Chilenje Rural

Water Supply Scheme-Design Report

WORLD VISION
MALAWI
NKHOMA AREA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

CHILENJE RURAL PIPED WATER SCHEME

VOLUME 1
DESIGN REPORT
Submitted for
Registration with

CHILENJE
RURAL
PIPED WATER SCHEME
MALAWI
BOARD
OF ENGINEERS

Tuesday, January

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AUTHOR: WELTON EDDIE MTONGA

07, 2014

Chilenje Rural Water Supply Scheme-Design Report

DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

I, the undersigned declare that I personally carried out the design of
Chilenje Water Supply Scheme and that the work contained in this
report for registration with the Malawi Board of Engineers is my own
work.

_______

________________

W. E. Mtonga
(GRADUATE ENGINEER)
Tuesday, January 07, 2014

CERTIFICATION BY THE SUPERVISOR

I, the undersigned certify that I have read the professional report for
registration

with

the

Malawi

Board

of

Engineers

and

hereby

recommend for acceptance by the Malawi Board of Engineers, in partial

fulfillment of the requirements of the professional registration with the
Malawi Board of Engineers.
_______________________
Eng. B.B. Nkhoma
(SELECTED REGISTERED ENGINEER)

Welton Eddie Mtonga

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Date: July, 2014

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
World Vision Malawi through Nkhoma Area Development Programme is
providing water to rural communities in the area where it renders its services
and ensures that people have convenient access to water in sufficient
quantity and adequate quality for basic use. In view of the above objective,
World Vision Malawi planned to upgrade and extend a small existing scheme
with intakes arising from spring capping structures in Ngala Hills in Lilongwe
District. This scheme was previously implemented by Africare. Africare is no
longer operating in the area at the moment.
Field investigations revealed that the springs had sufficient flows especially if
the design was in an augmented arrangement. In October 2011 very few
communities located along the foot of the mountain benefited from the
scheme.
Flow observations coupled with the terrain of the area indicated that the
scheme can be extended to benefit more people living in the Chilenje Plain.
Chilenje is part of the area where World Vision Malawis Nkhoma Area
Development Programme offers its services. This influenced World Vision to
engage an engineer to provide consultancy services to carry out detailed
analysis and design of the scheme. The main tasks of the Engineer were to
confirm the previously identified potential of the flows, to assess the
possibility of extending the scheme and to design all the components of
scheme so that the people living in the technically feasible area can benefit
from it.

Project Objectives
The main objective of the project was to carry out hydraulic analysis for all
extension lines of the scheme and to design the entire infrastructure
necessary for the transmission of water to the beneficiaries.

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The scope of works was as follows:a) To take an inventory of what was in the field in October 2011.
b) To assess the functionality of the existing infrastructure and their
conformity to design standards.
c) To make recommendations on whether the existing infrastructure could
still be incorporated in the new design to ensure that the scheme
performs to its intended design capacity.
d) To conduct demographic survey to establish the baseline number of
beneficiaries and to determine the levels of service for the scheme
over the design period.
e) To conduct detailed topographic survey for the intended water supply
system including distribution networks.
f)

To conduct detailed engineering design of the entire scheme.

g) To compile drawings for the designed scheme.

h) To compile bills of quantities including engineers estimates for the
designed scheme.
i)

To provide specifications for the scheme

Project Findings
The project analysis revealed that it is possible to extend the scheme
southwards to supply more areas under Group Village Headmen Chauwa and
Gwenembe. The source had a collective discharge capacity of 5.2l/s which is
adequate to accommodate the demand for the target villages over a design
period of 20 years.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Field investigations revealed that it is possible to upgrade Chilenje Rural Piped
Water Scheme and extend it to reach more people residing in the Lithipe River
Valley. This conclusion led to detailed design for upgrading and extension.

The following recommendations were proposed:-

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 In view of the growing population against a constant yield from the

springs, all the available waters should be trapped using the same
technology. Two additional spring capping structures were proposed to
augment the existing supply.
There was an additional spring that showed potential of yielding 1.2l/s
at the time of field investigations and this flow was considered
reasonable for augmenting the scheme. It was therefore recommended
to tap this spring as well. Since the upper area was already supplied
from other springs or from alternative sources no storage tank was
proposed for that spring. All the water was expected to flow directly to
the proposed common tank.
Field interviews with the community revealed that most communities
were previously living close to the hill. As a result the upper area was
encroached and cultivation was still observed at the time of field
investigations. It was therefore recommended that cultivation in the
area should be stopped and the communities should engage in
preserving the catchment area.
It was recommended to lay 75mm Galvanized Steel (GS) pipes
between Spring Capping 1 and the common storage tank and between
Spring Capping 2 and the common storage tank.
It was recommended to install 50m Galvanized Steel (GS) pipes from
Spring Capping 3 and 4 to the proposed common storage tank.
It was recommended to construct a reinforced concrete storage tank of
119m3 in volume. The storage tank was expected to serve as a
sedimentation tank as well. The dimensions of the proposed tank were
specified to be 8.9mx7.4mx2m. To allow continuous circulation of
water, the tank was specified to be baffled with reinforced concrete
walls.
It was recommended to lay class 10 pipes throughout the scheme
except in gully crossings and community connections. This was done to
ensure that the communities do not make mistakes in sourcing pipes of
different classes during maintenance.
It was recommended to install end caps at the end of each main line to
allow for minor extensions in future.

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Acknowledgement
I would like to accord special thanks to the staff of World Vision International that
worked tirelessly and contributed to the development of this report. Special thanks
are also extended to Mr Peter Matipwiri, Water and Infrastructure Manager for his
support during and after field visit. I would like to thank field staff for their support
and providing population head counts for the area.
I would like to thank Eng. B.B. Nkhoma , my supervisor for his guidance in the
development of this report. His contribution is highly commended.

Welton Eddie Mtonga

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

ADP
CBM
CWP
CDA
GS
GVH
HDPE
ToR
VH
VDC
VHWC
PVC
WMA
WP
WPC

Area Development Program

Community Based Management
Communal Water Point
Community Development Assistants
Galvanized Steel
Group Village Headman
High Density Polyethylene
Terms of Reference
Village Headman
Village Development Committee
Village Health and Water Committee
Polyvinyl Chloride
Water Monitoring Assistant
Water Point
Water Point Committee

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Foreword
This report is one of the four documents that were produced in partial fulfillment for
the requirements for registration with Malawi Board of Engineers. The brief outline of
all the documents is indicated below.
1)
2)
3)
4)

Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume

1
2
3
4

Design Report
Bills of Quantities
Drawings
Specifications

The Design Report gives design information. The Bills of quantities give an outline of
quantities of works taken off from the drawings according to standard methods of
measurements. The drawings specify the dimensions of the structures while
Specifications indicate the standards of performance in the execution of works.

Table of Contents

DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE...............................................................................ii

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CERTIFICATION BY THE SUPERVISOR............................................................................ii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.................................................................................................. iii
Project Objectives........................................................................................................ iii
Project Findings........................................................................................................... iv
Conclusions and Recommendations............................................................................iv
Acknowledgement....................................................................................................... vi
Acronyms and Abbreviations......................................................................................vii
Foreword................................................................................................................... viii
Table of Contents........................................................................................................ ix
List of Figures............................................................................................................. xii
CHAPTER ONE

PROJECT BACKGROUND.................................................................1

1.1

Introduction....................................................................................................... 1

1.2

Intakes Location................................................................................................. 2

1.3

Sources of Information.......................................................................................3

1.4

Purpose of the Report........................................................................................4

1.5

Structure of the Report......................................................................................4

CHAPTER TWO
2.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT AREA....................................5

Introduction....................................................................................................... 5

2.1.1

Topography of the area...............................................................................6

2.1.2

Weather...................................................................................................... 6

2.1.3

Political Boundaries.....................................................................................7

2.2

Benefiting Villages in 2011................................................................................7

2.3

Benefiting Population in 2011............................................................................7

2.4

Access to the Area............................................................................................. 8

2.5

Socio-economic Activities..................................................................................9

2.6

Infrastructure..................................................................................................... 9

2.7

Sources of Drinking Water in 2011.....................................................................9

2.8

Drinking Water Related Problems in 2011........................................................10

2.9

Proposed Solution............................................................................................10

CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS..........................................................12

3.1

Introduction..................................................................................................... 12

3.2

Water Quality Considerations..........................................................................12

3.2.1

Water Quality Criteria...............................................................................12

