An area in which the supply of certain goods exceeds the demands, so that purchasers can drive
hard bargains.
Carat : Measure or weight for precious stones, about 4 grains; 24 carat gold is the purest gold, thus 22 carat gold
means a piece of gold in which 22 .parts are pure gold and 2 parts of an alloy, usually copper.
Caution Money : It is money deposited as security for the fulfilment of a contract of obligation.
Central Bank : A bank which is (a) banker to the Government, (b) banker to the commercial banks, and (c) manages
the currency and credit policy of that country. The Reserve Bank of India is the Central Bank.
Clearing House : The place where clerks from the different banks meet daily, bringing with them all bills cheques
drawn on each other bank on that day. The bills/cheques are then exchanged and outstanding differences settled.
Letter of Credit : A letter from a bank, firm or one person to another authorising payment to a third person of a
specific sum, for which the sender assumes full responsibility.
Crossed Cheque : A cheque is crossed for protection. In a crossed cheque two parallel lines are drawn across its
face and the words 'and Co'. are written between the lines. Such a cheque must be paid into one's own account in
the ban} and then realised.
Debentures : A debenture is a certificate issued by a company to its creditors promising the payment of a stated sum
at fixed rate of interest, after a specified period of time. A debenture is the first charge on the assets of the company.
Deflation : A state in monetary market when money in circulation has decreased and is characterised by low prices,
unemployment, etc.
Demand Draft : An instrument drawn by one bank on any of its own branches or on another bank under agency
arrangement is payble on demand.

Devaluation : A deliberate reduction in the value of the home currency to foreign currency. It is done always by a
governmental action, and is resorted to in order to reduce imports and increase exports. India devalued her currency
by 37 per cent on 6th June, 1966. Of late so many countries, viz., U.K., U.S.A., and France have resorted to this
expedient to balance their payment positions.
Draft : A cheque drawn by one bank on another.
Estate Duty : A form of death duty and a method of direct taxation, imposed when the property is transferred on the
death of its owner. It has been abolished in India but was reintroduced in a limited way in 1988.
EURO : The European Union declared to introduce a common currency for its member countries, called EURO.
Eleven of the fifteen countries agreed to become members of the common currency introduced on Jan. 1, 1999. Four
countries are likely to become members later. By 2002, it is hoped that the local currencies will disappear and
replaced by EURO.
Excise Duty : It is the duty charged on goods manufactured within the country; excise duties on alcohol, tobacco,
sugar, match-box, cIoth, etc., have been levied by the Government of India.
Floating Currency : On account of too wide a fluctuation between the official and unofficial rates for various
currencies of the world, some of the countries decided not to fix any particular rate of the currency vis-a-vis others
and let the value be determined on a daily basis.
Foreign Exchange : The method by which transactions in international trade are financed.
Fixed Exchange Rate : When the exchange rate of the currency is fixed by the concerned government and it can
only be changed either by devaluation or revaluation.
Floating Exchange Rate : A situation in which the exchange rate of any currency is determined by the forces of
demand and supply for this currency. Today rupee is also floating and its exchange rate with other currencies is
determined by the demand and supply. Periodically the Reserve Bank of India announces the exchange rates of
rupee with other currencies. The exchange rate is calculated by taking average value of basket currencies.
Free Trade : A tariff system which treats foreign imports and home produced articles on the same basis, either taxing
both equally or exempting both.
Gold Standard : It is a system of currency based on the free coinage of gold. It presupposes that the state will sell
and buy gold at fixed price in terms of the local currency; For all practical purposes, the system is dead now.
Green Revolution : The term applied for the steep rise in the production of agricultural products, during the past few
years. The Green Revolution was made possible by : (i) better use of fertilizers {ii) intensive cultivation, (iii) latest
varieties of seeds and especially the hybrid varieties (iv) pesticides and insecticides and (v) availability of assured
means of irrigation green revolution turned gray in 1973-74 when food production was considerably lower. The main
reason, according to a few, is not the non-availability of
food articles, but faulty distribution. There were food grain shortages in 1980 on account of severe drought in 1979. In
1998, the country reaped a large harvest of over 194 million tones and over 200 million tones in 1999.
Hard Currency : The currency of a country in relation to which we have an adverse balance of payment, i.e., which is
hard to be obtained.
Hot Money : Money which moves from one place to another to seek profit or higher rate of interest is called hot
money.
Index Number : A statistical method of indicating approximately the variations in the prices of essential commodities
over certain periods of time.
Inflation : It is an increase in the quantity of money in circulation without any corresponding increase in goods, and,
therefore, it leads to an abnormal rise in the price level.

