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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
AND
HEAT TRANSFER
10+3
10+2
10+2
8+2
Basic Concepts, Laws of Radiation Stefan Boltzman Law, Kirchoff Law Black Body
Radiation Grey body radiation Shape Factor Algebra Electrical Analogy Radiation
Shields Introduction to Gas Radiation.
TOTAL-60
Chapter - 1
Q W + E f in E f out = E system
(1)
Q is the heat transfer across the boundary, +ve for heat added to the system and
ve for heat taken from the system.
W is the work transfer across the boundary, +ve for work done by the system and
-ve for work added to the system
E f in is the energy of all forms carried by the fluid across the boundary into the system
E f out is the energy of all forms carried by the fluid across the boundary out of system
Esystem is the energy of all forms stored within the system, +ve for energy increase
-ve for energy decrease
In the case of the steam power system described above
Q A + QR = Q = W = WT + WP
( 2)
th =
W
QA
Q A + QR
QA
(3)
This efficiency is sometimes confused with the enthalpy efficiency, e, or the fuel
conversion efficiency, f
e =
W
m f Qc
( 4)
The air standard cycle is a cycle followed by a heat engine which uses air as the working
medium. Since the air standard analysis is the simplest and most idealistic, such cycles
are also called ideal cycles and the engine running on such cycles are called ideal
engines.
In order that the analysis is made as simple as possible, certain assumptions have
to be made. These assumptions result in an analysis that is far from correct for most
actual combustion engine processes, but the analysis is of considerable value for
indicating the upper limit of performance. The analysis is also a simple means for
indicating the relative effects of principal variables of the cycle and the relative size of
the apparatus.
Assumptions
1.
2.
3.
The working medium is a perfect gas with constant specific heats and molecular
weight corresponding to values at room temperature.
No chemical reactions occur during the cycle. The heat addition and heat rejection
processes are merely heat transfer processes.
The processes are reversible.
4.
5.
Losses by heat transfer from the apparatus to the atmosphere are assumed to be
zero in this analysis.
The working medium at the end of the process (cycle) is unchanged and is at the
same condition as at the beginning of the process (cycle).
Selecting an idealized process one is always faced with the fact that the simpler the
assumptions, the easier the analysis, but the farther the result from reality. The air cycle
has the advantage of being based on a few simple assumptions and of lending itself to
rapid and easy mathematical handling without recourse to thermodynamic charts or tables
or complicated calculations. On the other hand, there is always the danger of losing sight
of its limitations and of trying to employ it beyond its real usefulness.
Equivalent Air Cycle
A particular air cycle is usually taken to represent an approximation of some real set of
processes which the user has in mind. Generally speaking, the air cycle representing a
given real cycle is called an equivalent air cycle. The equivalent cycle has, in general, the
following characteristics in common with the real cycle which it approximates:
1.
2.
3.
4.
This cycle was proposed by Sadi Carnot in 1824 and has the highest possible efficiency
for any cycle. Figures 1 and 2 show the P-V and T-s diagrams of the cycle.
Assuming that the charge is introduced into the engine at point 1, it undergoes
isentropic compression from 1 to 2. The temperature of the charge rises from Tmin to Tmax.
At point 2, heat is added isothermally. This causes the air to expand, forcing the piston
forward, thus doing work on the piston. At point 3, the source of heat is removed and the
air now expands isentropically to point 4, reducing the temperature to Tmin in the process.
At point 4, a cold body is applied to the end of the cylinder and the piston reverses, thus
compressing the air isothermally; heat is rejected to the cold body. At point 1, the cold
body is removed and the charge is compressed isentropically till it reaches a temperature
Tmax once again. Thus, the heat addition and rejection processes are isothermal while the
compression and expansion processes are isentropic.