3.2.2

Field Observations....................................................................................12

3.3

Water Quantity Considerations........................................................................13

3.4

Basic Design Criteria.......................................................................................14

3.4.1

Per Capita Demand...................................................................................14

3.4.2

Design Period............................................................................................ 14

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3.4.3

Design Flow at the tap..............................................................................14

3.4.4

Night Storage Factor.................................................................................14

3.4.5

Peak Factor............................................................................................... 14

3.4.6

Number of Persons per tap.......................................................................14

3.4.7

Maximum Walking Distance......................................................................14

3.4.8

Level of Service........................................................................................14

3.4.9

Population Growth Rate............................................................................15

3.4.10

Roughness factor for PVC......................................................................15

3.4.11

Residential Head...................................................................................15

3.4.12

Flow Velocities in pipes..........................................................................15

3.5

Population in 2011...........................................................................................15

3.6

Water Demand in 2011....................................................................................18

3.7

Water Supply (Quantity)..................................................................................18

3.7.1

Supply Criteria.......................................................................................... 18

3.7.2

Field Observations....................................................................................18

3.8

Population Growth Rate...................................................................................19

3.8.1
3.9

Assumptions on Growth Rate....................................................................19

Population Projection and Projected Water Demand........................................19

CHAPTER FOUR

FIELD SURVEY............................................................................21

4.1

General Reconnaissance of the Area...............................................................21

4.2

Detailed Survey work.......................................................................................21

4.3

Key Points based on Survey Work....................................................................21

4.3.1

Distribution Line to Chauwa Primary School.............................................23

4.3.1

Distribution Line to Gwenembe Village.....................................................23

CHAPTER FIVE

DETAILED DESIGN OF SCHEME COMPONENTS..............................25

5.1

Introduction..................................................................................................... 25

5.2

Design Criteria.................................................................................................25

5.3

Design Population............................................................................................25

5.4

Water demand calculations.............................................................................27

5.5

Design of Transmission Lines...........................................................................28

5.5.1
5.6

Review for the Design of storage tanks and Spring Capping Structures..........30

5.6.1
5.7

Design Criteria..........................................................................................28
Design Criteria for the Intake Structure....................................................31

Design of Service Reservoir/Sedimentation Tank.............................................33

5.7.1

Design Criteria..........................................................................................33

5.7.2

Tank Location............................................................................................ 33

5.7.3

Tank Volume.............................................................................................34

5.7.3.1

Case 1: Sedimentation Tank.................................................................34

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5.7.3.2

Case 2: Storage Tank.............................................................................36

5.7.4

Tank Dimensioning....................................................................................38

5.7.5

General Arrangement of the Tank.............................................................39

5.7.6

Tank Site Conditions..................................................................................39

5.7.7

Structural Design of the Tank....................................................................39

5.7.7.1

Design Assumptions and Conditions......................................................39

5.7.7.2

Top Slab.................................................................................................40

5.7.7.3

Concrete Wall........................................................................................40

5.7.7.4

Raft Concrete Base................................................................................40

5.7.7.5

Design Standards and Codes.................................................................41

5.8

Design of Distribution Lines.............................................................................41

5.8.1

Design Criteria..........................................................................................41

5.8.2

Alignment of Pipelines..............................................................................42

5.8.3

Pipe Materials........................................................................................... 43

5.8.4

Hydraulic Design of Pipelines....................................................................43

5.8.5
Hydraulic Design of the Distribution Line between the Storage Tank and
Chauwa Primary School..........................................................................................45
5.8.6
Hydraulic Design of the Distribution Line between the Storage Tank and
Gwenembe............................................................................................................. 46
5.8.7

Design of Small branches to the Communities.........................................46

5.7.9

Hydraulic Design of Branch Line to Mkhalala............................................47

5.8

Relocated Villages...........................................................................................47

5.9

Profiles............................................................................................................. 48

5.10

Tap Locations................................................................................................ 49

5.11

Valves and Fittings.......................................................................................49

5.12

Thrust Blocks................................................................................................50

5.13

Aprons, Washing Slabs and Drainage...........................................................50

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.........................................51

6.1

Introduction..................................................................................................... 51

6.2

Conclusion....................................................................................................... 51

6.3

Recommendations........................................................................................... 51

APPENDICES............................................................................................................... 53
References................................................................................................................. 59

List of Figures

Figure 1: Aerial view of the area where springs are located.............................3

Figure 2: Aerial view of the project supply area...............................................6
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Figure 3: Chilenje Project Area.........................................................................8

Figure 4: Borehole in use in the project area....................................................9
Figure 5: Schematic Arrangement for the project(not to scale)......................24
Figure 6: Shallow well with Elephant Pump....................................................26
Figure 7: Side view of Storage Tank...............................................................31
Figure 8: Top view of Storage Tank................................................................32
Figure 9: Spring Capping Structure................................................................32
Figure 10: Position of the storage tank...........................................................34
Figure 11: Project area indicating communities close to hills and Linthipe River
but empty in between.................................................................................... 48

List of Tables

Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table

1: Villages that utilized taps from springs in 2011..................................7

2: Water Quality Results........................................................................13
3: Villages in the upper part of GVH Chauwa........................................16
4: Villages in the Lower part of GVH Chauwa........................................17
5: Villages in the upper part of GVH Madzumbi.....................................17
6:Villages located in the lower part of GVH Madzumbi..........................18
7: Yields of springs................................................................................19

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Table 8: Target Population.............................................................................. 27

Table 9: Water Demand Calculations based on projected Population.............27
Table 10: Water Demand based on number of taps.......................................28
Table 11: Balancing Requirements for the tank..............................................37
Table 12: Required flow (l/s) for respective No of Taps...................................42
Table 13: C values for pipe materials.............................................................44

CHAPTER ONE
1.1

PROJECT BACKGROUND

Introduction
World Vision Malawi through Nkhoma Area Development Programme is
providing water to rural communities in the area where it renders its services
and ensures that people have convenient access to water in sufficient
quantity and adequate quality for basic use. In view of the above objective
World Vision Malawi planned to upgrade and extend a small existing scheme
with intakes arising from spring capping structures in Ngala Hills in Lilongwe
District. This scheme was originally implemented by Africare. However,
Africare is no longer operating in the area at the moment.

Welton Eddie Mtonga

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Field investigations revealed that the springs had sufficient flows especially if
the design was in an augmented arrangement. In October 2011 very few
communities located along the foot of the mountain benefited from the
scheme.
Flow observations coupled with the terrain of the area indicated that the
scheme could be extended to benefit more people living in the Chilenje Plain.
Chilenje is part of the area where World Vision Malawis Nkhoma Area
Development Programme provides its services. This influenced World Vision to
engage an engineer to provide consultancy services to carry out detailed
analysis and design of the scheme. The main tasks of the Engineer were to
confirm the previously identified potential of the flows, to assess the
possibility of extending the scheme and to design all the components of
scheme so that the people living in the technically feasible area could benefit
from it.
The scope of works included the following:a) To take an inventory of what was in the field in October 2011.
b) To assess the functionality of the existing infrastructure and their
conformity to design standards.
c) To make recommendations on whether the existing infrastructure could
still be incorporated in the new design to ensure that the scheme
performs to its intended design capacity.
d) To conduct demographic survey to establish the baseline number of
beneficiaries and to determine the levels of service for the scheme
over the design period.
e) To conduct detailed topographic survey for the intended water supply
system including distribution networks.
f)

To conduct detailed engineering design of the entire scheme.

g) To compile drawings for the designed scheme.

h) To compile bills of quantities including engineers estimates for the
designed scheme.
i)

To provide specifications for the scheme

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1.2

Intakes Location
Chilenje Gravity Fed Water Supply scheme was a proposed upgrading and
extension to the existing small schemes arising from springs on the southern
side of Ngamba hills. Field investigations revealed that there were five (5No)
springs. Four springs had brick wall storage tanks, one for each spring. At the
time of carrying out field investigations the fifth spring had not been
developed yet. The developed springs supplied few communities located close
to them. Figure 1 below shows the aerial view of the area where springs are
located.

Area for
springs

Figure 1: Aerial view of the area where springs are located

1.3

Sources of Information
In order to successfully carry out the assignment, the following information
was utilized;a) Topographic maps of the area with scale 1:50,000 produced by the
Department of Surveys.
b) Aerial photographs from Google earth
c) Population figures from National statistical office and head count by
World vision Malawi.
d) Related development information of the project area was sourced from
World Vision Malawi and field observations.