Key Currency : A currency which is internally acceptable and is used in international payments.

Communalism : The political theory or trend of thought which insists too

much upon the rights and interests of a particular religion, as distinguished
from those of the nation at large. The 1991 elections were marked by appeal
to communal sentiments.
Communism : It may mean either the type of society in which right to
property is vested in the community, every individual receiving what he needs
and working according to his capacity, or it may mean the revolutionary
movement which seeks to achieve that type of society by overthrowing the
capitalist system and establishing a dictatorship of the proletariat. Modern
communism has its basis in Marxism, as developed by the Russian
revolutionary leader, Lenin(1870-1924). Communism now survives only in
China, Vietnam, North Korea and Cuba. However, in India the communists still
enjoy a clout.
1. British Governor General of Bengal Warren Hastings 2. Governor General
of Independent India Lord Mountbatten 3. Commander-in-chief of Free India
General Roy Bucher 4. Cosmonaut Sqn. Ldr. Rakesh Sharma 5. Emperor of
Mughal Dynasty in India Babar 6. Field Marshal S. H. F. J. Manekshaw 7.
Indian Governor General of Indian Union C. Rajagopalachari 8. Indian I.C.S.
Officer Satyendra Nath Tagore 9. Indian Member of Viceroy's Executive
Council Sri S. P. Sinha 10. Indian to swim across English Channel Mihir Sen
11. Indian woman to swim across-English Channel Miss Arati Saha 12. Man
to climb Mount Everest Tenzing Norgay 13. Man to climb Mount Everest
without Oxygen Phu Dorjee 14. Man to climb Mount Everest twice Nwang
Gombu 15. Nobel Prize winner Rabindra Nath Tagore 16. President of Indian
National Congress W. C. Banerjee 17. President of Indian Republic Dr.
Rajendra Prasad 18. Talkie Film Alam Ara (1931) 19. Test Tube Baby
(Documented) Indira 20. Viceroy of India Lord Canning 21. Woman Minister
of Indian Union Rajkumari Amrit Kaur 22. Woman Chief Minister of State Mrs.
Sucheta Kriplani 23. Woman Governor Mrs. Sarojini Naidu 24. Woman
President of Indian National Congress Dr. Annie Besant 25. Woman Prime
Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi 26. Woman Speaker of a State Assembly Mrs.
Shanno Devi 27. Prime Minister of India Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru 28. Muslim
President of Indian Union Dr. Zakir Hussain 29. Speaker of Lok Sabha G. V.
Mavlankar 30. Woman to climb mount Everest Bachhendri Pal 31. Woman
Judge in Supreme Court Mrs. Meera Sahib Fatima Biwi 32. Woman Chief