From thermodynamics, per unit mass of charge
Heat supplied from point 1 to 2 = p 2 v 2 ln
v3
v2
(5)
v1
v4
( 6)
(7)
(8)
Since Work done, per unit mass of charge, W = heat supplied heat rejected
W = RTmax ln
v3
v
RTmin ln 1
v4
v2
= R ln (r )(Tmax Tmin )
(9)
We have assumed that the compression and expansion ratios are equal, that is
v3 v1
(10)
=
v2 v4
Heat supplied Qs = R Tmax ln (r)
(10)
th =
R ln (r )(Tmax Tmin )
R ln (r )Tmax
Tmax Tmin
Tmax
(11)
From Eq. 11 it is seen that the thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle is only a
function of the maximum and minimum temperatures of the cycle. The efficiency will
increase if the minimum temperature (or the temperature at which the heat is rejected) is
as low as possible. According to this equation, the efficiency will be equal to 1 if the
minimum temperature is zero, which happens to be the absolute zero temperature in the
thermodynamic scale.
This equation also indicates that for optimum (Carnot) efficiency, the cycle (and
hence the heat engine) must operate between the limits of the highest and lowest possible
temperatures. In other words, the engine should take in all the heat at as high a
temperature as possible and should reject the heat at as low a temperature as possible. For
the first condition to be achieved, combustion (as applicable for a real engine using fuel
to provide heat) should begin at the highest possible temperature, for then the
irreversibility of the chemical reaction would be reduced. Moreover, in the cycle, the
expansion should proceed to the lowest possible temperature in order to obtain the
maximum amount of work. These conditions are the aims of all designers of modern heat
engines. The conditions of heat rejection are governed, in practice, by the temperature of
the atmosphere.
It is impossible to construct an engine which will work on the Carnot cycle. In
such an engine, it would be necessary for the piston to move very slowly during the first
part of the forward stroke so that it can follow an isothermal process. During the
remainder of the forward stroke, the piston would need to move very quickly as it has to
follow an isentropic process. This variation in the speed of the piston cannot be achieved
in practice. Also, a very long piston stroke would produce only a small amount of work
most of which would be absorbed by the friction of the moving parts of the engine.
Since the efficiency of the cycle, as given by Eq. 11, is dependent only on the
maximum and minimum temperatures, it does not depend on the working medium. It is
thus independent of the properties of the working medium.
Piston Engine Air Standard Cycles
The cycles described here are air standard cycles applicable to piston engines. Engines
bases on these cycles have been built and many of the engines are still in use.
The Otto Cycle
The Otto cycle, which was first proposed by a Frenchman, Beau de Rochas in 1862, was
first used on an engine built by a German, Nicholas A. Otto, in 1876. The cycle is also
called a constant volume or explosion cycle. This is the equivalent air cycle for
reciprocating piston engines using spark ignition. Figures 5 and 6 show the P-V and T-s
diagrams respectively.
At the start of the cycle, the cylinder contains a mass M of air at the pressure and
volume indicated at point 1. The piston is at its lowest position. It moves upward and the
gas is compressed isentropically to point 2. At this point, heat is added at constant
volume which raises the pressure to point 3. The high pressure charge now expands
isentropically, pushing the piston down on its expansion stroke to point 4 where the
charge rejects heat at constant volume to the initial state, point 1.
The isothermal heat addition and rejection of the Carnot cycle are replaced by the
constant volume processes which are, theoretically more plausible, although in practice,
even these processes are not practicable.
The heat supplied, Qs, per unit mass of charge, is given by
cv(T3 T2)
the heat rejected, Qr per unit mass of charge is given by
cv(T4 T1)
and the thermal efficiency is given by
th = 1
(T4 T1 )
(T3 T2 )
T4
1
T T
= 1 1 1
T2 T3
1
T2
T V
Now 1 = 2
T2 V1
And since
T1 T4
=
T2 T3
V
= 3
V4
(19)
we have
T4
T3
T4 T3
=
T1 T2
Hence, substituting in Eq. 19, we get, assuming that r is the compression ratio V1/V2
T
th = 1 1
T2
V
= 1 2
V1
=1
(20)
Figure 7 shows a plot of thermal efficiency versus compression ratio for an Otto
cycle. It is seen that the increase in efficiency is significant at lower compression ratios.
This is also seen in Table 1 given below.
0
0.242
0.356
0.426
0.475
0.512
0.541
0.565
0.585
0.602
0.67
0.698
0.791
R
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
16
20
50
It is seen that the air standard efficiency of the Otto cycle depends only on the
compression ratio. However, the pressures and temperatures at the various points in the
cycle and the net work done, all depend upon the initial
pressure and temperature and
the heat input from point 2 to point 3, besides the compression ratio.