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e) Hydrological data was collected by World Vision Malawi and confirmed

through field measurements.
f)

Water quality testing was carried out in the laboratory at Lilongwe

Water Board and the results were utilized in the report.

g) Reference Literature

1.4

Purpose of the Report

The purpose of the report include summarizing the findings in the field
investigations and detailed design of the facilities necessary for upgrading
and extension of Chilenje Rural Piped Water Scheme. It also includes Design
Calculations for Hydraulic Analysis and Structural Design of the storage tank.

1.5

Structure of the Report

The report is divided into six chapters. Chapter one is introduction which gives
the background of the project, its location, purpose of the report and structure
of the report. Chapter two gives the general description of the project area.
Chapter three gives design considerations. Chapter four gives details of field
survey. Chapter five gives detailed design information and finally Chapter six
gives conclusion and recommendations.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT AREA

Introduction

Chilenje Gravity Fed Water supply Scheme is located in Traditional Authority

Mazengera in Lilongwe District. The service area covers the escarpments on
the southern side of Ngamba Hills extending down all the way to the Valley of
Linthipe River. The area is located between easting 844200 and 844450 and
between northing 617000 and 620500. In terms of area the scheme covers
approximately six square kilometres. Figure 2 below shows an aerial view of
the area.
The supply area falls within the Linthipe Valley that is commonly referred to as
Chilenje. According to field investigations the supply area was limited by the
combined capacity of the spring discharges and the topography of the area
since water conveyance was designed to be through gravitational potential
energy.
The scheme was designed to allow water to be flowing in the southward
direction targeting some of the villages under Group Village Headman
Madzumbi and others under Group Village Headman Chauwa including
Chauwa Primary School.

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Figure 2: Aerial view of the project supply area

2.1.1 Topography of the area

The average altitude ranges between 900m and 1000m above sea level.
However, there are some hills which rise as high as 1400m above sea level.
The Supply area is located to the south of Ngamba Hills. In figure 2 above the
area is covered under the blue line. The area has a mild slope southwards and
towards Linthipe River with another slope eastwards, following the direction of
flow for Linthipe River.

2.1.2 Weather
The area is cool with average temperatures ranging from 18 0 C to 210 C.
Average annual rainfall ranges between 900mm and 1000mm.
The rainy season runs from December to April while the dry season runs from
May to November with some months shared between the rainy season and
the dry season. Minimum flows are observed in the months of October and
November.
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2.1.3 Political Boundaries

The scheme is in Traditional Authority Mazengera and particularly in Group
Village Headmen Chauwa and Madzumbi. The location of the scheme is such
that it does not cross the boundaries of these two group village headmen.

2.2

Benefiting Villages in 2011

Table 1 below shows a list of villages that utilized taps from the developed
springs in 2011.

No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

GVH
MADZUM
BI
Khoko
Ndindi
Kulandira
Chimwenje
Nkhono

GVH CHAUWA

Myowe
Galanga 1
Galanga 2
Zukutu 1
Zukutu 2
Kuntheta
Andevu
Kuselikwambiy
8
a
Table 1: Villages that utilized taps from springs in 2011
2.3

Benefiting Population in 2011

Not all the people living in the villages listed above were connected to the
scheme due to limitations in topographic location. Some people used
alternative sources such as boreholes and shallow wells. The connected
people were about 750. The connections were through communal water
points. There were 6 communal water points and an additional water point
that served a maize mill.

Figure 3 below shows a scanned topographic map of the project area

indicating the Linthipe Valley relative to Ngamba Hills.

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Proposed
Gwenembe

Springs

Proposed
Sedimentation/S
torage Tank

Proposed
Chauwa Line

Figure 3: Chilenje Project Area

2.4

Access to the Area

The area can be accessed using a gravel road that passes through Kaundama
Primary School from M1 to Nkhoma Mission. Just before Nkhoma Mission there
are two small roads leading into the area. One road runs through the edge of
the hills while the other runs closer to Linthipe River through to Chauwa
Primary School. There are also some interlinks between the upper road and
the lower road. Alternatively one can use a tarmac road from Kamphata on M1
to Nkhoma Mission and then connect to the area through Madetsa Village.

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2.5

Socio-economic Activities
Chilenje is generally an agricultural area with most people engaged in
subsistence farming. Maize is a staple food crop. Other crops include
groundnuts, beans, sugarcanes, vegetables etc. They also rare animals like
cattle, goats, chickens, pigeons etc.

2.6

Infrastructure
The major infrastructures in the area include gravel roads, school blocks, play
grounds, churches and water points like shallow wells and boreholes

2.7

Sources of Drinking Water in 2011

In 2011 the residents of the area sourced water from unprotected shallow
wells, protected shallow wells that used elephant pumps, Linthipe River and
some boreholes. The people who lived along the foot of Ngamba Hills used
taps from the springs. Figure 4 below shows one of the water sources in the
area.

Figure 4: Borehole in use in the project area

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2.8

Drinking Water Related Problems in 2011

The major problem was that the residents of the lower areas close to Linthipe
River did not have access to sustainable adequate supply of safe water. Field
observations revealed that water from the Linthipe River required treatment
facilities to make it potable. There was also need to install high lift pumps to
pump water to the target areas. These facilities demand high levels of capital
investments. The other option was to drill a number of boreholes to supply the
target areas. There were already some few boreholes in the area but some of
them were not functioning due to drying up. Generally boreholes need to be
separated by an adequate margin because rapid draw-down in one borehole
affects the water level in the other if they share the same aquifer. This paused
to be a challenge as well. Finally the hydrogeology of the area makes some
boreholes produce salty water which is not palatable. Interviews with the
community revealed that some residents were not comfortable with the water.
They therefore resorted to be drawing unsafe raw water from Linthipe River.

2.9

Proposed Solution
From the studies conducted, the feasible option was to tap excess water from
the existing springs and gravitate it to the target areas. It was further
observed that the springs that had not been developed could also be tapped
to augment the existing supply. It was therefore proposed that water from all
the springs should be transmitted to a common storage tank that would also
act as a sedimentation tank. The outline of the scheme was as follows;1) Five (5No) Spring Capping Structures.
2) Five (5No) transmission lines to a common reservoir.
3) Existing storage tanks for individual springs were to be maintained in
the scheme but control of their operations was proposed through
introduction of new outlets and valves.
4) Common storage/sedimentation tank was proposed at reduced level
1219.2m above sea level.
5) One (1 No) Distribution main to Chauwa was proposed with a branch to
Mkhalala Village.
6) One (1 No) Distribution main to Gwenembe.

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CHAPTER THREE

3.1

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Introduction

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The proposed solution outlined in 2.9 provided the basis for the design of the
scheme. According to the design, the existing lines that supplied water to 7No
taps including the one at the maize mill were not supposed to be disturbed. As
such the new design concentrated on the structures that facilitated upgrading
and extension to the target villages

3.2

Water Quality Considerations

Water quality is very critical in the design of water supply systems. There are
many organisms that cause diseases and disorders when consumed through
water. However, not all of them can be tested individually due to tedious
procedures and number of samples required. As a result only few indicators
were tested and monitored in the pre-design phase whose data guided in the
determination and design of treatment facilities.

3.2.1 Water Quality Criteria

Chilenje Rural Piped Water Scheme was designed to supply drinking water
only. The water quality criteria were therefore focused on drinking water
quality standards for rural areas in Malawi.

3.2.2 Field Observations

As indicated in the introductory passages, Chilenje Water Supply Scheme was
already operational in the areas close to the hills in 2011. The existing set up
was that there were small storage tanks that also acted as sedimentation
tanks.
Samples were taken from taps at random and were taken to the laboratory at
Lilongwe Water Board. In order to assess the treatability of water, some
chlorine was injected into the existing system and residuals were monitored at
strategic points of the existing system. Table 2 below shows the parameters
that were analyzed, unit of measurement, test results and acceptable range.

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Table 2: Water Quality Results

The results revealed that water was not contaminated and hence no
complicated treatment facilities were required. A simple tank that acts as
balancing tank for water demand and also as a sedimentation tank was
adequate. The only change required to the existing facilities design was
reservoir sizing to accommodate the projected demand in 2031

3.3

Water Quantity Considerations

The scheme has to have enough water to meet the demand from existing
consumers as well as that from proposed new consumers. Both demands will
grow to maximum limit over the design period. The growth in demand is
generated from the growing population that will be utilizing the water from the
scheme.

