APHRODITESTORTOISE

THEVEILEDWOMANOFANCIENTGREECE

Frontispiece.Veileddancer.BronzestatuettefromAlexandriac.200bc.
(CourtesyofTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,N.Y.)Seep.65.

APHRODITES
TORTOISE
TheVeiledWomanof
AncientGreece

LloydLlewellyn-Jones

The Classical Press of Wales

Firstpublishedin2003by
TheClassicalPressofWales
15RosehillTerrace,SwanseaSA16JN
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TypesetbyErnestBuckley,Clunton,Shropshire
PrintedandboundintheUKbyGomerPress,Llandysul,Ceredigion,Wales

TheClassicalPressofWales,anindependentventure,wasfoundedin1993,initiallytosupporttheworkof
classicistsandancienthistoriansinWalesandtheircollaboratorsfromfurtherafield.Morerecentlyithaspublished
workinitiatedbyscholarsinternationally.WhileretainingaspecialloyaltytoWalesandtheCelticcountries,the
Presswelcomesscholarlycontributionsfromallpartsoftheworld.
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theRedKitenowthrivesinWalesandbeyond.

Thisbookisdedicatedtothememoryofmygrandparents,
EbenJohn(19121987)andDorothyJohn(19182002).
Gydachariadmawrambopeth.

TheLadiescannotbebutpleasedtoseesomuchlearning
andGreekuponthisimportantsubject.
AlexanderPope,
CommentaryonIliad22.46872
(Andromakhesveil).

CONTENTS

Page

Prefaceandacknowledgements

ix

1. VeilingtheancientGreeks

2. DefiningTheveil

23

3. Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld

41

4. Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling

85

5. WhoVeils?Veilingandsocialidentityintheancient
Greeksources

121

6. Veiledandashamed

155

7. AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationand
domesticspace

189

8. Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle

215

9. Veilingthepollutedwoman

259

10. Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling

283

11. Conclusion

315

12. Bibliography

319

13. Index

353

vii

PREFACEANDACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ThisbookbeganinembryoaspartofmyMastersdissertation,TheShiningVeil:
womenandveilinginHomericandArchaicGreece.Fromthereitdevelopedinto
afullPh.D.thesis,WomenandVeilingintheAncientGreekWorld.Consequently
Ihavelivedwiththeveilformanyyearsnow,duringwhichtimeIhavenotchedup
thesupportandfriendshipofmanyindividuals.IamawarethatIhavebeenlucky
enoughtohaveencounteredsomanyspirited,generousandlearnedpeoplewho
deservetobethankedhere.
IthankirstmyPh.D.supervisors,Prof.NickFisher(whochristenedmeThe
VeilofGlamorgan)andDrSianLewisoftheDepartmentofAncientHistoryat
CardiffUniversity,notonlyfortheirvastreservesofknowledge,butalsofortheir
kindness,humourandexcellentfriendship;Iamdeeplyindebtedtothemboth.In
addition,IwanttothankallofthemembersofCardiff sAncientHistoryDepartmentfortheirwonderfulcamaraderieoverthepastsevenyears.Inparticular,Iwant
tothankmygoodfriendsDrShelleyHalesandDrShaunTougherforthesupport,
encouragementandlaughstheyprovidedduringourtimetogetherinCardiff.
ThethesiswasexaminedbyProf.LinFoxhallandDrDanielOgden,andItake
thisopportunitytothankthemfortheirperceptiveandencouragingcomments,
theirscholarship,andfortheircontinuedguidanceovertheyearssincethethesis
wascompletedin2000.
ThebookhasbeenwrittenduringmyyearsasResearchFellowintheDepartment
ofClassicalStudiesatTheOpenUniversity.Ithankmyex-colleaguesthereforthe
goodwillandsupporttheyceaselesslyprovided.SpecialthanksgotoProf.Lorna
HardwickandCarolGillespie.
Teachingcoursesonancientgenderandondressandsocialhistoryatvarious
universitydepartmentshasgivenmetheopportunitytorethinkmaterialcontained
within the thesis. I especially wish to thank the regular core of students (Gill
Marks,YvonneWilliams,BethThomas,MaureenPritchardandAinsleyFreeman,
amongothers)whoattendedthevariouscoursesIpresentedatCardiffUniversitys
DepartmentofLifelongLearning.TheytaughtmefarmorethanIcouldeverhope
toteachthem.
I am deeply indebted to Dr Sue Blundell and Prof. Douglas Cairns for their
generosityinsharingwithmetheirscholarlyviewsonveilingandrelatedsubjects.
TheyhavebeenstalwartsupportersofmeandmyworkandIamgreatlyhonoured
tocountthemasverygoodfriends.

ix

Preface
Iwishtothankthefollowingfriendsandcolleaguesfortheirvaluable(andoften
timely)co-operationandaid:DrMaureenAlden,DrRuthBardell,JohnGabriel
Boddard, Edward Bragg, Alison Burke, Prof. Gillian Clark, Andrew Dalby, Dr
Glenys Davies, Dr Susan Deacy, Michael Duigan, Dr Hella Eckardt, Dr Mary
Harlow,DrMalcolmHeath,KeithHopwood,DrJanetHuskinson,DrHelenKing,
AshleyJones(andallattheMuseumBookshop),Prof.TimothyMcNiven,Prof.
SilviaMilanezi,Prof.MargaretMiller,Prof.StephenMitchell,JanettMorgan,Rhian
Morgan,ElizabethArtemisMourat,DrLisaNevett,Prof.RobinOsborne,Prof.
NancyRabinowitz,DrJamesRobson,JenniferScarce,Prof.JudithSebesta,DrP.J.
Shaw,DrEmmaStafford,SraStewart,DrSt.JohnSimpson,Prof.Christopher
Tuplin,Prof.PeterWalcot,DrHansvanWees,DrGillianVogelsang-Eastwood
(myfellowveilologist),MelanieWalkerandWendyWatson.Ialsowanttothank
CeriJames,BrendaKnight,PeterKnight,Rob(andCara)Lane,EmmaRoutledge,
KeironSelf,LynneSeymourandallatMappaMundiforthediversions.Aunique
kindofthanksgoestomyextendedfamilyDrKarenStears,DrMarkTrewin
andyoungAlexander,withwhomIspendsomeofmyhappiesttimes.Ialsowant
tothankStevenGrifiths,togetherwithJenniferandKatherine,forthemanyhappy
andsupportiveyearswesharedtogether.IwanttosendheartfeltthankstoJamie
Harwood(agreattravelcompanion)who,morerecently,hashelpedmeinkeeping
itreal.
ThanksalsogototheUniversityofWalesInstituteofClassicsandAncientHistory
(UWICAH)andtoitsDirector,DrAntonPowell,whoseconsistentencouragement
andinvaluableadvicemeansomuchtomeonapersonalaswellasaprofessional
level.ImustalsoexpressmythankstoErnestBuckleyforhispatienceandexcellent
andskilfulco-operationinthecreationofthisbook.
Last,butbynomeansleast,Iexpressmyloveandgratitudetomymotherand
father,GillianandWilliam,fortheirsupportandkindness.Diolchogalon.

Alldatesgivenarebc,unlessotherwisestated.Alltranslationsaremyown,unless
otherwiseindicated.

1
VEILINGTHEANCIENTGREEKS
Shellbeembarrassedwhenwegoin,thatsclear,
Andshellveilherself,forthatswhatwomendo.

(Menander,Perikeiromene31112)1

ThisbookexplorestheveilingofwomenintheancientGreekworldfromtheperiod
betweenroughly900bcandad200.Itcoversawidegeographicalareathatranges
frommainlandGreecetoAsiaMinor,Egypt,andSouthItaly.Thestudyargues
thattheveilingofthefemaleheadorfacewaspartofamaleideologythatrequired
womentobesilentandinvisiblecreatures,likemutetortoisescontainedandhidden
withintheirshells.Thisbooksuggeststhatveilingwassoroutineapracticethatit
seldomreceivesamentionintheancientmalesources,although,asthequotation
fromMenandercitedatthetopofthispagesuggests,thehabitualpracticeofveiling
doesreceiveanoccasionalsidewardglanceinthetexts.Despite(orperhapsbecause
of)itsbrevity,Menandersstatement,thatthatswhatwomendo,speaksvolumes
abouttheroutinenatureofveiling.Women,thedaughtersofAphroditesexualized,
pollutedanddangeroussubscribedtothismaleideology(perhapswillingly,but
perhapsnot).Whileworkingwithintheconinesofthisphilosophythough,the
veiledwomanwasgrantedsomeindependenceandwasallowedadegreeoffreedom
ofmovementandself-expressionsincetheveilenabledthewomantocommenton
hersocialstanding,onheremotions(suchasangerandgriefandshame)andonher
ownsexuality.Justasthesilenttortoisehadthelibertytowanderaboutunderneath
herall-coveringshell,aslongasshestayedsilentlyunobtrusive,sotoocouldthe
womanofancientGreece.
Somethingoftheambiguity,inscrutabilityandfascinationoftheancientGreek
veilisfoundinasculptedfemaleheadprobablydatingtothefourthcentury(Fig.1);
itisshatteredandfragmentaryanddislocatedfromitsstonebody,butshowssigns
ofsublimedelicacyintheconidentmasteryofitsexecution.Theunknownsculptor
hastakenpainstomakethearrangementoftheelegantcoiffureradiatelikesun
raysaroundtheovalface,althoughthevisageitselfismysterious,imperceptible.
Itlacksanose,butthatisinconsequential,forfallingdownfromthecrownofthe
headontothefaceandacrossoneeye,sothathalfofthecountenanceisconcealed,
hangsadiaphanouslylimsyveil.Theartisttoyswithissuesofvisibilitybeneaththis
delicateface-covering.
1

Chapter1
The sculpted head comes from
Cyrene in North Africa, although it
depicts awoman dressed in hellenic
fashion. It stands as avisual metaphor
forthisstudyonwomenandveilingin
the ancient Greek world because, like
thesubjectmatter,thestonehead,found
ontheperipheryoftheGreekworld,is
fragmentary;ithaspartsmissing.Certain
piecesofthefacehavelongsincedisappeared;itevenlacksabody,acontext,as
it were. The sources on ancient veiling
are similarly incomplete and imperfect;
theyareoftenwidelyscatteredandfragmentary, and sometimes they too lack
acontext.
Butthebatteredveiledstoneheadis
Fig.1.VeiledmarbleheadfromCyrene.Fourth
also
compelling. Despite its dilapidated
centurybc.Musedesculptures,Cyrene.After
Onians1979.
conditionitisstillbeautifulandweare
forcedtoadmiretheskillthatwentinto
itscreationandtheanonymousartistwhohadtheconidencetorenderthesemitransparencyofthefoldsofaveilfallingacrossaface.Filledwithadmiration,the
depictionoftheveildrawsustothesculptureandcompelsustogazeuponand
studyitsdelineation.Theeffectoftheveilingleavesus,theviewers,wantingmore;
weyearntotouchtheveil,liftit,andgazeunimpededuponthefacebeneath.We
askquestionsoftheveilandofitswearer:whoisshe?whyissheveiled?withwhatis
sheveiled?Howdoestheveilrelectthiswomanscondition?Issheconinedbeneath
itsfoldsordoessheusetheveilfortoherownends,forherownpurpose?Howdoes
theveilmakeusfeel?
Theancientevidencethatwehaveatourdisposalforthestudyoftheveilinthe
Greekworldtextsandimagesarecorrespondinglyabsorbingandtheyforceus
toaskthesametypesofquestions.Fragmentarytheymaybe,butonceanexplorationoftheancientsourcesonthenatureandroleofveilingintheGreekworldis
undertaken,thesourcesbecomeenticingandcompelling.Theydemandthattheveil
ofacademicsilenceoratleastofscholarlyneglectbeliftedtoo.Forscholarship
hasnotbeenattentivetotheconceptofveilinginancientGreece;therehasnever
beenamajorstudyofGreekveilingpractices,althoughtherearemanyenquiries
intotheconstructionanddrapingstylesofGreekdressingeneral.2However,these
studiestendtoconcentrateondecipheringGreekclothingfromtheartworksand
haverarelyfocusedattentiononthesocialandsymbolicmeaningsofGreekdress,
althoughtheimportanceofclothingasasocialandartisticconstructoftheancient
Greekworldisinallybeginningtobeacknowledgedinmodernscholarship.3
2

VeilingtheancientGreeks
In1931CarolineGaltundertookthemostcomprehensivestudyoftheGreekveil
todateinhertwenty-pagearticleVeiledLadiesinwhichshearguedthattheveiling
oftheheadandfacebywomenwithinGreeksocietyfromthearchaicperiodtothe
hellenisticerawasacommonplace.4Shewasparticularlyinterestedinthehellenistic
mantledance,butalsoanalysedtheritualunveilingofthebrideatthewedding
ceremonyknownastheanakalypteria,andadvancedthe(unsubstantiated)ideathat
veiledwomenfoundonfourth-centuryAtheniantombstoneswereactuallywearing
mourning veils. Analysis of textual evidence for veiling was kept to aminimum
however,andGaltmadeonlyoneleetingreferencetoveilinginthearchaicperiod,
althoughshedidproduceevidenceofveilingintheRomanworldofthesecond
centuryad,whichsheseesasacontinuationofalonghellenicpracticeofveiling.
Despiteherratherlimited(andsometimesnaive)readingsoftheancientevidence,
Galtdidmaketheimportant(and,inmyeyes,irrefutable)pointthat,
In publicwomen were always more heavily swathed on the streets than has been
realizedTheveilingoftheface[was]somethingmorethanasymbolthroughoutthe
wholeoftheGreekperiod.5

Thisstatementliesattheheartofmyargument.Isuggestthatwomenofvarying
socialstrataintheancientGreekworldwerehabituallyveiled,especiallyforpublic
appearancesorbeforeunrelatedmen,andthatanunderstandingofthefunction
ofveilinginGreeksocietycanaddtoourknowledgeofGreeksocialstructureand
especiallytotheperceptionsofgenderinhellenicantiquity.Veilingtellsusmuch
aboutthemaleconstructionofthefemaleandcanevenenlightenusaboutfemale
self-perceptionwithinanygivensociety.ThequotationfromMenandersfourthcentury Athenian comedy Perikeiromene, quoted at the heading of this chapter,
operatesinsuchaway:ayoungman,Moschion,speaksthewordsandhenotes
thatwomenwillinstinctivelyveilthemselvesinthepresenceofaman(thatswhat
womendo).Thereasonfortheirveiling,hesays,liesintheirmodesty,theirimbued
senseofshameandembarrassment.Thefemalegestureofface-veilingissonatural
thatitneedsnofurthercommentorelaborationbyMoschion.
Therearemanyreferencestotheveilandtotheactofveilingscatteredthroughout
GreekliteratureandlocatedinGreekiconography,butnotoneofthesesources
categoricallytellsusthereasonsfortheuseoftheveilinGreeksociety,orhowit
wasperceived,orevengivessuchdetailsaswhoworetheveilandwhenitwasworn.
Theseparticularshavetobegleanedfromscatteredtextsandimagesdrawntogether
tomakeamorecomplete(butnotnecessarilywhole)picture.
Scholarsandfundamentalists
Whatisparticularlypuzzlinginregardtothestudyofancientveilingpractices,isthe
scholarlysilencewhichhaspersistentlysurroundedthesubject.Theriseofwomens
historyinthelate1970ssawsomeremarkablebreakthroughsintheevaluationand
perceptionofwomenslotinantiquity,andthedrivetoinvestigatetheancientfemale
experiencehasmorerecentlybeensetbesideissuesofmasculinitytocreatethenew
3

Chapter1
disciplineofancientgenderstudies.Increasingly,scholarlyattentionhasturnedto
conceptsofthemasculineconstructofthefemaleandtothefemaleresponsetothat
paradigm,withparticularemphasisbeinglaidonthenotionofOtherness,thatis,
womanasoutsider,astheOther.Academicdebateconcentratesonissuesofhow
womenwererepresentedinancientliteratureandartasvoicelessconstructs;inthe
studyofdailylife,interesthasfocusedonissuessuchasfemaleseclusionandsegregationinGreek(oratleastAthenian)society,butalsoonnotionsoffemalevisibility
asrelectedinAtticdramaanddailylifebymeansoftheirindispensablereligious
dutiesandfunctions.Whathasnotbeendebatedtoanylogicalconclusion,however,
ishowthemaleidealisticconstructofcorrectfemalebehaviourmighthavebeen
putintopracticeinactuality.Scholarshavearguedforseveraldecades,forexample,
totrytoexplainthedichotomybetweentheperceivedideologyoffemaleseclusion
anditspracticalenforcement.Somehavepointedoutthatwomen(ofcertainclasses)
wereconinedtothehomewhileothershavenotedthatevidenceadvocatesthat
theyhadtheabilitytomoveaboutinthepublicspherewithcomparativefreedom.
Nobodyhassuggestedthattheissuemightbepartiallyresolvedbytheuseofveiling
andthattheveilcreatesaportableformofseclusionthatawomanisabletowearon
hervisitsintothemalepublicworld.6Evidenceforthisconceptexistsintheancient
sources,butuptothispointithaspassedunnoticed(oratleastwithlittlecomment)
byclassicalscholarship.
Infact,veryfewcontemporaryscholarsseeminterestedinusingthetermsveil
orveilingatall.Thosewhoacknowledgethatwomencoveredtheirheadsorfaces
withagarment,thatistosayaveil,prefertocallitamantle,shawl,kerchief ,
drape,orcloak.Theinstanceswherethishappensarenumerous.Forexample,
MartinRobertsonsdiscussionofaclassicalsculpture,ofawomanconventionally
knownasAspasia(Fig.2),runsasfollows:
She does not wear the peplos, but the old chiton and
himationTheclosefoldsoftheinechitonappearonly
near the feet. Above that aheavy mantle is wrapped all
round the body and brought over the head. The right
handisonthebreastunderthemantle.Theopenlefthand
issuesfromthewrapsatwaist-level.7

Robertsonfailstoacknowledgethatwhatwehavehere
isanimageofawomanwithaveiledhead.Likewise,John
Boardmandescribesthesameigureas,awomandraw[ing
a] cloak over head.8 Recently, Pantelis Michelakis has
carefullyavoidedthewordveilinhisdiscussionofthe
portrayaloftragicsilenceontheAthenianstage,preferring
tousemantleorcovering.Thusheobserves,
Fig.2.Standingveiledfemale,
conventionallycalledAspasia,
c.470450.Romancopy.
AshmoleanMuseumCastGallery.

In vase paintings, mantled igures feature in various

contextsthe act of covering oneself with amantle
denotes grief [Furthermore] the use of the mantle
denotesindifference,resistanceandhostility.9

VeilingtheancientGreeks
Wemightsupposethatclassicalscholarsunfamiliarwithdress-termsmightnot
thinktousethewordveil(althoughRobertsonappearstobeconidentinhisuseof
Greekdressterminology),indeedinallsinceritytheymaynotrecognizeawomans
head-coveringasaveilatall;butthisisguilelesslytoexcusethemofalargerandmore
signiicantpurposeinignoringtheveil.Isuggestthatclassicalscholarshipwishesto
distanceitself(whetherknowinglyorsubconsciously)fromthepoliticalandsocial
ramiicationsthattheveilhasintheliberatedWestandIarguethatscholarship
isreluctanttoconnectitselftoagarmentthat,toagreatextent,isintimatelyand
fundamentallyassociatedwiththesubjugationofwomenandwiththenotionof
OrientalOtherness.
Theveilisstillanemotionalandimpassionedsubjectformanypeople.Itis
afamiliarimageintodaysWesternmediawhereitisusedinthree(oftencontradictory)ways:irstly,itisusedtohighlightfemalesexualityboundupwithinthe
concept of oriental hedonism. This is the veil of sex, and it is used to illustrate
storiesofthekidnappingofWesterngirls,enslavementinharems,andscandals
intheSaudiroyalfamily.Imagesofbelly-dancersusingveilsasessentialpropsare,
oddlyenough,frequentlyusedbyWesternmediatoemphasizetheencroachmentof
Islamonsecularlifestyles.OnereportintheSundayTimes,forexample,wasentitled
VeiledPrincessesSpendMillionsOnVirtualEscapeandneatlydrawstogetherthe
Westernfascinationwiththeconceptofindolentveiledbeautieslongingtopeerout
(ifonlybymeansofhightechgadgetry)frombehindtheveilsandharemwallsthat
surroundthem.10ThisisaleftoverimagefromthesensualOrientalistaccountsof
nineteenth-centurytravelwritersandnovelists.
Next,theveilisregardedbythemediaasthemostpowerfulsymbolofthesuppressionofwomen,particularlyintheMiddleEast.Followingtheterroristattackson
America in 2001 and the fall of the Taliban regime,
westernaudienceshavebeenbombardedwithtelevision
andnewspaperimagesofdowntroddenwomensocially
andpoliticallyconstrainedbeneathburqaas.Acrusade
toliberatewomenfromtheconinesoftheirveilswas
organized by the wives of European and American
politicalleaders,although,infact,atthetimeofwriting,
television images of women in Kabul still show them
swathedwithintheirgarments.Longstandingtraditions
diehard.
Thethirdwayinwhichthemediatendstoenvisage
theveilisfarmoreharmful.Itisutilizedasanimage
ofterror,thesymbolparexcellenceofMuslimfundamentalismandtheIslamicthreattotheWest,anidea
bestcapturedinthesatiricrepresentationoftheicon
Fig.3.TheNewLiberty.TheStatue
ofWesternfreedom,theStatueofLiberty,Islamicized
ofLiberty,symbolofdemocratic
freedom,isveiledbeneathaburqaa. beneathaburqaa(Fig.3).

CourtesyofAlisonBurke.

Chapter1
Islamaphobia is best encapsulated in the image of the veil, adepersonalising
garmentstandingasametaphorforallthatisperceivedtobeoppressiveandaggressiveaboutMuslimsocietyeitherbecauseitstandsformilitarismorforoppression.11IntheWestwearefedstartlingmediareportswithheadlineslikeTheVeilof
Tears,12AVoiceBehindtheVeil,13LackofschoolingVeilsAfghanfuture14and
AngerBehindtheVeil15whichrarelyaddressissuesofIslamichijab(sacreddress
andveilingcodes)butnonethelesschoosetousetheveilanditsimageryasasymbol
ofeverythingthatisthreateningabouttherecentupsurgeinMuslimfundamentalismandIslamicnationalism.16Littleattentionispaidtothefactthattheveilis
asmuchaboutreligiousbelief,personalidentity,communitytradition,andfemale
self-perceptionasitisaboutnationalorIslamicunity.17
Withthiskindofsocio-politicalbaggagebehindit(abaggagewhichhas,infact,
slowlyaccumulatedoverthecenturies),itisnowonderthatissuessurroundingthe
veilhaveonlybeententativelyapproachedbytraditionalclassicalscholarship.Itis
possiblethattheveilistoocloselyboundupinthenotionofIslamizationandistoo
acutelyperceivedasarestrictingandrestrictivegarmentforwomentoopoliticalin
otherwordstobeconceivedofasanappropriateattributeoftheclassicalworld,
especiallyforthedemocraticGreeks.Butscholarshiphasrecognizedforsometime
thatancientGreekcivilizationwasnotanall-embracingfreesocietyinwhichequality
forallwastheruleofthumb.Itadmitsthatslaves,foreigners,children,andwomen
weretheOtherandgrantsthatawomanslotinanancientGreekcommunity
could be unsatisfactory in the extreme. ByveilingtheirwomentheGreekswere
creatingacertainideologythathadaresonanceforthosewithinthatsociety,both
maleandfemale.ByacknowledgingthatGreekwomenmighthavebeenhabitually
veiled,classicalscholarshipwouldhavetoadmitthatthoseconstructedideologies
wereincreasinglyencroachingonsimilarideologieslocatedincontemporaryveilsocieties,especiallythoseoftheArabworld(which,asIhopetoshow,arenotto
becondemnedasallbad).Thereforethereisahazardthatyetagainthedemocratic
Greeksareremovedafurtherstepfromthecreedthatupholdsthemasstandingat
thecradleofWesterncivilization.AcknowledgingthatGreekwomenwereveiled
andthatGreekmaleshadanideologyoffemaleveilingopensupthedangerthat
theGreeksthemselvesshouldbeclassedastheOther.18
Greekveilingideologywaspartofawidespreadtraditionoffemaleveilinglocated
throughouttheancientNearEasternandMediterraneanworlds.TheearliestprototypesoftheGreekveilweretobefoundinanumberofsuccessivecivilizationsof
theNearEast,whereitwaswornbythewomenofSumer,theHittites,andNeoHittites,theHebrews,thePersians,andtheAssyrians,fromwhomwegettheearliest
knownlawcodeonveilingMiddleAssyrianlaw40,anedictthatnotonlystrictly
classiiesthetypeofwomeneligibletoweartheveil,butonethatalsodifferentiates
betweenthesortsofveilstheycanwear.Greekveilingandthephilosophybehind
itoperatedwithinthegeneralmilieuoftheancientNearEast.Recentscholarship
isbeginningtoadvocateandpushforwardwithincreasingconidencethenotion
6

VeilingtheancientGreeks
thatGreeceistoberegardedasaWesternbranchoftheoldcivilizationsofHatti,
Mitanni,Babylon,Assyria,andtheLevant,sharingintheircerebralprocessesand
materialartefactstosuchanextentthatsomemodernhellenistsarecomingtoregard
GreecemerelyasacolonyoftheNearEast.19Thisisperhapstakingthingstoofar,
althoughitwouldserveuswelltorememberthat,Greecewasneversealedofffrom
theEast,andreceivedimpulsesfromthatdirectionatmostperiods.20
ThetruthofthematteristhattheGreekswereindeedpartoftheenvironment
oftheOrientalOther.ThatOthernessisstressedinmanyareasofGreeklifeand
customs.Althoughscholarlyattentionhasnotfocusedinanydepthontheissueof
clothingandtextiles,itisbecomingclearthatGreekdresswasalsoheavilyinluenced
byNearEasternstylesandideologies;theveilwascertainlyoneofseveralgarmenttypessharedbyGreekandNearEasternwomen.
Evidence for the use of the veil in Greek society is undeniable. So in order
toneutralizethethreatofveiledotherness,scholarshiphaspassedoverthefact
thattheGreeksveiledtheirwomenandinsteaditsubmitsideasthatwomenwere
drapedinshawls,mantles,cloaks,andhoods.Theterminologysoftensthe
notionthat,infact,Greekwomenwereveiledwithavarietyofveil-stylesthatwere
deliberatelyintendedtocovertheheadorthefaceorthebody,workingaspartof
ageneralmaleideologythatadvocatedandendorsedtheveilingofwomen,atleast
inthepublicsphere.
Interestingly,Frenchscholarship(classicalandother)ismoreacceptingoftheveil
anddoesnotappeartobealarmedaboutusingvoileasalegitimateterminartand
textualstudies.ThismightbeexplainedbyFranceshistoricalconnectiontotheArab
world(Algeriainparticular)whichisstillkeenlyfelttoday.Therecentheadscarf
debateinsecularschoolshasforcedtheissueofveilingbackintotheheadlinesand
Frenchacademiahasrespondedaccordingly(especiallyamongfemalescholars)with
are-examinationofthehistory,symbolismandfunctionofveilingintheEastand
West.21Thefactremains,however,thatevenonthecontinentscholarsofclassical
antiquityarenotsuficientlyattentivetothehistoryofveilinginancientsocieties.22
BritishandAmericanacademicshavebeen,onthewhole,manifestlyreluctant
touseveilinartisticandliterarystudies.However,whiletherehavebeennofulllengthsystematicstudiesofclassicalveilingtodate,someheadwayhasbeenmade.
Forexample,DouglasCairnsimportantworksontheGreekideaofaidos,hashad
causetomentiontheveilonnumerousoccasionsasacrucialelementintheancient
conceptanddisplayofshame,modesty,andreserve.23Heusesthetermsveiland
veilingcorrectlyandconsistentlythroughouthisscholarshipandisconidentin
implementing anthropological and ethnographic studies of contemporary veilsocietiestosupporthisargumentsandsuppositions.Additionally,SueBlundellhas
addressedthesubjectofveiling,chielyinregardtoherstudiesoftherepresentation
ofgenderinGreekartand,moregenerally,fromherworkonwomeninancient
Greeksociety.Shehasnotedthat,
In Athens veils were of two main types. Awoman could either drape her cloak or

Chapter1
himationoverherheadtoformaveilorsheusedaseparatepieceofmaterial,likealarge
scarf,whichagainwaswornlooselyoverthehead.24

