Internationalisation and globalisation of higher education:

Implications for BRICS, particularly for China and India?

Seminar by
Dr. Solomon Arulraj DAVID
Faculty of Education and Post Graduate Centre
22 May 2013, 15:30-17:00
Conference Room C, 2nd Floor, Madibeng Building
Auckland Park, Kingsway Campus, University of Johannesburg

Introduction / Background
This study is based on a conference paper Dealing with cross-border higher education:
Comparing the Chinese and Indian ways presented at XXII CESE conference, Granada,
Spain. It was published by Tertium Comparationis, Waxman, Germany.
This presentation will focus on essential theories on internationalisation and
globalisation of higher education, brief contextual analysis on BRICS, a case study on
China and India and some reflection and discussion on BRICS.

Internationalisation and globalisation are inevitable developments, having both

opportunities and challenges (Giddons, 1990), cant be stopped but made benefiting
all (stiglitz, 2007).
Higher education is an important area for international policy of most nations.
Important pressures for modern universities is to internationalize their curriculum and
be attractive for foreign students (Wende, 2006).
Universities need to adapt to global trends to be competitive and relevant, which
involves reconsidering their structural and resource commitments to various
knowledge areas (Gumport, 2000).
The trillion dollar global higher education market is keen on BRICS (40%) particularly
China and India, that have 30% worlds population.

Internationalisation vs Globalisation
The terms "globalisation" and "internationalisation" are often used interchangeably.
According to G. Rocher, internationalisation refers to different exchanges as
economics, politics, cultural, between nations.

The term globalisation describes the dramatic changes the world is undergoing, as
new technology and modern economics have led to increasingly interconnected
economies.
Internationalization process in which economic activities are extended across national
boundaries and a globalization process in which economic activity is also functionally
integrated (Wendy M J).
Internationalisation is the first process of globalisation. Globalisation is a driving factor
to increase / expand the internationalisation process.
Internationalisation in Education is a global trend, it seeks to share best practice
internationally across the spectrum of education (Mai Trong Nhuan), while
globalisation of education address changing global trends in education induced by
globalisation process (Simon Marginson).

Relationship between globalization and education

If knowledge is fundamental to globalization, globalization should also
have a profound impact on the transmission of knowledge (Carnoy 1999).

Knowledge and information are increasingly becoming the main

resources for the modern economy (a result of globalization) that the
recent economic development more and more relies on knowledge as
compared to other resources such as material and capital
(Schugurensky, 2007).
Education across the world is governed by similar pressures, patterns
and organization globalisation plays critical role in reshaping modern
education (Torres, 2007).
Globalisation and internationalisation have been phenomenon in
transforming modern education and are major factors for the new
system of education, knowledge generation and transmission.

GATS (Gods) must be crazy

The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) is a treaty of the WTO that
entered into force in January 1995. GATT 1947 1994. The GATS agreement covers
four modes of supply for the delivery of services in cross-border trade:
Criteria
Mode 1: Cross-border supply

Mode 2: Consumption abroad

Mode 3: Commercial presence

Mode 4: Presence of a natural

person

Supplier Presence

Service delivered within the

territory of the Member, from the
territory of another Member
Service supplier not present within
Service delivered outside the the territory of the member
territory of the Member, in the
territory of another Member, to a
service consumer of the Member
Service delivered within the
territory of the Member, through
the commercial presence of the
supplier
Service supplier present within the
Service delivered within the territory of the Member

territory of the Member, with

supplier present as a natural
person

Cross Border Higher Education (CBHEd)

CBHEd includes HEd that takes place in situations where the teacher, student,
programme, institution/provider or course materials cross national
jurisdictional borders. CBHEd may include HEd by public/private and not-forprofit/for-profit providers. It encompasses a wide range of modalities, in a
continuum from face-to-face (taking various forms such as students traveling
abroad and campuses abroad) to distance learning (using technologies like elearning) (OECD/ UNESCO, 2005).
The opportunities are increased supply of higher education, greater access for
students, support for the knowledge economy, development of joint degrees,
fusion or hybridisation of cultures, growing comparability of qualifications,
increasing role for the market-based approach, economic benefits for
education providers, and diversification and generation of new academic
environments (OECD/ UNESCO, 2005).
The challenges are concern about quality of provision, inequality of access
leading to a two-tier system, the growing problem of physical and virtual brain
drain on the developed country-developing country axis but also on other
routes, homogenisation of culture, weakening role of the state in establishing
national policy objectives, growth in market-oriented programmes such as
business and information technology, and decline in some liberal arts and pure

OECD/UNESCOs guidelines on quality

provision
in CBHE
The Guidelines (OECD,
UNESCO, 2005) aim to support and encourage international
cooperation and enhance the understanding of the importance of quality provision in
cross-border higher education.
Students/learners protection from the risks of misinformation, low-quality provision
and qualification of limited validity.
Qualification should be readable and transparent in order to increase their
international validity and portability. Reliable and user-friendly information sources
should facilitate this.
Recognition procedures should be transparent, coherent, fair and reliable and
impose as little burden as possible to mobile professionals.
National quality assurance and accreditation agencies need to intensify their
international cooperation in order to increase mutual understanding.
Role of Guest and Host Nations:

Licensing and regulation procedures for foreign providers.