3.4

Basic Design Criteria

3.4.1 Per Capita Demand

The scheme was designed for a per capita demand of 36lcd.

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3.4.2 Design Period

According to terms of reference the design period was 20 years commencing
in 2011. This means that the scheme has been designed for parameters for
the end of 2031.
3.4.3 Design Flow at the tap
The scheme was been designed for a 16 hour design flow. This means that the
design flow at the tap was 0.075l/s.
3.4.4 Night Storage Factor
In this scheme the service time was assumed to be between 4.00am and
8.00pm translating into 16hours service.

3.4.5 Peak Factor

The peak factor for a line with one tap was 2 while the peak factor for a line
with more than or equal to 10 taps was 1.
3.4.6 Number of Persons per tap
In this scheme each tap was anticipated to have a maximum of 120 persons
drawing the water from it or being served.
3.4.7 Maximum Walking Distance
According to the Malawi Government Guidelines each consumer should walk
not more than 500m to draw water. The same was adopted for this scheme.
3.4.8 Level of Service
The scheme was designed to provide water to public taps or communal water
points and not for individual connections inside dwelling houses.
3.4.9 Population Growth Rate
According to information sourced from National Statistical Office, Nkhoma
Area had a population growth rate of 2.5% per annum.
3.4.10Roughness factor for PVC

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For the application of Colebrook White formula PVC pipes have a roughness
factor of 0.01mm. For Hazen Williamss formula PVC pipes have a C value of
145. These were adopted in the design of this scheme.
3.4.11Residential Head
The scheme was designed for an ideal head of between 5m and 10m at the
tap. However, heads between 10m and 15m were also acceptable.

3.4.12Flow Velocities in pipes

In the design of this scheme flow velocity was limited to values between
0.5m/s and 2.5m/s for the transmission and distribution lines. In special
circumstances velocities of up to 3m/s were also acceptable.

3.5

Population in 2011
According to Nkhoma Area Development Area Project Design Report (World
Vision Malawi), the target population comprised 4,155 people in 2011. This
population was basically made up of indigenous people of the area. There
were no records of migration or emigration. This data was based on Population
and Housing Census 2008 Main Report and Analytical Report Volume
7(National Statistical Office 2009). There was also head count carried out by
World Vision Malawi.
According to the design the target population was located in the areas with
altitude lower than the altitude of the source. Administratively there were two
group village headmen sharing the supply area. These are GVH Chauwa and
GVH Madzumbi. Each GVH had a number of villages. The spatial distribution of
these villages was that some were located along the foot of Ngamba Hills
while others were located in the Linthipe Valley. There were 1045 people
under GVH Chauwa that were living in the foot of Ngamba Hills in 2011. Table
3 below shows 8No villages located in the upper part of Chauwa that had the
potential to utilize taps from springs. Note that some of these people already
had the service from 4No existing taps.

Further to the villages under GVH

Chauwa there were 6No villages with a total population of 810 people under
Madzumbi within the same belt that had the potential of utilizing the water
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from the scheme. Amongst these people some already had the service from
3No taps.

Table 3: Villages in the upper part of GVH Chauwa.

The table shows that there were 1045 people in 2011.

Table 4 below indicates the villages located in Chilenje Valley but under GVH
Chuwa

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Table 4: Villages in the Lower part of GVH Chauwa

The table indicates that there were 1000 people in 2011. A combination of
data in table 3 and table 4 gives the total population under GVH Chauwa that
had the potential of benefiting from the project. The population was 2,045
people.
Table 5 below indicates the villages located in the upper part of GVH
Madzumbi that were utilizing taps from springs in 2011. There was a total
population of 810 people in the area.

Table 5: Villages in the upper part of GVH Madzumbi

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Table 7 below shows the villages under GVH Madzumbi located in the Chilenje
Valley close to Linthipe River.

Table 6:Villages located in the lower part of GVH Madzumbi

By combining the data from all the tables, it is noted that there was a total
population of 4155 people in 2011.

3.6

Water Demand in 2011

Using the per capita demand of 36lpcd the above population translates to a
total water demand of

3.7

36 x 4155.
=1.73l/s in 2011.
24 x 60 x 60

Water Supply (Quantity)

3.7.1 Supply Criteria

Chilenje Rural Piped Water Scheme was designed to ensure adequate of water
throughout the design period of 20 years.

3.7.2 Field Observations

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Flow measurements were taken at the outlets of all the springs. Table 7 below
indicates the flows that were observed from the five springs that had potential
for development.
Field Observations on flows
Time to
Spring
fill 20l
Discharge
No
Buckets
Rate (l/s)
1
14
1.43
2
10
2.0
3
40
0.5
4
21
0.95
5

63

Total
Table 7: Yields of springs

0.32
5.20

From the supply point of view, it was observed that there was plenty of water
for meeting future demand. It was also noted that some of the houses within
the list of villages outlined above are restrained from relying on the scheme
due to topographic location and distance to the nearest tap.

3.8

Population Growth Rate

As indicated in 3.4.9 the information from Population and Housing Census of
2008, Main Report by National Statistical Office indicated that the population
in the project area was growing at the rate of 2.5% per annum by 2011.

3.8.1 Assumptions on Growth Rate

The socio-economic activities of the area were assumed that they would
remain constant throughout the design period as such population growth rate
was also been assumed to remain constant throughout the design period

3.9

Population Projection and Projected Water Demand

Generally, population growth in rural areas follows a geometric trend due to
availability of land and other resources that sustain human activities. Chilenje

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is rural as well. Geometric increase in population is given by the following

formula;n

Pn=Po x(1+r)

where

Pn=Total populationn years

Po=Initial population in 2011
r =Growth rate in percentage
n =number of years in the projection period
In 20 years time the population of Chilenje was projected to grow to 4,155x
(1+2.5%)20 =6,808 people by 2031. This population translated to a water
demand of

36 x 6808.
=2.84l/s by the end of the design period.
24 x 60 x 60

It was noted that this demand level was still far much less than the supply of
5.2l/s. Even if the scheme was extended as required, it would supply enough
water up to the design period. 30% of unaccounted for water was added to
the demand and the ultimate figure was 3.69l/s. It was observed that the
figure was still very safe compared to the supply of 5.2l/s.

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CHAPTER FOUR
4.1

FIELD SURVEY

General Reconnaissance of the Area

Generally most of area is flat as it lies in the Valley of Linthipe River even
though some communities live on the edge of Ngamba Hills. The word
Chilenje is vernacular and it means flat land of the valley. Some parts are
swampy. The general land use is for crop cultivation as described in 2.5 above.
The area is rural. There are no telephone lines. There are no sewer lines.
There are no electricity lines. In this regard the construction of this scheme
was considered not to impinge on the provision of other services.
In some parts the area has gullies which may hinder movement or installation
of pipelines. There are some gravel roads and foot paths. These were
considered to be possible routes for pipe alignment.
The areas close to the hills are rocky. Rock blasting was considered to be
necessary for possible pipeline installation. Diversion of the pipeline was
considered to be an alternative.

4.2

Detailed Survey work

Topographic survey was carried out using a Dumpy Level and staff. Control
points were established within close proximity of the project area. A hand-held
GPS was utilized to establish the coordinates of control points and for tracing
way points. Before taking readings on the Dump Level, the machine was set
firmly on the ground after establishing visibility of the staff.
Booking was recorded on an especially designed table. Data and the
calculations are indicated in the appendices.

4.3

Key Points based on Survey Work

The approximate reduced levels for the proposed intakes and the existing
spring capping sites were at 1250m, 1245m, 1247m, 1252m, and 1254m
respectively above sea level for each.

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The

reduced

level

for

the

proposed

storage/sedimentation

tank

was

approximately at 1219.00m above sea level.

The distances from the existing storage tanks to the proposed storage tank
vary significantly. Naming spring capping sites with numbers from west to
east, the arrangement was as follows:i.

Spring Capping 1 was located to the far west. The estimated distance
from the storage tank for this spring to the proposed common storage
tank was 500m.

It was proposed to construct an additional spring

capping at this site to ensure that all the water from this source was
directed towards the common storage tank. There was untapped water
flowing by the side of this spring. This water was used for irrigating
ii.

vegetables nearby.
Spring capping 2 was located near Spring Capping 1 but to the eastern
side. The estimated distance from this spring to the proposed common
tank was about 450m. There were two spring capping structures which
were poorly located. As a result flows from the two structures were
inadequate. One capping structure was observed to have very small
quantity of water that was stagnant and muddy. However, it was noted
that there was a point nearby that had flows of at least 2l/s. It was
observed that this point could be capped and the flows would rise
significantly. It was therefore proposed that a capping structure should

iii.

be constructed at this point.

