Measurement systems and Sensors

Chapters 3, 5 and 6 form the

Principles of
measurements systems
Book

The accuracy of measurement systems

Chapter 3 from the book:
principles of measurements

Measurement error of a system of ideal

elements

a=0, Linear , No environmental effects

The system is perfectly accurate

Example

However, None of the elements is ideal:

1. The thermocouple is nonlinear, as the temperature increases the sensitivity is no
longer 40. Also changes in reference junction temperature cause the thermocouple
e.m.f. to change
2. The output voltage of the amplifier is also affected by changes in ambient
temperature

The error probability density function

of a system of non-ideal elements

review

The error probability density function

of a system of non-ideal elements
For a complete system

The error probability density function

of a system of non-ideal elements
For a complete system

The error probability density function

of a system of non-ideal elements
For a complete system

The error probability density function

of a system of non-ideal elements
Example

the platinum resistance

temperature detector is
characterized by a small
amount of non-linearity
and a spread of values of
R

The error probability density function

of a system of non-ideal elements
Example

linear but temperature

acts as both a
modifying and an
interfering input. The
zero bias and sensitivity
are adjustable: we
cannot be certain that
the transmitter will be
set up exactly as stated
in the table, and this is
reected in the nonzero value ofa

The error probability density function

of a system of non-ideal elements
Example

the recorder is linear but

again calibration
uncertainties are modeled
by a non-zero value of a

The error probability density function

of a system of non-ideal elements
Summary Example

Modeling using error bands

where element non-linearity, hysteresis and environmental

effects are small, their overall effect is quantied using
error bands

Modeling using error bands

For the full system

No bias

The mean value of the error

Modeling using error bands

Error reduction

Using the calibration techniques, we can identify which

elements in the system have the most dominant non-ideal
behavior.

We can then devise compensation strategies for these

elements which should produce significant reductions in
the overall system error.

compensation methods for non-linear and environmental

effects.

Error Reduction techniques

1.

Self study

E C 0 C1T C 2T

E 0 4.017 102 117 4.66 106 1172

4.7637

E
E
E
E
1,
T ,
T 2 ,
C 1 2C 2T
C 0
C 1
C 2
T
2

E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2
2
2

6.93

10

C0
C2
C1
T

C
C
C
T

2
1
0
1

i K 1E K M E T a K I T a a1
i 3.893 4.7637 1.95 104 4.7637 (10) 2 103 (10) 3.864
14.6517
i
i
i
i
K 1

E,

K M

E T a ,

K I

T ,

a1

1,

i
i
K 1 K M T a ,
KM E KI
E
T a
2

i 2 i 2
i 2
i 2 i 2 i 2
i2
Ta 0.0932
K1
KM
KI
a1
E
K
K
K
a
E
T

a
M
I
1

T M K 2i a2 6.25 14.6517 25 116.5732

T M
T
T
i , M K 2 , M 1,
K 2
i
a2
2

T2

T
T
T
M K2 2 M a22 M i2 3.7294
i
a2
K 2
2

Error T M T 116.5732 117 0.4268

Total T2 1.9312
M

Loading Effects and Twoport Networks

Chapter 5 from the book:
principles of measurements

loading
When we insert an instrument into the position to measure a quantity, an error
in the measurement may occur due to loading effect.
Examples:
inserting an ammeter into a circuit to measure the current changes the value of
the current due to the ammeters own resistance which changes the total
resistance of the circuit.

Also inserting a thermometer at room temperature into a hot water to measure

its temperature changes the temperature of the water which leads to error in
the temperature measurement.

Loading Effects and Two-port Networks

One element of the system may modify the characteristics

of the previous one (for example by drawing current).

Electrical loading

Thvenin equivalent circuit

Norton equivalent circuit

Two-port networks

Electrical Loading

in order to get maximum voltage transfer from the network to the load, the load
impedance should be far greater than the Thvenin impedance for the network. In
order to get maximum power transfer from network to load, the load impedance
should be equal to the network impedance
Therefore, the effect of connecting a load across the network yields a loading
error of magnitude
Th
L

Loading Error E V
ZL

ETh 1

Z Th Z L

Example

Loading a voltmeter
Assume that a voltmeter of resistance Rm is connected across the shown active
circuit to measure the voltage between terminals A and B.