Quality assurance and accreditation for imported and exported education services.
Funding protocols including operating grants, loans, subsidies and scholarships.
Qualification recognition and credit transfer systems (Knight, 2002)

Implications of Globalisation for Higher Education Restructuring

Global
Development

Globalisation

Ideological
Package

Integration of
world economy

Supranational, National,
Sub-national levels

Neo-liberalism:
Rule of law,
freedom of
market, private
property, less
state regulation

(Free flow of
people, goods,
capital, ideas)

Trade
agreements at
global,
regional, binational levels

Human resource
development in
view of new
global, national
and market
demands

Public Policy

Higher Education
Restructuring

Withdrawal of
the state, and its
minimal
interventions
over market

Cut-down
public fund,
Privatisation,
market
activities

David SA & Wildemeersch D

Implications of Internationalisation of Higher Education

Mobility of students is directed from south to north, while mobility of programme is
directed from north to south (Yang, 2002).
Anglophone countries are successful in IHEd., given English as a global language.,
many others began to offer English taught courses (Varghese, 2005).
USA is a top destination for IHEd., given some slowdown after 9/11 visa
restrictions. Attracting best talents through study route and absorbing them benefit
economy (30-40% IITians got settled in USA).
IHEd., help create access, scholarships help meritorious students, offshore campus
offer cheap foreign degrees (Daniel, 2006).
There is a growing global perspectives in curriculum. Business, ICT, Bio-tech are
globally homogeneous, while humanities are national based, although foreign
influence is present in methodologies (Altbach, 2003).
IHEd., Bologna process (EU), helps degree comparison, yet homogenized.

UK fees: one year masters at IOE UK 7000, EU 9000, Int 13000

Presence of foreign universities, threat to local universities (Malaysian case)

Brief History of BRICS

Jim O Neill first uses BRIC in Goldman Sachs report

2001, saying that these four countries will become major
economies by 2030. BRICS became colorful with the
rainbow nation joining 2011. Will BRICS change the
course of history is a ? IBSA South South Cooperation
India, Brazil and South Africa

BRICS Economic / Development Analysis

Brazil

Population
(2011-2012)
GDP (2012)
Million US$

Russia

193,946,886
5th

India

China

South Africa

143,347,100 1,210,193,422 1,354,040,000

9th
2nd
1st

52,981,991
24th

2,395,968
7th

2,021,960
8th

1,824.832
10th

8,227,037
2nd

384,315
29th

$12,000
103rd

$17,700
71st

$3,900
164th

$9,100
120th

$11,300
107th

Growth Rate
(2012)

1.3%

3.4%

6.5%

7.8%

2.6%

Human Dev.,
Index (2012)

.730
(high)

.788
(high)

.554
(medium)

699
(medium)

.629
(medium)

Per Capita
Income (2012)

Russia is in G8, others are in G20. BRICS has 40%

worlds population (3 Billion). BRICS Development Bank
(2013). Is South Africa the odd BRIC out? BRICS keen
in resource of Africa? BRICS economic or political
grouping?

Higher Education in BRICS

Brazil

Russia

India

China

South Africa

Population
(2011-2012)

193,946,886
5th

Literacy Rate
2012

88.6%

99.6%

83.0%

92.2%

86.4%

Universities
2012

2052 PRI
390 PUB

474 PRI
662 PUB

53 PRI
443 PUB

369 PRI
710 PUB

115 PRI
23 PUB

HEd Access

6929324
25%
2011

9330115
54%
2009

20740740
12%
2010

31308378
22%
2011

892936
20%
2010

60%

20%

60%

25%

10%

Enrollment in
Private HEd

143,347,100 1,210,193,422 1,354,040,000

9th
2nd
1st

52,981,991
24th

USA 2541 Private, 1768 Public Universities,

29951 colleges (130 deemed universities) in India,
BRICS gifted with young population (China is an

Where do students go?

Source UIS (2012)

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

Total

Brazil 0.8%

USA 8708

FRA 3540

POR 2801

GER 2251

27148

Russia 1.4%

GER 10342

USA 4784

UKR 3931

FRA 3822

49585

India 5.6%

USA 103968

UK 38205

AUS 20429

NZ - 6650

200627

China 15.8%

USA 126498

AUS 87588

JAP 86553

UK 55496

562889

USA 1641

UK 1543

AUS 839

CUB 377

6166

South Africa 0.2%

Where students come from?

Source UIS (2012)

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

Total

Brazil

ANG 1631

CAPE 892

POR -830

ARG 759

8718

Russia

KAZ 24772

BEL 20063

UKR 12793

UZB 9918

107781

India

IRAN 1258

NEP 1252

UAE 1110

KEN 508

8197

China

No data

available

ZIM 14359

NAM 7264

South Africa

290000
BOT 4849

LES 4004

43255

INTERNATIONAL STUDENT MOBILITY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

South Africa emerging as a regional hub for study and research

5% sub-Saharan uni
students go abroad
Students from SADC
region is most mobile
6% SADC HEd
students enrolled
abroad, world
average 2%
2/3 of SA foreign
students come from
SADC
UIS (2012)

The Dragon
and
the Elephant

China: Feudalism Colonialism (Part of China) Communism Neo liberalism.