Spring Capping 3 was not developed by 2011 but was proposed for
development to augment the supply at the proposed storage tank.
There was no need for a separate storage tank for this spring. The
distance from the proposed spring capping to the proposed common

iv.

storage tank was about 400m.

Spring Capping 4 was located to the east of Spring Capping 3 but to
the west of Spring Capping 5. The distance from the existing storage
tank for this spring to the proposed common storage tank was about
500m. It was proposed to develop an additional spring capping for this
site. There was some water flowing below Nkuyu tree located about

v.

10m away from the existing spring capping structure.

Spring Capping 5 was located to the east of Spring Capping 4. The
distance from the storage tank for this spring to the proposed common
tank was about 900m.

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4.3.1 Distribution Line to Chauwa Primary School

Two distribution lines were proposed from the common storage tank. One line
was designed to go to Chauwa Primary School and a nearby village. At the
time of designing this scheme the nearby village was the headquarters of GVH
Chauwa. The line was designed from chinage 0+00 at the proposed common
tank site to chainage 1+600 at Chauwa. Reduced levels varied from 1219.20
m above sea level at the proposed common tank down to 1199.471m above
sea level at the end of the line. Static head at the end of the line was
43.303m. This line was designed to have a branch to Mkhalala Village. The
branch was located at chainage 0+960m and at reduced level 1180.73m. At
the end of the branch the chainage was 1+240m while the reduced level was
1173m above sea level. Static head at the end of the branch was 45.739m.

4.3.1 Distribution Line to Gwenembe Village

The second line was designed to go to Gwenembe Village. According to the

design, the alignment for this line crossed a gully, and then it passed through
Dimba gardens close to Njovu Village before approaching Gwenembe Village.
It was 2.94 km. Fig 5 below shows the schematic arrangement for the scheme.
In the schematic diagram the line to Gwenembe is in the north-eastern
direction.

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Gwenembe Line

S. Tank

Springs

Linthipe River

Line to
Chauwa

Figure 5: Schematic Arrangement for the project(not to scale)

In this schematic arrangement dots represent concentration of houses. During desk

study all the concentrations were allocated communal water points. However, this
map is a bit old and outdated in the sense that some communities that appear on the
map were not available on the ground. Field observations revealed that other
communities that were noted on the ground were not seen on the map. This was
treated to be a sign of relocation.

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CHAPTER FIVE

5.1

DETAILED DESIGN OF SCHEME COMPONENTS

Introduction
This chapter looks at detailed design of the individual components of the
scheme except those that were considered to function without disturbance in
the upgrading and extension. The components that were considered in this
chapter comprised the following;a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

5.2

1No Spring Capping Structure

5No Transmission lines
1No Storage tank which should also serve as a sedimentation tank.
2No Distribution lines with their branches.
Locating Taps and their demands

Design Criteria
The general design criteria outlined in chapter three still applied in this
chapter. However, each component had its own design criteria based on the
principles that were supposed to be satisfied. At each stage a particular
component was under design, specific design criteria applicable to that
component were considered in depth.

5.3

Design Population
The population in 2011 was based on the data collected by World Vision in the
target villages. According to Nkhoma Area Development Programme, Project
Design Report,(World Vision Malawi) this data was collected in March 2011.The
data was synthesized using information contained in Population and Housing
Census 2008, Main Report (National Statistical Office).
It was noted that the target villages for the components in this chapter were
located in the lower areas. The villages located along the foot of Ngamba Hills
were already supplied using either the existing taps from the springs or from
alternative sources such as shallow wells that use elephant pumps or
boreholes.

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Figure 6 below shows a shallow well with an Elephant Pump providing water to
residents along the foot of Ngamba Hills.

Figure 6: Shallow well with Elephant Pump

It was observed that villages located in upper areas but far away from the hills
could not access water from this scheme due to their topographic locations
and hence were not considered for design purposes of the proposed
improvements. However, villages that use existing taps were accounted for in
evaluating adequacy of flows from the springs in chapter three.
The design population in 2011 for these components was 2,300 people i.e. a
combination of the new target population from GVH Chauwa and the new
target population from GVH Madzumbi.
Table 8 below shows the villages and their respective 2011 population. Design
population was derived by projecting the 2011 population over the design
horizon using the existing growth rates. In this case the population was
projected to 2031 using 20yrs as design period.
As explained in section 3.9, population growth in rural areas follows a
geometric trend due to availability of land and other resources that sustain
human activities. Geometric increase in population is given by the following
formula which has already been described above;-

Pn=Po x(1+r)n where

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Pn=Total populationn years

Po=Initial population
r =Growth rate in percentage
n =number of years in the projection period
Group Village

Current

population
Madzumbi
1300
Chauwa
1000
Total
2,300
Table 8: Target Population
5.4

Groth Rate

Population

2.5%
2.5%

20yrs
2130
1639
3,769

in

Water demand calculations

(a) Water demand calculations based on projected population
Table 9 below shows the calculations and the parameters involved.

A per

capita demand of 36l per day was adopted in this calculation

Yea

Estimated

Per capita per

Daily water

Flow

rate

population

day

demand

required l/s

consumption

m/d

5.175

1.4375

Dwd x 1000 3600

pcd x Pop . 1000

201

2300

in litres
36

1
202

2944

36

6.624

1.84

1
203

3769

36

8.48

2.356

1
Table 9: Water Demand Calculations based on projected Population
It was noted that a total demand of 2.356l/s will be required by 2031.

(b) Water demand based on taps in the scheme

The major difference from the first approach is that a parameter related to
distance walked to access water was incorporated. According to guidelines
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provided by the Malawi Government an individual should not walk more than
500m to access safe water as indicated in section 3.4.7. Additional taps were
therefore provided in a locality even if the number of people per tap was less
than 120 people. Where the number of people exceeded 120 an additional tap
is provided also.
Table 10 below shows the calculations and the parameters involved.

Table 10: Water Demand based on number of taps

It was observed that the required flow rate in 2031 would be 3.1l/s

5.5

Design of Transmission Lines

5.5.1 Design Criteria

The transmission lines were designed for constant flow rate from either the
existing tanks or from the proposed springs to the common storage tank. They
were designed for 24hour flow since they were to operate 24hours
continuously.
The transmission lines were designed to be as straight and as short as
possible to reduce frictional losses. However, minor diversions were allowed
for due to presence of rocks and other obstacles in the area.

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Transmission lines were designed to carry uniform flows.

The structure of the scheme was arranged in such a manner that five small
transmission mains from springs lead to a common reservoir. The summation
of flows from all the springs must add up to two thirds of 3.1l/s at the reservoir
which was equal to 2.067l/s.
The limiting factor was the yield of each spring and the requirements from the
population already under service i.e. demand from the villages already being
supplied by each spring. The transmission lines were therefore designed to
ensure that only excess water over and above the existing design demand
would be taken to the common storage tank. For the newly proposed springs
all the available yield was available for new demand downstream. The
diameter of the transmission lines was determined by applying the Colebrook
White Equation adopted from Sharme et al.

The two equations are the same only that there is rearrangement to make the
required item subject. The following are the descriptions of parameters in the
equations;Q=flow either in m3/s or l/s.
D=pipe diameter in m or in mm
G=acceleration due to gravity =9.81
H1=Height of the initial position in m above a datum
H2=Height of the second point of consideration in m above datum.
L=length of pipe under consideration.
Ln = natural logarithm
e =average roughness of pipe material in mm
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=viscosity of water at a given temperature.

Application of the above yielded the following results;a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Transmission
Transmission
Transmission
Transmission
Transmission

Line
Line
Line
Line
Line

No1No2No3No4No 5-

75mm
75mm
75mm
50mm
50mm

of
of
of
of
of

Galvanized
Galvanized
Galvanized
Galvanized
Galvanized

Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel

pipe
pipe
pipe
pipe
pipe

In addition to manual calculations, a software Civil Calculator was used to

compute the required pipe diameter as shown in the results.