A quantity of special interest in reciprocating engine
analysis is the mean effective pressure. Mathematically, it is the net work done on the
piston, W, divided by the piston displacement volume, V1 V2. This quantity has the
units of pressure. Physically, it is that constant pressure which, if exerted on the piston for
the whole outward stroke, would yield work equal to the work of the cycle. It is given by
mep =
W
V1 V2
Q2 3
V1 V2
where Q2-3 is the heat added from points 2 to 3.
Now
(21)
V
V1 V2 = V1 1 2
V1
= V1 1
r
(22)
R0 T1
m p1
(23)
p1 m
MR0T1
1
1
r
Q2 3
mep =
(24 A)
The quantity Q2-3/M is the heat added between points 2 and 3 per unit mass of air
(M is the mass of air and m is the molecular weight of air); and is denoted by Q, thus
p1 m
R0T1
mep =
1
1
r
Q
(24 B)
1 Q m
mep
=
p1
1 1 R0 T1
r
Since
(25)
R0
= cv ( 1) , we can substitute it in Eq. 25 to get
m
mep
Q
=
p1
c v T1
1
1
1
[ 1]
r
(26)
The dimensionless quantity mep/p1 is a function of the heat added, initial temperature,
compression ratio and the properties of air, namely, cv and . We see that the mean
effective pressure is directly proportional to the heat added and inversely proportional to
the initial (or ambient) temperature.
We can substitute the value of from Eq. 20 in Eq. 26 and obtain the value of mep/p1 for
the Otto cycle in terms of the compression ratio and heat added.
In terms of the pressure ratio, p3/p2 denoted by rp we could obtain the value of mep/p1 as
follows:
1
1
mep r (rp 1) r
=
(r 1)( 1)
p1
(27)
Q
+1
cv T1 r 1
(28)
Another parameter, which is of importance, is the quantity mep/p3. This can be obtained
from the following expression:
mep mep 1
=
p3
p1 r
1
Q
+1
c v T1 r 1
(29)
Choice of Q
We have said that
Q =
Q2 3
M
(30)
Q23 = M f Qc
= FM a Qc in kJ / cycle
Mf is the mass of fuel supplied per cycle, kg
(31)
M
V1
Q =
Now
And
V1 V2
1
=1
V1
r
(32)
(33)
So, substituting for Ma/M from Eq. (33) in Eq. (32) we get
1
Q = FQc 1
r
(34)
(35)
This cycle, proposed by a German engineer, Dr. Rudolph Diesel to describe the processes
of his engine, is also called the constant pressure cycle. This is believed to be the
equivalent air cycle for the reciprocating slow speed compression ignition engine. The PV and T-s diagrams are shown in Figs 8 and 9 respectively.
The cycle has processes which are the same as that of the Otto cycle except that
the heat is added at constant pressure.
The heat supplied, Qs is given by
cp(T3 T2)
th = 1
cv (T4 T1 )
c p (T3 T2 )
T4
T1 1
T
1
=1 1
T3
T 1
2 T2
(36)
From the T-s diagram, Fig. 9, the difference in enthalpy between points 2 and 3 is
the same as that between 4 and 1, thus
s 23 = s 41
T
cv ln 4
T1
T
ln 4
T1
T
T
4 = 3
T1 T2
T
= c p ln 3
T2
= ln 3
T2
T V
and 1 = 2
T2 V1
1
r
1
1
1 1 T2
th = 1
T
r
3 1
T2
Now
(37)
T3 V3
=
= rc = cut off ratio
T2 V2
=1
1 rc 1
r 1 (rc 1)
(38)
When Eq. 38 is compared with Eq. 20, it is seen that the expressions are similar
except for the term in the parentheses for the Diesel cycle. It can be shown that this term
is always greater than unity.
