Basis concepts of thermodynamics such as:

System
Energy
Property
State,
Process
Cycle
Pressure, and temperature

1.1.- THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY:

Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of
energy. Although everybody has a feeling of what
energy is, it is difficult to give a precise definition
for it. ENERGY CAN BE VIEWED AS THE ABILITY
TO CAUSE CHANGES.

Chapter 1

The name Thermodynamics stems from the Greek

words THERME (Heat) and DYNAMIS (Power).
One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY principle. It simply
states that during an interaction, energy can
change from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant. That is,
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS for
example,

is

simply

an

expression

of

the

conservation of energy principle, and it asserts

that energy is a thermodynamic property.
Energy in
(5 units)

Energy storage
(1 unit)

Energy out
(4 units)

Chapter 1

PE = 10 units
KE = 0

PE = 7 units
KE = 3 units

The

SECOND

LAW

OF

THERMODYNAMICS

asserts that energy has QUALITY as well as

QUANTITY, and actual processes occur in the
direction of decreasing quality of energy. For
example, a cup of hot coffee left on a table
eventually cool, but a cup of cool coffee on the
same table never gets hot by itself.

HEAT
HEAT

Classical Thermodynamics: Macroscopic approach.

Statistical Thermodynamics: Microscopic approach.
Chapter 1

APPLICATION AREAS OF THERMODYNAMICS

Many ordinary household utensils as heating and
air-conditioning systems, the refrigerator,, the
humidifier, the pressure cooker, the water heater,
the shower, the computer, the TV and VCR set.
On a larger scale automotive engines, rockets, jet
engines, and conventional or nuclear power
plants. Should also mention the human body as
an

interesting

application

area

of

thermodynamics.

1.2.- A NOTE ON DIMENSIONS AND UNITS:

Any physical quantity can be characterized by
DIMENSIONS. The arbitrary magnitudes assigned
to the dimensions are called UNITS. Some basic
dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and
temperature T are selected as PRIMARY or
FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS, while others such
as velocity

Chapter 1

, energy E, and volume V are

4

expressed in terms of the primary dimensions and

are

called

SECONDARY

DIMENSIONS,

or

DERIVED DIMENSIONS.

UNIT SYSTEMS:
English system, which is also known as the
United States Customary System (USCS), and the
metric

SI

(from

Le

Systme

International

dUnits), which is also know as the International

System.
Table 1-1: The seven fundamental dimensions and
their units in SI
Dimensions
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
Electric current
Amount of light
Amount of matter

Units
meter (m)
kilogram (kg)
second (s)
kelvin (K)
ampere (A)
candela (c)
mole (mol)

Table 1-2: Standard prefixes in SI units

Multiple
Chapter 1

Prefix
5

1012
109
106
103
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12

tera, T
giga, G
mega, M
kilo, k
centi, c
mili, m
micro,
nano, n
pico, p

Some SI and English Units

In Si, unit of mass, length, and time are the
kilogram

(kg),

meter

(m),

and

second

(s),

respectively. The respective units in the English

system are the pound-mass (lbm), foot (ft), and
second (s).
The mass and length units in the two systems are
related to each other by
1 lbm =0.45359 kg
1 ft = 0.3048 m

Chapter 1

In the English system, force is usually considered

to be one of the primary dimensions and is
assigned a nonderived unit. This is a source of
confusion and error that necessitates the use of a
conversion factor (gc) in many formulas.
Force = (mass)(acceleration)
F= ma
In SI, the force unit is the newton (N), and it is
defined as the force required to accelerate a mass
of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2. In the English system,
the force unit is the pound-force (lbf) and is
defined as the force required to accelerate a mass
of 32.174 lbm (1 slug) at a rate of 1 ft/s2.
That is,
1 N = 1 kg.m/s2
1 lbf = 32.174 lbm.ft/s2
The term weight is often incorrectly used to
express
Chapter 1

mass,

particularly

by

the

weight
7

watchers, unlike mass, weight W is a force. It is

the gravitational force applied to a body.
W = mg (N)
Work, which is a form of energy, can simply be
defined as force time distance; therefore, it has
the unit newton-meter (N.m), which is called a
joule (J)
1J = 1 N. m