Justice of a High Court Smt. Leela Seth 33. Indian Woman to go in space
(Now U.S. Citizen) Kalpana Chawla 34. The first Indian weightlifter to win
bronze medal in Olympics Karnam Malleshwari
(Sydney, in 2000) 35. The First Indian World Chess Champion Vishwanathan
Anand 36. India's first paperless Newspaper The News Today
(Launched on Jan. 3, 2001) 37. India's First woman Merchant Navy Officer
Sonali Banerjee 38. The first Dalit Speaker of the Lok Sabha G. M. C. Balyogi
39. The first Vice-President of India to die in harness Krishna Kant 40. The
first Indian woman cricketer to score double century Mithali Raj
(August 2002 playing against England) 41. The first woman Air Vice-Marshal
P. Bandopadhyaya 42. The first Indian to be appointed as United Nations
Civilian Police Advisor Ms. Kiran Bedi 43. The first astronaut of Indian origin to
perish aboard U.S. space shuttle in a tragic accident Dr. Kalpana Chawla
(Columbia space shuttle, Feb. I, 2003) 44. The first woman to be appointed
Deputy Governor of Reserve Bank of India K. J. Udeshi
(appointed on June 10, 2003) 45. The first Indian girl to register a win in a
Wimbledon tournament Sania Mirza (2003) 46. The first Indian lady to win a
medal in World Athletic Championship Anju Bobby George (Aug. 2003) 47.
The first woman Chairman and Managing Director of NABARD Mrs. Ranjana
Kumar 48. The highest individual test scorer of India Virendra Sehwag ( 309
runs in the first test in Multan against Pakistan) 49. The first Indian cricketer
to make double centuries five times Rahul Drgvid (playing test against
Pakistan in Pakistan in. April 2004) 50. The first Odisha woman to top I.A.S.
Smt. Roopa Misra
(Indian Civil Services Exam., 2003) 51. The first Sikh Prime Minister of India
Dr. Manmohan Singh 52. The first woman Director General of Police of a
State Kanchan C. Bhattacharya
(DGP Uttarakhand) 53. The first woman to be appointed as the crime branch
chief MeeriJ Borwankar (took over as crime branch chief of Mumbai
police) 54. The first woman to reach the rank of Lt. General in the Indian army
Puneeta Arora (Commandant, Armed Forces Medical College, Pune) 55. The
first Indian to cross seven important seas by swimming Bula Chaudhury 56.
The first woman to become Indian Air Force's first woman Air Marshal Air
Marshal Padma Bandhopadhyay 57. The first youngest MP, at the age of 25
years Dharmendra Yadav
(Mainpuri : Samajwadi Party MP) 58. India's first woman athlete to win WTA
open Tennis title Sania Mirza (Feb. 2005, Hyderabad) 59. The first Indian to
set a world record of ever having reached the highest

of heights yet in a hot balloon Vijaypath Singhania

(Nov. 26, 2005. 69852 ft.) 60. The first wonder child of Odisha only about 4
years and a half of age completes a race of 65 km. Budhia (May 2006) 61.
The first woman Commissioner of Police of an Indian metro (Chennai Metro
Police) Letika Saran 62. The first Indian to Ski to the North Pole Ajeet
Bajaj (April 26, 2006) 63. The first sportsman ever to win Gold Medal in
Shooting in the World Shooting Championship Abhinav Bindra (July 24,
2006) 64. The first person of Indian origin to win the Miss Great Britain title
Preeti Desai (2006) 65. The first woman President of the Republic of India
Pratibha Patil Largest and Heaviest
Blue Whale
Average length 30.5 m
Largest ever recorded 33.58 m
Pregnant female may weigh 203 tones
Smallest Land Mammal
Kitti's hog-nosed Bat (Found in Thailand)2
Wing span 16 cm
weight 1.75 to 2 g
Smallest Marine Mammal
Probably Heaviside's dolphin (Found in South Atlantic)
Length 1.22 m
Weight 41 kg
Rarest Mammal Rarest Mammal
Aspecies of tenrec from Madagascar is only known from a single specimen.
Fastest Mammal
Cheetah (found in Africa, Middle East, W. Asia) can run at 100 kph over short
distances.
Pronhorn antelope (Found in USA)
Can run at 60 kph over long distances.
Slowest Mammal