5.6
Review for the Design of storage tanks and Spring Capping
Structures
Field observations revealed that the storage tanks were stable. There were no
visible cracks. There was no excessive or differential settlement. Figures 7 and
8 show how one of the storage tanks looked like from the side and from the
top respectively. In like manner the spring capping structures were also stable.
Figure 9 below shows how one of the spring-capping structures looked like
from side view. All structures were intact. Interviews with the community
revealed that there had not been any problem since the time they were
commissioned. They only needed cleaning to remove some dirt that
accumulated on the floor due to sedimentation process.
The design life for these types of structures is usually above 30 years. It was
therefore assumed that these structures would be stable throughout the
design horizon of 20 years. Therefore the proposed improvements would
utilize these structures without any modification.
For new springs the same technological design for spring capping structure as
shown in figure 9 was adopted. It was in brickwork with some rocks fitted in
such a way that there was no disturbance to water discharge that was finally
being collected by a pipe underneath downstream.
5.6.1 Design Criteria for the Intake Structure
The spring intake structure was designed to ensure free flow of the water but
at the same time securely protecting it. A wall extending a little above the
maximum level to which the water rises under static conditions should
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surround the seepage area. The seepage area was designed to be filled with
stones with enough pore space to allow free flow of water. The lower area was
designed to be cleared to create a pool where water could collect and get
tapped using a strained ended pipe. A V notch was added for flow
measurements.

Figure 7: Side view of Storage Tank

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Figure 8: Top view of Storage Tank

Figure 9: Spring Capping Structure

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5.7

Design of Service Reservoir/Sedimentation Tank

5.7.1 Design Criteria

This tank was designed to serve the following purposed amongst others;i.

To balance the fluctuating demands from the distribution system

ii.

permitting the source to give a steady or different phased output.

To give suitable pressure for the distribution system and reduce

iii.

pressure fluctuations therein.

Increasing detention time for settling out the sediments and other
foreign matter.

5.7.2 Tank Location

For a floating tank, the location to should ensure that the distribution system
has adequate pressures even at times when water level in the tank is low. The
location should also ensure that the system does not have extra-ordinarily
high pressures that can lead to pipe bursts and failure of taps and other
facilities. The tank was proposed to be located at contour 1219.20m above
sea level which was located about 30m south of the dusty road from Nkhoma
Mission. Using this contour, it was possible to let the water flow from all the
five source points by gravity. Besides the above mentioned fact about using
this position, it was also possible to let the water flow to all target villages by
gravity. Figure 10 below indicates the position of the tank and is marked
Storage Tank. The tank was positioned at a point that could not disturb or
force relocation of the existing dwelling houses.
The critical elements of this tank were that it should balance the fluctuating
demand from the distribution system and that it should allow enough
detention time for trapping and effectively settling out the sediments. These
determined the design shape and the sizing.

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Pipeline to
Gwenembe
Storage Tank

Pipeline to
Chauwa

Figure 10: Position of the storage tank

5.7.3 Tank Volume

Tank volume was determined by fulfilling the requirements of the critical
functions of the tank. As a storage tank, the tank must satisfy balancing
requirements. As a sedimentation tank, it must satisfy the requirements for
surface loading rate and detention time.
5.7.3.1

Case 1:

Sedimentation Tank

Sedimentation tanks are designed to reduce the velocity of water so as to

permit suspended solids to settle out of the water by gravity if possible. There
are several design approaches which depend on water treatability and
whether the system is to use chemically aided settlement or not. The success
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of the design is judged on its ability to maintain the required throughput and
the required effluent water quality under adverse raw water quality conditions
which generally occur at the end of the dry season or during the first flood of
the wet season when riverside pollutants are flushed downstream. In rural
water supply systems the approach is simplified due to lack of capacity to
handle chemicals. At the same time the water is assumed to be of
substantially good quality due to natural treatment processes in the aquifer. In
this scheme there were two advantages.
i.
ii.

The water comes from springs which are natural screening devices.
The water passes through other storage tanks that are located
immediately

after

spring

capping

structures.

These

settle

out

sediments before the water comes to the tank under consideration.

The tank design was restricted to plain settling. In plain settling, the critical
parameter is surface lading. The surface loading rate is given by

This criteria ensures that particles with falling velocity of more than or equal
to surface loading rate will be effectively removed by the tank. Looking at the
environment the most likely type of suspended solid were soil particles. Area
of the tank was evaluated from other requirements and then it was checked if
surface loading removes the desired particles.
The other parameter considered in the design of a sedimentation tank is
detention time. This depends on several factors and amongst them are the
following:a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Quantity of flow.
Amount of suspended particles.
Size of suspended particles.
Surface area of water in the tank
Presence of a reservoir downstream.

According to rural water scheme requirements, the minimum detention time is

60 minutes. This assumes that water does not pass through pre-treatment
process. From this requirement the minimum capacity of the tank is given by
the formula

where V is the volume in m3, Q is the flow rate in m3/s and

t is the detention time. The design flow was 3.1l/s. Therefore the minimum
volume of the tank should be 0.0031x60x60 m3=10.8m3.

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5.7.3.2

Case 2:

Storage Tank

In order to assess the adequacy of the tank in terms of evening out hourly
demand there is need to look at demand variations across the day. There is a
typical trend where by the demand reaches the peak between 6.00am and
9.00am. It falls slightly thereafter and rises again to another peak between
5.00pm and 8.00pm. There is generally no water drawing between 8.00pm
and 4.00am. This leads to a simple assumption that water is collected over
16hrs in a day and hence the 16hr demand.
There are typical factors based on long-term observations on how people draw
water in rural areas of Malawi and indeed nearby countries. These factors are
applied to find the amount of water that is needed in each hour of the day
based on total daily demand. The cumulative amount is evaluated for each
hour. Balancing requirement is found by subtracting the lowest accumulated
value from the highest accumulative value (Ref: Santiago Alnararch, Gravity
Flow Water Supply.
Table 11 below shows a summary of calculations carried out in an excel
spreadsheet based on demand of 3.1l/s which translates to a total demand of
267.84m3 per day.

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Table 11: Balancing Requirements for the tank

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Looking at the setting of the supply area, there were no critical items requiring
water for fire- fighting. This component was therefore neglected. An additional
volume of 5% of the balancing requirement was added for emergency cases.
This led to a total volume of 107.31m3.
The other approach for calculating the volume of the tank is stipulated by
Design Manual for Piped Water Supply Systems, Ministry of Works, Malawi
Government by Carl Bro International, which states that as a minimum
requirement tank size must be 2 times the difference between the 16hour flow
and 24 hour flow.
Tap demand was taken to be 3.1l/s as evaluated above. The 24 hour flow was
calculated by multiplying by 2/3. The result was 2.067l/s. The difference
between the two was 1.033l/s. Thus minimum tank volume was evaluated as
1.033x16x3.6x2=119m3.
The required tank volume was the higher between the two values evaluated
above. This was 119m3.
5.7.4 Tank Dimensioning
A rectangular tank was chosen for two reasons namely:a) It is easy to construct.
b) The tank was designed to serve as a sedimentation tank as well. A
circular tank would bring complications since water has to flow
upwards.
The major forces in a tank are the hydrostatic forces which are evaluated by
the product of water density, acceleration due to gravity and the height. The
only variable is the height. It was therefore important to limit height in order
to reduce hydrostatic forces. Taking height H=2m then the product of width
and length should help to determine volume i.e. L x B=59.5. Take L=8.5 then
B=7.0
The tanks internal dimensions were found to be as follows;L=8.5m
B=7.0m
H=2.0m
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This gave a volume of 119m3.

5.7.5 General Arrangement of the Tank

Tank partitioning was noted to be necessary and this was designed in concrete
work. Walls were introduced dividing the length and breadth in half each. That
means that there were four compartments with baffle walls inside.
The outside dimensions of the tank were as follows;Length =9.1m
Width =7.6m.
5.7.6 Tank Site Conditions
The geology of the proposed tank site revealed that the area was underlain by
a mature granitic rock that protruded in some places. This granitic rock was
considered to be strong enough to support the foundation of the proposed
tank. The same rock structure supports the existing infrastructures. The rock
was found at an average depth of about 500mm.
The average slope of the tank site was found to be about 1:7. The upper side
of the tank site would require considerable cutting to reach the required
formation.

5.7.7 Structural Design of the Tank

The general layout of the tank revealed that the following were the
components.
a) Reinforced concrete top slab.
b) Reinforced concrete walls
c) Reinforced concrete Raft Base /foundation
5.7.7.1

Design Assumptions and Conditions

The following assumptions have been applied in the design of the tank.

Concrete grade was taken to be 35N/mm2.