1.3.- CLOSED AND OPEN SYSTEM

BOUNDARY

SURROUNDING
SG
SYSTEM

Chapter 1

A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM, or simply a

SYSTEM, is defined as a quantity of matter or a
region in space chosen for study. The mass or
region

outside

the

system

is

called

the

SURROUNDINGS.
The real or imaginary surface that separates the
system from its surrounding is called the
BOUNDARY. The boundary of a system can be
fixed or movable.
Systems may be considered to be closed or open,
depending on whether a fixed mass pr a fixed
volume in space is chosen for study.
A CLOSED SYSTEM (Also known as a CONTROL
MASS) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no
mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass
can enter or leave a closed system. But energy, in
the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary
and the volume of a closed system not has to be
fixed. If, as a special case, even energy is not
Chapter 1

allowed to cross the boundary, that system is

called an ISOLATED SYSTEM.
CLOSED SYSTEM.- (CONTROL MASS)

BOUNDARY
CLOSED
SYSTEM
m= constant

MASS

NO

ENERGY

YES

GAS
2 kg, 3 m3

MOVING
BOUNDARY
GAS
2 kg, 1 m3

FIXED
BOUNDARY

An OPEN SYSTEM, or a CONTROL VOLUME, as it

is often called, is a properly selected region in

Chapter 1

10

space. It usually encloses a device that involves

mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle. Flow through these devices is best
studied by selecting the region within the device
as the control volume. Both mass and energy can
cross the boundary of a control volume, which is
called a CONTROL SURFACE.
OPEN SYSTEM.- (CONTROL VOLUME)
CONTROL
SURFACE

CONTROL
VOLUME

MASS

YES

ENERGY

YES

HOT WATER
OUT
WATER
HEATER
(CONTROL
VOLUME)

COLD WATER
IN

Chapter 1

11

1.4.- FORMS OF ENERGY.Energy can exist in numerous forms such as

thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum
constitutes the total energy E of a system.
MACROSCOPIC
KINETIC ENERGY
POTENTIAL ENERGY
MICROSCOPIC
INTERNAL

ENERGY

(Sum

of

all

the

microscopic forms of energy).

KINETIC ENERGY (KE).- Energy of a system result

of its motion relative to some reference frame.
KE m2

(kJ)

ke 2 (kJ / kg)
2

Chapter 1

12

POTENTIAL ENERGY (PE).- Energy of a system

result of its elevation in a gravitational field.
PE mgz

pe gz

(kJ)

(kJ / kg)

TOTAL ENERGY (E).- Consist of the kinetic,

potential and internal energies.
E U KE PE U m2 mgz (kJ)
2

e u ke pe u 2 gz (kJ / kg)
2

1.5.- PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM.Any

characteristic

of

system

is

called

PROPERTY. Some familiar examples are pressure

P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
The

less

familiar

are

viscosity,

thermal

conductivity and modulus of elasticity.

Not all properties are independent, however.
Some are defined in terms of other ones.
Chapter 1

13

density

m
V

(kg / m3 )

specific gravity or relative density

specific volume

V
1

H 2 O

(m3 / kg)

INTENSIVE PROPERTIES.Independent of the size of a system.

pressure, temperature and density.
EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES.Dependent of the size or extent of a system.
mass, volume and total energy
Extensive properties per unit mass are called
SPECIFIC PROPERTIES. Some examples of
V

specific properties are specific volume m ,

specific total energy
energy
Chapter 1

U
m

E
m

and specific internal

.
14

1.6.- STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM.STATE OF A SYSTEM.- Set of properties when the

system not undergoing any change.

2 kg, 20 C,
1 m3
State 1

2 kg, 20 C,
3 m3

State 2

EQUILIBRIUM.- A system when is in equilibrium

not undergoing any change.
Thermal equilibrium: temperature
Mechanical equilibrium: pressure
Phase equilibrium: two phases
Chemical equilibrium: chemical composition.

Chapter 1

15

1.7.- PROCESS AND CYCLE.PROCESS.- Any change that a system undergoes

from one equilibrium state to another.
PATH.- Series of states through which a system
passes during a process.
QUASI-STATIC

OR

QUASI-EQUILIBRIUM,

PROCESS.- When a process proceeds in such

manner that the system remains infinitesimally
close to an equilibrium state all times.