Three-toedsloth (found in South America) covers about 5 m a minute in

trees, and only 2 m aminute on the ground.
Highest Mammal
Yak (found in Tibet and China) climbs to 6000 m to feed.
REPTILES
Largest and Heaviest Estuarine Crocodile (found in Asia, Australia)
Average length (male) up to 4.3 m
Longest ever recorded 8.23 m Largest Lizard Komodo dragon (found in
Indonesian Island)
length up to 3 m largest Turtle Pacific leatherback turtle
Average length (male) up to 2.13 m
weight up to 363 kg. Fastest Amphibian (On Land) Sixlinedracerunner (found in USA)
can run at 29 kph Fastest Amphibian (In Water) (In Water) Pacific
Leatherback turtle can swim at 35 kph Longest Snake Reticulated
Python (found in India and South-east Asia)
Average length more than 6 m
Longest ever recorded 10 m Most Poisonous Snake Sea Snake (found in
North West Australia) Most Poisonous Land Snake Fierce Snake(found in
Australia) has most toxic venom.
AMPHIBIANS
Largest Amphibian Chinese gaintsalamander
Average length 1m
Longest ever recorded 1.52 m
Weight 11 to 13 kg. Largest Frog Goliath Frog (found in Africa)
Length of body 33.5 cm Largest Toad Probably marinetoad (found in South
America)
Length 22.9 cm. Largest Newt Ribbed newt (found in Africa)
Length upto 40 cm
Weight 450 g Highest Toad Common toad
One found in Himalayas at 8000 m Most Poisonous Kokoiarrow-poison
frog (found in South America)
A tiny amount of toxin is enough to kill a man. Smallest Newt Striped
newt (found in USA)
length 5.1 cm

BIRDS
Largest Bird (Flightless) North African Ostrich
Height (male) 2.74 m
Weight 156.5 kg
eggs up to 20 cm long Largest Wing Span Wandering albatross (found in
Southern Oceans)
Average length (male) 3.15 m
Largest ever recorded 3.6 m Smallest Bird Helena's humming bird (found
in Cuba)
Average length (male) 5.8 cm
(head and body 1.5 cm)
Weight 2 g
Egg 1.14 cm long Rarest Bird Mauritius Kestrel (found in Mauritius)
About 5 are thought to remain. Fastest Bird Spine-tailed swift (found in
Russia and Himalayas)
flies at 171 kph Longest Flight Arctic tern
May cover 40,000 km a year migrating from Arctic to Antarctic and
back. Fastest Under Water Gentoo Penguin swims at 36 kph Largest
Nest Bald eagles
one was 2.9 m wide and 6 m deep.
FISHES
Largest Fish (Plankton-eating) Whale Shark
Largest ever recorded 18.5 m long. Largest Fish (Meat Eating) Great white
shark (the man-eater)
Average length up to 4.57 m. Heaviest Bony Fish Ocean sunfish is the
heaviest
largest ever recorded 2.28 tonnes. Longest Bony Fish Russian
sturgeon or Beluga
Length up to 8 m Fastest Fish Probably Sailfish
fastest ever recorded 109 kph Most Poisonous Fish Stonefish (foundin
Indian and Pacific Oceans)
Poison carried in spines can cause a person's death within a few hours. Most
Electric Electric eel (found in South America)
can produce 400 to 500 volts.
INSECTS
Largest Insect Goliath beetle (found in Africa)
Weight (male) 100g Longest Insect Tropical stick insect

Length up to 33 cm Largest locust Swarn A Swarn of desert locusts that

crossed the Red Sea in 1889.
Swarn estimated to contain 250,000,000 insects
weighing about 500,000 tonnes and covering 5,000 sq. km Largest
Butterfly Queen Alexandra bird wing (found in Guinea)
Wing span 28 cm, weight 5 g Most Dangerous Ant Black bulldog ant (found
in Australia and Tasmaina)
One bite can kill a man. Fastest Wing Beat A tiny midge can beat its wings
1000 times a second.