Therefore, the reading indicated by the

instrument (voltmeter) is
Rm

Active
network

Rm
Vm
ETh
Rm RTh
Voltage before the meter
was connected

Voltmeter
27

This means that the error in the reading is

Error ETh Vm
Rm

ETh 1

Z Th Rm
and the accuracy of the voltmeter is

Vm
Accuracy
100%
ETh

Rm

100%
Z Th Rm
Note that if Rm is very large, the error goes to zero and the accuracy goes to
100%
28

potentiometric sensor for measuring displacements d

Impedance equivalent, short

circuit voltage source

Impedance equivalent, open

circuit load

V s iR P 1 x E th
E th

R P 1 x E th
RP x

E th V s x

equivalent

Nonlinear

equivalent

equivalent

The maximum value of this error occurs when

N
0
x
i.e., we can reduce the error by selecting RL to be too much greater than Rp
Note that the system is directly sensitive to the voltage source. At the same
time, we have not exceed the maximum power dissipation. How??????

dv L
v s
dx
Rp
% 2%
N 15
RL
Rp
15
2
5000
R p 666.6, either 250 or 500

dv L
v s
R p 666.6, either 250 or 500
dx
v s2
power
5
RP

v s power R P
v s 5 250, or v s 5 500
v s 50, or 35.335

dv L
v s
dx
vs
max sensitivity=
x
50
35.355

or
25
25
2 or 1.4

Norton
Any Thevenin equivalent circuit is in turn equivalent to a
current source in parallel with a resistor.
A current source in parallel with a resistor is called a
Norton equivalent circuit.
Finding a Norton equivalent circuit requires essentially
the same process as finding a Thevenin equivalent circuit.

Solution
i n K 1PTrue a1
v indicator v cable
i in
Zn
Zn
i
in
Z n R indicator Rcable

v indicator i R indicator Pmeas K 2v indicator a2

Pmeas

Zn
K2
K 1PTrue a1 R indicator a2
Z n R indicator Rcable

Error=-55.8313

Generalised effort and flow variables

Cross variable (Effort)

Through variable (flow)

voltage

current

force

velocity

torque

angular velocity

pressure difference

volume ow rate

temperature difference

heat ow rate

An effort variable drives

a flow variable through
an impedance

The product ( Cross x Through ) represents power in watts.

The ratio (Cross /Through) represents impedance.

Equivalent circuit for a mechanical system

Equivalent circuit for a mechanical system

Equivalent circuit for a mechanical system

mechanical

electrirical

mass

electrical inductance

damping constant

electrical resistance

1/stiffness

electrical capacitance

thermal resistance

electrical resistance

thermal capacitance

electrical capacitance.

Two-port networks
1. The electrical output of a sensing element such as a thermocouple
or piezoelectric crystal can be represented by a Thvenin or Norton
equivalent circuit. The sensor has therefore two output terminals
which allow both voltage and current flow to be specified; this is
referred to as an electrical output port.
2. The sensing element will have a mechanical, thermal or fluidic
input; these can be represented by equivalent circuits which show
the relation between the corresponding effort and flow variables.
Thus the input to a mechanical or thermal sensor can be represented
by two input terminals which allow both the effort and flow
variables to be specified; this is either a mechanical or a thermal
input port.

Two-port networks

Two-port networks

Process loading
Under steady-state conditions we have the
following force balance equations:

Process loading

Process loading

Bilateral transducers

Self study

Signals and Noise in

Measurement Systems
Chapter 6 from the book:
principles of measurements

Introduction
Deterministic signals: a deterministic signal is one whose value at any future time can be
exactly predicted.
in real measurement applications the input signal to the measurement system is not
deterministic but random

Noise?

Types of noise:
1. Interference noise. This is due
to the interaction between
external electrical and magnetic
fields and the measurement
system circuits.