Now rc =
V3 V3
=
V2 V4
V2
r
= where r is the compression ratio and re is the expansion ratio
V1 re
1
1 r
= 1 1 e
r
r 1
re
have
(39)
r
r
r
=
=
= 1
re r
r
r 1
r
1
r
r
Also
re
=1+
2 3
+
+
+L
r r2 r3
r
=
=
(r )
= 1
r 1
r
1
r
( + 1) 2 ( + 1)( + 2) 3
=1+ +
+
+L
r
2! r 2
3!
r3
( + 1) 2 ( + 1)( + 2) 3
+ L
+
+
2
3
1
2! r
3!
r
= 1 1 r
2
3
+ 2 + 3 +L
r r
r
(40)
2 3
, , , etc are greater than unity, the quantity in the
r rr r3
brackets in Eq. 40 will be greater than unity. Hence, for the Diesel cycle, we subtract
1
times a quantity greater than unity from one, hence for the same r, the Otto cycle
1
r
efficiency is greater than that for a Diesel cycle.
Since the coefficients of
From the foregoing we can see the importance of cutting off the fuel supply early
in the forward stroke, a condition which, because of the short time available and the high
pressures involved, introduces practical difficulties with high speed engines and
necessitates very rigid fuel injection gear.
In practice, the diesel engine shows a better efficiency than the Otto cycle engine
because the compression of air alone in the former allows a greater compression ratio to
be employed. With a mixture of fuel and air, as in practical Otto cycle engines, the
maximum temperature developed by compression must not exceed the self ignition
temperature of the mixture; hence a definite limit is imposed on the maximum value of
the compression ratio.
Thus Otto cycle engines have compression ratios in the range of 7 to 12 while
diesel cycle engines have compression ratios in the range of 16 to 22.
We can obtain a value of rc for a Diesel cycle in terms of Q as follows:
rc =
Q
+1
c p T1 r 1
(41)
We can substitute the value of from Eq. 38 in Eq. 26, reproduced below and obtain the
value of mep/p1 for the Diesel cycle.
mep
Q
=
p1
c v T1
1
1
1
[ 1]
r
(26)
In terms of the cut-off ratio, we can obtain another expression for mep/p1 as
follows:
(42)
(43)
Modern high speed diesel engines do not follow the Diesel cycle. The process of
heat addition is partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. This brings us
to the dual cycle.
The Dual Cycle
An important characteristic of real cycles is the ratio of the mean effective pressure to the
maximum pressure, since the mean effective pressure represents the useful (average)
pressure acting on the piston while the maximum pressure represents the pressure which
chiefly affects the strength required of the engine structure. In the constant-volume cycle,
shown in Fig. 10, it is seen that the quantity mep/p3 falls off rapidly as the compression
ratio increases, which means that for a given mean effective pressure the maximum
pressure rises rapidly as the compression ratio increases. For example, for a mean
effective pressure of 7 bar and Q/cvT1 of 12, the maximum pressure at a compression
ratio of 5 is 28 bar whereas at a compression ratio of 10, it rises to about 52 bar. Real
cycles follow the same trend and it becomes a practical necessity to limit the maximum
pressure when high compression ratios are used, as in diesel engines. This also indicates
that diesel engines will have to be stronger (and hence heavier) because it has to
withstand higher peak pressures.
Constant pressure heat addition achieves rather low peak pressures unless the
compression ratio is quite high. In a real diesel engine, in order that combustion takes
place at constant pressure, fuel has to be injected very late in the compression stroke
(practically at the top dead center). But in order to increase the efficiency of the cycle, the
fuel supply must be cut off early in the expansion stroke, both to give sufficient time for
the fuel to burn and thereby increase combustion efficiency and reduce after burning but
also reduce emissions. Such situations can be achieved if the engine was a slow speed
type so that the piston would move sufficiently slowly for combustion to take place
despite the late injection of the fuel. For modern high speed compression ignition engines
it is not possible to achieve constant pressure combustion. Fuel is injected somewhat
earlier in the compression stroke and has to go through the various stages of combustion.
Thus it is seen that combustion is nearly at constant volume (like in a spark ignition
engine). But the peak pressure is limited because of strength considerations so the rest of
the heat addition is believed to take place at constant pressure in a cycle. This has led to
the formulation of the dual combustion cycle. In this cycle, for high compression ratios,
the peak pressure is not allowed to increase beyond a certain limit and to account for the
total addition, the rest of the heat is assumed to be added at constant pressure. Hence the
name limited pressure cycle.