Here she correctly notes that the garments conventionally worn (or draped)
aroundtheGreekfemalebodycouldbepulledovertheheadtoformaveil.Her
terminologyisprecise,forsherealizesthatanygarmentthatusuallyfunctionsas
acoveringforthebodywhenpulledupontotheheaddoesindeedbecomeaveil.
Shecontinues,
sometimesaswellascoveringtheirheads[women]alsoheldtheveilupinfrontoftheir
faces,sothatonlytheireyescouldbeseen.25

Furthermore, Blundell also offers an interpretation of the social function of the

Greek(orAthenian)veil:
Theevidenceisverylimited,butisseemsthatveilswereusedmainlywhenwomen
wereoutofthehouseorappearedinthecompanyofmentowhomtheywerenot
related Buttheremaynothavebeenanyhardandfastrulesaboutwhenveilswere
necessary Therewerecertainoccasions,however,whenveilswereevidentlyaritual
requirement Forwomenthemostsigniicantoccasionwhentheveilwasusedwas
certainlyhermarriage.26

Blundellsconidenceinusingveilasanappropriatewordtodescribeanancient
garment is matched by her perception that the nature of the garment allows it
agreatdealoflexibility;shenotesthatitcouldbeconstructedfromotherarticlesof
clothingorthatitcouldbeaspeciicdress-articleinitsownrightandsheobserves
thatitcanbeputtousetocovertheheadorthefaceaccordingtotheneedsor
inclinationsofthewearer.
Butthedeinitionofveilisnotixedevenamongscholarswhoarepreparedto
usethetermanditisclearthatthereisaproblemwiththescholarlyvocabularyof
veiling.Itisaswelltostateatthispoint,therefore,thatinthisstudyveilwillbe
usedtorefertoanygarmentthatcoverstheheadortheface,whileveiledcanrefer
tothecoveringofthehead,thecoveringoftheface,orthecoveringoftheheadand
theface;anattemptwillbemadetomarkoutthedifferencesasindividualcases
arise.Itisnecessarytodeinethesewordsinsuchawaybecauseitissurprisingto
notehowimprecisescholarscanbeintheirdeinitionsofthewordsveil,veiling,
andveiled.AnexamplemaybetakenfromancientNearEasternscholarship.As
wehavealreadynoted,theveilwasfoundinanumberofNearEasternsocietiesand
inavarietyofstyles,andwasanessentialaspectoffemalelifeandthestructuring
ofgenderhierarchyintheancientNearEast.Itispuzzlingthereforetoreada1975
articlebytheJewishscholarMatitahuTsevatonHittitemarriagelawsinwhichhe
claims,womenintheancientNearEastwereordinarilynotveiled.27Moreover,
continuinghisinvestigationbycommentingonanAssyrianpalacereliefshowing
captiveHebrewwomenbeingledintoexile(Fig.4),hestatedthat,theirheadsare
coveredforthelongtrek,butnotveiled.28Coveredbutnotveiledsurelythis
isacontradictioninterms?However,asonebeginstodigestTsevatsarticleand
8

VeilingtheancientGreeks
startstoappreciatehisnuanceduseof
terminology,soitbecomesclearthathis
deinitionofveiledseemstobestrictly
limited to the meaning with face
covered; he does not classify veiling
asalludingtothecoveringofthehead.
Inotherwords,Tsevatistryingtosay
Fig.4.LinedrawingtakenfromanAssyrianpalacerelief
thatthecaptivewomenhavetheirheads
atLachish,c.745725,showingveiledfemalecaptives.
BM,London.
covered,buttheirfacesareexposed.
The scholarly avoidance of the word veil is no doubt compounded by this
uncertaintyastowhetherthecoveringofthehead,butnottheface,withacloth
shouldbereferredtoasveiling.InpopularEnglishparlanceveilingsimplyimplies
thatsomeoneiswearingsomekindoffacecovering,thetypedescribedbytheOCD
(s.v.veilsb2)asapieceofnetorthingauzymaterialtiedtothehatandcompletely
coveringthefaceinordertoprotectit,althoughthisoversimpliieddeinitiondoes
not do justice to the complexity of veil-styles found throughout the world. The
deinitionisveryEurocentric,sincetheveilisdeinedasanetdecorationattached
toahat,thekindpopularlywornbywomenatmodernweddingsandfunerals;this
veilisafashionablecaprice.Aveilasseeninbothcontemporaryandancientveilsocieties,isahead-covering(essentiallyalong,broadcloth)thathastheabilitytobe
turnedintoafacecoveringbydrawingitacrossthevisage,orelseitisaspeciiccloth
face-covering,usuallycreatedwithpiercedeye-holes,whichisworninconjunction
withaseparatehead-veil(ofcourse,face-veilsandhead-veilscarrywiththemvery
differentsocialideologies,andthesewillbehighlightedthroughoutthisstudy).29
Thereforeitwouldbemuchmorehelpfulifweweretotakethewordveiledto
meanwithfaceorheadcovered.Itisinthismoregeneralsensethatthetermwill
beappliedinthisstudy.
Arguingfromsilence?
ThoseancientsourceswhichareatourdisposalforthestudyoftheGreekveilvary
innatureandintentandaredistributedoverawideperiod.Theliteraryevidence
includes poetic and dramatic works, histories, philosophical treaties, medical
writings,epigraphy,andevenlettersanddomesticaccounts;theartisticmaterial
includesblack-igureandred-igurepottery,reliefcarvingandstandingsculpture,
terracottastatuettes,wall-paintings,andjewellery.Theseiconographicsourcesare
alsoscatteredoverawidegeographicalareaandlengthytimescale.
Thesesourcesareproblematic,involvingaheavymalebias.Inaddition,eachof
theseparatecategoriesofsourcematerialhasitsownagendaandthereforeitsown
pitfalls in its effectiveness as apiece of evidence. Dramatic texts for example no
doubtgiveaprejudicedandonthewholenegativeviewoffemalelifeinAthens;they
were,afterall,composedbymenandperformedbymentoa(predominantly?)male
audienceaspartofacivic(thereforemale)ceremonial.Theideologicalseparation
9

Chapter1
betweenthemasculineandfemininespheresisstressedinbothcomedyandtragedy
andbothgenresquestiontheeffectofsexualrole-reversalsuponsociety(explicitlyin
comedywithitscross-dressingscenes,andmoresubtlyintragedywherefemalestake
uponthemselvespsychologicallymasculineroles).Yetinspiteoftheideologicaland
inquiringnaturesofthesedramaticworks,itwouldbefoolishtobelievethatthese
playsdonotallowusglimpsesintothedailystructureofthesocietyoutofwhich
theywerecreated.Elementsofreal-lifefemaleexperienceanditsmaleconstruction
mustbecontainedwithintheplaysalthoughthetroublestartswhenweattemptto
teaseouttherealityfromtheideology.
Muchofthisstudymightberegardedbythereaderasanargumentconstructed
fromsilence,thoughthesilenceoftheancientsourcesisnotabsolute;thereareenough
voicessurvivingintheancientevidencetoalertustothenotionthatveilingwas
necessarilyroutineforGreekwomenindailylifeandthatthesymbolismofveiling
wasamajorfacetofthe(male)constructionofGreekwomanhood.Thescattered
referencestotheveilintheancientliterarysourcesarepartofamoregeneralpattern
inwhichmanyaspectsofancientlife,foravarietyofreasons,arenotdiscussedinany
depthorelsearementionedonlyinpassing,sincetheywouldhavebeenfamiliartothe
ancientaudienceandwouldnothaveneededfurtherelucidation.30Literaryevidence
tendsonlytofocusonacustomaryordailyobjectoractivitywhenitisbeingmisused
orabusedandwewillnotethatwiththeuseoftheveil,textstendtofocusonthe
subjectoffemaleunveiling,anactinwhichtheusualandacceptedsocialprescripts
ofveilingarebrokenbyanon-conformingwoman.31Aveiledandcompliantwoman
tendstopassintheliterarysourceswithoutmuch(ifany)comment.
Iconographicsourcescanoftenillinthesilentgapsofthetextualevidenceand
theyfrequentlyportrayactivitiesthatarenotdiscussedinthewrittensourcesatall.
Butartisticevidenceoffersupitsownparticularproblems,andwemustbeaware
thaticonographicrepresentationdoesnotalwaysrelectdailyreality.Usingartas
evidencefordailylifeisimportant,butitmustberecognizedthatartisticevidence
twistsandcorruptsrealityforitsownends.Representationsoffemaledress(and
itsmaleanalogue,nudity),andfemaleveilinginparticular,areespeciallyproneto
artisticcontortions.32
The veil is, admittedly, often absent from the iconography of Greek women,
but Iargue that the veil actually appeared in daily life far more than it is ever
founddepictedinart.Thereisahugedichotomybetweenartisticrepresentation
ofwomanhood(whichisakindoffantasy)andthedailyrealitysuggestedbythe
literarysources.Whatoneseesintheartworks,certainlyasfarasfemalerepresentationgoes(andissuesofdressinparticular),doesnotalways(often?)correspondto
whatonewouldseeonthestreetsofAthens.33Iconographicevidenceiscertainly
confusinginitsambiguitytowardstheveil,forasLambinhasobserved,
Theiconographyofveilinghasanumberofdifferentuses,dependingonthecity,the
localeingeneral,theperiodandthefashion,evenfamilyhabits:itisnotatallunusual
toseeimagesofveiledandunveiledwomensidebyside.34

10

VeilingtheancientGreeks
SonumerousaretheimagesofwomenrepresentedonGreekpottery,thatitis
dificult to evaluate them satisfactorily. But with asmaller corpus of work, such
as grave monuments from aparticular locale, some igures can be provided. For
example,amongsomethousandgravereliefsstudiedfromEastGreece(mainlyfrom
AsiaMinor),therewereonlyifteenunquestionablyunveiledheadsofadultwomen;
hundredsofotherswereveiledorsemi-veiled.35Studiesofotherareasandperiods
revealdifferentigures:examinationsofMacedoniangravereliefsofthehellenistic
period showed that out of ahundred representations of women only thirty-eight
adultfemaleswereveiled,sothatsixty-threewereshownunveiled.36Theseresults
suggest,perhaps,thatthereweretrendsandfashionsinthedepictionofveiledwomen
thatvariedovertimeandplace,butnotnecessarilythattheveilitselfwasconsidered
unimportantforwomentowearatcorrespondingtimesandplaces.37
Greekartistswereclearlyabletodepictwomenveiled,butwhatisparticularly
interestingistherealizationthatforthemajorityofthetimetheychoosenotto.The
literaryevidencesuggeststhatdecentwomenshouldalwaysaimtobecoveredup,
butartallowswomentoappearnakedorsemi-nude.Theartistwhofashionsthe
womanunveiledmustthereforebeworkingtoadifferentagendatothecreatorsof
literature.Heisconstructingadifferentvisionofwomanhood.38Somewhereinthe
middleofthesepolaroppositesliesthetruthofancientGreekfemaleexperience:at
home,andinprivate,awomanmightwellhavewornthekindsofoutitsdepictedin
theartworks(toadegree)andincomictexts,butImaintainthatinpublicsituations
orinthepresenceofunfamiliarmen,awomanwasexpectedtobeveiled.
Ofcourse,thevastmajorityofrelevantsourceswepossesswerecreatedbymen,
sothatwelackafemaleperspective(theobviousexceptionisthepoetryofSappho).
This male bias can account for the lack of attention or interest shown in essentiallyfemaleareasoflife,likechildrearing,weaving,housekeeping,femaledress
andveiling,allofwhichwerewitnessedbymendaily(ornearenough)butwere
notconsideredworthyofrecordinginanydetailinthesources.Thecomparative
reticenceofancientmalesourcestoconsidertheveilandtheactofveilingispartof
thewidespreadsilenceonfemaleissuesingeneral.
TogetafullerpictureofwhatusesveilingservedinGreeksociety,howveiling
wasperceived,andhowtheveilittedintothemaleideology,weneedtoexpand
our supply of information. Our second step on the exploratory road requires us
toacknowledgetheimportanceofanthropologicalandethnographicstudiesthat
havebeenundertakenonthecentralsigniicanceofveilinginmodernveil-societies
worldwide.39
The signiicance of comparative studies upon classical social history is widely
felt in current scholarship. Recent research into ancient Greek housing, slavery,
andattitudestoviolence,genderandsexualityhasdrawnextensivelyon(primarily)
Mediterranean anthropology in order to lesh out the bare bones of antiquity.40
Classicistsutilizationofcomparativesocietiestendstobefosteredbythescarcityor
paucityofreliableinformationonmanyaspectsofancientGreekandRomanlife.
11

Chapter1
Thatisnottosay,ofcourse,thatdatafromotherculturescan(orshould)replace
missinginformationfromantiquity,butitcanbevaluableinprovidinghypotheses,
modelsorworkingmethodsforinvestigatingpastsocieties.However,caremustbe
takeninthechoiceofacomparativesociety;nowadaysitisnotconsideredsuficient
fortheanthropologically-mindedancienthistoriantoconcentrateattentiononsocalledMediterraneansocietysimplybecauseitistheworldinhabitedbythepeoples
ofclassicalantiquity,norisitthoughtadequateonlytofocusattentionuponthe
ruralcommunitiesofmodernGreeceinanattempttoassimilatetheirstylesofliving
withthoseofpastpeopleswhoinhabitedthesameland.Wemustrecognizethatthe
Mediterraneanworldisnotmadeupofonehomogeneoussocietyandthatmodern
Greecehasdevelopedoutofitsancientpastandhasnotnecessarilybeenconcerned
withconservinganantiquelifestylelikesomekindoflivingmuseum.41
When attempting to ind an anthropological model for her research on the
genderedelementsofancientGreekhouses,LisaNevettinvestigatedseveralcontemporary societies before deciding to focus her attention speciically on traditional
IslamicsocietyinthecityofTunis.ShesuggeststhatthestatusofwomenincontemporaryIslamicsocietycanbecomparedtothatofwomenintheancientGreekworld,
inthatitattractsallegationsofsevereauthoritarianismorprotectingpaternalism.
Nevettnotesthatthereareseveralpointsofdirectcomparison:irstlythereislegal
status,sincewomeninbothsocietiestendtolivetheirlivesaslegalminorsunder
thecontrolofparent,guardians,husbandorevensons.Secondly,thereistheissue
ofthedowry,forinbothGreeceandIslamiccommunitiesawomanisprovidedwith
adowrythatshehastherighttokeepifdivorcedbyherhusband.Then,inally,
thereistheimportantissueofpublicseparationofthesexes:theMuslimideologyof
femalesegregationcanbelikenedtotheancientGreekideologyofkeepingwomen
outofthepubliceye.42
InthisstudyImainlydrawoninformationgatheredfromtheveil-societiesof
the Near and Middle East (or the Arab world), the Indian subcontinent (from
mainlyMuslimsocieties),and(tosomeextent)theMediterranean.While,asNevett
stresses,manyofthesesocietiessharesomefundamentalideologiesaboutthestatus
ofwomen,noneofthemcanbesaidtobeacarboncopyoftheothers.Likewise,
manyofthechosensocietiesrelectcertainelementsofancientGreeksocialstructure
(inparticularitsgenderideology,atleastinregardtowomen),butnonecanbesaid
tobeaperfectmodelforancientGreeksociallife.Theveil-societiesinwhichIam
interestedarenow,Ibelieve,withoutexceptionbecomingincreasinglyindustrialized(ormodernized),havingescalatingaccessastheydotomassmedia,andare
generallyprogressivelymoreinluencedby(oraspireto)Westernlifestyles(although
sometimesprogresscontinuesincontradictiontooficialgovernmentallegislation,
as had been the case in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan). Nevertheless, in these
changingcommunities,femalelifestylesandthemaleideologyoffemaleexistence
tendtoresistchange(womenthemselvesaregenerallydiscouragedfromadjusting
ordevelopingtheirlifestyles).43Female-relatedissuestendtoremainrootedindeep
12

VeilingtheancientGreeks
tradition,andanydevelopmentsofthefemalelotinso-calledtraditionalsocieties
tendtomoveatamuchslowerplacethanthoseexperiencedbymen.
In modern Islamic societies women encounter daily dificulties and obstacles
thatare(practically)unknowntotheirwesterncounterparts,anditistheseimpediments and complications which allow for the comparison with ancient Greek
womenwhotendedtoexperiencelife,itcanbeargued,alongsimilarlines.Inan
illuminating study on the life-experiences of contemporary Muslim women, the
sociologistsChahlaChaiqandFarhadKhosrokhavarhavesuggestedthatsocietyis
fundamentallysplitintotwocategories.TheirstofthesecanbecalledRevealed
Civilizations(lescivilisationsdelouvert),inotherwordsthesocietieswherebodily
displayisimmediateandroutinelyvisible,althoughthisopennessaboutrevealing
thebodydoesnotnecessarilyhavetohavesexualconnotations.Thesearesocieties
where,becauseofmarketingstrategiesandevenfashionideals,bodilyvoyeurismand
exhibitionismarepositivelyvaluedandwherebodylanguagestressesitsaccessibility
totheother(orsame)sex.ThesecondcategorycanbelabelledCoveredCivilizations(lescivilisationsdelacouverture).Thesesocietieshaveacleardesiretocoverthe
humanform(particularlythefemalebody)inanattempttoregulatesexuality,sexual
relationsbetweenthesexes,and,moregenerally,relationshipsinsocietyatlarge.44
MosttraditionalsocietiesespeciallythoseoftheMuslimworldareinthelatter
categoryevenifsomeofthem(likeTunisiaandEgypt)areattemptingtobecome
RevealedCivilizations.ThesocietiesthatmadeupancientGreecefallintothislatter
categorytoobecause,eventhoughmalenuditywasendorsedoncertainoccasions
inGreekdaily-lifeandbecameasymbolicstatementinitself,andeventhoughthe
artworksmightshowtheidealizedmaleandfemalebodyinvariousstagesofundress
ortransparency,attheheartofGreekculturetherebeatanotionthatmodestywas
thecorrectfacetofacivilizedsociety.45AswithIslamicwomen,modestyinmanner
andindresswasconsideredtobeespeciallyimportantforthefemalemembersof
Greeksocietywherecoveringandveiling,atleastinpublic,werederigueur.
Islamisperhapsoneofthelastworldcivilizationssomehowtomaintainitscultural
integrityatalllevels,economic,political,andsocial.Thislastgreatbastionofthe
CoveredCivilizationhasnotallowed(likeChristianityandJudaism)forthepossibilityofadaptingtooradoptingmodernity,and,consequently,womeninIslamic
societycontinue(withobviousexceptions)tooperateinanexistencefundamentallyrootedinthetime-honouredpast.Itispossiblethereforethattheentrenched
anddeeplyingraineduseoftheveilandissuessurroundingfemaleveilinginthese
traditionalveil-societiesmightbehelpfulinreconstructingancientattitudestothe
veil,frombothamaleandfemaleperspective.ThroughoutthisstudyIwillattempt
toexpandandcommentonthenatureofancientGreekveilingbycomparingor
contrastingittomodernveil-societymodels.AtnopointdoIattempttosuggestthat
theancientevidencecanbeseentobeundeniablyrelectedinacomparativeexample,
butIwillproposethattheusemadeoftheveil(physicalorideological)bywomen
andmenincontemporaryveil-societiescanhelpusinterprettheancientevidence
13

Chapter1
andprovideuswithaframeofreferencethatmightimproveourunderstandingof
theancientsourcesandtheancientexperiencesofveiling.
Theveiledwoman
PremChowdhrybeginsherinvestigationintogenderrelationshipsinruralHaryana
inIndiawithanevocativepictureofthemainfocusofherstudy,namelyveiled
women:
AnubiquitoussightinruralHaryanaistheveiledwomanwhocoverseitherthewhole
faceorjustpermitstheeyestoshow.Thissightissomewhatincongruoussetagainst
the high visibility of women in Haryana involved in all sorts of work in the ields,
workingalongsidemen,frompreparingtheieldstoirrigatingandharvestingthecrop.
Formanyofthemtheields,althoughostensiblyapublicspace,areinrealityamere
extensionoftheprivatespace.Visibletooarewomeninprocessingagriculturalwork
athome,tendingtheanimals,fetchingandcarryingwaterorinvolvedinnumerous
otherdomesticchores.Theyarealsonoticeablyvisibleinthestreets,walkingalong
purposefully,notloiteringorhangingabout,neveralonebutalwaysingroupsoftwo
ormore,avoidingthebazaarsandplacesofmalegathering.Onlyacloserscrutinyof
their physical appearance and dress reveals several social layers with subtly marked
differences, especially between women from peasant and non-peasant households
Thefewuncoveredfacesthatmaybeseenarethoseofthedaughtersofthevillage,yet
tobemarriedorvisitingtheirnatalhomes,orthoseofolderwomen,theexposureof
whosefaceissociallysanctioned.Exceptfortheveryyoung,thesewomeninvariably
covertheirheads.46

Chowdhrydescribesveilinginvaryingdegreesofstrictness.Itisemployedby
womenofdifferentagegroupsandsocialclassesforthepurposeofgainingaccess
tothemalepublicworldinorderthattheymaycarryoutdomesticdutiesorfemale
networking.ThisisthecentralfocusofmyinvestigationintoancientGreekveiling
practices. The fundamental thesis is as follows: Isuggest that women in various
ancientGreeksocietieswereveileddailyandroutinely,atleastinpublicorinfront
ofnon-relatedmen,asaconsequenceofamaleideologythatrequiredwomento
appearsubservientinallwalksoflife.Thewomenthemselvesmayhaveendorsed
theconceptofveilingwillinglyormayhavefeltrestrainedtoremainbeneaththe
veilasaresultofsocialpressure.Butwhateverthecase,itisinterestingtospeculate
onthenotionthattheactofveiling,withavarietyofveil-stylesthatconcealedthe
femalebodyindiversewaysandvaryinglevelsofausterity,gavewomenofdiffering
socialranksamodicumoffreedomtoexploremalepublicspaceunimpeded(and
unimposing),andtointeractwithotherwomen.Thisideaiscurrentincontemporaryveil-societieswhereveiledwomenareseeninavarietyofpublicsituations
whichattesttothecomparativefreedomaffordedbytheveilandbythewomens
decisionstoadhere(whetherwillinglyorotherwise)totheprinciplesofhijab.While
conformingtoamale-imposedideologyfocusedonnotionsoffemale(in)visibility,
silence,andpollution,theactofveilingmayalsohaveallowedaGreekwoman,like
her modern Muslim counterpart, ameans of self-expression by empowering her
14

VeilingtheancientGreeks
tonegotiatehersocialsituation.Theseveiling-acts,indifferentsocialencounters,
enabledawomantoexpresshersocialstatus,toconveyhersenseofpropriety,to
elicittheaidofothers,ortoendorseherownsexuality.
Veiling is aprincipal constituent in the Muslimconstructionofwomanhood;
noonedoubtsthefact.Iproposethatveilingwasanequallyimportantcomponent
in the Greek comprehension of femaleness. The ancient sources stress that the
veilisagarmentsuitabletothefemaleconditionandthattheactofveilingisan
importantfemalegesture,fundamentaltocorrectfemininebehaviourasaitting
displayofaidos,whichinitselfshowsacorrectawarenessoffemalesophrosyne,or
reservedself-awareness.InGreekthought,clothingdoesnotnecessarilymakethe
man,butitdoesmakethewoman.Dressandclothingaccessoriesarefrequentlyused
byancientauthorstoidentifythefemaleconditionandtoexplainnaturalwomanly
characteristicsthatluctuatebetweenthenegativeassociationofwomen,wealth,and
vanityandtheconnectionofwomenwithmodestdressandvirtue.Thus,Aelianin
hisVariaHistoria(latesecondcenturyad),notes:
Surelymostwomenofantiquityindulgedinextravaganthabits.Ontheirheadsthey
woretallcrowns,theirfeetwerecladinsandals.Fromtheirearshunglongearrings.The
partofthechitonbetweenshoulderandhandwasnotsewnbutfastenedwithgolden
pinsandsilverbrooches.Thesewerethehabitsofwomeninveryancienttimes.47

ButlaterinthesameworkAelianrecordshisadmirationforthewifeofPhokion,
thefourth-centuryAthenianstatesman,byrecallinghowhertruesophrosynewas
expressedbythefactthatshewouldassoonwearherhusbandshimationasshe
would the garments conventionally held to be afemale indulgence. She dressed
modestly with whatever clothing came to hand and had no inborn craving for
femininedress:
Shefeltnoneedforakrokos-coloureddressoraTarentinedress,amantle,orshawl,or
hairnet,orveil(kalyptras),orlittledyedchitons.Shedressedirstlyinhumility(sophrosyne),andsecondlywithwhatshehadavailable.48

ItisimportanttonotethatAelianlistsaveil(kalyptras)amongtheitemsoffemale
attire,animagethatisstressedinothersourceswhichrecallincidentswheremen
decidetodressaswomen,eitherforreligiouspurposes,sexualexploits,ormilitary
strategy.Plutarch,forexample,tellsofanArgivefestivalknownastheHubristicain
whichritualtransvestismonthepartofbothsexeswasexpected.Herecalls,
Theyclothethewomeninmenschitonsandshortcloaksandthemeninwomens
peploiandveils(kalyptrais).49

Whatmakesforeffectivecross-dressing?Inthecaseoflookinglikeaman,Plutarch
statesthattunicsandshort(military)cloakssufice;tolooklikeawoman,though,
oneneedstodondressesandveils.Thesearetheshorthandsignalsforgendered
dressingandAristophanesmakesuseofasimilarcodeinhiscomedyLysistratawhen
the women of Athens clothe the cantankerous Proboulos in what they consider
15

Chapter1
to be standard feminine accoutrements, inthisinstanceawoolbasketandaveil
(kalumma).50Likewise,inhisThesmophoriazusae,Aristophaneshasthecharacterof
Euripidesin-lawdressinfemaleclothingtoiniltratethefemaleassembly,anditis
likelythataveilconstitutedpartofhisdisguise.Agathongivesthein-lawakephale
perithetosaheadwrapaspartofhisdisguise;thisprobablyconstitutesaveil.51
ThefamousWrzburgbell-krater(Fig.5)supposedlyrepresentsascenefromthe
comedy and shows one of the Athenian women, Mikka, confronting the in-law
whobrandishesaknifeaboveawineskin-baby.52Mikkawearsthetypicaloutitof
anAthenianwoman,adressandveil.If,earlierintheplay,thein-lawhadhopedto
iniltratefemalesocietyunimpededandunnoticed,itwasprobablythiscombination
ofclothingthatheoptedtowearsincedressandveilspelloutwoman.53Certainly
inhislatermasqueradeasHelenofTroy,thein-lawwearsaveilasanimportant
elementofhisfemalecharacterization(atline850hesaysthathehasthecorrect
costume),andtheactsofveilingandunveilingseemtobecentralmomentsofthe
mocktragedyofHelensencounterwithMenelaos(Euripides).54
ThetransitorymomentwhenamalecharacterdonsfemaledressmightberepresentedinasmallAthenianterracottastatuetteofc.400350(Fig.6),oneofseveral
suchcomiccharactersfoundinagravenearAthens.Hereweseemtohaveanactor
wearingmalecomicpadding,includingalargephallus,allofwhichisrevealedby
theopenpleatedrobethathangsfromhisshouldersasifundrapedorunpinned.55
Thestatuettehasbeeninterpretedaseitheranactorplayingafemaleworshipper
ofthephallus,anactorplayingahermaphrodite,ahermaphroditeproper,oreven
amaleprostitute.56SusanSadsreinterpretationcitestheigureasaninstanceof
comictransvestism,57anideaendorsedbyHeleneFoleywhonotesthat,Perhaps
thereligiousecstasythathasgrippedthistransvestitefemalehascausedtheactorto
revealhismaleidentity.58
However, asimpler explanation can be offered: Isuggest that the terracotta
mightshowthemomentinadrama(asfrequentlyhappensinOldComedy)when

Fig.5.LinedrawingfromTarentinered-igurekratershowing
ascenefromAristophanesThesmophoriazusae,c.380370.Female
characterwearingaveilandadress.WrzburgH5697.

16

Fig.6.Linedrawingofaterracottastatuette
ofaveiledmanfromAttica,c.400350.
Met.Mus.N.Y.13.225.24.