Signal with noise

Is unwanted signal that may be picked up by the measurement system

and interfere with the signal being measured.

Time

2. Random noise. This noise is due to the random motion of electrons and
other charge carriers in components.

55

Effects of noise and interference on

measurement circuits: Thvenin voltage source

This means that with a voltage transmission system all of VSM is across the load; this
affects the next element in the system and possibly results in a system measurement
error. We dene signal-to-noise or signal to interference ratio S/N in decibels
by:

where Eth and VSM are the r.m.s. values of the voltages, and WS and W are the
corresponding total signal and noise powers

Effects of noise and interference on

measurement circuits: Norton current source

Thus a current transmission system has far greater inherent immunity to

series mode interference than a voltage transmission system. ( use it for the
thermocouple for example)

Effects of noise and interference on

measurement circuits: common mode interference

Noise Sources and Coupling mechanisms

The random, temperature-induced motion of electrons and other charge carriers in
resistors and semiconductors gives rise to a corresponding random voltage which is called
thermal or Johnson noise. This has a power spectral density which is uniform over an
infinite range of frequencies (white noise) but proportional to the absolute temperature of
the conductor

A similar type of noise is called shot noise; this occurs in transistors and is due to
random fluctuations in the rate at which carriers diffuse across a junction. This is again
characterised by a uniform power spectral density over a wide range of frequencies.

Noise Sources and Coupling mechanisms

Noise Sources and Coupling mechanisms

Types of interference noise
1- Inductive coupling. Is also called electromagnetic
coupling or magnetic coupling. A changing current
in a nearby circuit produces a changing magnetic
field. This induce e.m.f.s in the conductors of
measurement system.

The mutual inductance M depends on the

geometry of the two circuits, namely on the
overlapping length and separation. If the
circuits are sufciently close together, then
there may be a signicant mutual
inductance M between them. Inductive
coupling
will
occur
even
if
the
measurement circuit is completely isolated
from earth.

Noise Sources and Coupling mechanisms

Types of interference noise
2- Capacitive coupling (electrostatic coupling ).
Nearby power cables, the earth, and conductors
in the measurement system are separated by a
dielectric, air. Thus there can be capacitance
between the power cable and conductors, and
between the conductors and earth. These
capacitors couple the measurement system
conductors to the other systems and thus signals
in those systems pass to the measurement system
as interference.

series mode interference is zero only if

there is perfect balance between the
coupling capacitances

Noise Sources and Coupling mechanisms

Types of interference noise
3- Multiple earths. If the measurement system
has more than One connection to earth, then
there may be problems since there may be
some difference in potential between the earth
points. If this occurs, the earthing may
produce an interference current through the
measurement system.
VE is the difference in potential between
source earth and receiver earth

leakage paths ZSE and ZRE exist between source/source earth and
receiver/receiver earth.
Ideally we require both ZSE and ZRE to be as large as possible in order to
minimise IE and VSM ; this, however, is not always possible in an industrial
application.

Methods of reducing the interference noise

1- Twisted pairs of wires. Used to avoid inductive coupling

Also Physical separation is applicable

Since mutual inductances and coupling capacitances between measurement
and power circuits are inversely proportional to the distance between them, this
distance should be as large as possible

64

Methods of reducing the interference noise

2- Wire shielding. Inclosing the wire in an earthed metal shield

3- Electrostatic screening. Used to avoid capacitance coupling by

completely enclosing the transducer and the entire measurement
system in an earthed metal screen.

65

Methods of reducing the interference noise

4- Single earth point. To avoid multiple earthing problem

5- Differential amplifiers. A differential amplifier can be used to amplify the

difference between two signals. Thus if both signals contain the same
interference then the output from the amplifier will not have amplified any
interference signals.

66

Methods of reducing the interference noise

6- Filters. A filter can be selected which transmits the measurement
signal but rejects the interference signal.
Filtered
signal

Filter

Raw signal

Filtered signal

Raw
signal

Time

Time
67

Methods of reducing the interference noise

7. Averaging

68