The cycle is the equivalent air cycle for reciprocating high speed compression
ignition engines. The P-V and T-s diagrams are shown in Figs.11 and 12. In the cycle,
compression and expansion processes are isentropic; heat addition is partly at constant
volume and partly at constant pressure while heat rejection is at constant volume as in the
case of the Otto and Diesel cycles.
The heat supplied, Qs per unit mass of charge is given by
cv(T3 T2) + cp(T3 T2)
Whereas the heat rejected, Qr per unit mass of charge is given by
cv(T4 T1)
and the thermal efficiency is given by
th = 1
cv (T4 T1 )
cv (T3 T2 ) + c p (T3 T2 )
T1 4 1
T1
=1
T T3 1 + T T3 1
3
2 T2
T3
=1
T4
1
T1
T2
T1
T3
T T T
1 + 3 2 3 1
T2
T2 T1 T3
(44 A)
(44 B)
(44C )
From thermodynamics
T3
p
= 3 = rp
T2 p 2
T3 V3
=
= rc
T3 V3
Now,
T4 p 4
p p p p
=
= 4 3 3 2
T1
p1
p3 p3 p 2 p1
V
p
Also 4 = 3
p3 V4
V V
= 3 3 = rc
V3 V4
And
p2
= r
p1
Thus
T4
= rp rc
T1
V
T
Also 2 = 1
T1 V2
= r 1
rp rc 1
1
= 1 1
r
(rp 1) + rp (rc 1)
(46)
We can substitute the value of from Eq. 46 in Eq. 26 and obtain the value of
mep/p1 for the dual cycle.
In terms of the cut-off ratio and pressure ratio, we can obtain another expression
for mep/p1 as follows:
(48)
(47)
Since the dual cycle is also called the limited pressure cycle, the peak pressure,
p3, is usually specified. Since the initial pressure, p1, is known, the ratio p3/p1 is known.
We can correlate rp with this ratio as follows:
rp =
p3 1
p1 r
(49)
rc =
1 Q 1
+ ( 1)
cvT1 r rp
(50)
We can also obtain an expression for rp in terms of Q and rc and other known
quantities as follows:
Q
+ 1
1
cTr
rp = v 1
1 + rc
(51)
Figure 13 shows a constant volume and a constant pressure cycle, compared with
a limited pressure cycle. In a series of air cycles with varying pressure ratio at a given
compression ratio and the same Q, the constant volume cycle has the highest efficiency
and the constant pressure cycle the lowest efficiency.
Figure 14 compares the efficiencies of the three cycles for the same value of
r
for the same initial conditions and three values of p3/p1 for the dual cycle. It is
Q
r 1
interesting to note that the air standard efficiency is little affected by compression ratio
above a compression ratio of 8 for the limited pressure cycle.
The curves of mep/p3 versus compression ratio for the same three cycles as above
are given in Fig. 10. It is seen that a considerable increase in this ratio is obtained for a
limited pressure cycle as compared to the constant volume or constant pressure cycles.
BRAYTON CYCLE
Brayton Cycle is the ideal cycle for gas turbine engines. Electric power
generation and aircraft propulsion are major applications for gas-turbine engines.
4 PROCESSES:
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection
Performing energy balance, we get:
qm& = C p (T3 T2 )
qout = C p (T4 T1 )
th =
wnet
q
= 1 out
qm&
qm&
T4
T2
1
T1
T4 T1 )
T1
(
th = 1
=1
T3
(T3 T2 )
1
T2
(1)
Note:
P2 = P3
P1 = P4
Also:
T2 P2
=
T1 P1
k 1
P
= 3
P4
k 1
T4 T3
=
T1 T2
T1
1
=1
T2
T2
T1
th = 1
(2)
or
k 1 k
p
T3
T4
(2)
(3)
Adding modifications to the basic cycle, such as regeneration, intercooling, and reheating.
High efficiencies
Lower capital cost
Shorter installation time
Better emission characteristics
Being used for base-load as well as peak load
Capacities and Efficiencies Range.