VeilingtheancientGreeks
amalecharacterisforcedtodrag-upor,conversely,theincidentwhenhisdisguise
isiniltratedandhistruesexis(literally)revealed.Itisamomentoftransitionthat
isrelectedhere.Whatisimportanttonotehowever,isthathisfemaledragconsists
onceagainofarobeandaveil.
Theveilthenisafemalegarmentparexcellence,anditisinthiscapacitythat
Iintendtoexamineitinthisstudy.Iamconcernedtoshowhowtheveilaffected(in
variousways)thelivesofwomeninancientGreeksociety.Butthatisnottosaythat
veilingwasanactunknowntomen,sincetheancientsourcesstressthatmencould
alsoveilthemselves.Itwouldbefoolhardytoignorethisevidence,eventhoughmale
veilingisnotmyimmediateconcernhere.Neverthelessincidencesofmaleveiling
willbeexaminedbecauseofthelighttheyshedontheideologysupportingfemale
veiling.Itismyintentiontoarguethatfemaleveilingwasacustomaryroutinein
Greeksociety;ontheotherhand,menweregenerallyunveiledexceptattimesof
intensestresswhenmalehonourwasatstakeoratmomentswhenacertainfeminizationneededtobeevoked.Greekboys,therefore,willutilizetheveiltostress
theirsenseofaidosbyveilingthemselvesbeneaththeirrobes.Initselfthisessentially
feminineactbecomestheeroticfocusfortheadultGreekmale.Beyondtheyouthful
maleutilizationoftheveil,however,adultGreekmenveilthemselveswiththeir
garmentsattimesofcrisis.Theyveil,forexample,atthemomentofdeath(their
ownimpendingdeathoratthedeathofothers);theyveiltohideemotions(especiallydespair,grief,andanger)andtheyveiltohideshameandlossofhonour.In
otherwords,Greekmenveilthemselveswhentheirmasculinityiscompromised.59
Itisthenthattheyindulgeinanessentiallyfemalegestureandveilthemselvesin
accordancewiththemaleideologyofveiling.Theveilactsasasymbolicbarrierand
separatestheemotionalmanfromtherestofhissociety;ineffectitturnsamaninto
awoman,becauseitmakeshimsociallyinvisible.Butbecausetheactisoutofthe
ordinary,masculineveilingdrawsattentiontoadilemmaandsolicitsanimmediate
responsefromothermenwhowilloftencoax,persuade,orgoadtheveiledmanto
unveil.Menonlyveiltemporarilybeforenormalityisrestored,thentheyunveil.
However,itisawomanslottostayresolutelybeneathherveilandthereforeto
remaindogmaticallyseparatedfrommasculinesocietyandtocontinuetofunction
insocietyasaninvisiblenon-person.
Somaleveilingdoesamplifyourknowledgeofthedailyuseandsymbolismof
thefemaleveil.Itisinthislightthattheissuesofthemaleutilizationoftheveilwill
beexamined.
The irst part of this book is concerned with locating and analyzing the variety
of sources we have for the Greek veil and to place the veil into achronological
framework.ThiswillcompriseanexaminationoftheetymologyoftheGreekveil,
anoutlineofthedifferentveilstylesfoundintheancienticonographicsources,qualifyingthemchronologicallyandattempting,wherepossible,toclassifythembyname.
Continuingwiththevisualevidence,wewillexaminetheproblemsencounteredin
17

Chapter1
usingarttoinvestigateissuesofancientdaily-lifeandtherepresentationofGreek
dress,andtheveilinparticular.
ThesecondhalfofthebookisdevotedtoananalysisofveilinginGreeksociety
andinGreekthought.Akeyissueinthediscussionoftheveilwillbeitsmultivalence
ofmeaning.60Amajorcomponentexaminesissuesofveilingandaidos,veilingand
thesocialorder,and,drawingonanthropologicalmodels,generalideasofwhoveils
andforwhom.Adiscussionoffemaleseclusionandseparationfollowsandpromotes
theideathattheveilgivessomedegreeofsocialfreedomtowomenasconnectionsare
madebetweentheveilandthehouse.Veilingisusedtodenoteawomanslife-cycle
andsoadiscussionoftheveilasariteofpassagewillfollow.Wewillreassessthe
evidencefortheimportantveilingritualknownastheanakalypteria,theunveiling
ofthebride,andattempttoplaceitinitsceremonialsettingbyprovidingitwith
atemporalsequenceandasymbolicsigniicance.
We will also look at the symbolic implications of the covering of female hair
andofthefemalefaceandbody,andshowshowtheveilactsasabarriertocontain
femalemiasma,especiallythepollutioninherentinfemalesexuality.Attentionis
alsodrawntothesymbolicsilencingnatureoftheveil.Asanextensionofthis,we
willinvestigatetheeroticelementsoftheveilandlooksatthenotionofveiledaidos
actingasasexualturn-onexpressedthroughconnotationsoflightnessandfragrance.
Conversely,thefollowingandinalsectiondealswiththenotionofdarknessand
considerstheimportanceoftheveilasanexpressionoffemaleanger,aswellasits
roleintheritualsofmorningandgrief.
Notes

Trans.Arnott(Loeb)1996,withamendments.Forafulldiscussionofthispassagesee
Chapter7.
2
Abrahams1908;Barker1922;Bieber1928;Harrison1977and1991;Morizot1974;
Repond1931;Ridgeway1984;Shaeffer1974;Symons1987;Heuzey1922;zgen1982;
Brooke1962;Houston1947.
3
Losfeld1991and1994;Stewart1997;Miller1997and1999;Mills1984;vanWees
1998; Bonfante 1989; Fridh-Haneson 1983; Frontisi-Ducroux, and Lissarrague 1990;
ScheidandSvenbro1996;Stone1981.SeealsoLlewellyn-Jones2002a.ThestudyofRoman
dressanditssocialandsymbolicfunctionshasreceivedmoreattentioninrecentyearsby
SebestaandBonfante1994;Scholz1992;Clark1993andCroom2000.
4
Galt1931.
5
Ibid.377,393.
6
ThedebateanditspossiblesolutionarediscussedfullyinChapter7.
7
Robertson1979,56.
8
Boardman1993,39.Emphasismine.
9
Michelakis2000,242.Hisfootnotetothequotedpassage(n.10)referstocloakedboys
andmantledwomen.
10
ReportbyMarieColvin,12thApril,1998.Artistsarenotslowonpickingupthesame
theme:arecentexhibitionattheGlasgowMuseumofModernArt,forexample,displayed
1

18

VeilingtheancientGreeks
athree-dimensionalsculpturemadeofsheetbrass,fashionedintotheshapeofaMuslim
burqaaandsimplycalledVEIL.Theartist,SibyllevanHalen,commentedthatVEILismade
upofmetal;aigureoritsabsence,bothruthlessandcompliant;afeminineformofarmour
whichprotectsorimprisons;EuropeanorOriental;ancientormodern.GlasgowMuseumof
ModernArt,Ref.S-379.(Sheetbrass,cutanddrilled;steelkey-rings;steelhoopsandhook.)
OntheveilincontemporaryartseeDoy2002,1358andShirazi2001,10ff.
11
SeeRoald2001,25494.
12
ReportbyTimMcGirk.TheIndependent,9thOctober,1996.
13
ReportbyJohnHooper.TheObserverReview,23rdMarch,1997.
14
RepostbyRoneTempest.TheGuardian,25thAugust,1997.
15
Unidentiiedreport.
16
SeeSherif1987.
17
Inthelastdecadethewesternperceptionoftheveilasasymboloftheoppressionand
control of women has been fuelled by events in Afghanistan where the Taliban militia
forcedwomentowearthefull-lengthchadri(burqaa)inanattempttomakethemsocial
andpoliticalnon-entities.ButthisisnotanIslamicteaching,andconsequentlywomenwho
hadtheopportunityandcouragetospeakoutabouttheregimestressedthattheTaliban
useoftheveilwasnotanorthodoxMuslimproduce.In1996TheIndependentinterviewed
anineteen-year-oldwomanfromKabulwhosummedupthecomplexissueoftheveilby
claiming,Themullahssaythattheyaremakingusdressinburqaasforourownsafety,
sothatwedontdrivetheseTalibansoldiersfromthecountrysidewildwithourlooks
ButIdontthinktheylikewomenmaybetheyareafraidofus.Theythinkweresent
bySatantotemptthem,butthisiscrazy.MenandwomenshouldbeequalunderIslam
(quotedinMcGirk,TheVeilofTears,TheIndependent,9thOctober1996,9).TheIslamic
fundamentalistbacklashwhichwassoblatantlyapparentinAfghanistanisstillmakingitself
feltthroughouttheworldand,thankstosomepersuasivefeministteachingandasamove
towardsnationalidentity,somewomen(especiallyeducatedwomenandwomenlivingin
bigcitiessuchasCairoandDamascus)arebecomingconvincedthatitisbettertoreturn
totheIslamicpracticeofveiling,whileothersarehavingthatdecisionforceduponthem.
Thereiscertainlyadrivetowardsthere-veilingofallMuslimwomen.Inhisexamination
ofthedresscodesoftheKoranandtheSunnah,thefundamentalistauthorIdrisibnStanley
Palmer,hasmadeanimpassionedpleaforfellowMuslimmentoensurethattheirfemale
relativesadoptastrictformofveilingtheniqab,orface-veilagarmentwhichwomen
arenotexpectedtowearaccordingtotheKoran.NeverthelessibnStanleyPalmerargues,
InspiteofthefactthattherearedifferingviewsontheIslamicrulingregardingwhether
theniqabisobligatoryorrecommended,itisundoubtedlyonesdutytounifythecallforit
andco-operateasmuchaspossibleinurgingyoungwomenaboutitsnecessityandtolimit
theirdesiretoexposethefacesasmuchaspossibleHencemyfellowMuslims,whenyou
areasked:whatistheformofHijabaccordingtotheShariah,especiallyfromawomanwho
lovesthe[Prophet]?,youshouldencouragehertoweartheniqab Wetrulyhopefrom
Allahforthedaywhenallbelievingwomenwillrushtocovertheirfaceswithfullcontentmentoftheirsouls.SeeIbnStanleyPalmer1997,34.Theveilhasbeenatthecentreof
socialreformandrevolutionintheMuslimworldformanydecades.Foradiscussionsee
Brooks1995,1332andSimpsonandShubart1995.
18
Forthedebateonmetanarratives,thenotionofGreeceasthecradleofwesterncivilizationandOrientalismseeforexampleBernal1987and1991;Morris(ed.)1994;Shanks
1996.

19

Chapter1
See,forexample,Whitley1991.
West1997,625.
21
Thewordsvoile(veil)orfoulard(headscarf)areusedinterchangeablyinFrenchtreatments of the veiling debate. For adiscussion see Robinson 1998. The history of veiling
(includingdiscussionsofveilinginclassicalcivilizations)anditsimpactonmodernFrench
societyisdiscussedbyLambin1999andAllami1988.Anexaminationofthehistoryof
veiling(especiallyGreek,RomanandByzantine)onmodernTunisiansocietyisdiscussedby
benMiled1999.Seealso,Tillion1964,2538.Similarly,theincreasingnumberofTurkish
familiescomingtoresideinGermanyhasalsoopenedupscholarlydiscussionontheveil
(pastandpresent)amongGermanacademicstoo,mostnotablyinaninterestinghistoricoenthnographicbilingual(GermanandTurkish)studybyAkkentandFranger1987.
22
NorthAmericahaslittletoofferinthewayofveil-studiesinantiquity;discussionsof
veilinghavebeenpredominantlyconinedtostudiesofGreekweddingritualby,among
others,Mayo1973;Rehm1992and1994;Oakley1982;OakleyandSinos1993.
23
Cairns1993,1996a,1996band2002.
24
Blundell1998,36.
25
Ibid.
26
Ibid.36,38.
27
Tsevat1975,238.
28
Ibid.238,n.12.
29
Seebelow,pp.612.
30
ThishasrecentlybeenendorsedbyNevett1999.Shesuggeststhatdiscussionsofhousing
andhouseholdstructuresareseverelylimitedbecauseofthistendencytounder-represent
theveryfamiliarintheancientevidence.
31
Thecircumstancesfortheunveilingcanvaryofcourse:AndromakheatIl.22,46870
unveilsatthedeathofherhusband,butinAp.Rhod.Argo.3,4447,Medeaunveilsherself
infrontofthemuch-desiredJason.
32
SeeLlewellyn-Jones(ed.)2002andBlundell2002.
33
OnthisseeLewis2002;Blundell2002;Sebesta2002;Llewellyn-Jones(ed.)2002
34
Lambin1999,31.
35
PfuhlandMbius19779,nos.376,379,387,452,453,459,550,556,557,581,
588,596,919,929,954.
36
Rsch1969,59196.Groupportraitsoffamiliesinwhichsomewomenareveiledand
othersunveiledareinteresting.Seenos.10,11,26,29,34,42,75,87,94.
37
ThesamecanbesaidforRomansculpture.In96groupportraitsfromRomedating
tothelateRepublicandearlyEmpire,43womenaredepictedveiledand35areunveiled.
PortraitureinAsiaMinorofthesameperiodsuggestsadifferentpicture:of85depictions
ofwomen,47areunveiledand22haveveilspulledovertheirheads;therestweardiadems,
ilets,etc.SeeKleiner1977;interestingly,herevidencefromRomecoversexclusivelygroup
portraitsoffreedslaves.Ifrelativelymanywomenwereveiled,itmustberememberedthat
thosefreedadaptedthemselvestoconservativeRomancustoms.
38
ForafulldiscussionseeChapter4andLlewellyn-Jones2002a.
39
Particularattentionwillbegiventhroughoutthisstudytothefollowingworks:AbuLughod1986;Al-Khayyat1990;Anderson1982;Chowdhry1994;ElGuindi1981and
1999;Goodwin1994;Gle1996;Hawad-Claudot1992;Jeffery1979;Lhote1955;Lindisfarne-TapperandIngham1997;Makhlouf1979;Mernissi1975and1987;Murphy1964;
Rasmussen1991;Rugh1986;Sharma1983;Tarlo1996;Weir1989;Vogelsang-Eastwood
19
20

20

VeilingtheancientGreeks
1996aand1996b.
40
Notablestudiesinclude:Cartledge1985;Bradley1990and1992;Evans-Grubbs1989;
Treggiari1991;Langdon1991;Bastomsky1990;Golden1988,45575;Winkler1990;
Cohen1989,1991and1993;Nevett1994,1995and1999;Hunter1989and1994;Fisher
1998;vanWees1999.
41
See discussions in Gilmore 1982; Herzfeld 1980 and 1984; Galt 1985; SourvinouInwood1995.
42
Nevett1994,104ff.
43
ThethemehasbeeneffectivelyexploredbyPremChowdhryinherstudyofgender
relationsinruralIndia.SeeChowdhry1994.
44
ChaiqandKhosrokhavar1995,145ff.
45
SeeinparticularChapter6.
46
Chowdhry1994,12.
47
Aelian,VariaHist.1.18.Trans.Wilson(Loeb)1997,withamendments.
48
Ibid.7.9.Trans.Wilson(Loeb)1997,withamendments.
49
Plut.Mor.245E.
50
Ar.Lys.530ff.Forafulldiscussionseebelow,Chapter9.
51
Ar.Thes.25760.
52
SeeGreenandHandley1995,523.Theynote,whatisnotgiveninthetextbutdoes
appearintherepresentationisthatthewoman,whoisaddressedbythepet-nameMikka
(LittleOne,760),isseentoberemarkablyuglyashercloaksuddenlyfallsfromherface.
53
Forthein-lawsattemptstoappearfeminine,seethediscussionbyTaaffe1993,87ff.
54
Ar.Thes.889,903.
55
RobinsonandGraham1931,86.
56
Himmelmann1994,126.
57
Sad1987,247.
58
Foley2000,295.
59
OnmaleveilingseeCairns2002.
60
ApointraisedbyCairns2002.

21

2
DEFININGTHEVEIL
Findingavocabulary:ananthropologicalperspective
Arabiconlyhasonewordforhat,qubbaah.Itdoesnottrytodeinedifferenttypes
ofhats,asEnglishdoes,bycategorizingthemas,say,bowlerhat,tophat,trilby,
Panamaorboater.Arabicdoesnotcontainthesewordsbecause(traditionally)Arab
societydidnotusehats.HatswerealientoArabcivilizationformanycenturies,but
whenArabsirstsawEuropeanswearingthesestrangehead-coveringstheyclassiied
allthetypestheysawunderoneheadingqubbaah.
Similarly,ArabicdoesnothaveanequivalentfortheEnglishwordveil.Instead,
it employs hundreds of words which categorize different types of veils worn by
differentsortsofwomenindifferentpartsoftheArabworld.Thisrichlynuanced
veil-vocabularyalertsustothefactthatArabsocietycontainsadiverselywidevariety
ofgarmentswhichtheEnglishlanguagecanonlystruggletoidentifyastheveil.
English,ontheotherhand,doesnotrecognizethesesubtlevariationsandsoclassiiesallfemaleheadorface-coveringsasaveil.
ThelanguagesoftheMiddleEasthavedozensofveil-wordsthatareusedfor
speciicveil-types,althoughsomeveil-societieshavemorewordstodenotedifferencesinveilingthanothers.Arabicwordssuchasburqaa,chador,andhijabcan
allbeusedtoidentifytheveileventhoughtherearedivisionsofmeaninginthis
vocabulary.Boththeburqaaandthechadorarefulllengthoutitswhichcoverthe
face,theheadandthewholebody,asortofsack-likegarmentwhichiswidelyworn
in Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan and the Lebanon; the hijab, worn in the majority of
Muslimcountries,ontheotherhand,issimplyaheadscarf,pulledtightlyunderthe
chin,withanyexcessfabricdrapedovertheshoulders.1Likewise,thelanguagesof
theIndiansubcontinenthavedozensofveil-terms:thelugadi,forexample,isashort
sarithatveilsthewearersbackandhead,whiletheodhanialsoveilstheheadand
backbutalsohangsdownthefrontofthewearer.2CarlaMakhlouf,inherstudy
oftheveilingregulationsamongthewomenofNorthYemen,hasdiscoveredthat
whatisgenerallyreferredtobyanthropologistsastheveilinfactconsistsofseveral
separateparts,eachhavingaspecialnameandaparticularpurpose.3Atypeofveil
wornindoorsiscalledalithmaandiswornbyunmarriedgirlsatalltimesandby
marriedwomenindailyroutinesofhouseworkoratinformalvisits.4Inaddition,
Yemeniwomenalsoweartwotypesofoutdoorveils;theirstisthesitara,ahuge
pieceofbrightlycolouredprintedcottonthatcoverstheheadandbody.Tothisis
23

Chapter2
addedapieceofblacksemi-transparentbatikthatcoverstheface.Thesecondtype
ofveilwornoutdoorsisthesharshaf,acomplicatedgarmentmadeupofthreeparts
comprisingofalongpleatedskirtandawaistlengthcapecoveringtheheadand
shoulders(bothmadefromablackshinyfabric)andasquareofthinblackmuslin
tocovertheface,thekhunna.5
Makhlouf sstudyshowsacarefulanddeliberateuseofvocabularyfortheveilin
Yemenisociety,relectingwomensuseofthegarmentstorelectawiderangeof
socialandeverydaymessages.6AnilluminatingarticlebyDionisiusAgiusexplores
termsforhead-dressintheMalteselanguage,andstatesthatovermanycenturies
(during which time Malta was open to awide variety of cultural inluences) the
MalteselanguageacquiredmanytermsforwomensveilsoriginatingfromArab,
NorthAfrican,andEuropeanroots,whichweresigniicantfromboththesociopoliticalandreligiouspointsofview.7Henotesthatahead-dresscanbevariously
deinedbyitsfabric(silk,cotton,wool),colour(black,white,blue),pattern(stripped,
dotted,loral),itsdraping(sari-like,izar-like,wornoverthehead,wornaroundthe
face),itsconstruction(gatheredintoband,madeintoashortcape),thelocation
inwhichitisworn(town,country,church),andthetypeofpersonwhowearsit
(wealthy,peasant,old,bride,nun).Aspeciicallynamedveilmightbeofaspecial
colourandfabric,drapedinaparticularway,wornatacertainlocation,andbyan
exclusivetypeofwoman.Veil-vocabularycanbethatprecise.
Antiqueveils
Onethingthatwillquicklybecomeobviousinthisstudyisthefactthattheancient
Greeklanguagecontainedmanywordsforveil.Thismustsuggestthat,likethe
Arabicmodel,differentwordsindicateddiverseusagesandphysicalvariationsin
veil-typesfoundthroughouttheGreekworld.Theveilwasthereforeafamiliarfacet
ofGreekdailylife.WemustremainalerttotheprobabilitythatancientGreekveiltermswerejustaslocation-speciicastheirmoderncounterparts,andthattheyno
doubtalludedtocolour,shape,andstyletoo.Inadditiontheycouldhavesuggested
theageandsocialrankofthewearer.
However,wemustconsiderthatancientclothingterminologywasopentoawide
degreeoflexibilityand,liketheessentiallysimpleGreekgarmentsthemselves,dresstermsmighthavebeenchangeable.Weshallreturntothisideabelow.Ifnothingelse,
atleastthevarietyofwordsanddeinitionsforveilfoundintheGreeksourcesalerts
ustothefactthattheveilwasavisibleandimportantelementofGreeksocietyand
thatasagarmentitwasprobablyopentoawidevarietyofstylesandcorresponding
socialnuances.Thesemaybelostonustoday,buttheywerenodoubtmeaningful
fortheGreeksthemselves.
Studiesofgarment-termsinhistoricalsocietiestendtobehamperedbyalack
ofunderstandingofthespeciicvocabularyofdress.Thefurtherbackinhistory
wego,theharderitbecomestopindowntheexactmeaningofawidevarietyof
dress-relatedterms,includingthoseconcerningtheveil.AnanalysisofOldEnglish
24

DefiningTheveil
wordsforveil,forexample,hassuggestedthatproblemsoccurwhentryingtodeine
aveilinanyremotesociety.ThereareseveralAngloSaxontermsforveil,themost
commonbeingwimpel,ageneralheadcloth,whileanotherpopularwordiscuffe
orcuffia,fromwhichwederivecoif ,andwhichprobablyrelatestosomekindof
hood.Riftwasaveilexclusivelywornbyanun,whichcametostandforthereligious
lifewespeakoftodayastakingtheveil,whileothertypesofveilweredescribed
by the words wrigel and orel and perhaps referred to head-dresses worn as best
veilsinconjunctionwithilets.Representationsofveilsinvariousformsabound
inAnglo-Saxonart,aswastobeexpectedinaChristiansocietywhichfollowedSt
Paulsdictumthatwomenshouldcovertheirheads,8butitisimpossibletomarry
theAnglo-SaxonvocabularyforveilswiththeillustrationsinSaxonart.
ThestudyofancientGreekclothingterminologyisriddledwithproblemsand
inconsistencies.GeorgeLosfeldswork,Essaisurlecostumegrec,listsaround460
known clothing terms, many of which have unexplainable meanings. We have
probablylostmanynuancedandcolloquialtermsforitemsofclothingwhichvaried
accordingtotimeandplace.TheancientGreeksthemselveswereveryrelaxedabout
namingtheiritemsofdress.9Thisisnotsurprising,perhaps,whenoneconsidersthat
ancientGreekclothingitselftendedtobemadefrombasicshapeswhichweredraped
andwrappedaroundthebodyinanumberofstyles.Largelengthsofclothcouldalso
beusedforavarietyofotherpurposes;aclothfunctioningasarobecanalsobeused
asabedsheetorawallhangingorevenasasail.AlivelypassagefromApollonius
Argonauticamakesthisclear:wearetoldthatapeploswasmadebytheGracesfor
Dionysusandwassubsequentlyhandeddownasapreciousheirloominthefamily
ofThoas,untilitinallybecamethepropertyofJason,whoworeitwithpride.But
eventhispricelessobjecthadhadanotherfunctionaccordingtoApollonius,ithad
beenusedasabedspreadbyDionysuswhenhemadelovetoAriadne.10
Greek garments were composed of basic rectangles of cloth that were draped
aroundthebodyandheldinplacebypins,knots,andsashes,whichmeantthatthe
actualfunctionofagarmentcouldbereadilychanged.Alengthofclothworkingas
apeploscouldbeeasilyunpinned,openedout,foldeddifferentlyandremountedon
thebodyasahimation.ItbecomeseasytoaccountfortheluidityofancientGreek
dressvocabularysinceGreekgarmentsthemselveswereconstantlychangingshape
andbeingadaptedtodifferentusages.
Thedificultyofcopingwithanincompletevocabularyofchangingtechnicaland
colloquialtermsiswellshownbytextsthatlist,oftenwithoutcontextordescription,
aseriesofspeciicdress-terms.Epigraphicevidencesometimescontainssuchclothing
lists(mostfamouslytheclothinginventoryoftheArtemisBrauroniasanctuaryon
theAthenianAkropolis),butpoeticsourcessuchasthelistoffemalegarmentsand
dress-accessoriesgivenbyAristophanesinhisThesmophoriazusaeII(fr.321)contain
comparablecatalogues.11
Iconographic representations of Greek dress, and of the veil in particular,
frequentlyshowhowoneitemofclothingcanbethrownaboutthebodyinsuch
25

Chapter2
awaythatitcreatesanothertypeofgarment.This,infact,istheessenceoftheGreek
veil.Therecertainlywereseparatehead-coveringswornbyGreekwomenatvarious
stagesbetweentheeighthandtheirstcenturies,andtherewasevenaseparatefaceveilinvoguebetweenthefourthandirstcenturies,butotherstylesofveilingthe
mostcommonlyfoundveiling-typesinfactwerecreatedoutofanothergarment:
apharos,ormantle,couldbepulledovertheheadoracrossthefacetocreateaveil,
ahimationcouldbepulledoverthebackoftheheadtomakeaveil,ortheover-fold
ofapeploscouldservethesamepurpose.
Coveringgarments.
TheGreekveil(beforethefourthcenturyatleast)wasusuallycreatedfromagarment
thatservedanadditionalpurpose,usuallyavoluminousmantleorrobethatcovered
muchofthebody.Anumberofwords,suchasepiblemaandperiblema(together
withtheassociatedtermsepibolaia,epiblemataandepibolaion),inavarietyofliterary
sourceshavethegeneralmeaningofthatwhichisthrownover,aroundorabout.
Theyseemtobesynonymsandappeartorefertoalargepieceofclothwhichcan
beutilizedasvariousgarmentsandevenasbedspreadsorothercoverings.Generally
though,theyactasmantlesandcloaksthathavethepotentialtobepulledforward
overtheheadtoformveils.12AsRichternotes:
Theepiblemaisakindofshawlthrownoverbothshoulders,coveringbackandsides.
Inawayitcorrespondstothelaterhimation,inthatithangsdownfreely,andthatit
issometimespulledoverthebackoftheheadasthemantlewassoofteninlater
times.Sometimes,ontheotherhand,itwasworncoveringthechest,withtheends
hangingdowntheback.Theepiblemacouldbelong,trailingontheground,orquite
short.13

Herdeinitioncorrectlysuggeststhelexibilityofthegarmentandthenotionthat,
beitlongorshort,coveringtheheadorlungacrossthechest,thegarmentmight
stillbeclassiiedasanepiblemaorperiblema.14
Head-dresses too were prone to adaptation. Fluidity in alternating the words
usedforveilsintheGreeklanguagemayhavebeenrelectedintheluctuatinguse
ofgarments,veils,andotherhead-coveringsthemselves.Whatwastermedamitra
couldeasilybecalledailletorevenaheadclothsincethenatureofthishead
coveringwas,liketheveil,simplyalengthoffabricwrappedaroundtheheadto
createdifferentshapes.Ashasbeennoted,
Itwouldbewrongtothinkthattheword[mitra]appliedinallperiodstoapiece
ofclothofthesameshapeandproportionsorthatitcouldbeworninonlyoneway.
Boththecontinuityandthemanyvariationsinpracticeintyingthehaircanbereadily
observedinart,andthereisnoneedtoindanewwordforeverysuchvariation[The]
Greekmitrephorosworeaturbaninthesixthcentury,preferredatiedheadclothor
illetintheifthwhilehisfemalecompanionusedhermitrastilltocovermoreofher
hair.Thus,theshapeofthemitracertainlychangedovertime.Themorewelearnabout
theGreekuseoftechnicalwordsfordress,utensils,orimplements,thelessprecise

26

DefiningTheveil
thatuseprovestohavebeen,anditwouldbeapity
toexcludeassociationsofwordsandrepresentations
throughinsistingonover-preciseidentiications.15