The prefix ISO- is often used to designate a

process for which a particular property remains
constant.

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS: temperature

ISOBARIC PROCESS: pressure
ISOCHORIC OR ISOMETRIC PROCESS: volume

Chapter 1

16

CYCLE: A system undergoes a cycle if it returns

to its initial state at the end of the process.

Final state
2

Process path
Initial state
1

V1

V2

The P-V diagram of a compression process

P
2

A two-process cycle

Chapter 1

17

P
3

1
1

A four-process cycle

1.8.- THE STATE POSTULATE.The state of a simple compressible system is

completely

specified

by

two

independent,

intensive properties
1.9.- PRESSURE
Pressure is the FORCE EXERTED BY A FLUID
PER UNIT AREA (with a gas or liquid).
The

counterpart

of

pressure

in

solids

is

STRESS.
For a fluid at rest, the pressure at a given point is
the same in all directions.
Chapter 1

18

The pressure in a fluid increase with depth as a

result of the weight of the fluid.

Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it

has the unit of newtons per square meter (N/m 2),
which is called pascal (Pa).
That is: 1Pa = 1N/m2
Its multiples kilopascal (1kPa = 103Pa) and
megaPascal (1MPa = 106Pa) are used commonly
used.
Two other common pressure units are the bar
and standard atmosphere
Chapter 1

19

1bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa

1atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars
In the English system, the pressure unit is
pound-force per square inch (lbf/in2, or psi), and
1atm = 14.696 psi.
The actual pressure at a given position is called
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE, and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum, i.e., absolute zero
pressure.
Most pressure measuring devices, however, are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so
they indicate the difference between the absolute
pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This
difference

is

called

GAGE

PRESSURE.

Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called

VACUUM PRESSURES and are measured by
vacuum gages which indicate the difference
between the atmospheric pressure and the
absolute pressure.
Chapter 1

20

Pgage = Pabs Patm (for pressures above Patm)

Pvac = Patm Pabs (for pressures below Patm)

Pgage
Patm
Pvac

Absolute

Pabs
Patm

Patm

Pabs

vacum
MANOMETER.-

Pabs = 0

Absolute
vacum

Small and moderate pressure differences are

often measured by using a device know as a
MANOMETER, which mainly consists of a glass or
plastic U-tube containing a fluid such as mercury,
water, alcohol, or oil.

Chapter 1

21

GAS

h
1

Patm

P2 = P 1

AP1 = APatm + W

W = mg =

Vg

Agh

P1 = Patm +

gh

(KPa)

P1

La pressure difference can be expressed as:

P

= P1 Patm =

gh

(kPa)

BAROMETER.The atmospheric pressure is measurement by a

device
Chapter 1

called

BAROMETER;

thus

the
22

atmospheric

pressure

is

often

called

the

Barometric pressure.

A
h

Patm

APatm = W = ghA
Patm =

Chapter 1

gh

(kPa)

23

1.10.- TEMPERATURE AND THE ZERO LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS.
Temperature is often defined as a measure of
hotness or coldness.
Freezing cold, cold, warm, hot and red hot
Fortunately,

several

properties

of

materials

change with temperature in a repeatable and

predictable way, and this forms the basis for
accurate

temperature

measurement.

The

commonly used mercury-in-glass thermometer,

for example, is based on the expansion of
mercury with temperature.
The ZERO LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS states
that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other. If replacing the third body with a
thermometer, the zeroth law can be related as:
TWO BODIES ARE IN THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM IF

Chapter 1

24

BOTH HAVE THE SAME TEMPERATURE READING

EVEN IF THEY ARE NOT IN CONTACT.
TEMPERATURE SCALES.SI: Celsius scale (C)
English: Fahrenheit scale (F)
THE ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALES:
SI: Kelvin scale (K), which is related to the Celsius
scale by:
T(K) = T(C) + 273.15
English: Rankine scale (R), which is related to the
Fahrenheit scale by:
T(R) = T(F) + 459.67
T(K)

T(C)

T(R)

T(F)

T(R) = 1.8 T(K)

T(F) = 1.8 T(C) +32
Chapter 1

25