Inlet
Pressure Capacity
Efficiency
(MW)
Temperature
Ratio
540
6.5
26
1425
135.5
282
39.5
(2)
The actual processes in the turbine and compressor can be accounted for by the isentropic
efficiencies:
c =
ws
wa
t =
wa
ws
(3)
(4)
Heating the high-pressure air leaving the compressor by the hot exhaust gases in a
counterflow heat exchanger is known as regeneration (see Figure 8.38).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a result of decrease in the
heat input (thermo-fuel) for the same net power output.
Regeneration is used only when the compressor exit temperature is less than the
turbine exit temperature.
qreg, act
qreg, max
h5 h2
h4 h2
(5)
Considering the cold air-standard assumptions, equation (5) reduces to:
T5 T2
T4 T2
(6)
th = 1
(7)
Using multistage compression with intercooling reduces the total work of the
compressor operating between two pressures.
Even-though intercooling and reheating improves the back work ratio of a gas
turbine cycle, but it does guarantee an improvement in the thermal efficiency
(why?).
The best performance is achieved when equal pressure ratios are maintained
across each stage. For example (considering Figure 8.44) when
P
P
P2 P4
=
and 6 = 8 .
P1 P3
P7 P9
PROBLEM
A gas turbine at Dammam Electrical Power Station takes in 108,000 kg/h of filtered
outside air at 27C and compresses it to 6.516 atmospheres. The combustion of gas adds
30 MW of heat to the air. If the turbine exhausts to atmospheric pressure and both the
compressor and turbine are 75% efficient:
(a)
(b)
Draw the T-s diagram taking the inlet to the compressor as State 1.
Determine the net power output.
SOLUTION
a)
T-s diagram.
b)
c =
h2 s h1
= h2 a h1
h = 300.19 kJ kg
T1 = 300 K at T1 1
Pr1 = 1.386
Pr2 P2
=
= 6.516
Pr1 P1
Pr2 = Pr1 * 6.516 = 1.386 6.516 = 9.031
Hence
T2 s = 510 K
h2 s = 513.32 kJ kg
513.32 300.19
= 284.17 kJ kg
0.75
h2 a = h1 + c = 300.19 + 284.17 = 584.36 kJ kg
c =
Q&
30 103
qin = h3 h2 a h3 = qin + h2 a = + h2 a =
+ 584.36
m&
30.50
h3 = 1000 + 584.36 = 1584.36 kJ kg
T3 = 1457.3 K, and Pr3 = 533
Pr4 P4
1
=
Pr4 =
Pr3
Pr3 P3
6.516
533
Pr4 =
= 81.8
6.516
t = t ( h3 h4 s )
t = 0.75(1584.36 954.47) = 472.42 kJ kg
net = t c = 472.42 284.17 = 188.25 kJ kg
Chapter 2
Two-stage compressors are generally used for higher pressures in the range of 100
psig to 250 psig.
Note that
and that 1 to 50 HP are typically for reciprocating units. Compressors 100 hp and above
are typically Rotary Screw or Centrifugal Compressors.
The reciprocating air compressor is single acting when the compressing is
accomplished using only one side of the piston. A compressor using both sides of the
piston is considered double acting.
Load reduction is achieved by unloading individual cylinders. Typically this is
accomplished by throttling the suction pressure to the cylinder or bypassing air either
within or outside the compressor. Capacity control is achieved by varying speed in
engine-driven units through fuel flow control.
Reciprocating air compressors are available either as air-cooled or water-cooled in
lubricated and non-lubricated configurations and provide a wide range of pressure and
capacity selections.
Refrigeration
COP
Where
(Note: COP has no units, therefore in this equation, heat and work must be expressed in
the same units.)
The COP for heating and cooling are thus different, because the heat reservoir of
interest is different. When one is interested in how well a machine cools, the COP is the
ratio of the heat removed from the cold reservoir to input work. However, for heating, the
COP is the ratio of the heat removed from the cold reservoir plus the heat added to the
hot reservoir by the input work to input work:
Where
is the heat moved from the cold reservoir (to the hot reservoir).
Derivation
According to the first law of thermodynamics, in a reversible system we can show
that Qhot = Qcold + W and W = Qhot Qcold, where Qhot is the heat given off by the hot heat
reservoir and Qcold is the heat taken in by the cold heat reservoir.