AfragmentaryimagebytheAthenianartistDouris
(Fig.7)emphasizesthepoint:awomanbindsherhair
withalargeandwidepleatedcloththatiseasilybig
enoughtoactasaheadveiland,infact,suchadeftly
pleated linen cloth falling into delicate concertinafoldsisfrequentlyseenutilizedasaveil,particularly
inifth-centuryvase-paintings.16
The word ampekhone (or ampekhonon) can also
beclassedunderthegeneralheadingofepiblemata,
derivingasitdoesfromampekhomai(todrape),17and
Fig.7.LinedrawingfromanAttic
red-figurecupfragmentbyDouris,
itcanalsohaveameaningofoutwardappearancein
c.480.London,privatecollection.
dressingeneral,conirmingthatitistheouterand
hencethemostprominentitemofclothing.18Morespeciically,though,itrefersto
afemaleouter-garment,mostprobablyaveil,whichisespeciallynotedforitsdelicacy
andsemi-transparency:HesychiusandtheSudaclassifyitwiththewordssummetron
periblemaandleptonhimationandPolluxendorsesthesedeinitionsbycallingit
ahimation, astole, an amphiesmata and amicron periblema.19 The ampekhone is
understoodbyGowas,
thewrapregularlywornbywomen,whichresemblesanamplehimationbutisoften
madeofverythinandclingingmaterialswhichallowtheheavierfoldsofwhatisworn
beneathtoshowthrough[W]henwornoutofdoors[it]usuallyenvelopsbotharms
andalsohoodsthehead.20

Theineandexpensivequalityofthegarmentisendorsedbythefactthatitcan
beperfumedand,assuch,itisdiscoveredinthetextualevidenceaspartofahetairas
armouryofcharms,21whileitstransparencyisattestedforbythecomicplaywright
Pherekrates, who observes agroup of prostitutes whose ampekhonai are in the
speakersimaginationatleastrevealingenoughforhimtoseetheirpudendas.22
ThedelicacyandfragilityofthegarmentishighlightedinTheocritusstoryof
an Arkadian shepherdess who tears her limsy ampekhone during her irst sexual
experiencewithherlover,whoaccordinglypromisestobuyherabiggerand(by
implication)abetterone:
Girl:YouvetornmyampekhoneintoragsandImnaked.
Daphnis:Illgiveyouanotherone,biggerthanthis.23

Itappears,then,thattheampekhonecouldbeanexpensivegarment.Itisnot
surprisingtoseeitlistedamongitemsoftextilededicationsinshrinestomajor
goddesses,inparticularatsanctuariesofArtemis.OntheAthenianAkropolis,an
ampekhoneisrecordedasbeingdrapedoverthestatueofArtemis,whichrenders
feasiblethewordstranslationasveil.24Thewordoccursthreetimesintheclothing
27

Chapter2
inscriptionsattheArtemisBrauroniasanctuary:ontwooccasionsthegarmentis
drapedaroundthestatue(oneoftheseparticularclothsiswovenwiththewords
sacredtoArtemis),whilethethirdreferencetoanampekhonehasitasadedicationbyawomannamedMnesistrateandstatesthatitiscontainedinawooden
presentationcase.
Krdemnon,kaluptr,kalumma
There are three main ancient Greek words for veil found in awide variety of
sources; those words are kredemnon, kaluptre and kalumma. What do the words
meanexactly?
Generally,wordsforveilarebasedonthenotionofcoveringsomething,wrapping
aroundsomething,ordraggingandtrailing;25thusboththeGreekveil-wordskaluptre
andkalummaappropriatelyderivefromtheverbkalupto,tocover,whilekredemnon
isconstructedfromkare,head,anddeo,tobind,andisthereforeliterallyaheadbinder.26Butweareinthedarkastohowthekredemnon,kaluptreandkalumma
appearedorhowtheyweredifferentiatedfromoneanother.Wecannoteasilyqualify
themwithacolour,afabric,orastylethatispreciselydeinedinanysource,orsay
iftheywereeverconceivedofthatway.Wemustbepreparedtoacknowledgethat
thethreemainveiltermscouldhavebeenopentolexibleusageinaccordancewith
otherGreekdressterms.
Thatthekredemnon,kaluptreandkalummadesignategarmentsindistinguishable
inessentialsiscertain:theyareallwordsfortypesofveil.Whatismoredificultto
ascertainhoweveriswhetherthesedifferencesinwordswererelectedinaphysical
differenceintheveilsthemselves(size,material,decorationorcolour),orbyvariationsintheiruse.
However,scholarshavenotbeenunanimousindeiningthesewordsasveiland
thetermkredemnoninparticularhascausedsomescholarstodoubtthetranslation
asveil.27Butitwouldbemisleadingtofollowtheetymologicalrootoftheword
andenvisagethekredemnonasailletorheadband.Thesourcesmakeitclearthatit
isagarmentthatisplacedovertheheadandnotboundaroundthehead.Thus,for
example,inIliad14Heracoversherselfwithaglisteningwhitekredemnonatthe
culminationofherdressingscene.Itisthewordusedfortheveilwhichthegoddess
InotakesoffandhandstoOdysseus,28forthehead-dressesthrownoffbyNausikaa
andhermaids29andfortheshiningveilthatPenelopewearsassheappearsinfrontof
hersuitorsandwhichshemodestlydrawsacrossherface.30Nausikaaandhermaids
divestthemselvesoftheirkredemnainordertoplayaballgame;ribbonhair-bands
wouldbethelastthingtodiscardinthiscircumstance,whilePenelopesgestureof
holdingherkredemnonacrossherfacewouldbeabsurdifitwasaribbon.Whilehe
concedesthatthekredemnonisnotaribbon,RichardJanko,inhiscommentaryon
theIliad,arguesinsteadthat,
Akredemnonisakerchieforwimplecoveringtheheadandshouldersbutleavingthe
faceopen,likethemantilastillwornbyGreekcountrywomen;therenderingveilis
wrong.

28

DefiningTheveil
ButifJankoisunsatisiedwiththewordveil(whichsuggeststhat,likeTsevat,
hedeinesveilonlyasaface-covering),31thenhissubstituteskerchief ,wimple
and mantilla are as equally prone to misunderstanding and misinterpretation.
Strictlyspeaking,akerchiefisaclothwornasahead-coveringbutonethatcan
alsobeutilizedasthecoveringforthedcolletageofawomansbodiceapopular
femalefashionthroughouttheseventeenthcenturyad;awimpleisasquare,rectangular,orcircularclothplacedontopoftheheadfromwhereithangsdowntothe
shoulders,butitcanalsobeusedasachin-strap.Amantillaisactuallyashawlof
lacethatcanbewornonthehead,drapedoverahair-comborsimplyallowedto
fallaroundtheshoulders.
LateGreeklexicographersandcommentatorsareconidentintheirinterpretationofthewordkredemnonasveilandtheyseemtobeunitedonitsformand
purpose.Infact,thekredemnonbecomesthefocusofparticularattentionbypagan
andChristianscholarsofthelateRomanEmpirewhoseemtobekeenlyinterested
inexaminingearlyGreekexamplesofveiling(andHomericprecedentsinparticular)
asproperexemplarsofcorrectfemininebehaviour.Itisimportanttoconsiderthat
aHomeric character like Penelope might have been amore familiar role model
forearlyChristianwomenthanabonafideChristianigureliketheVirginMary.
Examinations of these ancient and revered texts helped to endorse the veiling
regulationslaiddownbythelikesofPaulandTertullianforthecontrolofwomen
withintheearlyChristiancommunity.32Thus,inhiscommentaryonOdyssey1.334,
Eustathiusregardsthekredemnonasahead-veilandonOdyssey1.335henotesthat
itwascapableofbeingdrawnacrossthefaceandthatitcouldthereforebeactivated
asaface-veil,akatapestasma,orcurtain:
Havinghelditbeforethecheeksasalowing,shiningveil(liparakredemna),[Penelope]
makesanappearance;sonotonlyisthekredemnonabindingforthehead(desmosesti
kephales)butalsoawide(platu)curtainorface-covering(katapetasma)ifindeeditis
drawndownontothecheeksandveilsthem(epikalupteiautas).33

DicaearchusalsoassumedthatPenelopewasabletopullherkredemnonacrossher
face,thusleavingonlyhereyesvisible,34andPorphyryclaimsthatthekredemnonwas
speciicallyahead-veilbutthatatherappearancesinfrontofthesuitors,Penelope
pulledherhead-veildownoverherfaceandacrosshercheeksinordertoconceal
hertears:
Thekredemnonwasnotaface-veil(prosopouperiblema),butforthehead;sohe[Homer]
says somewhere, the queen among goddesses covered her head with abeautiful
kredemnon,new-madeandwhiteasthesun[Il.14.184f.].Sobypullingdowntheheadveil(kephaleskaluptran),whichhecallsakredemnon,shewantedtohidehertearsandto
wipethetearsawaywiththekredemnon.Soherbrightkredemnondrawnoverhercheeks
doesnotmeanthatsheiscoveringherheadandcheeks,leavingonlyhereyesshowing,
butthatsheispullingdownthekredemnonfromherheadanduncoveringherhead
andrevealingherface,butkeepingthekredemnoninherhandsinfrontofhercheeks.
Similarly,whenTelemachuscriesheliftshiscloakinfrontofhiseyes[Od.4.115];hence

29

Chapter2
sheissaidtodraw(becauseshepulleditdownandhelditinfrontofhereyes),andhe
tolift(becauseraisingitfrombelowheputsitinfrontofhiseyes).35

Itisprobablybesttoregardthekredemnonasahead-veilthathungfromtheback
partoftheheadandcoveredthebackandtheshouldersofthewearer,butwhetherit
reachedtothegroundoreventrailedontheloorisimpossibletoascertain.Itcould
bedrawnforwardtocoverthelowerfacewhennecessary,butitshouldclearlynotbe
classedexclusivelyasaface-veil,althoughitcouldfeasiblybetermedanouterwrap
orepiblemata.36Itcouldbearguedthatthekredemnonwasregardedasaparticularly
ineorluxuriousgarmentforintheepictraditionitisconstantlyreferredtoforits
brilliance,especiallyforitsshiningquality(liparokredemnos,shiningveil,isnot
infrequentlyusedasadescriptionofthegarment),37anditiswornbygoddesses,
royalwivesanddaughtersinHomericanddramaticpassagesthatrequirewomento
standatthefocalpointofasceneandtoappearconspicuouslyveiled;itistherefore
sometimesreferredtoasvividlycolouredwhiteorredorpurple.38
Oneparticularhead-dresswhichwarrantsspecialattention,sinceitcontainsin
partakredemnon,isthatwornbyAndromakheatIliad22.46870.Thedescription
ofherheadgearisnotoriouslycomplexandhasoftencompelledcommentatorsto
attempttodeciphertheirarrangement,somuchsothatevenAlexanderPopeinhis
1742commentaryonthepassagewasunableto,passoveramatterofsuchimportanceasaLadysdresswithoutendeavouringtoexplainwhatkindsofheadswere
wornabovethreethousandyearsago.39TheHomericpassagerelatesthat:
Faroff[she]threwfromherheadtheshiningbindings,theampuxandthekekruphalos
andtheplekteanadesmetogetherandthekredemnonwhichAphroditethegoldenhad
givenheronthedaythatHektoroftheshininghelmetledherforthfromthehouseof
Eetionandgavenumberlessgiftstoher.40

Itislargelyduetothedificultieswithinthisepisodethatscholarshavemisread
kredemnonashead-bandorilletinsteadofveil.Thiserrorarisesfromline469
withitsthreeitemsofheadgeartermedasampux,kekruphalos,andplekteanadesme,
andwhichoccurnowhereelseinHomer.41
TheampuxisattestedinothersectionsofHomerbytheepithetkhrusampux,
literallymeaningwithgoldenampux.ItisfrequentlyusedbyHomerasanepithet
forhorses,apparentlyreferringtotheirbridles,whichprobablymeansthatasanitem
inawomanstoilettetheampuxtakestheformofametalstriporband,possiblyof
beatengold.42ThusweindthechorusofAiskhylosSuppliantMaidensfearingthat
theywillbedraggedfromthealtarsofthegodslikeahorsebythefrontlet(hippadon
ampukon).43ItisprobablycorrecttothinkofAndromakhesampuxasametalillet
(possiblyofthetypewornbythedancinggirlsofIliad18.597).Itcouldbesynonymouswiththestephane,whichwascertainlyametalobjectandcouldconceivably
bemadeofgold.44
ThekekruphalosistobefoundoutsideHomerinclassicalGreekliteratureand
seemstohaveretaineditsoriginalmeaning.Essentiallyitwasanet-likecaporwoven
30

DefiningTheveil
snoodusedtokeepthehairinorderandwasparticularlywell-suitedtothemajor
femalehairstyleoftheday,thechignon.45Actinglikealittlebagtocontainthehair,
itappearsthatwomenmayhavetuckedthelongendsunderailletorstephaneandlet
themhangdownattheback,althoughitlooksasthoughthestylesinwhichitcould
bewornweremanifold.Sometimesitcoveredthehaircompletelyandsometimes
itleftthehairvisibleovertheforeheadonly.Alternativenamesforthesameheaddress-typecouldbemitraandsakkos,althoughAbrahamssimplypreferstoseeitas
anon-descriptkerchief wornontopoftheheadandbehindtheampuxandopen
toavarietyofdrapingmethods.46Itismoredificulttoexplaintheplekteanadesme
however,althoughtheconnectionbetween,ontheonehand,plekte(fromplektos)
meaningcoil,wreath,ortwistedropeand,ontheother,anadesmos,abinding,
seemstoindicatethatitissomekindoffabricilletpossiblytwistedorplaited.47
Because the Homeric passage places the kredemnon last on the list of headcoveringstofalloffAndromakheshead,itissupposedthattheotherdesmatamust
havebeenwornoveritandwouldhavehelditinplace;butthiswouldseemtoplace
tooliteralaninterpretationonthepassage.48Homerisnotalwaysspecificabout
theorderinwhichgarmentsarewornanditisnotunusualtofindaHomerichero
puttingonanouter-robebeforedonninghistunic.49Inthecontextofthescene,
thetruearrangementofAndromakheshead-dressisirrelevant;hermanicactionat
Hektorsdeathprobablymeansthatshetearsoffherhead-coveringsalltogetheras
onedisorderedcluster,shedoesnottakethemoffinanorderlyfashion.Nevertheless,itisprobablybettertothinkofthekredemnonasaveilthatcoversalltheother
componentsofthehead-dress.50
Andromakhesheadgearprovidesastartlingcontrasttothesimplenatureofthe
head-dressesofotherHomericwomensuchasHekabe,Helen,Nausikaa,andeven
Hera.Furthermore,thewordsseemtohavelittleornobearingontheexamplesof
veil-stylesfoundinarchaicorlaterGreekart.Interestingly,though,Etruscantomb
artfromtheseventhandsixthcenturiesdoesseemtodepictthekindofheadgear
thatisrecordedinHomer.GiventhetradeandculturalconnectionsbetweenEtruria,
GreeceandtheNearEastinthearchaicperiod,itistemptingtoturntotheItalian
artisticevidence.51Infact,inanattempttoqualifyAndromakhesheadgearinthe
artistictradition,HelbighassuggestedthatthekekruphalosisrepresentedinEtruscan
artbyacommonly-foundpeakedcapornetwhichpushesupthehairintoatopknot.Theampuxisrepresentedbystripsofstiffenedfabricormetalplacedjustabove
theforehead,andtheplekteanadesmebyarolloffabricthatissometimestwisted
(Fig.8ad).52Thekredemnonisthereforetheveilthatcoversthewholehead-dress,
andcaneitherbeshoulder-lengthor,presumably,loor-length.Hisargumentsare
persuasiveandtheiconographicevidenceheoffersiscertainlytheclosestthingthat
hasbeensuggestedtodatetomatchtheHomericdescription.53
ThediscrepancyinthedatesbetweenHomersdescriptionofthehead-dressinthe
epicandthedepictionoftheheadgearinEtruscanartis,ofcourse,considerable,but
weshouldalwaystakeintoaccounthowfashionschangedatamuchslowerratein
31

Chapter2

Fig.8a,b,c,d.DrawingsofEtruscanfemaleheadgear.AfterLorimer1950.

antiquitythantoday.Inaddition,nativefashionswerealwaysstronglyinluentialin
eachlocaleandtherewasneveranyrealsensethatonefashionablelookwasworn
concurrentlythroughouttheancientworld.Itismoredificulttobelieve,however,
thatanyEtruscannoblewomanactuallywearingthisstyleofhead-dresswouldhave
referredtoitscomponentsbytheir(possible)Greekterms(oratleasttheonesthat
Homerused),letalonetheiroriginalAnatoliannames;therewereprobablylocal
Etruscantermsusedtodescribethesegarmentstoo.
WhatevertherealitiesofAndromakheshead-dress,itappearsthatinGreekusage
thekredemnonandthekaluptreweresynonymousthenameofthelatterbeing
derivedfromthepurposeoftheveil,andtheformerfromthechiefpartofthebody
thatitwasexpectedtocover.Inaddition,thekaluptreseemstohavebeenastandard
formofveilthatmighthavecoveredmuchofthebodyratherasdidthekredemnon
and,likethekredemnon,itmayhavebeennotedforitsine(sometimesevenexotic)
quality.54 Nonetheless, it was aveil that appears to have been astandard part of
femaledressandworndaily.KirkeandKalypsoeachveilthemselveswithakaluptre
aspartoftheirdailytoilette:
thenymphclothedherselfinalongwhiterobe,inelywovenandbeautiful,andabout
herwaistshethrewabeautifulsashofgold,andonherheadsheplacedaveil(kephalei
dephuperthekaluptren).55

Likewise,theveilthatHekabecastsoffatthedeathofhersonisalsoreferredto
asakaluptre.SinceHektorsdecisiontomeetAkhilleusintheieldatIliad22comes
asashocktoPriamandHekabe(andthereisinthiswholesectionoftheepicthe
themeofrashdecisionsandspeedofaction),weprobablyneedtoenvisageHekabes
arrivalatthecitywallsatthisjunctureasanimpulsiveaction.Weshouldregardthe
clothingthatshewears(theveilandtherobewhichsheopenstorevealherbreast),
simplyasherdailydressandnotasanykindofceremonialoroccasionalcostume.56
AswithHomersHekabe,Aiskhylos,inthePersai,recountshowthesuddennews
ofthelossofasoncatchesaPersianmotherunawaresandtheveilwhichshetears,
herkaluptre,ispartofherdailygarb.57
Theappearanceandusageofthekalummaismoreambiguous.Onthesurface
itappearsthatthisparticularveilmightbeconnectedwithmourning,grief,anger,
anddespair,sincethekalummaisalludedtotwiceinepicpoetryasblackordark.
32

DefiningTheveil
Moreover,onthesetwooccasionsthekalummaisdeliberatelyputonbythewearer
tomakeaconspicuousstatementThetisdonsadarkkalummaassheleavesher
wateryhometovisitOlympus,58whileDemeterspeciicallydiscardsherkredemnon
infavourofablackkalummaasshesearchesforherdaughter.59Soostensiblyitlooks
asthoughthekalummaisdeinedbyitsdarkcolourasdifferentfromthekredemnon
andkaluptre.
But the suggestion that the kalumma is not acommon veil, but one worn to
expressasenseofgrieforanger,cannotbesupportedbylaterevidence.Bacchylides,
for example, recounts how the Nereids gave Aithra agolden kalumma60 and
accordingtoAiskhylosKassandra,abridewillpeerfrombehindakalummaonher
weddingday.EuripidesIphigeneiaalsoatteststhatabridalveilcouldbereferredto
asakalumma.61Itishardlyittingtoimagineabridalveilasblackandassociated
withangerorgrief,andsoweneedtobeopentothepossibilitythatthekalumma
didnotnecessarilyretainitsoriginalHomericassociationwiththecolourblackin
laterperiods.Ifthekalummadoesappeartobethegarbofmourning,thisisprobably
inadvertent;perhapstheauthorofthelaterHomericHymntoDemeterselectedthe
wordwhichhefoundconnectedwithmourninginHomer.62
Aristophanesreferstothekalummainhislistofwomensgarmentsbuthedoes
notsuggestthatitisenvisagedasdark.Onthecontrary,theitemsofdresslisted
in the fragmentary Thesmophoriazusae II are expensive and eye-catching,63 while
intheLysistratathekalummaitselfbecomesthefocusofattentioninthedebate
betweenLysistrataandtheProbouloswhereitisalludedtoasastandarditemof
dressforAthenianwomen.ItdoesnotappeartobeidentiiedbyAristophaneswith
aspeciiccolour.64Bytheclassicalperioditseemsthewordkalummahadlostany
precisemeaningthatitmayoncehavehadandcametoreferinsteadtoastandard
typeofveil,nodifferentperhapsfromthekredemnonandkaluptreinsizeorshape
orusage.
The kredemnon, kaluptre, and kalumma cannot now be assigned aphysical
attributeorafunctionthatmarksthemapart.Wecannotsaywhich,ifany,ofthese
veil-typeswasmorepopularduringanyoneperiodorinanyoneplace,orwhether
onewasconsideredtohavebeenofmoresymbolicimportanceorwasimbuedwith
moremeaningthananyotherand,moreover,itisoutofthequestiontoattempt
to identify these veil-types in the iconographic sources. There is not one artistic
representationofaveiledwomanwhichweareabletoqualifywithanycertainty
aswearingakredemnon,kaluptreorkalumma.Thenatureoftheevidencedoesnot
provideuswiththatluxury.
Usingthelexicographers
Thelexicographerscantakeanactiveinterestinveiling-issues;theyprovideuswith
arichvocabularyfortheveilthatextendswellbeyondthethreemainveil-words.
Post-hellenisticlexicalstudiestendedtoservetwopurposes:irstly,theyaidedthe
understandingofancientauthorsbyprovidingsomethingofacommentaryonan
33

Chapter2
oldtext,andsecondlytheycollectedvocabularydeemedsuitableforuseinfashionablepureAtticistprose.Thesecollectionscontainwordsforveilwhichwould
otherwisebelost.TheSuda(compiledattheendofthetenthcenturyad)conserves
fragmentsoftheearliestandbestGreekscholarshipandoccasionallyitcomesup
withaveil-word.TheOnomasticonofthesecond-centuryadwriterIuliusPollux
providesseveralshortsectionsongarmentsthatincludeleetingreferencestothe
veil.Especiallynoteworthy,however,istheifthcenturyadlexicographerHesychius
ofAlexandriawhosecollectionofrareGreekwordsfoundinpoetryandnon-Attic
dialectscontainmanyveil-terms.Hesychiusclaimsthathisworkwasbasedonthe
specialistlexicaofAristarchus,Heliodorus,andothersdatingtotheirstcentury,
althoughitwouldappearthatmuchofHesychiusworkhasbeenlost(suchasthe
originalsourcecitations)andinmanyplacesithasbeeninterpolated,whilebrutal
abridgementshavereducedthelexicontolittlemorethanaglossaryofterms.Nevertheless,HesychiusremainsaprimarysourceforthestudyofGreekdialectsandthe
criticismofancientpoetry.ItishisinterestindialectthatmakesHesychiusaparticularlyimportantsourceforthestudyofveil-words(andgarment-termsingeneral)
becausemanyveil-typesprobablyhadlocalizedstyleswithcorrespondinglocalized
names.Thus,asweshallsee,aveilcalledtegidiononlyentersintothesourcesinthe
latefourthcenturywhereitisfoundworninBoeotia,Macedonia,AsiaMinor,and
Egypt(andpossiblyAttica)butdoesnotappeartohavebeenworninthePeloponneseortheItaliancolonies.Moreover,itappearsthatthefashionforwearingthe
tegidionandthewordtegidionitselfdisappearfromdailyusageataboutthesame
time,intheearlyRomanperiod.Likewise,aveil-wordfoundrecordedintheSuda
asmaphortes(anditsdiminutivemaphorion)seemstohaveenteredintotheveilingvocabularyrelativelylate,sometimeinthesecondcenturyad,whereitappearsas
aveilwornbywomenandpriests.65Itappearsthatthemaphortescontinuedtobe
usedasareligioushead-coveringbyChristianwomenthroughoutlateantiquityand
intotheearlymedievalperiod.66
Sowemustbearinmindthatveil-stylesandveil-termsmighthavehadalimited
lifespan,enteringintotheoverallGreekvocabulary(oradialect)forashorttime
beforedisappearing,orbecomingoldfashioned,orbeingusedinadifferentway.
Table1(attheendofthischapter)liststhevarietyofveilwordsfoundinthelexicographicalsourcesandprovidesthedeinitionoftheveil-wordsgivenbythelexicographersthemselves.However,thereisarealprobleminusingthelexicographic
deinitions, inasmuch as the lexicographers tend to deine aveil-term by simply
givinganalternativewordforaveilwithoutdescribingitslookorfunction.Occasionallythelexicographerswillqualifyaveil-wordwithadescriptionofeitherits
make-uporitsuse.Thus,Hesychiusglossesthewordginglianaskalummakephales
ereoun,orwoollenhead-kalumma.67Problematically,thewordginglianisnotfound
inanyothercontextandsocannotbequaliiedfurther.Likewiseheexplainsthe
wordsattaaskalummakephalesgynaikeias(womenshead-kalumma)butoffersno
furtherdeinition.68
34

DefiningTheveil
Thelexicographersdo,however,provethatthereweremanywordsintheGreek
vocabularyforveil;theyalertustothelikelihoodthatthesewordswouldhave
referredtodifferentstylesofveilortothedifferentusestowhichveilswereput.It
ispossiblethatmanyotherveil-wordshavebeenlost.Fromthelexicographerswe
canconirmthattheveil,inavarietyofforms,wasafamiliargarmentthroughout
Greekantiquity.
Conclusion
Sowhatcanbedonewiththiswidevarietyofveil-terms?Ononelevelitwould
appearverylittle,sinceanattempttoidentifyanythingasspeciicasakredemnon,
kaluptreorkalummainGreekartorliterarytextsispointlessandmistaken.OccasionallyitispossibletoputoneofthevaguerGreektermstouseandtomatchit
upwithitsartisticcounterpartthetegidionisacaseinpointbutsuchdeinite
identiicationisextremelyrare.Manyoftheveil-styleslocatedintheGreekiconographicsourcesareimpossibletoidentifybyanyGreekterm,nomatterhowunclear
itsusageorhowtemptingitistoapplyoneofthesetermstoaveil-style.Itwouldbe
pointlesscallingthembyanimprecisenamelike,say,ampekhone,anditmightbe
safertoveerawayfromGreekterminologycompletely.Thereforeinthenextchapter
wewillmeetwith(predominantly)Arabictermsforspeciicveiltypes(wordslike
shaal,maghmuq,andlithma)thatwillbeusedtoidentifycertainancientGreekveilstyles.Thismightnotbethemostsatisfactoryanswer,butatleastitisexpedient:we
needtoadoptacommonworkableveil-vocabularysothatourinvestigationofthe
Greekveilcanproceedwithoutfurthercomplicationorimpediment.
However,weshallseeinsubsequentchaptershowthethreemainveil-words(but
kredemnoninparticular)areimbuedwithanimportantbutsubtlesymbolismthat
willrevealmuchabouttheideologythatliesbehindtheveilingofwomeninGreek
society.Thewordsthemselvescanhelpustoreconstructtheveiledfemale.

35

36

Veil-Word

LiteralMeaning

Lexicographer

Deinition(ifrecorded)

TranslationofDeinition

krhvdemnon

Head-binder

Hesychius

ejpibovlaion,o{ ejsti.w|/crw'ntai
Itisanepibolaion,customaryforwomen.
aiJ gunai'ke". . . stefaniv".kai; kovsmo" Astephane.Anembellishedkredemnon.
krhvdesmonkefalovdesmon.
Akephalodesmon.

krhvdemnon

Head-binder

Suda

kefalodevsmion,h] mafovrion.

Akephaloudesmion,alittlemaphortes(?).

kravdemnon(sic)

Head-binder

Hesychius

kavlumma.stefavnh.mivtra.
to; ejpikravnion stefavnwma.

Akalumma.Astephane.Amitra.Aheadcirclinghead-dress.

gigglivan

Hesychius

kavlumma kefalh'" ejreou'n.

Awoollenhead-kalumma.

savtta

Hesychius

satarniv"

Hesychius

ejpivkrana

About-the-head

Hesychius

perikefavlaia,kaluvmmata.

Little-about-the-head;littlekalumma(?).

ejpivkranon

About-the-head

Pollux.Onom.2.42.

kefalivdion,perivkranon

Littlehead-covering(?),around-the-head.

ejpikrativdion

Little-upon-the-head

Hesychius

sthmoniko;n kavlumma a[cri th'"

kefalh'".

Aspunkalummautterly[covering]the
head.

mafovrion

Littlemaphortes

Suda

krhvdemnon

Kredemnon.

mafovrth"

Suda

krhvdemnon

Kredemnon.

ejpivkrhnon

About-the-head

Hesychius

kefalovdesmon

Head-binder.

ejpivkrhnon

About-the-head

Pollux.Onom.2.42.

perivkranon

About-the-head.

ejpiskiasmovn

Shaddow-cast-around

Hesychius

kavlumma

Kalumma.

kefalovdesmon

Head-binder

Hesychius

kavlumma

Covering

Hesychius

kavranno"

About-the-head(?)