Concrete weight was taken to be 24KN/m3

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5.7.7.2

Water density was taken to be 10.0KN/m3.

Screed weight was taken to be 0.3KN/m3
Strength of high yield steel was taken to be 460N/mm2
Critical Steel ratio was taken to be 0.0035.
Partial safety factor for concrete was taken to be 1.25
Partial safety factor for steel was taken to be 1.15

Top Slab

The top slab was designed to carry self-weight of concrete including screed.
Looking at the arrangement, the slab was two way spanning because effective

L
= 2 . Bending moments and shearing forces were determined using
B
appropriate coefficients from Table 3.14 of BS 8110 part one. Deflection and
cracking were checked at the centre of the spans. Even though shear was not
critical, it was also checked at supports. Reinforcement for torsion was
provided at the edges of the slab.
Design Calculations are found in appendix five.

5.7.7.3

Concrete Wall

The wall was designed to resist bending moments and shearing forces
generated by hydrostatic forces of water. The bending moments and shearing
forces were determined from relevant coefficients. Moment Distribution
method was applied to determine member moments in the lateral direction.
The wall was designed for hoop forces and bending moments. Deflections,
shear and cracking were checked at appropriate critical sections.
Design calculations are found in appendix five.

5.7.7.4

Raft Concrete Base

Reinforced concrete raft slab/floor system was adopted in order to satisfy both
the architectural and structural requirements of the tank. The design approach
for solid rafts is to treat them as inverted slabs. Punching shear and cracking
were checked.
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Design calculations are found in appendix five.

5.7.7.5

Design Standards and Codes

Design of reinforced concrete members have been designed in accordance

with British Standard BS 8110: 1997, Structural Use of Concrete. Design of
water sections have been designed in accordance with British Standard BS
8007, Design of Concrete Structures for Retaining Aqueous Liquids. Loading
categories have been adopted in accordance with British Standard BS 6399:
Part 1 Loading for Buildings: Code of practice for dead and imposed loads
and Part 2 Loading for Buildings: Code of Practice for Wind Loads.
Hydrodynamic effects on the wall have been determined according to the
Indian Codes of Practice, IS: 456-2000, Principles and Practice.
Design calculations are found in appendix five.

5.8

Design of Distribution Lines

5.8.1 Design Criteria

The distribution lines were designed for 16 hour flow requirements from the
taps. The 16 hour flow requirement was 0.075l/s for the tap serving a
maximum of 120 people.
The main lines were designed for flow rates based on demand from each
direction. This means that the initial flow rate was divided into two according
to the demands. In like manner flow in each direction was reduced to remove
the demand allocated to each smaller branch until the last branch. However,
where the number of taps reduced to less than 10 a peak factor was applied
to evaluate the flow requirements. A maximum peak factor of 2 was applied
when there was one tap only. This peak factor reduced to 1 when the number
of taps reached 10 and above.

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Table 12 below shows how peak factors were varied in assigning flow
requirements for branches.
No of Taps
Required Flow in l/s
1
0.15
2
0.28
3
0.40
4
0.50
5
0.58
6
0.65
7
0.70
8
0.73
9
0.74
10
0.75
>10
0.075X No of Taps
Table 12: Required flow (l/s) for respective No of Taps

This implies that the figure indicated in the draw off column of the design
calculations was related to the projected number of taps that could be
connected by 2031. The actual number of taps in the year of project
implementation was dependent on the current set up of communities and
their respective population.

5.8.2 Alignment of Pipelines

The criterion used to align pipelines in this scheme was based on the following
factors:i.
ii.
iii.

Pipe lengths were minimized to reduce hydraulic losses and costs.

Pipelines were located close to the road unless there were no roads.
River crossings were avoided as much as possible but where it was not
evitable galvanized steel was specified for the crossing.

In this scheme roads from the source to the target communities were
generally absent. Since the flow was designed to be by gravity the terrain of
the area and proximity of the target communities dictated the alignment of
lines. In some cases the existing physical features prohibited accessibility and
as such the proposed lines were diverted to proper locations. The plan for pipe
alignment is shown in figure10 above.
5.8.3 Pipe Materials

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In this scheme PVC class 10 was specified for all pipelines except in areas
where the lines crossed gullies and rocky areas. HDPE was proposed for
community connections.

5.8.4 Hydraulic Design of Pipelines

Pipe sizing is a key element of hydraulic analysis. The objective is to minimize
hydraulic loses so that the available potential energy can enable water reach
the target points at an adequate pressure. At the same time the flow velocity
must be controlled so that pressure surges are reduced or avoided and
stagnation is also prevented. The procedure employed in the design was as
follows.

Select pipe size from the list of commercially available pipes.

Estimate frictional losses based on pipe characteristics and the

difference in head between the end points of the pipeline.

Estimate form losses from pipe fittings bends and other obstructions.
Find total losses.
Subtract total losses from total head. This gives the available head at
the end point. Please note that the acceptable available head at the
end point must also be controlled to suit the standards according to

functionality.
From the design flow and the selected pipe size calculate flow velocity.
Check the velocity compliance with standards.
Calculate static head.
Establish the class of the pipe required from the list of commercially

available pipe class against the static head.

Check the economics of the pipe material and class.
Check technical possibility of breaking the pressure if there is need and
incorporate the effects in the analysis.

In this exercise Hazen Williams Formula was utilized to calculate pipe losses.
The formula is indicated as follows:
13

1.85

10 x Q x L
H L = 1.77 x 1.85
4.865
C xD

where

H L =Head loss in m
Q=Flow rate in l/s
L=Pipe length in kilometres
C=Constant and is dimensionless and is dependent on pipe materials
D=Pipe diameter in mm
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Table 13 below shows the values of C for different materials that were applied
in the analysis.

Pipe Material
Value of C
PVC or HDPE
145
GS
120
Table 13: C values for pipe materials
Velocity of water was limited to values between 0.5 to 2.0 m/s. This was
applied to ensure that stagnation due to low velocities is prevented while at
the same time pressure surges that cause water hammer, due to high
velocities are also prevented. The formula for velocity is as follows.

V=

Q
where
A

V=flow velocity in m/s

Q=flow rate in m3/s
A=cross-sectional area of the pipe in m2

A= r 2 where;r=radius of the pipem

The calculations also ensured that the hydraulic losses are reduced to minimal
so that adequate pressure is available at the taps. In general hydraulic
gradient was designed to descend to the tap pressure of not less than 5m but
not more than 15m at the required flow rate of 0.075l/s. This applied to the
service line where the end point is a tap. For the distribution main, the
scenario is different. The end of the line was encased by an end cap which
indicated that the line may be extended in future within limits of service lines.
Therefore the head at the end of the distribution main was between 20 and
30m.
Design charts were also used to check the findings from the above procedure.
The design charts were based on the Colebrook-White Method of calculating
head loss. In this procedure pipe diameter leads to the determination of losses
which were later subtracted from the available head to determine working
head.

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In the Design Calculation Tables;Hydraulic Gradient Level (HGL) =Static Head Head loss
Working Pressure (WP) =HGL-Ground Level.

5.8.5 Hydraulic Design of the Distribution Line between the Storage Tank
and Chauwa Primary School
The hydraulic calculations revealed that 50mm PVC pipe was adequate to
deliver the required flow from chainage 0+0.00m to chainage 0+960m. It was
recommended to reduce this diameter to 40m at this chainage and a further
reduction to 32mm at chainage 1+520m which should be maintained until the
end of the pipeline at chainage 1+600m. Hydraulic analysis also revealed that
there was a working pressure of about 23m at the end of the line. This
pressure was adequate to make a minor extension on it hence a provision of
an end cap at the far end.
There was a draw off of 0.58l/s at Mkhalala profile junction. This was the flow
requirement for Mkhala Village. The total number of taps for Chauwa line was
14. Subtracting 5 taps for Mkhala line from 14, 9 taps remained for the rest of
the pipe. The second draw off of 0.4l/s was lumped at this point for design
purposes. The actual points for draw-offs would depend on the communitys
requirements as the village was concentrated. In other words the actual
connections were expected to be distributed along the main line.
For Design Calculations refer to Appendix 2

5.8.6 Hydraulic Design of the Distribution Line between the Storage Tank
and Gwenembe
Hydraulic calculations revealed that 63mm PVC pipe was adequate to deliver
the required flow from chainage 0+0.00m to 1+260m. At this chainage the
pipe diameter was reduced to 50mm. The 50mm diameter run to a chainage
of 2+660m where further reduction to 40mm was recommended. Like in the

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line to Chauwa, hydraulic analysis revealed that there was a working pressure
of about 27m at the end of the line.
This line passed through a place that was very close to Njovu Village. This
village was relatively big and required at least three taps in 2011. The
connections could be directly installed at chainage 1+260m. There was a
projection of 5taps by 2031 and hence a draw of 0.58l/s. This demand was
lumped at this point because the set-up of villages demanded that one pipe of
at least 32mm be connected at one point. The demand would be distributed
to the rest of the nearby villages using this line.
Again the draw off of 0.4l/s towards the end of the line was just for design
purposes so that the line did not have to continue with a constant diameter.
The actual set up would depend on community requirements which essentially
meant that the demand would be distributed.