Therefore, by substituting for W,
Similarly,
It can also be shown that COPcooling = COPheating 1. Note that these equations
must use the absolute temperature, such as the Kelvin scale.
COPheating applies to heat pumps and COPcooling applies to air conditioners or
refrigerators. For heat engines, see Efficiency. Values for actual systems will always be
less than these theoretical maximums.
Example
A geothermal heat pump operating at COPheating 3.5 provides 3.5 units of heat for
each unit of energy consumed (e.g. 1 kWh consumed would provide 3.5 kWh of output
heat). The output heat comes from both the heat source and 1 kWh of input energy, so the
heat-source is cooled by 2.5 kWh, not 3.5 kWh.
A heat pump of COPheating 3.5, such as in the example above, could be less
expensive to use than even the most efficient gas furnace.
A heat pump cooler operating at COPcooling 2.0 removes 2 units of heat for each
unit of energy consumed (e.g. such an air conditioner consuming 1 kWh would remove
heat from a building's air at a rate of 2 kWh).
The COP of heat pumps (300%-350% efficient) make them much more efficient
than high-efficiency gas-burning furnaces (90-99% efficient), and electric heating
(100%). However, this does not always mean they are less expensive to operate. The
2008 US average price per therm (100,000 BTU) of electricity was $3.33 while the
average price per therm of natural gas was $1.33. Using these prices, a heat pump with a
COP of 3.5 would cost $0.95 to provide one therm of heat, while a high efficiency gas
furnace with 95% efficiency would cost $1.40 to provide one therm of heat. With these
average prices, the heat pump costs 32% less to provide the same amount of heat. The
savings (if any) will depend on the actual cost of electricity and natural gas, which can
both vary widely.
Conditions of use
While the COP is partly a measure of the efficiency of a heat pump, it is also a
measure of the conditions under which it is operating: the COP of a given heat pump will
rise as the input temperature increases or the output temperature decreases because it is
linked to a warm temperature distribution system like under floor heating.
Vapor-compression cycle
condenses the vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat at constant pressure and
temperature. Between points 4 and 5, the liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion
valve (also called a throttle valve) where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash
evaporation and auto-refrigeration of, typically, less than half of the liquid.
That results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a lower temperature and pressure
as shown at point 5. The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels through the evaporator
coil or tubes and is completely vaporized by cooling the warm air (from the space being
refrigerated) being blown by a fan across the evaporator coil or tubes. The resulting
refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the
thermodynamic cycle.
The above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle,
and does not take into account real-world effects like frictional pressure drop in the
system, slight thermodynamic irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant
vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior (if any).
More information about the design and performance of vapor-compression
refrigeration systems is available in the classic "Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook".
Vapor absorption cycle
In the early years of the twentieth century, the vapor absorption cycle using waterammonia systems was popular and widely used. After the development of the vapor
compression cycle, the vapor absorption cycle lost much of its importance because of its
low coefficient of performance (about one fifth of that of the vapor compression cycle).
Today, the vapor absorption cycle is used mainly where fuel for heating is available but
electricity is not, such as in recreational vehicles that carry LP gas. It's also used in
industrial environments where plentiful waste heat overcomes its inefficiency.
The absorption cycle is similar to the compression cycle, except for the method of
raising the pressure of the refrigerant vapor. In the absorption system, the compressor is
replaced by an absorber which dissolves the refrigerant in a suitable liquid, a liquid pump
which raises the pressure and a generator which, on heat addition, drives off the
refrigerant vapor from the high-pressure liquid. Some work is required by the liquid
pump but, for a given quantity of refrigerant, it is much smaller than needed by the
compressor in the vapor compression cycle. In an absorption refrigerator, a suitable
combination of refrigerant and absorbent is used. The most common combinations are
ammonia (refrigerant) and water (absorbent), and water (refrigerant) and lithium bromide
(absorbent).
Important Refrigerants:
Properties at -150C
(1) Ammonia (NH3)(R-717)
Latent heat = 1312.75 kJ/Kg
Specific volume = 0.509 m3/kg
(2) DichloroDifluoro methane (Freon12) (R-12) [C Cl2 F2]
Latent heat = 162 kJ/Kg
Specific volume = 0.093 m3/kg
(3) Difluoro monochloro methane or Freon-22 (R-22) [CH Cl F2]
Latent heat = 131 kJ/Kg
Specific Volume = 0.15 m3/kg.