Country Name of Parliament Afghanistan Shora Albania People's Assembly

Algeria National Popular Assembly Angola National Popular Assembly
Argentina National Congress Australia Federal Parliament Austria National
Assembly-Bundesversammlung Bahamas General Assembly Bangladesh
Jatiya Sangshad Balize National Assembly Benin National Revolutionary
Assembly Bhutan Tsongdu Bolivia National Congress Botswana National
Assembly Brazil National Congress Britain Parliament (House of Commons
and House of Lords) Bulgaria Narodna Subranie (National Assembly) Burma
(Myanmar) Pyithu Hluttaw Cambodia National, Assembly Canada Parliament
(House of Commons and Senate) Cape Verde People's National Assembly
China, Mainland National People Congress China, National Yuan (National
Assembly) Columbia Congress Cuba National Assembly of People's Power
Denmark Folketing Ethiopia Shergo Egypt People's Assembly Finland
Eduskusta France National Assembly Germany (United) Bundestag (Lower
House)
Bundestrat (Upper House) Greenland Landstraad Guyana National Assembly
Hungary National Assembly Iceland Althing India Lok Sabha (Lower House)
Rajya Sabha (Upper-House) Indonesia People's Consultative Assembly Iran
Majlis Iraq National Assembly Ireland Oireachtas or National Parliament (Dail
Eireann: House of Representatives and Seanad Eireann : Senate) Israel
Knesset Japan Diet Jordan National Assembly Kenya National Assembly
Kuwait National Assembly Laos People's Supreme Assembly Liberia National
Assembly Libya General People's Congress Malaysia Dewan Rakyat and
Dewan Negara Maldives Majlis Mongolia Great People's Khural Mozambique
People's Assembly Nepal National Panchayat The Netherlands The Staten
General New Zealand Parliament (House of Representatives) Norway Storting
Papus New Guinea National Parliament Poland Sejm Retania Grand National

Assembly Senegal National Assembly Seychelles People's Assembly Somalia

People's Assembly South Africa House of Assembly Spain Cortes Sudan
National Assembly Surinam Staten Swaziland Liblandia Sweden Riksdag
Switzerland Federal Assembly (Nationairat and Standerat Bundesver
Sammilung) Syria People's Council Tunisia National Assembly Turkey Grand
National Assembly United States Congress (House of Representatives and
Senate) Vanuatu Representative Assembly Venezuela National Congress
Vietnam National Assembly Serbia & montenegro Federal Assembly Zaire
National Legislative Council Zambia National Assembly - See more at:
http://currentgk.com/world/miscellaneous/countries_parliaments.html#sthash.
WDy5QQtw.dpuf

The Maastricht Treaty (formally, the Treaty on European Union or TEU) undertaken to integrate
Europe was signed on 7 February 1992 by the members of the European
Community in Maastricht, Netherlands.[1] On 910 December 1991, the same city hosted
the European Council which drafted the treaty.[2] Upon its entry into force on 1 November 1993
during the Delors Commission,[3] it created the European Union and led to the creation of the single
European currency, the euro. The Maastricht Treaty has been amended by the treaties
of Amsterdam, Nice and Lisbon.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific intergovernmental
body under the auspices of the United Nations,[1][2] set up at the request of member governments.[3] It
was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, theWorld Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and later endorsed
by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53. Membership of the IPCC is open
to all members of the WMO and UNEP.[4] The IPCC is chaired by Rajendra K. Pachauri.
The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), which is the main international treaty on climate change. [5][6] The ultimate
objective of the UNFCCC is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic [i.e., human-induced] interference with the climate
system".[5]IPCC reports cover "the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to
understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and
options for adaptation and mitigation."[6]
The IPCC does not carry out its own original research, nor does it do the work of monitoring climate
or related phenomena itself. The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature, which
includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources.[7]

Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute (on a voluntary basis, without payment from the
IPCC)[8] to writing and reviewing reports, which are then reviewed by governments. IPCC reports
contain a "Summary for Policymakers", which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all
participating governments. Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries. [9]
The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change, [10] producing reports
which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating
governments. The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared, in two equal parts, between the IPCC
and Al Gore.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO; /neto/; French: Organisation du trait de
l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN)), also called the [North] Atlantic Alliance, is
an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April
1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree
to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are
in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of
which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22 countries participate in
NATO's Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue
programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the
global total.[4] Members' defense spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP.[5]
NATO was little more than a political association until the Korean War galvanized the organization's
member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S.
supreme commanders. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact,
which formed in 1955. Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and
the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence
against a prospective Soviet invasiondoubts that led to the development of the independent
French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure in 1966 for
30 years. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the organization was drawn into the breakup of
Yugoslavia, and conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and
later Yugoslavia in 1999. Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact
countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004.
Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty, requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state
subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the 11 September 2001
attacks,[6] after which troops were deployed to Afghanistan under the NATO-led ISAF. The
organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sending trainers to Iraq,
assisting in counter-piracy operations[7] and in 2011 enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya in accordance
with U.N. Security Council Resolution 1973. The less potent Article 4, which merely invokes

consultation among NATO members, has been invoked four times: by Turkey in 2003 over the Iraq
War, twice in 2012 by Turkey over the Syrian Civil War after the downing of an unarmed Turkish F-4
reconnaissance jetand after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria[8] and in 2014 by Poland
following the Russian intervention in Crimea.[9]
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations[5] (ASEAN /si.n/ AH-see-ahn,[6] /zi.n/ AHzee-ahn)[7][8] is a political and economic organisation of ten countries located in Southeast Asia,
which was formed on 8 August 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia,
thePhilippines, Singapore and Thailand.[9] Since then, membership has expanded to
include Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma) and Vietnam. Its aims include
accelerating economic growth, social progress, sociocultural evolution among its members,
protection of regional peace and stability, and opportunities for member countries to discuss
differences peacefully.[10]

Economics is best described as the study of humans behaving in response

to having only limited resources to fulfill unlimited wants and needs.

Scarcity refers to the limited resources in an economy. Macroeconomics is

the study of the economy as a whole. Microeconomics analyzes the
individual people and companies that make up the greater economy.

The Production Possibility Frontier (PPF) allows us to determine how an

economy can allocate its resources in order to achieve optimal output.
Knowing this will lead countries to specialize and trade products amongst
each other rather than each producing all the products it needs.

Demand and supply refer to the relationship price has with the quantity
consumers demand and the quantity supplied by producers. As price
increases, quantity demanded decreases and quantity supplied increases.

Elasticity tells us how much quantity demanded or supplied changes when

there is a change in price. The more the quantity changes, the more
elastic the good or service. Products whose quantity supplied or
demanded does not change much with a change in price are considered
inelastic.

Utility is the amount of benefit a consumer receives from a given good or

service. Economists use utility to determine how an individual can get the
most satisfaction out of his or her available resources.

Market economies are assumed to have many buyers and sellers, high
competition and many substitutes. Monopolies characterize industries in
which the supplier determines prices and high barriers prevent any
competitors from entering the market. Oligopolies are industries with a
few interdependent companies. Perfect competition represents an
economy with many businesses competing with one another for consumer
interest and profits.

Microeconomics is generally the study of individuals and business

decisions(supply/demand), macroeconomics looks at higher up country
and government decisions(GDP/unemployment).

The bottom line is that microeconomics takes a bottoms-up approach to

analyzing the economy while macroeconomics takes a topdown approach.

A monopoly is a market structure in which there is only one

producer/seller for a product. In other words, the single business is the
industry

In an oligopoly, there are only a few firms that make up an industry. This
select group of firms has control over the price and, like a monopoly, an
oligopoly has high barriers to entry.