Hesychius

kekruvfalo",krhvdemnon.

Ahair-covering,akredemnon.

e[ruma

Hesychius

kavlumma

Kalumma.

Chapter2

Table1.Veilwordsfoundinthelexicographicalsources.

DefiningTheveil
Notes

FordeinitionsseeBrooks1995,13ff.;Jeffrey1979,1509.
ForIndianveil-terminologyseeJoshi1992.
3
Makhlouf1979,30ff.
4
Thelithmaisapieceofbrightlycolouredmuslindrapedovertheheadinsuchawayas
tocoverthehairandforehead,withasectionoftheclothallowedtohangfreesothatitcan
beutilizedtocoverthewholeface,excepttheeyes,accordingtochangesinthedeinition
ofthesituation.Whentherearenomenaround,thelithmaisallowedtoremaindown,but
awomancoversherfaceinthepresenceofamanwhoisnotherhusbandorverycloserelative.
Thelithmaisusedwhenamanunexpectedlyentersaroomwherewomenaregathered.
5
Itisinterestingtonotethatwomenofhighersocialstatustendtoweartheblacksharshaf,
whilewomenfurtherdownthesocialhierarchywearthemorecolourfulsitara.
6
MakhloufsstudyhasbeenendorsedandexpandedbytheworkofJenniferScarce,who
hasexaminedtheveil-vocabularyoftheNearandMiddleEast(withaconcentrationon
Afghanistan,Iran,andTurkey),bythatofGillianVogelsang-Eastwoodwhotakesabroader
approachtothesubject,andbyDawnChattywhofocusesontheveil-vocabularyofthe
ArabianPeninsula.SeeScarce1975and1987;Vogelsang-Eastwood1996a;Chatty1997.
7
Agius1997.
8
ForadiscussionseeOwen-Crocker1986,141.
9
Losfeld1991,32739.
10
Apol.Rhod.Arg.4.42134.
11
On this passage see Henderson 1996, 197, 237 and Llewellyn-Jones (ed.) 2002,
xixii.
12
LSJs.v. ejpivblhma and perivblhma.Pollux,Onom.6.10,10.42,123.Losfeld1991,45
simplyclassiiesthewordsunderthegeneralheadingvtementdedessus.Bieber1928,93
deinesthemasumgeworfenes,drapiertesGewand,Oberkleid.
13
Richter1968,89.
14
Infact,in1908Abrahamshadsuggestedthatthetermepiblematashouldbegenerically
appliedtothetypesofouter-wrapswornbybothmenandwomeninancientGreeceand
thatthereforetheclassicalhimationshouldbeclassedinthistypeofway.Shewascorrectin
statingthatanyoutergarmenthadthepotentialtobeutilizedasaveilbybothsexeswhen
andwheretheneedarose.
15
BoardmanandKurtz1986,36.
16
Thesameistrueofaifth-centuryAthenianrepresentationofDanaewhosimilarlyhas
tiedherhairwithawide,foldedcloththatcouldeasilybeemployedasaveil.SeeReeder
1995,269.
17
Thuswehave ajmpevcei, ajmpecovmeno", ajmpecovmenon, ajmpecomevnw/.SeeLosfeld1991,
142,15960,321.
18
Xen.Mem.1.2.5;and,asmalegarments,PlatoRep.425b.
19
Hesychiuss.v.ajmpevconon; ajmpecovnhn; ajmpecovnion.Sudas.v.ajmpecovnhn; ajmpecovnion:
anouter-garment;ainedelicategarment.Pollux,Onom.7.42,49,96.
20
Gow1952,VolII,273.Hespeciicallyavoidsthetermveilsthehead.
21
Athenaeus596c.
22
Athenaeus269b.SeealsoLSJs.v.u{fasma and trivcapto".SeeArist.EnquiryintoAnimals
551b13;Ar.Lys.1501;Aeschin.AgainstTim.97;DaviesandKathirithamby1986.See
furthercommentsbyDalby2002.
23
Theoc.Id.27.5960.
1
2

37

Chapter2
IGII(2)1514.34,36,50.
So,forexample,theLatinvelum(andthustheEnglishveil,Italianvelo,andFrenchvoile)
suggestsacurtain-covering;theWelshveil-wordgorchuddhasthemeaningcovering(from
cud-coveringandcuddiohide).ForafulldiscussionseeBuck1949,436.
26
SeedeinitionsinBoisacq1950s.v.kaluvptw, krhvdemnon.SeealsoChantraine1968s.v.
kaluvptw, krhvdemnon.
27
Losfeld1991,332referstoitasabandeaudette.
28
Od.5.346,351,373,459.Suchanargumentforthekredemnonasailletisaidedbythe
suppositionthatInoskredemnonwouldbemoreeffectiveasalifebeltforOdysseusifitwere
alengthofribbon,ratherthanalargeveil.Butthepointisbeingmissedneitheraveilnor
aribbonwouldworkasapracticallifebelt,indeed,howcanalengthofclothofanykind
servethatpurpose?Thelife-savingqualitiesofInoskredemnonarecontainedwithinthefact
thatitisagiftofagoddess,blessedbyherpowers,andnotapracticalpieceoflife-saving
equipment.ThekredemnonofInoisatypicalmotifofthefairy-talekind,whereabenevolent
igureofanother-worldlynaturebestowsanarticleofclothingonadeservingprotagonist;
thusCinderellaisgivenapairofglassslippersbyherfairygodmother,andafrequentmotif
inotherfairytalesisthebestowingofmagicalclothingonworthyindividuals.
29
Od.6.100.
30
Od.1.334;16.416;18.210;21.65.
31
SeeJanko1992,178;cf.Tsevat1975.
32
SeediscussionsinCourcelle1969andHagendahl1958.
33
EustathiusonOd.1.335.IamgratefultoMalcolmHeathfordrawingmyattention
tothispassage.
34
DicaearchusF92Wehrli.
35
PorphyryonOd.1.332.IamgratefultoMalcolmHeathfordrawingmyattentionto
thispassage.
36
FordeinitionsseefurtherChapter3.
37
See,forexample,HH2.438.Cf.Hes.Theog.44052;Il.18.382;Od.1.334,13.388,
16.416,18.210,21.65.
38
ThenotionofconspicuousveilingisdiscussedinChapter10.Forredveilsseebelow,
Chapter8.
39
PopescommentaryonIliad22,citedinShankman1996,1043.
40
Il.22.46872:
24
25

th'le d ajpo; krato;" bavle devsmata sigaloventa,

a[mpuka kekruvfalovn te ijde; plekth;n ajnadevsmhn
krhvdemnovn q, o{ rJav oiJ dw'ke crush' Afrodivth
h[mati tw'/ o{te min koruqaiovlo" hjgavgeq Ektwr
ejk dovmou Hetivwno", ejpei; povre muriva e{dna.

Trans.Lattimore1951,withamendments.
41
SeeRichardson1991,157.ThewordajnadevsmhreappearsinlaterGreekliteratureand
canbefoundinNonnos,Agathias,andPhotius.
42
Il.5.358,363etc.
43
Aes.Supp.431.
44
Abrahams1908,112.
45
See,forexample,Ar.Thes.138,2578;AP6.206.4,207.2,275.2.
46
Abrahams1908,112.
47
SeeAes.Choe.248;Eur.Tr.598,1010,Med.978.Abrahams1908,36arguesthatthe

38

DefiningTheveil
wordisappliedelsewheretobasketswhich,shesuggests,hadanopen-weave.SeeIl.18.40
and22.469.Thereforesheconfusinglyidentiiesitasahairnet.
48
Seefurther,vanStudniczka1909.
49
See,forexample,Od.16.173,23.155.
50
Abrahams1908,37.
51
See,forexample,Spivey1997,40ff.;Osborne1996,114ff.
52
Helbig1887,157ff.
53
Similarhead-dressesarewornbySouthItalianwomenintheifthandfourthcenturies.
Agoodexampleofthishead-dressandveilcanbefoundonabell-kraterbytheLibation
Painter.SeeTrendall1989,ig.301.APonticamphoradatingtoc.530,whichhasrecently
beeninterpretedasthesceneoftheoriginalquarrelbetweenthethreegoddessesthatsparked
offtheTrojanWar,showsthemdressedinEtruscanfashionandlayingoncouches;their
pointed shoes hang on the wall behind them. For details see Schefold 1992, 204. The
threegoddessesaredressedinsplendidlayeredgarmentsandtheyallweartheelementsof
headgearthatwereidentiiedbyHelbigandwhicharecoveredwithhugegarment-veilsthat
enshroudtheirigureslikethemodern-dayIranianchador.Thelongveilshangingfromtall
head-dressesarepulledaroundthefrontofthetorsoinastyleofdressingwhichisdistinctly
Anatolian;inviewoftherealpossibilityofconnectionsbetweenEtruriaandAnatoliain
thearchaicperiod,thisstyleofdressingcannotbebrushedaside.Lorimer1950,3878
remindsusthat,afterall,AndromakhewasnotGreekbutCilicianandthatperhapsinan
efforttostressherforeignorigins,epictraditionmayhavegivenheracostumetypicalof
herIonianbackground,astyleofdressingwhichmighthavepenetratedintoItalytoowhere
itisrelectedinEtruscaniconography.Thesamehead-dresscomponentscanbelocatedin
otherEtruscanartworks:seeSpivey1997a,igs.46,75,76,87,88,123,124,1678.In
contrast,otherEtruscanrepresentationsofveiledwomenshowamuchsimplerformofveil,
moreonaparwiththearchaicGreekpharos-veil:Seeibid.igs.73and74.
54
Aes.Supp.1201speaksoflinenveilsfromSidon.
55
Od.5.2302;10.5435.Trans.Lattimore1951,withamendments.
56
Il.22.406.
57
Aes.Pers.5379.
58
Il.24.936.
59
HH2414.
60
Bacch.Dith.17.37.
61
Aes.Ag.1178;Eur.IT372.Foradiscussionofthecolouroftheweddingveilseebelow,
Chapter8.
62
SeefurtherLorimer1950,386.
63
Ar.Fr.321.5.
64
Ar.Lys.530.Foradiscussionofthispassageseebelow,Chapter9.
65
BGU845.15(2ndcenturyad);POxy.1295.19(3rdcenturyad);PMeyer23.6(4th
centuryad).
66
Clark1993,108,109,115.SeefurtherGerontius,TheLifeoftheHolyMelania11;
Peterson1996,31819.SeefurtherGerce1962;Clark1984.
67
Hesychiuss.v.gigglivan.AfterAdriani1948.
68
Hesychiuss.v.savtta.

39

3
VEIL-STYLESINTHEANCIENTGREEKWORLD
Thischapterwillattempttochronicleandsummarizethegreatvarietyofveil-styles
adoptedintheGreekworldfromtheeighthcenturybctotheirstcenturyad.We
shalltrytoclassifytheveilsbyname,usingGreekwordswherepossiblebutemploy
modernArabic(orother)termswherenecessary,simplytoformavocabularyfor,
andinventoryof,veil-types.OurcondensedtreatmentisnotmeanttobeexhaustivebutmerelyanindicationofthemultipleveilingstylesencounteredintheGreek
iconographicsources.
TheiconographicevidenceofferstwodistincttypesofGreekveil:theirstcan
beclassiiedasouterwrapsandgarment-veils,itemsusuallydrawnoverthehead
andsometimesacrossthefacetoconcealanddisguisetheseregions,andoccasionallyfastenedwithpinsorties.Today,outerwrapsarewornbydrapingorwrapping
alengthofmaterialaroundthewearerinthestyleoftheMoroccanizarorhuik,1the
Indiansari,2theEgyptianmilyeh 3(Fig.9),ortheTurkmenesechypry,4theAfghan
chadri,5andtheIranianchador6(Fig.10).Theouterwrapveils(izar,huik,sari,and
milyeh)mostcloselyresembletheancientGreekhimationinthewaythattheyare
drapedaroundthebodyandareutilizedashead-veilsandface-veils.Garment-veils
(likethechypry,chadri,andchador)tend
to be more versatile and can be used as
cloaks,mantles,head-veils,andface-veils
accordingtotheneedsandwishesofthe
wearer.Inthisrespecttheyresemblethe
ancientGreekpharoswhich,aswewillsee,
wasoftenutilizedforavarietyofpurposes
andcanbeclassedunderthegeneralGreek
termepiblemata.
ThesecondtypeofveilstyleencounteredintheGreeksourcesis,surprisingly,
thefaceveil,analoguesofwhichcanstill
be found all over North Africa and the
MiddleEast.Whileitisgenerallyassumed
thatface-veilingoriginatedwithIslam,in
Fig.9.Contemporary
Fig.10.Iranianchador.
facttheearliestevidenceforthephenom- Withkindpermission
Egyptianmilyeh.With
7
kindpermissionofGillian enonoccursintheclassicalGreekworld.
ofGillianVogelsangVogelsang-Eastwood
Eastwood(Textile
Forthepurposeofthisstudy,aface-veil
(TextileResearchCentre)
ResearchCentre)and
andtheRMV,Leiden.
is deined as alength of cloth which is theRMV,Leiden.
41

Chapter3

Fig.11.Finegauzeyamak.Turkey,
latenineteenthcentury.

Fig.12.Yemeniface-veil(qarqush
orsheshaf )wornwithahoodand
mantle.

Fig.13.Niqab,orfaceveilwitheyeholes.NorthernIndia.

Figs.1113arereproducedbykindpermissionofGillianVogelsang-Eastwood(TextileResearchCentre)andthe
RMV,Leiden.

expresslydesignedtocoverpartorallofthefaceandistoberegardedasaseparate
itemfromtheouterwraporgarment-veil,bothofwhichcanalsobeusedtocover
thefaceasthesituationdemands.Todaytherearemanyformsofface-veil,although
they can roughly be divided into three main types: irstly, there are those made
fromlengthsoffabricthatarewrappedaroundtheheadandface.8Theseinclude
the lithma,9 the shanbar,10 and, of course, the yamak (Fig. 11).11 Next there are
face-panelsorlengthsoffabricthatlackeyeholesandaresimplyhungovertheface,
suchasthemaghmuq,orthesheshafwornintheYemen(Fig.12).Finally,there
arepiercedface-panels,liketheburqaa,12theTurkishpeche,13theIranianpicheh,14
theshmwenjofTurkestan,15theSaudibatalu,16and,mostimportantly(forour
purpose),theniqab,worninmuchoftheArabworld(Fig.13).
Itisclearthatseveralstylesofveilareparticulartoacertaincountryorregion.
While most modern veil-styles fall into the categories outlined above, almost all
veil-societieshavetheirownuniqueveilingnuancesparticulartotheirownregions.
MuchthesamewasnodoubttrueintheancientGreekworld.Weshallseethat
veiling-styles in Boeotia, Macedonia, Asia Minor, and Egypt certainly followed
similartrendsinthelateclassicalperiodandthroughoutthehellenisticage,but
thatAtticaandthePeloponnesemayhavefollowedaseparateveilingtradition.The
ancientsourcesrarelydwellonregionalvariationsindress,butweshouldbealive
totheprobabilitythattheyexisted.17Occasionally,however,ifastylewasthought
tobehighlyunusualorevenbizarre,anauthorcoulddeemitworthyofcomment;
aswehavenoted,thismightexplainHomersinterestinAndromakhes(foreign?)
headgearinIliad22,andasimilarinterestinpeculiarforeignfashionscanbelocated
intheworkofStrabowho,observingthewomenofIberia,notesthat,
Onemightalsoclassasbarbaricincharactertheornamentsofsomeofthewomen[of

42

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
Iberia],ofwhichArtemidoroshastoldus.Insomeplaces,hesays,theyweararoundtheir
necksironcollarswhichhavecurvedrodsthatbendoverheadandprojectfarinfront
oftheirforeheads;andatwilltheydrawtheirveil(kalumma)downoverthesecurved
rods,sothattheveil,spreadout,becomesashadefortheface;andallthistheyconsider
anornament.Inotherplaceshesays,thewomenwearroundtheirheadsatympanion,
roundedtothebackofthehead,andasfarastheear-lobes,bindingtheheadtightly,
butgraduallyturnedupatthetopandsides;andotherwomenkeepthehairplucked
fromtheforeheadsocloselythatitglistensandstillotherwomenputahighrodon
thehead,twistthehairroundtherod,andthendrapeitwithablackveil.18

Whereevidenceiscomparativelyabundant,itispossibletoidentifyregionalvariationsinveil-styles;thustheEastGreekkoraiofSamosandMiletusweartheveil
indifferentandregionallydistinctiveways.However,severalveil-stylescouldbe
foundconcurrently,andtherichAthenocentricdocumentationsupportsthisidea
withevidencesuggestingthatintheifthcenturyaloneatleastfourmajorveil-styles
canbeidentiiedbeingwornconcurrently.Otherinformation,suchasaveryrare
depictionbytheMarsyasPainterofawomanwearing
aturban-like head-dress and with her lower face and
wholebodyveiledinanelongatedversionoftheyamak
(Fig.14),19suggeststhatanevenwidervarietyofstyles
were in vogue but make only leeting appearances in
thesources.20
Greek art offers abundant evidence for veiling and
thedevelopmentofveil-stylesfromtheeighthcentury
throughtotheRomanperiod,althoughsometypesof
veil are shown in iconography far more than others.
It is dangerous to routinely use art as an indicator of
changingmodesoffashion.However,theclothesworn
bywomenonvases,sculptures,reliefs,and(occasionally)
wall-paintingsareprobablytakenfromreal-lifepractice,
eveniftheneedsorconceitsoftheartistorthepatron
mayrequirethatthedepictionofclothing,andoffemale
dressinparticular,conformstocertainrules.21
Aegeanorigins.
Despitethewealthofpictorialinformationonfashion
fromthesplendidandsophisticatedfrescosofMinoan
andMycenaeanartists,thereisverylittleevidencefor
veilingintheancientBronzeAgepalacecivilisations.22
InfactthewomenoftheMinoanandMycenaeancourts
favouredhighlyelaboratecoiffuresinwhichthedividing
ofthehairintohorizontalsectionswasprominent,and
one would not expect such complex creations to be
hiddenbyanykindofheadcovering.23
43

Fig.14.Linedrawingofawoman
wearingamantlewrappedinsuch
awaythatitcreatesayamakand
aturban.Lebesgamikosbythe
MarsyasPainter(detail)fromKerch,
c.400bc.TheStateHermitage
Museum,St.Petersburg,1475.3.

Chapter3
However,Minoanevidencedoesattesttoonedistinctivetypeofveil.OnafamouswallpaintingfromThera
knownastheFrescooftheCrocusGatherers,women
pick lowers in arocky landscape and offer them to
aseated goddess while dressed in brightly patterned
clothes.Onesinglefemale(agirl)iscoveredinatransparentpolka-dottedyellow-redveilwhichcoversherhead
andenvelopsherwholebody(Fig.15).Itisassumedthat
sincethewomenarealldressedinfestivalclothes,and
arepickingcrocusesaspartofareligiousritetocelebrate
spring,theunusualappearanceoftheveilasanelement
oftheritualandindeeditscolourmayhavesomething
todowiththeceremony,ithasbeensuggestedthatthe
crocushasaconnectionwithinitiation.24Besidethisone
depiction,however,thereisnofurtherevidenceforthe
veilintheartofthepalacecivilizations.Itisdoubtful
whether this single Theran example of asaffron veil
gaverisetothemuch-usedHomericepithetkrokopeplos
(saffron-robed).25

Fig.15.Linedrawingof
aMinoangirlwearingayellow
andredpolka-dotveil.Theran
wall-painting(Frescoofthe
crocusgatherers),Santorini.

Shoulder-lengthveils:evidencefromtheGreekmainland
VasepaintingsdatedtotheLateGeometricandEarlyProtoatticperiods(c.750
700)26offerevidenceforashortveilthatbarelyreachestotheshoulders.Thetradition
ofdepictingfemalemournersdemandedthatcertainaspectsoftheirphysicalitybe
portrayedinart;intheGeometricperiodrudimentarybreastswereneededtodistinguishthesymbolicallynakedfemalesfrommales,althoughbytheLateGeometric
periodwomenwereincreasinglydepictedinlongdresses.27Onesignalguaranteed
toindicatefemininityontheseearlypotsisthefemale-speciicmourninggestureof
raisingtwohandstothehead.Thismovementdrawsattentiontotheheadand,in
particular,tothehair,whichwaspulledandtorninaritualoutpouringofgrief.28
Consequently,theartistspayconsiderableattentiontothedishevelledlockswhich
areusuallydepictedinmultiplestrands,althoughbytheMiddleProtoatticperiod
(c.675),whenthedeiningfemalegesturehasbecomethelacerationofthecheeks,
thehairisusuallytreatedasasoliddarkmasswithawavyoutline.
Occasionally,however,oneencountersamourningwomanwhosehairstyledoes
notconformtoestablishediconographicmodes;Figs.16and17aresuchexamples.
Thesewomenareeitherwearingtheirhairinaverychicbob,ortheyaresporting
somekindofhead-covering.Isuggestthatwehaveheretheearliestdepictionsof
ashortveilwornasaseparategarmentandreachingtotheshouldersorjustbeyond.
Fig.16istheearliestvisualevidencefortheveil;datingtoc.750,thefragmentof
aGeometricTirynthianvaseshowsalineofveiledwomendancinghandinhand.29
AndrewLanglongagoarguedthatthewomenwerenotveiled,butthattheywore,
44

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
earlypostHomericshorthoodcapes.He
maintained that the head-coverings were
sewn pieces of cloth which were made
to form hoods with deep cowls, ahighly
unlikely proposition when one considers
the overwhelming evidence for clothing
being constructed from simple shapes of
clothpinnedtogetherwithoutthenecessity
for cutting, shaping, or sewing. More
probably the women wear very simple
veilsmadefromarectangleofunstitched
cloth.30Wecannotknowwhatthisveilwas
calledbutfollowingitsmodernEgyptian
counterpart,wecouldtermitashaal,the
contemporaryArabicnamegiventoavery
simplekindofshortheadcloth.31
Ithasrecentlybeensuggestedthatthe
archaickoraifromtheIsthmianperirrhanterion (c.650) have veils draped over their
hair (Fig. 18). What at irst looked like
plain,thickbandsofhairappearedonclose
examinationtocontainelementsofbright
pigmentation (red and blue), suggesting
somekindofcolouredhead-covering.32It
isclaimedthatthebroaddiagonalstripes
do not represent the hair but awoven
patterned veil, atype perhaps recalled by
Sapphowhorecollectsthatitwasacustom
inhermothersgenerationforwomento
have their locks bound in purple headcoverings.33 Asimilar veil is worn by the
femaleheadsappearingontherimofthe
Chian Aphrodite bowl discovered at
Naukratis(c.600),wherepatternedbands
areonceagainprominent(Fig.19).34
It is generally accepted that the
mainlandkoraifoundontheperirrhanteria
arederivedfromNearEasternoriginals,via
Samianinluence.ThisEasternbiasisfelt
inthedressofthekoraiwho,inadditionto
theshaal-veil,alsoseemtowearlongerveils
which (probably) hang down their backs
45

Fig.16.Womeninshaal-veils.Linedrawingtaken
fromafragmentofGeometricTirynthianvase.Provenanceunknown.AfterLang1910.

Fig.17.Mourningwomanwearingashaal-veil.
LinedrawingfromanEarlyProtoattickrater.After
Wrzburg80.

Fig.18.Drawingshowingwomeninpatterned
shaal-veilssurmountedbypoloscrowns.Marble
perirrhanterionfoundatIsthmia,c.650.Corinth
Arch.Mus.

Chapter3

Fig.19.Femalefigureswearingpatternedshaal-veils.ChianbowlfromNaukratis,c.600.BM,London1888.61.456.
Photo:TheBritishMuseum.

beforetheyarepulledaroundthetorsoandtuckedintoabelt.Suchastyleisthe
hallmarkofNearEasterndressandwasadoptedbythewomenofEastGreecetoo,
ifthedepictionsofthekoraiareanythingtogoby.35Thefactthathighlydecorated
NearEasternfashionswereenteringGreeceduringthearchaicperiodiswelldocumentedinsculpture,vasepainting,andinpoetry.AccordingtoAlkman,Spartan
girlsworerichandelaborateEastern-stylegownsfortheirreligiousdutiesandwere
familiar with the styles of Lydia, particularly in headgear.36 Finds of miniature
statuaryofclothedfemalesfromSparta,particularlyfromthesanctuaryofArtemis
Orthia,testifytotheinluxofforeigntextileswhicharerenderedinminutedetail
ontheotherwisecrudestatuettes.37
EastGreeksojourn:veiledkorai
Korai,thegenerictermforstatuesofGreekmaidens,comeinavarietyofmaterials
andsizes,andgiveusmostofourknowledgeofveil-stylesinEastGreece.38Thetypes
ofveilwornbytheEastGreekkoraioweadebttothosewornbyAnatolianwomenof
theNeo-Hittiteperiod.39Someoftheearliestkoraifoundwearingveils(c.650620)
comeintheshapeofsmallstatuettesfromEphesus,40wheretheveiliscombined
withthechiton.About580itappearsinEphesianartonanivoryigurine(Fig.20)41
andonabronzestatuette,42bothofwhichshowalongveiltuckedbehindtheears
andbroughtaroundthetorsoandtuckedintothebeltinatypicalNeo-Hittiteand
Phrygiandress-stylewhichisalsofoundontheIsthmiankorai.Theclose-itting
veil, tucked behind the ears and folded into awaistband, is also afeature of the
46

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld

Fig.20.Drawingof
awomaninalong
pharos-veil.Ivory
statuettefromEphesus,
c.650625.Arch.Mus.,
Istanbul.AfterRichter
1968ig.257.

Fig.21.Marawoman
fromAnatoliawearing
afringedmantle(pharos)veil,pulledaroundthe
lowertorso.Neo-Hittite
relief,c.750.AdamaMus.
1756.

dressoftheAnatolianwomenofMara(Fig.21).Thestyle
ofthelatterdatestothemid-eighthcenturyonwardsand
involvedatight-ittinghead-clothorkerchief,oftenfringed
andsometimesdecorated,overwhichwasdrapedafringed
veil.43Theveilwasdrawnoveroneshoulder(commonlythe
left),pulledaroundthetorsoandtuckedintothewaistband
ontheothersideofthebody.
Ofthelarger-scaleEastGreekkorai,theearlieststanding
iguresdateto600,althoughtheyarecraftedintheDaedalic
stylewithfoldlessgarments.ThemostinterestingdevelopmentinthekoraitraditionoccurredatSamoswhenanew
veil-type was introduced, no doubt through Anatolian
inluence; the Samian korai tradition lourished uninterruptedfromc.570to520,whenitinallypeteredout.44
Theveilisthemostconspicuousgarmentfoundonthe
Samian korai. It consists of asingle rectangular piece of
cloththatseemslightweightandpossiblydiaphanous.Itis
usuallyfoldeddoubleandwornovertheheadsothatitfalls
intwolayersdowntheback,whileonelayer(sometimes
theupper,sometimesthelower)ispulledforwardaround
the torso and folded into the belt over the left hip. The
asymmetry of this fashion is balanced on the right side
wheretheveiliseitherlungovertheshoulderorheldin
the hand so that it creates along vertical line. This veil,
neverforcertainfoundonmainlandkorai,isirstencountered on Samos around 570 on the Cheramyes Hera,45
(Fig. 22) who wears achiton, amantle, and aveil. This
47

Fig.22.Longpharos-veil
pulledaroundthelower
torsoandlegs.Headless
marblestatuefromSamos
(CheramyesHera),c.570.
Louvre,Paris686.

Chapter3
combination of garments appears here for the
irsttimeinGreekart.46Itisclearthattheartist
is obviously interested in the textures he can
achieveincontrastingdifferenttypesofclothing.
Hepayscloseattentiontotheplisssectionsof
the chiton and mantle and to the smoothness
oftheveilwhoselayersandedgesareindicated
bytwoparallelincisedlines,astheedgeofthe
lowerveilispulledforwardaroundtheleftside
ofthetorsoandistuckedintothewaistbandat
thefront.LaterSamiankoraitendtorevealmore
oftheirclothedbodiesastheveilprogressively
shrinkstocoveronlythewearersback.47
Unfortunately,noneofthesurvivingSamian
statues reveals how the veils were worn over
the head (since all are headless), although it is
suggestedthattheyfollowedNeo-Hittitestyles
of combining the veil with apolos head-dress
(Fig. 23).48 Strikingly, the long rectangular
Neo-Hittiteveil(thesamelengthasthetunic)
isalwaysdepictedpulledaroundthetorsoand
tuckedintothebelt,inthesamestylethatwe
ind at Samos.49 Ridgeway believes, with some
justiication,thatitwasthistypeoflongstanding
Anatolianfashionofveilandpolosthatwasworn
bytheSamiankoraibecause,

Fig.23.Hittitepriestessinapoloscrownand
pharos-veil,drapedacrossthelowerbody.
FromCarchemish.AfterLloyd1967.