Chapter 3
CONDUCTION
Conduction will take place if there exist a temperature gradient in a solid (or
stationary fluid) medium.
Energy is transferred from more energetic to less energetic molecules when
neighboring molecules collide. Conductive heat flow occurs in direction of the decreasing
temperature since higher temperature is associated with higher molecular energy.
Fourier's Law expresses conductive heat transfer as
q = k A dT / s
(1)
Where,
q = heat transferred per unit time (W, Btu/hr)
A = heat transfer area (m2, ft2)
k = thermal conductivity of the material (W/m.K or W/m oC, Btu/(hr oF
ft2/ft))
dT = temperature difference across the material (K or oC, oF)
s = material thickness (m, ft)
k. A
.( T2 T1 )
q=
x
The thermal conductivity is considered as constant. If k varies with temperature to some
linear relation :
k = k0(1+T), then the equation is:
k0 . A
.[( T2 T1 )+ ( T22 T12 )]
x
2
q=
q = k A . A.
( T T )= k
2
x A
. A.
B
( T T )= k
3
x B
. A.
C
( T T )
4
xC
T1 T4
q=
x
x
x
. A +. B +. C
k A . A kB . A kC . A
The heat transfer may be considered as a flow, and the combination of thermal
conductivity, thickness of material and area as a resistance to this flow. The temperature
is the potential, or driving, function for the heat flow, and the Fourier equation may be
written
Heat flow=
V
I=
R
Thermal resistance = x / kA of R = xi / kiA
MW/(m2 K/m)
kW/(m2 K/m)
W/(m2 K/m)
W/(m2 K/cm)
W/(cm2 oC/cm)
W/(in2 oF/in)
kJ/(h m2 K/m)
J/(s m2 oC/m)
kcal/(h m2 oC/m)
Chapter 4
CONVECTION
Heat energy transferred between a surface and a moving fluid at different
temperatures is known as convection.
In reality this is a combination of diffusion and bulk motion of molecules. Near
the surface the fluid velocity is low, and diffusion dominates. Away from the surface,
bulk motion increases the influence and dominates.
Convective heat transfer may take the form of either
The heat transfer per unit surface through convection was first described by
Newton and the relation is known as the Newton's Law of Cooling.
(1)
Where,
q = heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = heat transfer area of the surface (mo)
k = convective heat transfer coefficient of the process (W/m2K or W/m2oC)
Chapter 5
RADIATION
Heat transfer through radiation takes place in form of electromagnetic waves
mainly in the infrared region. Radiation emitted by a body is a consequence of thermal
agitation of its composing molecules. Radiation heat transfer can be described by a
reference to the so-called 'black body'.
A black body is defined as a body that absorbs all radiation that falls on its
surface. Actual black bodies don't exist in nature - though its characteristics are
approximated by a hole in a box filled with highly absorptive material. The emission
spectrum of such a black body was first fully described by Max Planck.
A black body is a hypothetic body that completely absorbs all wavelengths of
thermal radiation incident on it. Such bodies do not reflect light, and therefore appear
black if their temperatures are low enough so as not to be self-luminous. All blackbodies
heated to a given temperature emit thermal radiation.
The radiation energy per unit time from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth
power of the absolute temperature and can be expressed with Stefan-Boltzmann Law as
q = T4 A
(1)
Where,
q = heat transfer per unit time (W)
= 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
T = absolute temperature Kelvin (K)
For objects other than ideal blackbodies ('gray bodies') the Stefan-Boltzmann
Law can be expressed as
q = T4 A
(2)
Where,
= emissivity of the object (one for a black body)
For the gray body the incident radiation (also called irradiation) is partly reflected,
absorbed or transmitted.
The emissivity coefficient lies in the range 0 < < 1 depending on the type of
material and the temperature of the surface. The emissivity of some common materials
(3)
Where,
Th = hot body absolute temperature (K)
Tc = cold surroundings absolute temperature (K)
Ac = area of the object (m2)
= T4