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Lectura
Lectura
Small oscillation
Stability:
The result F = -dU/dx is useful not only for computing the force but also for visualizing
the stability of a system from the potential energy plot.
Suppose there is a force on the particle is F = -dU/dx, and the system is in equilibrium
where there is no force i.e. dU/dx = 0. If this occurs at a minimum of U it is a stable
equilibrium whereas if it is at a maximum of U, the equilibrium is unstable. Say, dU/dx
= 0 occurs at some point xo. To test for stability we must determine whether U has a
minimum or a maximum at xo. One needs to examine d2U/dx2 at xo.
If the second derivative is positive, the equilibrium is stable; if it is negative, the system
is unstable. If d2U/dx2 = 0, one must look at higher derivatives. If all derivatives vanish
so that U is constant in a region about xo, the system is said to be in a condition of
neutral.
For E > 0, the motion is unbounded, and the atoms are free to fly apart.
For E < 0, the motion is bounded, and the atoms never approach closer
than ra or move farther apart than rb.
Since,
1 dx
K = m = E U ,
2 dt
2( E U )
dx
=
or
dt
m
x2
t=
x1
dx
2( E U )
m
where x1 and x2 are the turning points. The time period is then T=2t.
Consider the potential shown in the figure. Find the period of oscillation.
b
t=
0
2b
dx
+
2E b
m
dx
2( E U0 )
m
1 m
= b 1 +
3 U0
1 m
Thus, T = 2b 1 +
3 U0
=b
m
m
+b
3U 0
U0
E=3U0/2
U=2U0
U=U0
U=0
Small oscillation
Nearly every bound system oscillates like a harmonic oscillator if it is slightly perturbed
from its equilibrium position.
Expand U(r) about r0, the position of the potential
minimum.
where
Frequency of small oscillation:
U
mx = F ( x) =
= kx,
x
x + x = 0,
k
1 d 2U
=
=
m
m dr 2
r0
Molecular Vibrations
Suppose that two atoms of masses m1 and m2 are bound together in a molecule with energy so
low that their separation is always close to the equilibrium value ro. With the parabola
approximation, the effective spring constant is k=(d2U/dr2)Iro. How can we find the vibration
frequency of the molecule?
q + q = 0
where
A
B
Hence,
s 2 = L2 + l 2 2 Ll cos
Energy Considerations
For a harmonic oscillator:
and
&
Thus,
The time average kinetic and potential energies are equal. When friction is present,
this is no longer exactly true.
Trial solution:
with
= b / m,
x = x0 e t
x = x Ae1t + xB e 2t
where xA and xB are constants.
Consider
Then, x = Ae (
2 )t
cos (1t + )
Physically, E(t) decreases with time because the friction force continually dissipates
energy.
How E(t) depends on time can be found by calculating the kinetic and potential
energies K(t) and U(t). The velocity v is given by
x = Ae
( 2 )t
cos (1t + )
If the motion is only lightly damped, 'Y / WI 1, and the coefficient of the second term
in the bracket is small. Then
and
and
The Q of an Oscillator
The degree of damping of an oscillator is often specified by a dimensionless parameter
Q, the quality factor, defined by