The Samian statues do not look particularly

Greek in conception or form[and] the
speciic combination of surface patterns made
of thin, engraved lines and the smooth veils
tuckedinatthewaistseemtooOrientaltobe
ignored The heads of the Greek igures are
nolongerextant:butsincetheiconographyof
atall head-dress accompanied by aveilis so
irmly established throughout Anatoliasuch
areconstructionwouldnotbeimplausibleeven
fortheSamian/EastGreekstatues.50

By 540 the Samian fashion began to give

wayandthekoraiworetheirveilsinanincreasingly Milesian style.51 This consisted of along
rectangularveiltuckedintothewaistbandlike
the Samian examples, although it was softly
drapedaroundtheshoulders,sothatitcurved
48

Fig.24.Womanwearingapharos-veil.
MarblestatuefoundatDidyma,c.540.
Staat.Mus.,BerlinF724.bpk,Berlin.
Photo:IngridGeske.

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
aroundthefaceandneckbeforefallingdowntheback.TheMilesianveilgently
undulates around the temples suggesting the hair underneath, in contrast to the
tighterSamianstyle,andisgenerallysurmountedbyaillet,whichreplacesthe
highSamianpolos.52Thisstyleisbestshownbyavotivereliefofayoungwoman
fromDidyma(Fig.24).53
Pharos-veils,675200
Textual evidence shows that the garment known as the pharos, which is usually
translatedinEnglishasmantleorrobe,couldalsobeusedasaveil,althoughby
derivation,pharossimplymeansapieceofclothing.54Itwaseasilymadefrom
ahugeoblongoffabricandwasthereforeopentoconsiderablevarietyinitswearing.
Thereisacleardevelopmentintheuseofthisversatilelengthoffabricoverthe
centuries. From the archaic period to the hellenistic age it tends to be worn by
womenasacloakcoveringtheshouldersandarms,anditisfrequentlypulledover
theheadasaveil.Giventheabsence,outsideofHomer,ofanysatisfactoryGreek
wordforanarchaic-stylemantle,wecanusethewordpharoswhendiscussingthis
styleofgarmentinitsseventh-andsixth-centurycontextand,whereappropriate,
forlaterexamplestoo.55Consequentlywhenitisdrawnovertheheadoracrossthe
face,wecanreasonablyemploythetermpharos-veil.56
Thepharosisactuallywellattestedintheliterarysourcesbeingusedasaveil.
Indeed,thescholiaonEuripidesAndromakheline831observesthatitsharesthe
samepurposeasthekredemnon.57WeindthatOdysseusenvelopshimselfwithin
hispharosashesilentlygrievesbeforethePhaiakiancourt,58while,intheWorksAnd
Dayswearetoldhow,
UptoOlymposfromthewide-pathedearth,
Lovelyapparitions,veiledinwhitephare,
GoingtojointheImmortals,abandoninghumans,
OffgoAidosandNemesis.59

Similarly,intheclassicalperiod,Aithra,themotherofTheseus,veilsherselfwith
apharosasshesitsinlamentation60,anacttypicallylampoonedbyAristophanesin
Thesmophoriazusae,whenEuripidesin-law,indrag,putshisrobeoverhisheadand
drawsitacrosshisfaceinordertoplaytheroleofHelen.Shesitsweepingatthe
tombofProteus,untilEuripides,intheguiseofMenelaos,asks,
Lady,whythuspharos-veileddoyoukeep
Seatedbesidesthetomb?61

And in aSophoklean fragment (probably from The Judgement) an anonymous

characterdeclares,
See,Iamveilingmyselfinthispharosasthoughitweremyown.62

Fromthearchaicperiodonwards,then,weindthatapharosfrequentlydoubles
upasaveil,atypicaluseofanunstitchedgarment.Thefashionforthepharos-veil
49

Chapter3
has along history on the Greek mainland where it is habitually worn over the
shouldersandheadwithouteverbeingtuckedintoabeltorwaistbandthekoraiof
theAthenianAkropolisweartheirphareinthisstyle,andthisiswhatseparatesthem
fromtheEastGreektypes.TheGreekpharos-veiltendstohanginalongverticalline
fromheadtofoot,concealingthearmsandtorso,butoccasionallyswathingthebody
initsfoldswhenasectionoftheveilisthrownoveroneshoulderwiththeprobable
purposeofsecuringitinplaceduringmovement.Itisawell-knowniconographic
styleand,whatfollowshereisonlythebriefestoutline.
Thepharos-veilisirstattestedonanEarlyProtoattictankard,wherealineof
mourningwomen,wearingwhitedresses,arecoveredbydarkmantlesthatarepulled
overtheirheadsastheyraisetheirarmsinthetraditionalgestureofgrief(Fig.25).63
Fromthesameperiodcomesakraterdepictingamourningwomansquattingon
thegroundandraisingherarminadisplayofritualmisery(Fig.26);herbodyis
envelopedinamantle,similartotheEgyptianmilyeh(Fig.9),whichispulledon
toherheadandallowedtohangoverherforehead.64
The famous relief pithos from Mykonos (Fig. 27 c.675) also affords an early
depictionofapharos-veilaswornbyHelen.65Itseemsthatherdressismadefrom
two layers, since over her elaborate peplos Helen wears another fringed garment
wovenwithswirlsandhatches.66Itcouldbearguedthatthisisherpharos,whichis
alsofringedandtasselledinwhatappearstobeainefabric(perhapslinen),because
thecontoursofHelensbodyareclearlyvisiblebeneathit.TheoutlineofHelens
hairisalsoseenundertheveil.
Dated to around 650, Fig. 28 shows abronze mitra, discovered at Olympia,
depictingthekillingofKlytemnestrabyOrestes.67Thequeenwearsawovenpeplos,
asash,and(perhaps)acape,68whileaboveherheadsheholdsahugeveilwhichis
workedwithanimalmotifs,fringededges,andtassels.69Thequality,design,and
sheersizeoftheveilrecalltheveilwornbyHelenontheMykonospithos.Both
veilsarereminiscentofthetypeswornbyAssyrianwomen(andlateradoptedby
Neo-Hittite women) of the same period. The Olympia mitra and the Mykonos
pithosrelectthedesirabilityofAssyrian-inspiredfashionsduringthemid-seventh
century, as well as the durability and importance of Near Eastern textile trade
routes.70 Unfortunately Assyrian women appear infrequently in the oficial royal
artworksandrarelyemergeonthepalacereliefs,71butonefamousexampledepicts
kingAurbanipal(668627)feastingatanalfrescobanquetwithhisqueen,Aururrat(Fig.29).Shewearsanintricately-workedgarmentsimilartothatwornby
HelenontheMykonospithos,consistingofalongfringedtunicandasingleshawl
wrappedaroundherlowerandupperbody.Theendoftheshawlisdrapedoverher
shoulderbutprobablythisexcesspieceoffabric(likeamodern-daysari)couldbe
drawnoverthequeensheadasaveil.72
TheearlyGreekpharos-veiltendstobealargerectangleofcloththatisskilfully
wovenwithaseriesofgeometricshapesoranimalmotifsandoftenborderedwith
afringed and tasselled hem.73 If the ind-spots of the Mykonos pithos and the
50

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld

Fig.25.Linedrawingof
amourningwomanwearing
apharos-veil.EarlyProtoattic
tankard(detail).Reading
University54.8.1H.12.

Fig.26.Squattingmourning
Fig.27.Helenwrappedinanelaboratelywoven,
womanenvelopedwithin
fringedandtasselledpharos-veil.Reliefpithosfrom
apharos-veil.Linedrawing
Mykonos,c.675.Nat.Mus.Athens,MYK67.
fromanEarlyProtoattickrater
(detail).MainzUniversity156
(kraterD).

Fig.28.Klytaimnestracoversherselfwithanelaboratelydecorated
pharos-veil.BronzemitrafromOlympia,c.650.Arch.Mus.Olympia
B4900.

Fig.29.QueenAururatofAssyria
inanelaboratelywovenfringed
mantle.Assyrianpalacerelief,c.645.
BM,London.WA124920.

Olympia mitra relect the fashion trends of those areas, then Assyrian veil-styles
iniltrateddeepintothePeloponnese,butthisisinnosensecertain.Afragmentof
arelieffromMycenae(Fig.30,c.630),however,suggeststhatthepharos-veilwas
worn in the northwest Peloponnese,74 while astele from Sparta (Fig. 31) shows
aheroine(Helen?)wearingthesametypeofgarment.75
Fig.32isoneoftheearliestexamplesofavasepaintingshowingthepharosbeing
used as aveil. Dating to c.675650, this fragment of aNaxian amphora depicts
Aphrodite wearing adark mantle which is draped over her shoulders and upper
armsandpulledontothebackofherhead.76Fromthesameperiod,andinavery
51

Chapter3
raredepiction(Fig.33),thegoddessAthenehasveiledherheadwithherpharos
andthrowstheexcessfabricoverhershoulder.77Awell-knownKorinthiankrater
ofroughly550hasthetreacherousEriphyleveiledinacolouredpharos(Fig.34).78
Strikinglysimilaristhemodernversionofthepharos-veilworninnumerouscontemporaryveilsocieties(Fig.35).

Fig.30.Womanwearing
apharos-veil.Stonereliefmetope
fromMycenae,c.630.Nat.Mus.
Athens2869.

Fig.33.LinedrawingofAthene
inachequeredpeplosanddark
pharos-veil.Parianamphoafrom
Melos(detail),c.630.Nat.Mus.
Athens3961.Ahlberg-Cornell
1992.

Fig.31.Helenwearingapharos-veil.
Linedrawingfromastonestelafrom
Sparta,c.600.SpartaMuseum4860.

Fig.34.LinedrawingofEriphyle
wrappedinapharos-veil.Korinthiancolumn-kraterfromCervetri,
c.570.OnceStaat.Mus.,Berlin
F1655,Amyx263.1.NowLost.
AfterAhlberg-Cornell1992.

52

Fig.32.Aphroditeinadark
pharos-veil.Linedrawingfrom
aNaxianamphora(detail),
c.675650.Nowlost.After
Ahlberg-Cornell1992.

Fig.35.Turkishcarsaforouterwrapveil,resemblingtheancientGreek
pharos-veil.Withkindpermissionof
GillianVogelsang-Eastwood(Textile
ResearchCentre)andtheRMV,
Leiden.

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
Bytheearlyclassicalperiodthedrapedclothofthepharoshadlostitselaborate
decoration and is totally plain. At this time, the mantle itself is made from an
enormousrectangleoffabricthatlookstoocumbersometobewornmerelyaround
theshouldersandoverthehead.Italmostdemandsthatitshouldbedrapedacross
thetorsoandslungoveroneshoulderaswell(seeFig.2).79Thisbecomesavery
popularstyleofwearingthepharosforbothsexesthroughouttheclassicalperiodand
wellintothehellenisticage.80Itiswornthusby,forexample,theAthenianBasilinna
(Fig.36)81anditisfoundonahostofhellenisticterracottas.82Examinationshows
thatthepharos-veilisthemostwidelywornfemaleoutergarmentontheterracotta
statuettesthataregenericallytermedTanagras,andthatthisgarmentundergoes
afashionabledevelopmentinitsownright.
The characteristic dress of the Tanagran standing lady-type is an enveloping
pharosthatisfrequentlypulledovertheheadasaveilandsometimessurmountedby
awidebrimmedstrawhatcalledatholia.83Despiteitsintricate-lookingdrapery,the
Tanagranpharos-veilissimplycreatedfromthrowingpartofthemantleacrossthe
oppositeshoulder;ithasnoneofthecharacteristicsofhimationdrapery(seebelow).
The pharos completely covers the torso and hides the arms and even the hands,
althoughitisobviouslyvoluminousenoughtoallowformovementbeneathitsfolds
becauseitisthevariouscontortionsoftheconcealedhandsandarmsbeneaththe
mantlethatcreatethevarietyofdrapingstyles.Itiscommontoseethepharosbeing
clutchedinahiddenhandandpulledtauttocreatetensioninthecloththatmakes
foraninterestingvariationonastandarddrape.84Thusthehellenisticpharos-veil
canbearelativelysimpleaffairresemblingtheearlierclassicalfashion(Fig.37),or
amoreintricatelyconstructedgarmentthatispulledandheldaboutthebodyin
avarietyofcontortionscreatedoutofthesamesimpledrapingstyle(Fig.38).Both
fashionsaredesignedtoshroudasmuchofthefemalebodyaspossible.

Fig.36.LinedrawingoftheAthenian
basilinnawearinganenvelopingpharosveilandattendedbyaparasol-holding
satyr.SkyphosbythePenelopePainter,
c.450430.Staat.Mus.,Berlin2589.

Fig.37.Drawingofawomanin
well-wrappedpharos-veil.TerracottastatuettefromTanagra,c.
thirdcentury.Staat.Mus.,Berlin
TC7674.

53

Fig.38.Drawingofawomanin
pharos-veilwhichcoversherlower
face.Terracottastatuettefrom
Tanagra,c.thirdcentury.Formerly
CollectionBarre.Afterphoto
archivesKostmbibliothek,Berlin.

Chapter3
Thehimation-veil:c.520bc200ad
Thehimation-veilisfirstattestedinthelatesixthcentury.Themajordifference
betweenthehimation-veilandthe pharos-veilstemsfromthefactthatwhilethe
pharoswasusedtocovertheheadandshouldersandwassometimesslungaround
thebody,thehimationwasdeliberatelydrapedaroundthelowertorsoandhungover
ashoulderfromwhenceitwasfrequentlypulledoverthehead.Unlikethepharos,the
himationhadtocrossthebodyonadiagonalandwasusuallydrapedunderonearm
andovertheother.85Anearlydepictionofthehimation-veilbytheAmasispainter
(Fig.39)clearlylackstheeleganceoflaterimagesofthesamegarment;itseemsthat
theartistwasnotentirelyfamiliarwithplacingthefemaleframebeneathitsheavy
folds,becauseherethehimationsitsaroundthetorso,onthehead,andoverthe
shoulderasaratherinelegantclumpofcloth.86
Thehimation-veilisfoundiniconographyfromaround520andremainsavery
popularfashionthroughoutthefifthandfourthcenturies,intothehellenisticperiod
andbeyond,andasitisawellknownstyle,hereafewrepresentativeexampleswill
suffice.Thehimation-veilisfrequentlyattestedonAtticgravereliefsoftheclassical
period and can be found worn by Ampharete (Fig. 40),87 Hegeso,88 Theano,89
Ameihoklea,90andDemetriaandPamphilia(Fig.41)91tonamebutafew.92The
styleisalmostuniversalandso,onagravestonefromBoeotia,forexample,wefind
thatawomannamedDiodorahasveiledherheadwiththeendofherhimation(Fig.
42),93andallofthemainfemalefiguresonthemid-fourth-centurySarcophagusof
theMourningWomenfromSidonarehimation-veiled.94

Fig.39.Linedrawingof
awomanwearinganearly
exampleofthefemale
himation-veil.Olpebythe
AmasisPainter(detail),c.520.
Met.Mus.N.Y.59.11.17.

Fig.40.DrawingofAmpharete
wearingahimation-veil.Attic
gravestela,c.410.Ker.Mus.,
Athens.

54

Fig.41.Drawingofthegravestelaofthe
sistersDemetriaandPamphile,bothofwhom
holdasectionoftheirhimation-veilsintheir
handsasifdrawingthemacrosstheirfaces.
Atticgravestela,c.320.Ker.Mus.,Athens.

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
Large-scalesculpturesaidourunderstandingofhowthehimation-veilwascreated,
sincetheyofferathree-dimensionalimage.AstatueofDemeterfromKnidos(c.340,
Fig.43),forexample,showstheseatedgoddesswithherheadveiledbyherhimation,
althoughtworingletsareallowedtospilloutaroundherneck.95Vase-paintingsalso
offeraviewofthehimation-veil,andexamplesofwomenwearingthiswidespread
fashioncouldeasilyrunintothehundreds.Aineexampleofthegenreisthefamous
red-igureskyphosfromChiusishowingthedowncastPenelopeseatedatherloom
wearingadelicatelinenchitonoverwhichisdrapedalargehimationwhichfallsin
concentratedswathesandisdrawnoverherheadasaveil(Fig.44);96similarly,in
anelegantdepiction,Aphroditemanagestowearherhimation-veilwiththegrace
onewouldexpectofagoddess(Fig.45).97

Fig.42.Drawingofthegravestoneof
Diodora.Shewearsahimation-veilloosely
thrownacrossherbody.Gravestelafrom
Thespiae,Boeotia,c.410.Nat.Mus.Athens
818.

Fig.43.DrawingofaseatedstatueofDemeter(with
detail)showingtheelaborateshoulderdrapeofher
himation-veil.MarblestatuefromKnidosbyLeochares,
c.340330.BM,London,1300.

Fig.44.Linedrawingofahimation-veiledPenelopeat
herloom.SkyphosfromChiusibythePenelopePainter,
c.450430.Mus.Chiusi1831.

55

Fig.45.LinedrawingofAphrodite
inahimation-veil.Kalyx-kraterfrom
BolognabytheDinosPainter,c.420.
Mus.Bologna300.

Chapter3
Thehimation-veilisrarelyfoundonthehellenisticTanagrafigurines,although
itistobeseenwornbyearlierAthenianterracottamodels.Buttheselattertypes
representDemeterandAphroditeanddonotconformtothelaterTanagrantradition
ofshowingmortalwomen.98Whenthehimationisfoundinhellenisticexamples,it
tendstobesportedbychildren,younggirls,andseatedwomenwhoaresupposedly
indoors.Seemingly,themorecompleteformofveilingaffordedbythepharos-veil
wasconsideredmoredesirableforoutdoorwear.99
While scholars are very familiar with images of the pharos and himation-veils,
fewhaveconsciouslytracedtheirdevelopments.Yetthesestylesaresowidespread
intheiconographicsourcesthattheycannotbemissed.Mostarthistoriansatleast
recognizethatboththepharosandhimationcanbeusedtocoverthehead(evenif
theveilingterminologyisnotsettled).Butthereareotherveil-stylesthatappear
lessfrequentlyinthesourcesandhaveconsequentlytendedtogounnoticed.Itis
interestingtoobservethatbytheearlyclassicalperiod,inAthensandelsewhere,
womenbegantobemorecoveredup.Notonlywastheconcealingarrangement
of the himation more carefully arranged, but short head-veils were added to the
ensemble.Bythelatefourthcentury,therewasaveilspecificallydesignedtocover
thefemaleface.
Thereturnoftheshoulder-lengthveil(shaal ):520420.
Areturnoftheshoulder-lengthveiloccurredaround520andthisremainedthe
mostpopularformofveiluntilc.420.Itisshownbeingwornbyavarietyofwomen
frompipe-girlstogoddessesandisafashionparticularlyprominentintheworksof
theartistsMakronandDouris.Severaltypesofshaal-veilcanbeidentiiedwithin
this hundred-year period, beginning around 520 with adepiction of apipe-girl
whopuffsawayatherauloswhileshewearsatransparentchitonthatclearlyreveals
thelinesofherslenderbodybeneath(Fig.46).Herheadiscoveredbyadelicate
shaal-veil(onlyherfringeatthehairlineisvisible)thatmusthavebeenmadefrom
alargerectangleorsquareofinelinen.Itisplacedonthecrownoftheheadto
fallinaseriesofelegantconcertinapleatsandsweepingfolds.100Thesametypeof
veiliswornbyaseatedwomanholdingamirroronacupfoundintheAthenian
Agora(Fig.47).Possiblyahetaira(bytheaccompanyingaccoutrements,including
abed),thiswomanwearsatransparentchiton,ahimation,andashaal-veilthatfalls
inmultiplesoftfoldsaroundherneckandshoulders.101Sheisaccompaniedbyan
ageddwarf,who,ithasbeensuggested,evokestheigureofEroswhenparalleled
byhismistressroleasAphrodite.Indeed,ashaal-veiledgoddessofdesireisfound
accompaniedbydiminutiveErotesonanearly-ifth-centurycupbyMakron(Fig.
48).102Theshaal-veiliswornbyanotherfemmefatale,thefaithlessHelen,asshelees
fromhervengefulhusbandonanamphorabytheBerlinPainter(Fig.49),103butthe
shaal-veilisnotconinedtotherealmofthedemimonde;itiswornbyrespectable
goddessessuchasHera104andAmphitrite105whodrapeitoveraheadclothorsome
othermoreelaboratehead-dress,anditisalsofoundwornbybrides.106Avariation
56

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld

Fig.46.Linedrawingofanaulos-
playerwearingatransparent
robeandapleatedshaal-veil.
Kalyx-kraterfragmentbythe
KleophradesPainter,c.520.Nat.
Mus.Copenhagen13365.

Fig.47.Linedrawingofahetaira
(?)wearingadrapedshaal-veil.She
isaccompaniedbyanageddwarf.
Tondooffragmentarycupby
Makron,c.480.Privatecollection,
Germany.AfterDasen1993.

Fig.48.DrawingshowingAphrodite
wearingahimation,apleatedchiton
andapleatedshaal-veil.Detailfrom
akylixbyDouris,c.480.Staat.Mus.,
Berlin2291.

Fig.49.LinedrawingofHelen
wearingapleatedshaal-veil.
Atticamphora(detail),c.470.
Kunsthist.Mus.,ViennaIV74.1.

Fig.50.LinedrawingofAtalanta
wearingapleatedshaal-veilfolded
tocreatetwodistinctivepoints
andworninconjunctionwith
aheadband.Detailofalekythosby
Douris,c.480.ClevelandMus.Art
66.114.

Fig.51.Drawingofthegravestone
ofTimarista,showingherwearing
asoftlydrapedshaal-veil.Detail
ofamarblestelafromKameiros
(Rhodes),c.400.Arch.Mus.
Rhodes13638.

onthepleatedlinenshaal-veiliswornbyAtalantaonawhitegroundlekythosby
Douris(Fig.50);itappearsthattheveiliswornacrossthecrownoftheheadand
hangsdowntocovertheearswithoutconcealingthebackoftheheadorneck.It
thusallowstheornamentalheadbandtobedisplayedtofulladvantage.107
Sculpturalrepresentation,intheformofagravereliefcommemoratingTimarista,
showsthattheshaal-veil,fallinginsoft(butnotstylized)folds,conformstothe
techniqueofrenderingclothwiththewet-lookeffectfamiliarfromothercontemporaryreliefs(Fig.51),anditispossiblethathereTimaristawearsherveilover
aclose-fittinghead-scarf.108
57

Chapter3
Analternativetypeofshaal-veilisfoundonalekythosrepresentingaseatedwoman
wearingaconcealinghimation.Herheadiscoveredbyashort,stiffveildepicted
without pleats but with apatterned border and resembling, for all intents and
purposes,amoderntea-towel(Fig.52),althoughthefabricmaybefoldedinhalf,
whichwouldhelpexplainitsinflexibility.109Asimilar,butmorepliant,shaal-veilis
wornbytheso-calledHestiaGiustiniani(Fig.53,c.470)wheretheopaquefabric
isclearlyfoldeddouble,buthangsinsoftundulationsdownpasttheshouldersso
thatitcoverseverythingfromtheheaddowntotheelbows.110
Aveilofthesameshapeiswornbyawomanonaperfumebottleofc.450(Fig.
54).Thistimetheveiliscompletelytransparentsothatitrevealsthehairstyleand
filletunderneath,althoughitiscoveredbydelicatewovendotsandafinefringed
hem that complement the beauty of the womans patterned himation.111 Similar

Fig.52.Linedrawingof
aspinningwomanwearing
astiffun-pleatedshaal-veil
withadecoratededge.Detail
ofalekythosbytheSabouroff
Painter,c.470460.London
market,Sothebys17.7.1985
lot244.

Fig.53.Statueofawoman(often
knownasHestia)wearingashaalveilthatreachespasttheshoulders.
MarblesculpturefromAthens,
c.470.VillaAlbani,Turlunia490.

Fig.55.LinedrawingofaNereidwearingalong
andelaboratelydecoratedshaal-veil.StamnospyxisfromBoeotia(detail),c.430420.Louvre,
ParisCA4502.

Fig.54.Linedrawingofaspinning
womanwearinganexpensive-looking,
semi-transparent,shaal-veildecorated
withtinypolka-dotsandadelicate
fringedhem.Detailofanalabastron
bythePanPainterfromAthens,
c.450.Staat.Mus.,Berlin2254.

Fig.56.Musewearinganunusualfan-shapedhead-dress
withaseparatelongdrapedveil.Marblestatuefromthe
ViaAventina,Rome,fromathird-centuryGreekoriginal.
Mus.Nat.,Rome.PhotographcourtesyofMerrilGeorge.

58

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
veils,notastransparentbutcertainlydecorated,arefrequentlyshownaswornby
brideswhosestatusasimportantobjectsofthemalegazethroughoutthewedding
proceedingswouldwithoutdoubtentitlethemtowearacostlygarment;112asthe
ultimatebrideandwife,thegoddessHeraisalsoassociatedwiththestar-spangled
shaal-veil.113 Aseries of black-figure Kabeirian-style Nereids ride on the backs of
varioussea-creaturesonastamnos-pyxisfromBoeotia(Fig.55,c.430420):their
elaboratecoiledandtwistedhairstylesaresurmountedbygarlandsandarecovered
with very fine-fringed and fairly long shaal-veils which float behind them in the
seabreeze.Theveilsthemselvesaredecoratedwithregularlyspacedpolka-dotsand
wovenedges.114
A more confusing type of shaal-veil appears to be worn in conjunction with
aseparate long veil on aRoman copy of ahellenistic sculpture (aMuse of the
FarneseMelpomenetypefromtheviaAventinainRome;Fig.56).Thisfigurewears
whatseemstobeashortshaal-veilpleatedtoformaroundedfanshapedraped
overatop-knotofhairwhichispartlycoveredbyalong,narrowveilthathangs
asymmetricallydownpastherlefthipbutstopsabruptlyonherrightshoulder.
Thislongveilisaseparategarmentfromthehimationthatisdrapedaroundher
legs.115AsfarasIamaware,thisdepictionofashortfan-veilisuniqueinGrecoRomanart.
Thekolpos-veil:450400
Aveilstylethathasgonealmostentirelyunnoticedis
onethatwemaytermthekolpos-veil,sinceitderives
fromthekolposoroverhangofthefemalepeplos.116
Fromthemid-fifthcenturythefashionwastodraw
thebackofthekolposupovertheheadasaveil.117
Thisstylecouldbeformedfromboththeopen-sided
peplos, as displayed on an example from the latefourth-centurysteleofPolyxena(Fig.57),118andfrom
theclosedpeplos,onewhichissewnuponbothsides.
Thelatterversionisdemonstratedinafrontandback
viewofabronzestatuetteofayoungwomaninthe
Louvre(Fig.58).119LeonHeuzeyprovidedaseries
ofgoodclearreconstructionsoftheseraredepictions
ofthekolposveilbyusingmodlesvivantstosupport
hisarguments(Figs.59,60and61).120However,his
studymissedthefactthatthekolposveilcouldalso
beusedtoconcealthelower-face,asisthecasewith
thewomandepictedonamid-fifth-centurylekythos
(Fig.62).Inthisbizarrescene,awomanmasksher
lower-facewithherkolposveilwhilehereyesmeet
thegazeofaseatedmonkey.121
59

Fig.57.GravereliefofPolyxena
wearingakolpos-veil.Marblestela
fromBoeotia,c.400390.Staat.
Mus.,Berlin1504.

Chapter3

Figs.58aandb.Figurineofawomanwearingapeploswhichshetransformsintoaveilbypullingthe
kolposoverherhead.Bronzestatuette,c.460450.Louvre,Paris.BR297.PhotoRMN:C.Larrieu.

Figs.59,60,61.Reconstructionsofthedrapingofthe
kolpos-veil.AfterHeuzey1922.

Fig.62.Linedrawingofawomanveiling
herheadandfacewithherkolposwhilst
staringataseatedmonkey.Amphora
(NolanAmphora)bythePhialePainter
(?),c.450.BMLondonE307.