5.8.7 Design of Small branches to the Communities

Apart from the two main lines explained above there are smaller branches
that supply the communities directly. These have been considered to be
community connections or service lines of not more than 25m. Further
analysis for these has not been carried out because they are generally small
and their actual locations are determined by the communities. However there
is one line that is relatively long (280m). This branch is projected to have 5
taps. Its analysis is indicated under the following heading.

5.7.9 Hydraulic Design of Branch Line to Mkhalala

This line branches at chainage 0+960m along Chauwa Line. It has a design
flow of 0.58l/s. A 32mm PVC pipe is recommended up to chainage 1+100m
where the diameter is reduced to 25mm. This diameter should be used up to
the end of the line at chainage 1+240m.
Hydraulic analysis indicates that the above arrangement produce a working
pressure of 28.5m at the end of the line. This working pressure is adequate to
make minor extension to the line. In this regard an end cap is recommended
at the end of the line.
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5.8

Relocated Villages
During desk study it was observed from the map (produced in 1972) that
there were some villages that needed separate profiles as branches from the
two main lines. These villages included Mjolo and Kasadwa. However, these
villages were not observed in their expected places during field survey. They
got relocated either closer to the hills or closer to Linthipe River. One distinct
observation was that Gwenembe looked a bit extended compared to what is
presented on the map. Interviews with villagers revealed that the area has
three villages namely Kasinje, Gwenembe and Julius.
Figure 11 below shows some of the areas that appear to have communities on
the map but there is an empty space in the field.

Figure 11: Project area indicating communities close to hills and Linthipe
River but empty in between

5.9

Profiles

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Profiles have been drawn to the following scales:

1:50,000 for horizontal.

1:1,000 for vertical

The invert level of the pipe is dictated by pipe size, soil conditions, expected
loading on top of the pipeline and risk to vandalism. In this scheme the
community expressed willingness to have the facility and to contribute
towards its implementation. In this case it was assumed that the risk of
vandalism from the communities is minimal. However, the area is not closed
up. It can be accessed by outsiders who may vandalize the facilities.
In all cases pipe diameters are 110mm or less. Generally minimum cover over
the top of the pipe should be as follows:

450mm for light loading.

600mm for medium loading.
900mm for heavy loading

The lines from the spring boxes will cross the road. Therefore they will be
subjected to heavy loading from passing vehicles.
Considering all these factors the invert level for all main lines is taken to be at
900mm below the surface while the smaller branches are put at 600mm.

5.10

Tap Locations
Taps are located in all areas where the population is concentrated. In the
Chauwa Distribution Line there is Chauwa Primary School which needs a tap of
20mm because it is an institution. In general each tap is designed to serve a
maximum of 120 people. Where communities have more than 120 people
additional taps are provided. The other limiting factor is that people should
not walk more than 500m to access water. Therefore isolated communities
with more than 500m radius will have taps allocated to each of the
communities.
According to the information gathered during field visits and surveys, taps
supplying communities close to the springs will be maintained.

5.11

Valves and Fittings

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In general all PVC pipes are jointed using rubber-rings located at one end of
each pipe. The end without a rubber-ring is carefully inserted into the end with
a rubber-ring. Where the PVC pipe is jointed to a GI pipe like in case of stream
crossings, an appropriate size of VJ coupling or CI Joint may be used.
HDPE pipes are jointed using couplings of appropriate sizes determined by the
pipe size.
Y fittings will be installed at all places where there are branches. The size of
the fittings will be dictated by the diameter of the branch. Please refer to the
profiles for specifications of each fitting.
Sluice Valves will be located in each line just after the branch. Air valves will
be installed on all high spots to prevent air-locks. Wash-out valves and drains
will be provided on all lower spots to ensure that water is flushed out during
maintenance.
Gate valves will be installed to all smaller lines immediately after branches to
ensure that they are isolated when need arises. In like manner gate valves or
stopcocks will be installed just before taps.
A section of about 5m to the stand pipe including the stand pipe itself will
utilize GI pipes. The GI pipes will be fitted to HDPE using couplings of
appropriate size. Bends, elbows and bib taps will be of GI.
Isolation valves have been proposed in section which are more than 2.5Km
long
Adaptors or reducers will be installed where a smaller pipe is joined to a larger
pipe.

5.12

Thrust Blocks
Thrust blocks have been proposed for all valves (but not gate valves), bends,
tees and reducers. The general requirement is that thrust blocks must be
strong enough to resist the maximum expected pressure.

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5.13

Aprons, Washing Slabs and Drainage

It has been proposed to construct aprons and washing slabs at each tap to
ensure that tap premises are kept clean, sanitary well and without mud. It has
equally been proposed to construct brick wall drains so that all water wastes
can be discharged into soak pits. However this is at the discretion of the
community.

CHAPTER SIX
6.1

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction
The conclusion and recommendations provided hereunder were based on the
conditions observed at the time of field investigations and design of the
scheme in September 2011.

6.2

Conclusion
Field investigations revealed that it is possible to upgrade and extent Chilenje
Rural Piped Water Scheme to serve more people residing in the Linthipe Valley.
There is adequate water to meet the demand over the design period. The
terrain of the area permits water transmission by gravity from the sources to
the storage reservoir and from the reservoir to all water points.

6.3

Recommendations
The following recommendations were proposed: In view of the growing population against a constant yield from the
springs, all the available waters should be trapped using the same

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technology. Two spring capping structures are proposed to augment

the present supply.
There is an additional spring that shows some potential of yielding a
reasonable amount of water. It is recommended to tap this spring as
well. Since the upper area is already supplied from other springs or
from alternative sources no storage tank is proposed for this spring. All
the water is expected to flow directly to the proposed common tank.
Field interviews revealed that most communities were previously living
up hill. As a result the upper area is encroached and cultivation is still
taking place. It is recommended that cultivation in the area stops and
that the communities should engage in preserving the catchment area.
This will assist aquifer recharge but at the same time will prevent
contamination of the source.
It is recommended to lay 75mm Galvanized Steel (GS) pipes between
Spring Capping 1 and the common storage tank and between Spring
Capping 2 and the common storage tank.
It is recommended to install 50mm Galvanized Steel (GS) pipes from
Spring Capping 3 and 4 to the proposed common storage tank.
It is recommended to construct a common storage tank of 119m 3 in
volume. The tank should be constructed in concrete. The dimensions of
the tank should be 8.9m x 7.4m x 2.4m. To allow for continuous
circulation of water, the tank is baffled with walls inside.
It is recommended to lay class 10 pipes throughout the scheme apart
from rocky areas gully crossings and community connections. This is
done to ensure that the communities do not make mistakes in sourcing
pipes of different classes during repairs. Experience has also shown
that class 6 pipes cause problems in most schemes.
It is recommended to install end caps at the end of each profile to
allow for minor extensions in future.

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APPENDICES

Population Projections, Design Calculations

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APPENDIX 1

POPULATION PROJECTIONS, DEMAND PROJECTIONS, SPRING DISCHARGES

AND TANK VOLUME
APPENDIX 2
CHAUWA PROFILE
SURVEY DATA, DESIGN CALCULATIONS AND HYDRAULIC CHART

APPENDIX 3
GWENEMBE PROFILE
SURVEY DATA, DESIGN CALCULATIONS AND HYDRAULIC CHART

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APPENDIX 4

MKHALALA PROFILE
SURVEY DATA, DESIGN CALCULATIONS AND HYDRAULIC CHART

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APPENDIX 5

STORAGE TANK STRUCTURAL, DESIGN CALCULATIONS

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Manual M23.
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27. T.D. Jordan Jr. Handbook of Gravity Flow Water Systems for Small
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