Base-Effect The consequence of abnormally high or low levels of inflation

in a previous month distorting headline inflation numbers for the most
recent month. A base effect can make it difficult to accurately assess
inflation levels over time. It wears off over time if inflation levels are
relatively constant.

Inflation is calculated from a base year in which a price index is assigned

the number 100. For example, if the price index in 2010 was 100 and the
price index in 2011 rose to 110, the inflation rate would be 10%. If the
price index rose to 115 in 2012, what would be the best way to assess
inflation? On the one hand, prices have only risen 5% over the previous
year, but they've risen 15% since 2010. The high inflation rate in 2011
makes the inflation rate in 2012 look relatively small and doesn't really
provide an accurate picture of the level of price increases consumers are
experiencing. This distortion is the base effect.

Difference Between FDI and FII

FDI vs FII
Both FDI and FII is related to investment in a foreign country. FDI or Foreign Direct
Investment is an investment that a parent company makes in a foreign country. On the
contrary, FII or Foreign Institutional Investor is an investment made by an investor in
the markets of a foreign nation.
In FII, the companies only need to get registered in the stock exchange to make
investments. But FDI is quite different from it as they invest in a foreign nation.
The Foreign Institutional Investor is also known as hot money as the investors have the
liberty to sell it and take it back. But in Foreign Direct Investment, this is not possible.
In simple words, FII can enter the stock market easily and also withdraw from it easily.
But FDI cannot enter and exit that easily. This difference is what makes nations to
choose FDIs more than then FIIs.
FDI is more preferred to the FII as they are considered to be the most beneficial kind of
foreign investment for the whole economy.
Foreign Direct Investment only targets a specific enterprise. It aims to increase the
enterprises capacity or productivity or change its management control. In an FDI, the
capital inflow is translated into additional production. The FII investment flows only
into the secondary market. It helps in increasing capital availability in general rather
than enhancing the capital of a specific enterprise.
The Foreign Direct Investment is considered to be more stable than Foreign
Institutional Investor. FDI not only brings in capital but also helps in good governance
practises and better management skills and even technology transfer. Though the

Foreign Institutional Investor helps in promoting good governance and improving

accounting, it does not come out with any other benefits of the FDI.
While the FDI flows into the primary market, the FII flows into secondary market.
While FIIs are short-term investments, the FDIs are long term.
Summary
1. FDI is an investment that a parent company makes in a foreign country. On the
contrary, FII is an investment made by an investor in the markets of a foreign nation.
2. FII can enter the stock market easily and also withdraw from it easily. But FDI cannot
enter

and

exit

that

easily.

3. Foreign Direct Investment targets a specific enterprise. The FII increasing capital
availability

in

general.

4. The Foreign Direct Investment is considered to be more stable than Foreign

Institutional Investor
The financial needs of businesses and individuals are increasing day by day and many a
times, they have to borrow the money (i.e. Mortgage or loan) from financial institutions
in order to meet their financial goals. In exchange of the borrowed amount, they are
required to pay a certain percentage of that amount to financial institutions on a regular
basis. This cost is commonly known as an Annual Percentage rate (APR) or Interest
Rate. Although, people use these terms interchangeably but there is a difference
between these twoamounts.

Definition of 'Monetary Policy'

The actions of a central bank, currency board or other regulatory committee
that determine the size and rate of growth of the money supply, which in turn
affects interest rates. Monetary policy is maintained through actions such as