60

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
Face-veils
Whileitwaspossibletoveilthefacewithalloftheveil-typesexaminedabove,122
fromthemid-fifthcenturyonward(andincreasinglysobytheendofthefourth
century),onefindsexamplesofspecificfaceveils.Imagesofwomenwiththeirfaces
veiledwithwraparoundorgarmentveilsbecomefarmorecommontowardsthe
endoftheclassicalperiod(Figs.63and64).ATanagranfigurinefromBoeotia,
dating to the early years of the third century and typical of its type (Fig. 65),123
canbecomparedwithanearlierfifth-centuryAtheniankraterwhichdepictsthree
similarly-veiledwomen(Fig.66).124Butinadditiontotheseexamplesofgarmentveilusedtocovertheface,therearetwofurthertypesofGreekveilsthatspecifically
designedtocovertheface,althoughwecanonlygiveadefiniteGreeknametoone
ofthem:tegidion.

Fig.63.Terracottavaseintheshape
ofafemalehead.Theheadand
mouthisswathedinapharos-veil.
AfterRobinson1938.

Fig.65.Womanwithveiledlowerface.
Terracottastatuette,fromTanagra(?),late
fourthcentury.Gemeentemuseum,The
HagueOC(ant)639.

Fig.64.Terracottavaseintheshapeof
afemalehead.Thelowerfaceandthehead
areveiled.AfterRobinson1938.

61

Chapter3

Fig.66.Threewomenheavilyswathedinpharewhichveiltheirlowerfaces.Red-figurecolumn-kraterbytheEupolis
Painter,c.450440.MountHolyokeCollegeArtMuseum,SouthHadley,Massachusetts.NancyEverettDwight
Fund.1913.1.B.SII.BykindpermissionoftheMountHolyokeCollegeArtMuseum.

Thetegidion
Having the meaning little roof (adiminutive of tegos),125 the word tegidion
was vaguely defined by the lexicographer Hesychius as a sort of adornment for
women.126Butwhatstyleofdress(oradornment)couldpossiblybesaidtoresemble
alittleroof ?Theanswer,Ithink,isfoundinapopularfemalehead-dresswornin
mostoftheGreekworldbetweenthefourthandfirstcenturies(itdisappearsinthe
Romanperiod).Thisisactuallyaface-veilcomposedbycuttingeyeholesintoasingle
rectangularcloth.Itissometimesedgedwithadelicatefringe,isboundaroundthe
headbyafilletandisoftenfastenedovertheforeheadwith(whatappearstobe)
abrooch.Unfortunatelyitisrarelyshowninthepositionforwhichitwasdesigned,
thatis,hangingdownoverthefacelikeastyleofIslamicveilknownastheniqab
(Fig.13),127althoughafewexamplesareknown(Fig.67).128
ThewordtegidionappearsinaninscriptiondatedtothethirdcenturylistingdedicationsofclothinginthesanctuaryofDemeteratTanagra.129Itisperhapsnocoincidencethatalittle-knowntravel-writerofthesamedatecalledHeraclidesCriticus
commentsonthewomenofThebes(onlyastonesthrowawayfromTanagra)as
beingthemostbeautifulinGreece.Henotesthat,
Thecoveringoftheirclothes(himatia)ontheirheadissuchthatthewholefaceseems
tobecoveredbyamask,withonlytheeyesshowingthrough;theotherpartsoftheir
faceareallcoveredbythegarments.130

62

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld

Fig.67.Tegidionface-veilshownhangingdownover
thewearersface.TerracottastatuettefromAlexandria,
c.thirdcentury.Graeco-RomanMus.,Alexandria.
Acquisitionnumberunknown.AfterAdriani1948.

Fig.68.Linedrawingofawomanwearingthetegidion
face-veilpulledofftheface.Theeye-holesarevisibleabove
thehairline.Redrawnfromawatercolourpaintingby
ThomasBurgon,c.1830.Originalterracottaheadfrom
Pergamon.AshmoleanMus.Oxford.

Figs.69and70.Reconstructionofthetegidionshowingitwornin
itsintendedpositionovertheface,andinitsmoreusualposition
inartisticrepresentations,pushedofftheface.Theeyeholesare
visibleabovethewearersforehead.

Thisisalmostcertainlyanotherreferencetothelittleroof ,anditiseasytoseewhy
theveilwouldbesonamed:theclothisfoldedoffthefaceandbackontotheheadto
formaflatsurfacewithoverhangingeavesresemblingalittlegable.131Awatercolour
ofasmallfemaleheadfoundatPergamonmadebytheantiquarianThomasBurgon
in1830,andnowondisplayintheAshmoleanMuseum,perhapsshowsmostclearly
theconstructionofthetegidion,astheeyeholesareclearabovetheforeheadandthe
backofthefaceveilistuckedneatlyintotheheadbandandhead-ties(Fig.68).132The
tegidionissometimesfoundcoveredbythehimationorpharos-veils,andisfolded
backtorevealthegable-likeshape.Indailylifeitwassurelyworndownovertheface
inconjunctionwithahimationorpharos-veilthatcoveredthehead,thehair,and
envelopedthebody.Figs.69and70provideareconstructionofthetegidionbothas
wornonthebackoftheheadandaspulleddownoverthefacelikeaniqab.
63

Chapter3
Therearenumerousexamplesofthisstyleofveilwhich
havebeenfoundaroundtheGreekworldfromTanagra
toMacedonia,andfromTroytoAlexandria.Butasthe
majorityofstatuettesdepictwomenwiththeirlittle-roofveilsthrownbackofftheirfacesandovertheirheads,their
vitalimportanceassourcesforthestudyofGreekveiling
havetendedtogounnoticedbyscholars.133
Thetegidionisalsolocatedintextualevidence:aletter
fromthearchiveofZenoninPhiladelphia,Egypt,dating
to256,impliesthatthetegidionwascommonlyusedin
Egypt.Indeed,itiswornonseveralEgyptianstatuettes
foundinAlexandria.134Giventhecloserelationsbetween
BoeotianThebesandAlexandria,itissignificantthatthe
fashionfortheface-veilwascommontobothcities.135
ItmaywellhavefounditswaytoAlexandriaafterthe Fig.71.Linedrawingof
agrotesquefemaleheadwearing
Macedonian destruction of Thebes and Alexander the ategidioninitsdownposition
andsecuredontheheadwith
GreatssubsequentmovementdownthecoastlineofAsia agarland.ThecoroplastemphaMinorandintoEgypt.Thetegidionisfoundonarather sizeshismodelslargenoseand
sunkenchin,bothofwhichare
grotesque wreathed Graeco-Egyptian head, where it is heregivenemphasisbytheveil.
worndownovertheface,althoughitseyeholesappear TerracottaheadfromAlexandria,c.thirdcenturybc.Graecoto be larger than those on the usual Tanagran models RomanMus.,Alexandra.
(Fig.71).
Themostfamousexampleofthetegidioniswornbyabeautifulbronzedancer
fromAlexandria.(Fig.72).136Herbodyandheadarewrappedinveryine,semitransparentlinenandshedrawstheendofherfringedpharos-veiloverhernoseand
mouth.137Theupperedgeoftheinner-veil,thetegidion,isclearlyvisiblebeneath
thewavesofhair,andcreasesinthefabricarediscernible,especiallyaroundtheeyes.
Theeye-holesarelargeandalmondshapedandrevealtheEgyptian-stylemake-up
appliedaroundtheeyesandeyelids(Fig.73).138Theeffectisofalittlemask,and,
indeed, the word prosopidion (little mask or face-cover), found on aclothingdedicationfromthird-centuryMiletus,couldwellbeanalternativenameforthe
tegidion.139 Moreover, according to Antipater of Sidon, ayoung woman named
Herakleiaisspeciicallysaidtohavewornaprokalummaprosopou,literallyaveil
fortheface,agarmentwhichshededicatestoAphroditeimmediatelypriortoher
wedding.140Theprosopidionis,ofcourse,aderivativeofthewordprosopon,face.
Becausetheveilcoversthefacelikeamask,becomingineffectanother(featureless)face,itseemstohaveborroweditsname.Infact,PlatotheComictellsthat
anothonionprosopon,aveiledface(orlinen-coveredface),wasanothernamefor
atheatremask,141presumablythetypewhichThespisintroducedontotheAthenian
stage,astylewhichwasthenreinedbyChoerilusandAiskhyloswhoappeartohave
drawnfeaturesontothesimpleplainclothfaces.142

64

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld

Fig.72.Dancingfemalefigurewearingapharos-veiland
aface-veil.BronzestatuettefromAlexandria,c.200(The
BakerDancer).TheMetropolitanMuseumofArtN.Y.
BequestofWalterC.Baker,1971.(1972.118.95)

Themaghmuqveil
Asecond,muchrarer,typeoffaceveilhasbeen
identified on an Alexandrian statuette dating
to the early second century (Fig. 74). Here
the woman wears adelicately fringed face veil
withouteyeholesinotherwords,aface-panel
that hangs from her forehead down to her
chest.143Presumablythefabric(probablylinen
butpossiblysilk)wassosheerthateyeholeswere
unnecessary and, in this respect, it resembles
aYemenisilkface-veilknownvariouslyasthe
maghmuq or the sheshaf, which is sufficiently
transparentforthewearertoremaincapableof
seeingtheworldaroundher(Fig.12).144
65

Fig.73.DetailfromFig.72.

Fig.74.Sheerface-panelormaghmuq
withafringedhemwornbyanAlexandrianwoman.LinedrawingofAlexandrianterracotta,c.200.Graeco-Roman
Mus.,Alexandria.AfterVogelsangEastwood1996aandAdriani1948.

Chapter3
Thelithma-styleveil
Afinaltypeofveil,avariationonthepharosveil style, can be called the lithma-veil,
because it relates closely to afashion worn
widely throughout the modern Arab world
whereby asingle length of cloth is wrapped
aroundthelowerfacewhiletheupperfaceis
either left uncovered or hidden by asecond
garment, such as amantle or another kind
of outerwrap (Fig. 75).145 Thus astatuette
fromMyrina(Fig.76,c.250)showsawoman
wearing apharos-veil that has been pulled
aroundthelowerfacetomaskhermouthand
chinandissecuredontherightsidebybeing
tuckedintotheheadbandofthetegidionwith
whichitisworninconjunction.146Complete
concealment for the woman beneath these
layersisguaranteed.

Fig.76.Womanwell-veiledinapharos,drawn
acrossthemouthlikealithma,andategidion
thrownofftheface.Terracottastatuettefrom
Myrina,c.250230.Louvre,Paris1163,0.09.
PhotoRMN:Chuzeville.

Fig.75.Tuaregmanwearingalithma.After
Vogelsang-Eastwood1996a.

Conclusion
TheveilandtheconceptofveilingwereaprevalentrealityforthewomenofGreece.
Theveilunderwentaseriesoffashionablechangesthatcanbeplottedwithcomparativeeaseandgivenachronologyofitsown.Variousformsofveil,frommantlesthat
enclosedthewholebodytomasksthatadditionallycoveredtheface,wereemployed
forthepurposeofdisguisingthefemaleform.
Itisclearfromtheliterarysourcesthattheveilwasalreadyanestablisheditemof
femaledressintheHomericworld(anditmayhavehadanolderpedigree).From
artisticevidenceoftheseventhcenturyitappearsthatthestylesofveilwornbythe
66

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
womenofGreecewereborrowedfrom,oranalogouswith,thosewornintheNear
East.Twostylesofveilarefoundintheseearlysources:thepharos-veil(inahighlydecoratedAssyrianstyleatirst,butlaterbecomingplainerandlesselaborate)and
theshortshaal-veil.ThelatterisnotattestedinNearEasternartandcouldwellbe
awhollyGreekfashion,althoughthecoloureddiagonalpatternedbandswornby
theIsthmiankoraimighthintattheLydianstylesalludedtobySappho.
ThekoraiofSamosandMiletusweardecidedlyAnatolian-typesofveil,while
womenonthemainlandusephareasthechiefwayofcoveringtheirheads,bodies,
andfacesuntilthelatesixthcentury.Itwasatthispointthatrivalstylescameinto
fashion, with the female adaptation of the male himation as aveil and with the
reintroduction,forashorttime,oftheshaal-veil(althoughnowfoundinawider
varietyofstyles).Thehimation-veilandthepharos-veilremaininvoguewellintothe
Romanperiodbutbythemid-ifthcenturytheiconographysuggeststhatwomen
werebeginningtousethesegarmentstocovermoreandmoreoftheirbodies,and
bythecloseofthefourthcenturythetrendcomestoaclimaxwiththeintroduction
ofthetegidionandthemaghmuq-styleveils,bothofwhichwerespeciicallycreated
tocovertheface.
Astheveilunderwentaseriesoftransformations,overarelativelylongperiod,it
proceededtocoverupmoreandmoreofthefemalebodyandfaceuntilthesewere
completelyhiddenbeneathlayersofcloth.Thequestionis,why?Beforewecanbegin
ourinvestigationofthesocialmeaningoftheGreekveiltherestillremainsanother
somewhatcomplexissuetodiscuss,fortheiconographymaygivemoreevidencefor
womensuseoftheveilthanirstmeetstheeye.
Notes

Theizarismadefromtwopiecesofcloth,aroundivemetreslong,whicharestitched
together.Partoftheclothisfoldedoverandabout40cmofitisdrapedovertheright
shoulder.Theexcessispulledaroundthebackandabout50cmisbroughtbackoverthe
chestandfastenedontheleftshoulder.Thefoldedclothisthenbroughtacrossthechest
andpinnedtotherightshouldersothatitcreatesatypeofbib.Theclothisdrapedover
theheadandbroughtforwardtoconcealthearmsandthefrontofthetorso.Fordetails
seeRackow1958.Themodernhuik,madefromasemicircleoflight-weightcloth,ismore
user-friendly.Itreachesdowntotheanklesandisusuallywornwithasmallface-burqaa.
SeeVogelsang-Eastwood1996a,69andJereb1995,57.
2
Thesariiswithoutdoubtthemostelegantofwrap-aroundgarments.Ithasalonghistory
anddisplaysavarietyofregionalstylesindraping,althoughallstylesbeginwiththebasic
actoftuckingthesariintoawaistbandorpetticoatofsomekindandpleatingandfolding
itintoshape.TheendoftheGujarati-sarihangslooseovertherightshouldersothatthe
decoratededgeisdisplayedatthefrontofthetorso,althoughthePradesh-sarigoesoverthe
headwiththedecoratedendhangingatthefront.Withallthevarietyofstylestheheadand
facecanbeveiledbypassingasectionofthesarioverthehead;itisoftenheldacrossthe
facewiththehandorclampedintheteeth.Foragoodinvestigationintotheregionalstyles
ofthesariandthemultiplewaysofdrapingtheclothseeLynton1995.
1

67

Chapter3
MilyehissimplyanArabicwordforcloth,althoughitisusuallyqualiiedbytheword
liff,whichreferstothemannerinwhichitisdraped(i.e.,drapedcloth).Themilyehliff
isavoluminousdark,shinyclothwhichisdrapedsari-likeoverawomansindoorclothes.
IthasalonghistoryinEgypt,whichstretchesbacktothemiddleages,althoughtodayits
popularityisdwindlinginfavourofthehijab.Itisoftenassociatedwitholdwomenandthe
veryconservative,butnonetheless,itcanstillhaveaneroticappeal.FordetailsseeVogelsangEastwood1996a,6972andRugh1986,1089.
4
Akindofcoatwithfalsesleeves.FordetailsseeVogelsang-Eastwood1996a.767.Itcan
becomparedtotheArabianabaya.
5
Thisismadefromalargesemicircleofclothandishungfromtheheadwithoutbeing
drapedaroundthebody.Anineteenth-centurydescriptionofthechadri(orchaadaree)states
that,[women]intownarealwayswrappedinalargewhitesheetwhichcoversthemtotheir
feetandcompletelyhidestheigure.Theyareabletoseebymeansofanetworkinthehood
whichcoversthehead(citedinScarce1975,10).Scare1975,10,12alsoprovidesseveral
clearpatternsfortheconstructionofthegarment-veil.Analternativenameforthistypeof
garment-veil(althoughstrictlyspeaking,itisinaccuratelyused)isburqaa;Westernmedia
reportsroutinelyemploythislatterterm.OnthechadriseefurtherDaly2000.
6
UseofthechadororiginatedinIranfromaveryearlyperiodand,likethechadri,itwas
createdfromasemicircularclothhungfromthehead.TheoriginofthewordisPersianand
simplymeansaclothorsheet.Thetermchadorcanbequaliiedwithchadari-shab,meaning
night-cloth,whichcanrefertobedclothes,sheets,oranall-envelopingveil.TheAfghan
chadriisclearlyderivedfromthesameword.SeeScarce1975,13,and12forapattern.
Today,mostIranianwomenwearablackversionofthechadorwhichcompletelycoversthe
bodybutleavesthefaceexposed,butitcanbesupplementedwithamaghneh,akindof
shapedhood,whichisusedtoensurethattheneckandhairregioniscompletelyveiled.In
addition,womenalsouseanindoororprayerchadorathome.Thisismadeofalightweight,
oftenlightcoloured(evenloral)fabric,andcanbesomethingofafashioniteminitsown
right,astheBritishjournalistAlisonDoubledayobserved:IhadthoughtthatIwasbuying
somethingdrabandshapeless,but[someAfghanfriends]mademeseethattheprayerveil
wasahighlycoveteditemoffashion.See,Doubleday1988,64.Onthechadorseefurther,
Vogelsang-Eastwood1996a,725.
7
OntheoriginsofIslamicface-veilingseeVogelsang-Eastwood1996a,26ff;Chatty1997,
1289;alMunajjed1997,523.IslamicoraltraditionsindicatethatMohammedaskedhis
wivestoveiltheirfacesinordertosetthemapartandhighlighttheirspecialstatusandto
createasocialdistancebetweenthemandthethrongsoffollowerswhovisitedhishouse.In
emulationofMuhammedswives,womenoftheeliteclassbeganfaceveilingtoo,andwithin
150yearsoftheprophetsdeaththesystemofveilingandtheseclusionofwomenofthe
upperclassbecamefullyaccepted.WomenintheearlyIslamicperiodseemedtohavecovered
theirheadsandfaceswithavarietyofveil-types,butthemostimportantouterwrapwasthe
djilbaab,agarmentthatcompletelyenvelopedtheigureleavingonlyoneeyeexposed.See
Stillman1986,73250.Therearealsoreferencestoaveilcalledamandiilbeingusedinthis
period,butitisunclearwhatthiswas.Thereisapossibilitythatitwasasmallheadcloth
orkerchief,althoughthewordmighthaveitsoriginintheLatinmantellum(cloak)which
linksittotheSpanishmantilla.SeeRosenthal1971,63100.
8
Theuseofasinglepieceofclothtoenveloptheheadandveilthefaceisfoundinmany
countries.Theycomeinavarietyoffabrics,textures,colours,andpatterns,butgenerally
alightsemitransparentclothispreferred.
3

68

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
Seebelow.
AtypeoffaceveilcreatedoutofaturbanandwornbyurbanwomeninSyria.SeeKalter
1992,igs.5469.
11
Thisiscreatedfromtwopiecesofcloth,aswasnotedbyLadyMaryWortleyMontagu,
thewifeoftheBritishAmbassadortoIstanbul,in1717:Nowomanofwhatranksoever[is]
permittedtogointhestreetwithouttwomuslins,onethatcoversherfaceallbuthereyes
andanotherthathidesthewholedressofherheadandhangshalfwaydownherback.See,
Montagu1925,I.7.Infactthereweretwowaysofdrapingtheyamak;theirst,knownas
thekalpiyamakorclosedyamak,wasmadeofalengthofclothfoldedinhalflengthways
whichwasplacedjustoverthenoseandundertheeyesandallowedtohangdownthelower
face.Thefabricwastiedbehindthehead.Theupperpieceofclothwasfoldedinhalfand
wrappedaroundtheforeheadjustabovetheeyebrows,sothatonlytheeyesandeyebrows
werevisible.Theaikyamak,oropenyamakwasvirtuallyidenticaltotheclosedvariety,
exceptthattheclothswerenotfoldedinhalfandthereforetheyamaktookonthediaphanousqualitymuchlovedbymaleauthorsofthenineteenthcentury.Forthedevelopment
oftheyamakanditssubsequentappearanceinEuropeanliteraturesee,Scarce1987,79ff.
TheyamakwasadaptedtosuitthemoreWesternizedclimateTurkeywasstrivingtoadopt
throughouttheearly1900s,seeVogelsang-Eastwood1996b,567.Theyamakwasinally
prohibitedin1923whenTurkeybecameasecularrepublic.Theissueoftheabolitionof
theyamakandthemalefeziswelltreatedbyGle1996,60130andbyNorton1997,
1557,1624.
12
Therearetwovariationsontheburqaa(alsospeltburqu,burko):theirstiscomposed
ofasinglepieceofmaterialthatcoversthenoseandmouthandistiedwithacordabove
theearsandatthebackofthehead.Thesecondismadefromtwopiecesofcloth;theirst
makesaheadband(isaba),whilethesecondcoversthelowerface.Thereisusuallyalink
betweenthetwopiecesatthesidesandinthemiddle(overthebridgeofthenose).The
earliestsurvivingburqaa,madefromtwopiecesofwhitestitchedlinen,comesfromEgypt
anddatestoc.ad12501350andcanbebalancedbyaseriesofcontemporaryillustrations.
SeeVogelsang-Eastwood1983.From thenineteenthcenturytothe presentdaywomen
havetakenupthecustomofsewingmetaldisksorcoinsontotheirburqaas,whilemetal
tubesfrequentlyadornthefabricjoinofthelowerandupperveilsatthebridgeofthenose.
WhiletheEgyptianandSaudiburqaasretaintheirplainsimplicity,thosewornbyPalestinian
womentendtobehighlydecoratedandareregardedasfacialdecorationsratherthanmodesty
garments.SeeWeir1989,18891.Seefurther,Scarce1975andChatty1997.
13
Ablackhorsehairface-veil,especiallypopularwithwomeninandaroundIstanbul.See
Scarce1975,13;Vogelsang-Eastwood1996a,54.
14
Likethepeche,ablackhorsehairfaceveilworninPersia,fromatleastthethirteenth
century,incombinationwiththechador.ASpanishaccountoftheearlyifteenthcentury
recallsthat,thesewomen[ofPersia]goaboutallcoveredwithawhitesheet,withanetof
blackhorsehairbeforetheireyes.WhiletowardstheendofthesamecenturyaVenetian
reportreads,theycovertheirfaceswithnetswovenfromhorsehair,sothickthattheycan
easilyseeothers,butcannotbeseenbythem.BothaccountscitedbyVogelsang-Eastwood
1996a,53.ForthedatingofthepichehandforfurtherdiscussionseeScarce1975,6.
15
Abeaded face-veil. Numerous beads and silver ornaments are hung on strings from
aheadband.SeeVogelsang-Eastwood1996a,54.
16
Akindofmaskmadefromstiffenedcottonorshinysilkoftenreinforceddownthe
middlewithawoodenstick.ItiscommonlywornbywomeninOmanandtheUnitedArab
9
10

69

Chapter3
Emirates.PatriciaHolton,whovisitedtheregioninthe1980s,describedthistypeofveil,
beingwornbythewomenofDubai,asastiff,blackburnishedgoldcanvasveil[a]black
harlequinmask.SeeHolton1991,13,111.FurtherdiscussioncanbefoundinWikan
1982,1078.
17
Inthearchaicperiodinparticular,Athenian,Korinthian,andSpartanevidencesuggests
thatwomenuniformlyworethepharos-veil.Thistrendishardertosubstantiateinlater
periodsduetotheincreasingpaucityofSpartanand(toalesserextent)Korinthianiconographicevidence.
18
StraboGeog.3.4.17,transl.Jones(Loeb)withamendments.Itappearsthatsomekind
ofwiresupportholdsuptheveil.Tozer1893believedthatitreferstoakindofcalash
hood(orsunbonnet),aswaswornbyfashionablewomeninthelateeighteenthandearly
nineteenthcenturiesad.PhotographsofArmenianwomeninthelatenineteenthcentury
revealthatwiredhead-dressessupportinganoverhangingveilwerestilltobefound.Iwould
suggestthatStrabohasthiskindofconstructioninmindmorethananykindofbonnet.See
Vogelsang-Eastwood,1996b,15.ThetympaniontowhichStraboreferssuggeststheshape
ofakettledrumandcouldmeaneitheracylindricalhead-dresswhichasitrisestoitstop
graduallyspreadsout,or,morelikely,akindofturbanwhichitstightlyovertheheadand
earsbutspreadsoutoverthetopofthehead,similarinshapetotheturbanswornbywomen
inwestAfrica.Averticalrodinsertedintoaknotofhairandcoveredbyaveilmaywellbe
theprototypefortheclassicSpanishmantillaandcomb.
19
Thiscouldbeanexampleofthetympanionhead-dress.
20
SeeOakleyandSinos1993,40andigs.1247.
21
Seebelow,Chapter4.
22
SinceitappearsthattheMinoanandMycenaeanworldswereinluencedbyEgyptian
NewKingdomstylesofdressandcoiffure,thelackoftheveilisnotsurprising.Theveilis
neverattestedinPharaonicEgyptianmonuments,butinsteaditistheelaboratelycoiffured
wigthatisthefocusofEgyptianartisticanderoticattention.ForEgyptianwigsseeDayagiMendels1993,606,andRobins1993,1835.
23
AgooddiscussionofMinoanandMycenaeanhairstylescanbefoundinNilsson1968,
12730.
24
ForadiscussionofthefrescoseeMarinatos1984,648and1987,12332.
25
SeeIl.8.1,19.1,etc.Hes.Th.273,358.However,itshouldbeborneinmindthat
MinoanandMycenaeanartisdominatedbyscenesofcultandritual;dailylifescenes,even
ofthecourt,areprobablyalmostentirelyabsent.ForageneralstudyseeHiggins1981.The
representationsofwomenthatweseeinthesescenesareallconnectedwitharitualfunction
andmaydepictspeciicformsofculticcostumethatarefarremovedfromdailydress.While
Egyptianinluenceonthepalacecivilizationsisundeniable,thepresenceofNearEastern
formsoffashionindressandcourtprotocolshouldnotbeignored.Theveilwasavitalpart
offemalewardrobeintheNearEast,althoughNearEasterngoddessesandpriestessesare
rarelydepictedveiled.Couldthisbethecasewiththewomenofthepalacecivilizations?
AccordingtoMarinatos,theMinoanstreatedtheirwomenalongthelinesestablishedinthe
NearEastandtheinstitutionoftheharem,aformoffemaleseclusionoftensymbolically
linkedtotheveil,wasknowninbothNearEasterncitiesand,forexample,atKnossos.See
Marinatos1989,3841.OnthesymbolismofharemandveilseeAhmed1982.
26
IfollowBoardmansdatingsystem.SeeBoardman1998,271.
27
ThishasbeenparticularlywelldiscussedbyvanWees1998,1053.ForageneraldiscussionoficonographicmotifsinGeometricartseeRombos1988.