India: Feudalism Colonialism (Entire India) Socialism Neo liberalism.
China and India are creating a new world order David Smith.
No conference, high level meeting in USA, Europe end without talking about
China and India. Rise of Asia. 19th Europe, 20th USA, 21st Asia.
One in six is a Chinese and one in six is an Indian. Why are we so much?
India and China reshape global industrial geography. China and India are
becoming factories of the world (dirty jobs to China, stressful jobs to India).
Economic reform in China starts 1980s (from rigid communism to liberal
capitalism), while in India 1990s (from half baked socialism to half baked
liberalism). 2020 world economic power houses.
Indian position - Follow China, when China crash or out of fuel, lead the race.
Chinese position make hay while the sun shines.
China infrastructure, land reform, home industry, human capital.
India democracy, young population, English, manpower quality.
China spent its reserve to build infrastructure and builds factories with foreign
loan, while much of Indian foreign loans are spent on infrastructure.

Thomas Friedman on China and India

If India and China were both highways, the Chinese highway

would be a six-lane, perfectly paved road, but with a huge
speed bump off in the distance labeled "Political reform: how
in the world do we get from Communism to a more open
society?" [...] India, by contrast, is like a highway full of
potholes, with no sidewalks and half the streetlamps broken.
But off in the distance, the road seems to smooth out, and if it
does, this country will be a dynamo.
When I was growing up, my parents told me, 'Finish your
dinner. People in China and India are starving.' I tell my
daughters, 'Finish your homework. People in India and China
are starving for your jobs.

Internationalisation of Higher Education in China and India

China committed for all educational sector but India committed only for HE
at 2005 GATS round. China has 1st, USA 2nd, India 3rd big HEd system.
China has built over 100 high quality HEd institutions (17 among top 400)
where as India lacks that (except IITs) (only 2 among top 400) India, a
world class country, with out a world class university (Altbach). SA 3.
China holds more patterns, publications, research outputs compared to
India. Brain drain India, Brain gain China. Diaspora give back to India.
Unlike India, China is active in both ways of International students traffic.
China is in a better position than India in both infrastructure and access to
HEd, while India tries expanding access through distance, non-formal.
China leads in HEd public spending than India, while India could attract
domestic private investment in HEd. Unlike China, India is still very
diversified and is reluctant to create too much uniformity in education.
Foreign university bill in India is still pending, while China has hosted many
foreign universities to set up their campuses.
China is first choice in Asia for students from USA. China recognizes that
huge sum of its money expatriated when Chinese students study abroad.
Chinese students bullied as spies in Europe / USA.

Regulatory Frameworks India Regulatory Frameworks China

The law concern to CBHE is not
clear yet, given some guidelines
1956 UGC Act permits CBHE,
1999
and
2005
AICTE
formulated
guidelines
for
foreign partners and published
the list of approved foreign
institutions.
In 2005, CNR Committee was
setup to advise the state on
CBHE but foreign university bill
is still pending.
India wanted to withdraw the
commitment on HE from GATS
offer in view of education as
public common good, but
continued.

Foreign institutions must partner

with Chinese institutions.
Partnerships must not seek profit
as their objective.
No less than half the members of
the governing body of the
institution must be Chinese citizens
and the post of president or the
equivalent must be a Chinese
citizen residing in China.
The basic language of instruction
should be Chinese; and Tuition fees
may not be raised without
approval. (Chinese legislation was
too strong and WTO expected
China to revise this legislation).

Conclusion
IHEd has resulted in research cooperation, capacity development and
knowledge transfer; however adverse developments, such as, the
commodification of knowledge and the brain drain can not be ignored.

China has radically opened its doors in a very well-regulated manner,

but India has carefully opened its doors but in a not very wellregulated manner.
With GATS, the member country is free to choose what to commit and
if a country commits and it is the duty of the country to provide
proper legislation to regulate.
Countries that are in knowledge advancement make advantages of
CBHE, thus a global negotiation must be triggered to provide space for
all to benefit from internationalisation.
China and India have to be very careful about CBHE, especially they
must learn from Malaysia.
All the elements in our own culture have to be strengthened, not to
resist the Western culture, but truly to accept and assimilate it, and
use it for our food and not as our burden (Tagore).

Discussion Points
Internationalisation for cooperation or corporatisation?
Internationalisation for knowledge independence, dependence, inter-dependence?

Are we trading away our rights to education?

Should we resist? Allow? Regulate?
How about fair trade in knowledge services?

How to manage concerns such as quality assurance with regards to CBHE?

How do we provide space for all to benefit from internationalisation?
knowledge was kept private in Asia, while Europe got advanced as knowledge was

made public, but now knowledge is economised, given some open-sources.

Whose perspectives are global perspectives, particularly in HEd curriculum?
Would dialogue help us to be knowledge interdependent for mutual benefit?
Any other?

Thank You