increasing the interest rate, or changing the amount of money banks need to
keep in the vault (bank reserves).
Fiscal policy is the means by which a government adjusts its spending levels
and tax rates to monitor and influence a nation's economy. It is the sister
strategy to monetary policythrough which a central bank influences a nation's
money supply. These two policies are used in various combinations to direct a
country's economic goals
An indirect tax (such as sales tax, a specific tax, value added tax (VAT), or goods and services
tax (GST)) is a tax collected by an intermediary (such as a retail store) from the person who bears
the ultimate economic burden of the tax (such as the consumer). The intermediary later files a tax
return and forwards the tax proceeds to government with the return. In this sense, the term indirect
tax is contrasted with a direct tax which is collected directly by government from the persons (legal
or natural) on which it is imposed. Some commentators have argued that "a direct tax is one that
cannot be shifted by the taxpayer to someone else, whereas an indirect tax can be."[1]
An indirect tax may increase the price of a good so that consumers are actually paying the tax by
paying more for the products.[2]Examples would be fuel, liquor, and cigarette taxes. An excise duty on
motor cars is paid in the first instance by the manufacturer of the cars; ultimately the manufacturer
transfers the burden of this duty to the buyer of the car in form of a higher price. Thus, an indirect tax
is such which can be shifted or passed on. The degree to which the burden of a tax is shifted
determines whether a tax is primarily direct or primarily indirect. This is a function of the
relative elasticity of the supply and demand of the goods or services being taxed. Under this
definition, even income taxes may be indirect.
In a general sense, a direct tax is one imposed upon an individual person (juristic or natural) or
property (i.e. real and personal property, rental profits, livestock, crops, wages, etc.) as distinct from
a tax imposed upon a transaction. In this sense, indirect taxes such as a sales tax or a value added
tax (VAT) are imposed only if and when a taxable transaction occurs. People have the freedom to
engage in or refrain from such transactions; whereas a direct tax (in the general sense) is imposed
upon a person, typically in an unconditional manner, such as a poll-tax or head-tax, which is
imposed on the basis of the person's very life or existence, or a property tax which is imposed upon
the owner by virtue of ownership, rather than commercial use. Some commentators have argued
that "a direct tax is one that cannot be shifted by the taxpayer to someone else, whereas an indirect
tax can be."[1]
The unconditional, inexorable aspect of the direct tax was a paramount concern of people in the 18th
century seeking to escape tyrannical forms of government and to safeguard individual liberty.

The distinction between direct and indirect taxation was first extensively discussed by Adam Smith in
his Wealth of Nations, as in the following passage:

It is thus that a tax upon the necessaries of life operates exactly in the same manner as a
direct tax upon the wages of labour. ... if he is a manufacturer, will charge upon the price of
his goods this rise of wages, together with a profit; so that the final payment of the tax,
together with this overcharge, will fall upon the consumer.[2]

AT- Value Added Tax

VAT is a sales tax collected by the government (of the state in which the final consumer is located) u2013 which is the
government of destination state on consumer expenditure.
Over 120 countries worldwide have introduced VAT over the past three decades and India is amongst the last few to
introduce it.
India already has a system of sales tax collection wherein the tax is collected at one point (first/last) from the
transactions involving the sale of goods. VAT would, however, be collected in stages (instalments) from one stage to
another.
The mechanism of VAT is such that, for goods that are imported and consumed in a particular state, the first seller
pays the first point tax, and the next seller pays tax only on the value-addition done u2013 leading to a total tax
burden exactly equal to the last point tax.
CENVAT - Central Value Added Tax
CENVAT is the new name for MODVAT. Basically they are the same. These are related to central excise.
CENVAT means, Tax on Value Addition on the goods manufactured according to Central Excise & Customs Act
Difinition. Here the value addition means the Additional Services/Activities etc. which converts the Input in to Output,
and the output is newly recognised as per the this act as Exciseble goods. Like this the discussion
is goes on for definition.

Devaluation in modern monetary policy is a reduction in the value of a currency with respect to
those goods, services or other monetary units with which that currency can be exchanged.
Devaluation means official lowering of the value of a country's currency within a fixed exchange rate
system, by which the monetary authority formally sets a new fixed rate with respect to a foreign
reference currency. In contrast, depreciation is used to describe a decrease in a currency's value
(relative to other major currency benchmarks) due to market forces, not government or central

bank policy actions. Under the second system central banks maintain the rates up or down by
buying or selling foreign currency, usually but not always USD. The opposite of devaluation is
called revaluation.