70

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
vanWees1998b.201andig1.1.
SeeAhlberg1971,volII,ig.53,withcomments.
30
Lang1910,846.Inhisdiscussionoftheconstructionofthehoodedcowl,Langis
aproductofhistime,insistingthatwomensgarmentsintheGreekDarkAgewerecomposed
oftightlyittingbodicesandseparatetailoredskirts.Similartheorieswerestillinuseinthe
1940s:Houston1947,9ff.,arguedthatMinoandresswascreatedfromtailoredbodices
andseparateskirtssupportedbyacrinolineframe.Hertheoriesarestillpropoundedinnonspecialistfashionhistories.See,forexample,BatterburyandBatterbury1977,312.
31
Egyptianshaalveilsaregenerallymadefromfringedcotton,rayonorevenvelvet;they
measurearoundoneandtwometressquareandarenormallyfoldeddiagonallyandthen
drapedovertheheadandshoulders.InUpperEgypttheytendtobesquareandfoldedin
halfbeforebeingplacedonthehead.SuchaheadscarfisawellknownelementofIslamic
hijab,butthemaindifferencewiththeEgyptianshaalisthatitisnottiedtightlyaroundthe
facenorsecuredsoastocompletelyconcealthehair.Forafullinvestigationintothemany
formsofsimpleheadveilorheadscarvesavailableseeVogelsang-Eastwood1996a,3340.
32
SeeSturgeon1987,44;Ridgeway1993,1268.Asimilarstyleisfoundonanumberof
terracottaheadsfromRhodes.SeePinneyandRidgeway1979,235,no.114,ig.A;Jacopi
19319,pl.IV.SeemostrecentlyBoardman2000,95ff.
33
Sapphofr.98.IfSapphosloruitwasc.612608thenhermothercouldhavebeen
referringtoahead-dressworninthemid-seventhcentury.
34
Boardman1998,145.ThesametypeofveilisfoundonaterracottaheadfromSparta,
datedtoc.68070.Theglazeddecorationiscarriedoutwithagreatdealofattentionto
detail.Theveilisdividedintobands,butisthinenoughtosuggestthewavesofthehair
beneath.Thepatternedbandsarecomposedofwavepatternsandloralrosettes,andaverticalstripedbordersurroundstheforehead.Beneaththeveil,carefullyarrangedcurlsare
visibleatthehairline.SeeHiggins1967,512.
35
SeeRidgeway1993,127.Cf.Sturgeon1987,42whocallsitashawl.
36
Alkman1.678.
37
SeeFoxhall1998,3045.
38
Theseiguresaredificulttointerpretandcomeinawidevarietyofforms;theycan
bemonumentalorminuscule,theycanbeshownstandingstillorwithonelegadvanced,
theymayholdtheirarmsbytheirsidesorextendanoffering,holdafruitorananimal,or
lightlyclutchtheirskirts.Theycanbeveiledorshownwithbareheadsandlonghair,and
bothstylesmayormaynotbesurmountedbyapoloscrown,adiadem,oraillet.Thebest
studiesofthekoraiarethoseofRichter1968;Ridgeway1993,12379;Boardman1993,
63150.Thediversityofstylesisrelectedinthefactthatacademicdebatecannotagree
eitherastowhatthesestatueswereor,indeed,whoorwhattheyrepresent.Debateabout
dress-styles:Harrison1991;Shaeffer1975;Ridgeway1984;Boardman1993,66ff.Ridgeway
1993, 12934; Richter 1968, 610. Interpretations: korai as offerings and dedications,
seeBoardman1993,24ff.;Osborne1998,84;Sourvinou-Inwood1995,24152;Richter
1968,34;Spivey1997,159.KoraiasimagesofgoddessesseeRidgeway1990,583612
and1993,147ff.
39
HistoricallyandlinguisticallyEastGreecewassplitintothreemainregions:Aeolisinthe
North,Ioniainthecentralarea,andaDoriangroupintheSouth.Artistically,however,itis
bettertotreattheregionasawholebecausetheregionaldifferencesdetectedinscriptand
languagearenotsoreadilyidentiiableintheiconography.Investigationintothesocietiesthat
madeupEastGreeceisstilldificult,however,somefortyyearsafterCook1962,15made
28
29

71

Chapter3
theremarkthat,thehistoryoftheeasternGreeksstillremainstobewritten.Nonetheless,
archaeologicalevidenceisbeginningtoopenuptheinvestigationintotheculturalinterplay
betweentheEastGreeksandtheirOrientalneighbours,particularlyinthecontextofluxury
tradeandthecomplexieldofreligion.See,forexample,Villing1998.Thewesterncoastof
Anatoliahasbeenparticularlywellexcavated,recordedandpublishedandmajorsiteslike
Smyrna,Miletos,andEphesushaveyieldedarichtreasureofinformationonmanyaspectsof
EastGreeklife.Therehasalsobeenfranticarchaeologicalexplorationofmanyoftheeastern
Aegeanislands,particularlySamos,withitsrichdepositoftreasureslocatedintheancient
templeofHera.Seeinparticular,Frayer-Schauenburg1974;Brize1997;Furtwngler1974.
MajorarchaeologicalworkhasalsobeenundertakenonChiosandotherIonianislands.See
Boardman1967.ForthepurposeofthisinvestigationintotheEastGreekveil,however,the
mostimportantsitesaretheSamianHeraion,theEphesianArtemision,andthetempleof
ApolloatMiletus.FortheEphesianmaterialseeespeciallyHogarth1908;Bammer1988
andFleischer1973.ForDidymaseeTuchelt1970.
40
SeeBammer1984,252andigs.86,115,139;Hogarth1908,115andpl.24.3,10,
5aandb.
41
Seezgen1982,1356.SeefurtherRichter1968,53,ig.2578.
42
zgen1982,1378:Theveilisrepresentedascloselyittingovertheforeheadrevealing
only the ears and draped over the back almost to the ankles. Richter 1968, 53, no. 78
wronglyinterpretsitasasolidmassofhair.
43
SuchanoutitiswornbyaHittiteroyalnurse(c.lateeighthcentury)andthewomenof
afamilyfromMara(earlyseventhcentury).SeeAkugal1962,pl.138;Vogelsang-Eastwood
1996a,22;zgen1982,3941.Forthemoderntradition,foundespeciallyinMorocco,
Egypt,andTurkey,oftyingakerchiefaroundtheheadandcoveringitwithalargerveil,
seeVogelsang-Eastwood1996a,338.SeefurtherBoucher1987,61.TheveiloftheMara
womenbecomesprogressivelyshorterandcoverslessoftheigure,althoughtheycontinue
toweartheveiloverahead-clothorevenacap,whiletheEphesianexamplesretaintheir
length.SeeAkugal1962,pl.139.
44
ForthedistributionofthekoraiseeBoardman,1993,68ff.;Ridgeway1993,1289says
ofthedevelopmentofthekoraitype:thedistributionchartsuggestsaverystrongtradition
forthekoraiinAsiaMinorandSamos,withsomeimportantworkshopslocatedalsoinother
islands:Naxos,Paros,andperhapsChios.FromthesecentresthetypespreadtoGreece
proper,whereAtticawasparticularlyreceptivebutnottheotherareasdespiteanobvious
productionoffemaleiguresintheminorartsChronologicallyandiconographically,East
Greeceisshowntobeinthelead,withconsiderablelag,orlackofevidence,elsewhere.
45
Althoughitisdoubtfulthatitrepresentsthegoddess.
46
Seezgen1982,167.
47
Thusatorso(c.530)hasanarrowveilfoldedoveritselfsothatitfallsdowntheback
intwolayerswiththeupperedgedescendinginadiagonallinefromtheleftupperarm
totherightelbowwhiletheroundedlappetsoftheveilarevisibleontheshouldersatthe
front.Seezgen1982,1757;Richter1968,90no.153,igs.4914.Thedouble-folded
veilwiththefoldhighacrossthebackcanalsobefoundinFreyer-Schauenburg1974no.
22.ItcanbecomparedwithakorefromTheangela,theonlystatueofitskindcomingfrom
Caria(c.525),whichhasasimilardiagonalover-foldedveilandshoulderlappets.SeeRichter
1968,93no.167,igs.5325;zgen1982,1902.Theedgeofthefoldedveilseemsto
relectaSamianprototype.
48
Recentdiscoveriesofneo-HittiteandPhrygianartenableustoexaminethecontinuityof

72

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
dress-typesworninAnatoliafromtheHittiteEmpireperiod,andtoassesstheirrelationships
tothegarmentsofneighbouringpeoples,speciicallytheEastGreeks.Moreover,Neo-Hittite
artoffersnewevidenceforartisticconventionsutilizedbyAnatolianartistsandcraftsmen
in rendering dress in relief and sculpture in the round. Anatolian dress-styles prevailed
overanextensivegeographicalareawithvaryingethnographicandculturalconditions.For
adiscussionofAnatolianart-stylesandtheirrelationshiptoEastGreeceseeBoardman1980,
84102;Hanfmann1983.
49
zgen1982,1738givesacatalogueofthistypeofveilandpoloscombination.See
further,Akugal1962,pl.115;Seibert1974,pl.52.TherewasalongtraditionofrepresentingthegoddessKubaba,anearlyprototypeofKybele,inahighpolosandveil.Forthe
Kubaba-KybelerelationshipseeRein1996,224.Seefurther,Isik1986/7,68.Astelefrom
AnkaraalsoshowsKybeledressedinapleatedlinenrobeandahighpolosfromunderwhich
emergesaloor-lengthveilwhichispulledaroundtherightsideofhertorsoandistucked
intothewaistband.SeeRein1996,224,234;Boardman1994,26;Isik1986/7,448,64ff.,
igs.1and2.AmarblevotivenaiskosofKybelefromSardisshowssimilartraits.Thecentral
igurewearsatwo-piecegarmentcomposedofaveilandachiton.Tracesoftheveilarejust
discernibleatthesidesoftheneckanditdescendsfromtheshouldersdowntheback.See
detailsinzgen1982,11617.Anotherdepictionoftheveilisfoundonamuchrestored
statueofthegoddessfromBogazkywhich,accordingtoBoardman,blendselementsof
localstyleswiththoseofIoniancraftsmanship:herlongtunic,withitsmultipledelicate
pleats,iscertainlysuggestiveofGreeksculpturalstyles.Kybelesextraordinarilyhighand
elaboratepolossecuresaveilthathangsdownherbackandisdrapedaroundherlowerright
torsowhereitisgatheredintothebelt.Thechangeindirectionofthecentralbandofpleats
perhapsindicatesaloosefoldofcloth.Interestingly,depictionsofKybeleshowthatthe
goddessdressstyleschangewithcontemporaryfashionsandareadaptedtosuitregional
variationsindress.SeeIsik1986/7,96ff.,igs.32,33.ImportantevidenceforNeo-Hittite
femalefashionwasunearthedasrecentlyas1988intheformofivoryigurinesdatingtothe
lateeighthorearlyseventhcentury.Ofparticularimportanceisthestatuetteofawoman
whowearsahighpoloshead-dressandawideveilthathangsdownherbackandispulled
aroundthehipsandtuckedintothebelt,withoneendoftheveiloverlappingtheother.
Seezgenandzgen1988,190andigs.46and47.
50
Ridgeway1993,1501.However,weneednotnecessarilyseetheSamiankoraiasdivine
igures,despitetheAnatolianassociationofpolosandveilwiththegoddessKybele;enough
representationsofmortalAnatolianwomenwearingthistypeofveilexisttosuggestthatit
wasnottheuniquepreserveofgoddesses,anditsdivineheritageshouldnotbeforcedupon
theSamianstatues.
51
TheMilesianinluence,whatRidgewaytermstheInternationalStyle,ontheSamian
koraialsoeffectstherenderingoftheirmantlefoldsandthedepictionofthepleatsontheir
longgarments.SeeRidgeway1993,135.
52
Filletisperhapstoolimitingaword;turbanmightbejustasappropriate.Infactthe
Milesiankoraiseemtowearoneortwostripsofrolledfabricwoundaroundthehead,giving
theveilofMiletusaturban-likequality.
53
Richter,1968,51,no.70,ig.228;zgen,1982,1789.Analternativestyleofveil
found at Miletus shows that it is worn over aclosely-itting headscarf or cap, like those
wornbyMarawomen,althoughthebulgesunderneaththeveilmayrepresentthehair,and
certainlytheears.SeeRichter1968,igs.21315.Anotherexampleofthisfashionalsocomes
intheformofafragmentarywoodenstatuetteagainfromSamos,althoughitisdoubtfulthat

73

Chapter3
theworkwasmadeontheislanditself.Foradiscussionseezgen1982,1389andig.X/
120.OnefurtherfragmentaryandbatteredheadfromSamos,datedtothelatesixthcentury,
wearsaveilthatentirelycoverstheheadbutleavesthefaceandthickhairlineexposed.See
Richter1968,91,no.157,igs.5045.Theveilisalsoseenonaseriesofiguresonacolumn
drumfromDidyma.SeeRichter1968,60,no.96,97,igs.296300;zgen1982,1413.
ManyoftheMilesiankoraiwearonlytheveilandthechiton;theSamianmantleisusually
absent.ForareconstructionofthecolumndrumseeBoardman1993,ig.218.1.
54
Wornbyaman:Il.2.43,8.221,Od.15.61,Xenoph.3.3,Pherecyd.Syr.Fr.68Schibli
(DKB2)col.I14,Hdt.9.109,E.El.1221;wornbywomen:Od.5.230,Hes.W&D198,
Aes.Ch.11etc.Losfeld1991,338deinesitas,longmanteaudelinfmininetquelquefois
masculin.Seealsopp.823,179,313,321.
55
AlthoughthepharosisthesingularHomericgarmentsharedbybothmenandwomen,it
isonlymembersofthenobilitywhoarerepresentedaswearingit.Forthepharos,nobrooches
orpinsarementionednordoesitseemtobeusedasablanketatnight;itwasprobablymade
oflinensincetheepitheteupluneswell-washed(Od.8.392,425,13.67,16.173)seems
bettersuitedtolinenthantoawoollencloakanditdoesnotseemtohavebeenwornso
muchforwarmthasforaconspicuousdisplayofwealthandstatus.
56
Inhisstudyoftheclassicalhimation,Reponddidnotusethetermpharos.Insteadhe
classiiedsevenmaintypesofdrapery-stylesforthehimation(althoughIamnotconvinced
thattheyfallintosuchneatcategories).Mydeinitionpharos-veilbestitshiscategoryof
himation-type1.SeeRepond1931,4059.SeealsoPollux,Onom.7.42,48.
57
Schol.Eur.Andr.831:to; krhvdemnon fhsin. SeealsoStevens1971,195:favro"generally
meanscloak,butcanbeusedmorewidely.
58
Od. 8.84. Note that the word favro" tends to be rendered as fa'ro" by Homer and
Aiskhylos.
59
Hes.W&D197200.SeeWest1978,2034.
60
Eur.Supp.28690.AithrasveilingrecallsAdrastusearlieraction(11012)wherehealso
veiledhisheadinshameandlayontheground.ForadiscussionseeRehm1992,125.
61
Ar.Thes.88990.Elsewhereintheplaythewordenkuklonisusedinplaceofpharos
forthein-lawsHelencostume.Theenkuklon,adress(orcostume)termuniquetoAristophanes, wasatypeoffemalehimationthatappearstohavebeenbelted.Itiscertainthat
theenkuklonwasconsideredtobeafemale-onlygarment,butitisdificulttoknowthat
separateditfromthemalehimation;colour,pattern,andfabriccouldbetheanswer.See
Ar.Lys.113,11623;Thes.261,499501.Losfeld1991,304arguesthattheenkuklonis
unmantelet.
62
Soph.fr.360.
63
SeeBoardman1998,89andig.200.Thedepictionofthewomenisextremelyrudimentary;theirfacesaredelineatedbyachin,anoseandonelargecentraleye.Theirmantle-veils
seemtobeheldinplaceatthechestperhapsbythefreehand.
64
SeevanWees1998b,26.IconcurwithvanWeesthatthepharos-veilisdeinedbybeing
simplydrapedfromheadorshouldertoloor,althoughoneendofthemantlecanbethrown
overashouldertosecuretheclothandconcealmoreofthebody.
65
Metope7.ItmustrankasthesinglemostimportantsourcefortheIliouPersismyth
andthisvignetteistheearliestknowndepictionoftherecoveryofHelenbyMenelaos.See
Ahlberg-Cornell1992,7880.SeealsoAnderson1997,18291.Thescenecontinuesin
popularitywellintothethirdcentury.Helensimagealtersaccordingtotasteand,interestingly,sheisalwaysdepictedintheheightoffashion.See,forexample,Austin1994,75,ig.3

74

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
forHelenwearingtheshort,shoulder-lengthshaal-veil,popularc.500.Helenisjustoneof
manywomendepictedontheMykonosvase,butsheistheonlyveiledigure.
66
Ervin1963,48interpretsthreelayersofclothing(peplos,himation,andshawl).While
thisisunderstandable,especiallybecausethepatternonthemantlechangesfromlozenges
andcirclestoswirls,theunitingelementhastobethelongandcontinuousfringededgethat
runstheentirelengthofthegarment.Thishastomeanthatthegarmentismadeinone
piece,althoughitisconceivablethatitiswornfoldeddouble.
67
Mikroutsikos 1995, 131 provides agood colour photograph, but argues that the
mitrashowsHelenandMenelaos.Ahlberg-Cornell1992,923,believesthatitrepresents
KlytemnestraandOrestes.
68
OnthepossibilityofcapesseeRidgeway1993,130ff.
69
ForaninterpretationofthisgestureseeChapter4.
70
TheveilsarereminiscentofthosewornbycaptivewomenfromtheZargosmountains
andfromtheIsraelitecityofLachish.VeilinghasalonghistoryinNearEasternsociety.By
thecloseoftheBronzeAgeitissafetosaythatcertainclassesofwomeninallMesopotamian,AnatolianandLevantinecountrieswereveiled.TheimportationofEasternideasand
productsincludingdressintotheGreekworldisnotnecessarilydetectedinGreektexts
butrather,asBurkert1991,14haspointedout,inarchaeologicalinds.Seefurther,Osborne
1996;Hurwit1985.Whilearchaeologicalevidenceintheformofsculpture,bronzestatuettesandstonefoundationsstronglytestifytotheOrientalizingmilieu,textilesleavelessof
atraceinthearchaeologicalrecord,andtendtoberatherignoredinanycase.Whileascrap
offabriccantelluslittleaboutastyleoffashion,carefulsiftingthroughtheliterarysources
forevidenceoftextiletradecontracts,coupledwithaninvestigationoftheiconographic
depictionsofregionalstylesofdresswornbypeoplesofdifferentnationssimultaneously,
canhelptoexpandthethesisoftheOrientalizingRevolutiontoincludeideasoffashionand
textilesthatwerecirculatingintheancientworldconcurrentlyandtoplacethemalongside
themoreconcreteindsofeasterninluencewithequalimportance.Seeinparticular,West
1997;Walcot1966;Penglase1994.Oneparticularlyremarkableancienttext,Ezekiel27,
testiiestothewide-rangingancienttraderoutesandalludestotextilesanddyes.Onthetrade
intextiles,especiallythelourishingAssyriantextiletradeseeBarber1994,16484.
71
SeeReade1987;Albenda1987,201.Themostimportantsourcefordepictionsof
westernAsiaticwomeninthelateBronzeAgeandearlyIronAgecomesfromthemonumentalstonereliefswhichcoveredthewallsoftheAssyrianpalacesofKhorsabad,Nimrud
andNinevehand,despitetheunimportanceofwomenwithinthenarrativeofthesemilitary
scenesasawhole,theirdepictionconstitutesauniquerecordoftheappearanceofNear
Easternwomen.FortheAssyrianreliefsseeReade1983,6081.Onfemalecaptives,see
Albenda1983,828andMadhloom1970,734.
72
The highly elaborate patterned garments worn by Assyrian royalty and nobility are
discussedbyCanby1971;Oppenheim1949;Guralnick1989a,1659.SeealsoWatson
1987,545.Twofurtherpiecesofevidencetestifyingtothepopularityofawrap-around
garment-veil,againrecallingtheMykonospithosveil-style,comesintheformofjewellery
discoverednorthofNinevehintheancientprovinceofUrartu(lateeighthcentury).The
irstisagoldmedallionthatshowstwoidenticallydressedwomenwearinglargepatterned
garment-veilswithfringededgings,whilethesecondisalargegoldbreastplatedepicting
aseatedwoman,unveiledbutcrowned,receivinghomagefromaveiledwoman.Thistime
theveilmightbeaseparategarment,sinceithangsdownthebackofthewearersheadand
evenformsatrain.Itiscertainthatthetwoitemsdepictwomenofgreatwealthandhigh

75

Chapter3
socialstanding,betheyroyalordivine.Seibert1974,61suggeststhatthetwoitemswere
intendedtoadornacultstatueofagoddess.ItseemsthatanAssyriannoblewomanwould
nothavebeenseeninpublicwithoutasubstantialarticleoftopclothing,althoughinthe
privacyofherownhomeshewasprobablylightlyclad.Thiscertainlyseemstohavebeen
thecasewithpalaceladiesinthelatesecondmillennium,sincetheroyalharemedictsof
thatperioddecreethatapalaceladymustgetpermissionfromthechiefeunuchtosendfor
garmentstowearforgoingout.Itislikelythatthespeciiedgarments,makingaladyappropriatelydressedforanoutdoorexcursion,werethoserepresentedinart,sothatindoorgarb
musthavebeenskimpier.Theharemedictshavebeenconvenientlycollectedtogetherby
Roth1997,195209.Seefurther,Weidner19546,27593;Kuhrt1995,vol.2,5267.
73
SeeBoardman1988,130,ig.252.1,2.ForpatternedclothseeRiefstahl1944,12ff.
74
Boardman1993,39,ig.35,describesitthus:awomandraws[a]cloakoverhead,
agestureofmodestyorrank.Seefurther,Sweeney,CurryandTzedakis1987,1089,
no.29.
75
SeePipili1987,31.IfthefemaleigureisHelenthentheveilthatshewearshasacrucial
roletoplayinherre-captivationofherhusband.Thecuttingofthereliefanditspreservation
ispoor,butweareabletodiscernthatHelenspharosisusedtoveilthebackofherheadfrom
whenceithangsdownoverhershouldersandupperarms.Noindicationsofthecolouror
patternoftheveilthatwereoriginallypickedoutinpaintnowsurvive.
76
Behindthegoddessispaintedhername:AFRODITH,whichprobablymeanstheman
accompanyingherisAres.TherelationshipbetweenAresandAphroditehasbeendescribed
indifferentwaysbyearlyGreekauthors;intheIliadAphroditeismentionedasthesister
ofAreswhileintheOdysseysheistheconsortofHephaistosandthemistressofAres.See
Ahlberg-Cornell1992,141,no.160andig.252;Boardman1998,111andig.249.
77
Thisisaveryunusualdepictionofthewarriorgoddesswhoismorefamiliarlyshownin
herarmourandaegis.Hereherpharosisdrapedoverhertorsowithoneendofitlungover
herrightshoulder.Theexcessfabricispulledoverherheadtoformaveil,whichstillallows
herhairlinetobeseen.SeeAhlberg-Cornell1992,115,no.124andig.207.Onanother
contemporaryvase,agoddess-iguremakesaveil-gesturewithherpharos-veil,assheappears
toraisepartofitwithherhand.Therearenoidentifyingdetailsinthisfragment,butthe
swordsuggeststhatthemanisadeityofamartialnature,probablyAres,whilethewomans
polos,balancedincongruouslyonherhead,suggeststhatsheisagoddess,probablyAphrodite.
Theveil,whichshepullsforwardwithherhand,isdarkbutedgedwithalight,patterned
stripe.Theveilcoversmuchofthegoddesshair,butarowofchevroncurlsaredepictedon
herforehead.SeeAhlberg-Cornell1992,141,no.161andig.253.Likewise,aMelianvase
datedtoaround630showsawoman,adoptingasimilarpose,wearingadarkpharosover
achequeredgown.SeeAhlberg-Cornell1992,701,no.47andig.106.Boardman1998,
111andigs.250.1,2.Adinosofc.570showsAmphitriteandHeraridinginchariotsand
veiledinphare,whichtheyliftinthesamegesture.SeeBoardman1973,18.
78
SeeBoardman1998,183andig.401.Helenwearsasimilarpatternedpharos-veilon
abellyamphoraof555,seeSymons1987,20,ig.19.SeealsoAhlberg-Cornell1992,ig.
125;Carpenter1991,20andig.36,withcomments.Helenselaboratepeplosiswoven
withanintricaterishi(feather)patternandastripedandspottedhem.Herlargepharos,
whichisfoldedintwoanddrapedoverhershouldersisdrawnoverherheadandheldfrom
herfacewithherrighthand.Theveilitselfismadefromapatternedfabric,composedof
asmallgeometricallydesignedhemandaseriesoflargerosettesspreadrandomlyoverthe
otherwiseplaincloth.

76

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
ThesculptureknownbytraditionasAspasia(Fig.2)wearsahugepharosasarobethat
entirelyshroudsthebodyandhead,asitsleftsideisdrapedoverthewearersrightshoulder.
ThestatueisalsoknownasEuropa,Sosandra,andAmelungsgoddess,thesculpturehas
beendatedtoc.460.Astatuetteversion,similarlydressedanddatedtoc.410,isinscribed
Europa,whichisprobablythecorrectidentiicationforthefullsizedstatue.SeeBoardman
1985,ig.75.SeeBoardman1998,185andRichter1987,27388.Thefashionfortossing
asectionofthepharosovertheoppositeshouldercanactuallybetracedbacktothemidseventhcentury.AnAthenianfuneralplaque(c.540530)showstheprivategriefofeight
womenwhomournthedeathofalovedoneandcomfortayoungchild.Thecentraligures,
seatedonlowchairs,havebeeninterpretedasthemotherandwife(orperhapsthesister)
ofthedeceased.Thefemalesittingonthelefthasherheadveiledwithherpatternedpharos
whichshehasdrawnaroundherbodytocompletelyenvelopeherarmsandhands.The
mostinterestingigurestandsatthefarleftofthecompositionandoffersarareobservation
ofawomanadjustingherdress.Sheseemstobeintheactofthrowingtheendofherpharos
aroundherleftshoulder.Shethenhasthechoiceofleavingtheexcessfabrictohangdown
herbackortodrawitupoverherheadasaveilinthemanneroftheseatedwoman.See
Fanthametal.1994,49.
80
AgoodcollectionofmaterialisprovidedbyBieber1928a,638,igs.XXIXXXXIII,
andreconstructionsatigs.LII,LIII.
81
SeeBoardman1989,98andig.249.
82
Thisstyleofdrapingthemantle-veilremainspopularduringtheRomanperiod;infact,
theRomanpalliumisdrapedinexactlythesameway.Itiswellattestedontheso-called
Small-HerculaneumtypeofstatuaryandcanbefoundontheAraPacisAugustaewornby
AntoniaMinor.FordetailsseeRepond1931,4359andDavis2002.Itshouldbenotedthat
althoughtheGreekpharostendedtobedrapedacrossthebodyduringtheclassicalandlater
periods,itcouldstillbeworninitsarchaicstyle.Thus,thefemaleiguresrepresentedonthe
baseofthesculptureofNemesisatRhamnusareshownintheprocessofveilingwithphare
intheoldfashionedway.SeeBoardman1985,ig.123.Similarly,acupdatedtoc.440by
thePainterofBerlin2536depictingtheJudgementofParishasHeraandAphroditewearing
theirpharehangingdownfromtheirheadsandovertheirshouldersinthesimplearchaic
style.SeeBoardman1989,ig.244.2.
83
SeeTheoc.15.39.Higgins1986,120believesthateventhoughthestrawhatisseldom
foundinotherbranchesofGreekart,itwasprobablywornbywomendaily.
84
Ibid.12440forthedevelopmentofTanagrandrapery.SeefurtherexamplesinKriseleit
andZimmer1994,845ig.1,87ig.5,945igs.12and13,99ig.17,101ig.19,
1256 ig. 46. Agood introduction to the hellenistic terracotta igurines is provided by
Uhlenbrock1990.
85
The himation is the basic outer garment for men and women and is always draped
aroundthebodybutneverixedinplacewithpinsorbrooches.Itseemsthatthehimation
couldbeusedasbed-sheets,andthatanAthenianman,uponwaking,wouldsimplywrap
thegarment-sheetaroundhim.SeeAr.Eccl.5358.Appearingoutofdoorswithoutthe
himation,forbothmenandwomen,wasconsideredmostunusual,andthewordgymnos
(naked)frequentlymeanswithout himation(i.e.withoutclothes).Drapingthehimation
wasadelicateoperationthatneededtoconformtonotionsoffashion,dignity,and,for
women,modesty.IncontrasttoRepondssevenvariationsfordrapingthe himation,Bieber
1928a,24notesninepossiblemethodsforamanandaremarkabletwelveforawoman.
Seefurtherpp.603andigs.XXVIXXVIII,withreconstructionsatigs.XLVI,1and2,
79

77

Chapter3
LI,LII3,4.Repondstype4canbeconsideredthearchetypalhimationstyle.SeeRepond
1931,77104.Itisimportanttorememberthatmenhadbeenwearingthehimationfrom
atleast650,althoughitssizeandthesubsequentcomplexityofwearingitcontinuedto
increaseintheclassicalperiod.ForagooddiscussionseevanWees1998a,33378,esp.
34752.Forthecontrastinthestylesofdrapingthemalehimationandthefemalepharos,
seehisigs.17and18.
86
Thewomanisdressedinanunusualoutit,whichappearstostraddlethearchaicand
classicalperiods:shewearsasleevedchitonthatseemstobecoveredbyapatternedpeplos,
atleasttojudgefromthedepictionoftheskirt.Sheiswrappedinahugehimationwhich
isdepictedintwocolourswithaseriesofpatternedstripesatthehem.Tojudgefromthe
depictionofthehimation,itseemsthatthedoublefoldedclothwasirstplacedoverthe
womansheadasaveil,thendrapedoncearoundtheentirebody,partlyconcealingtheright
armthendrapedovertheleftarminheavyfoldsandinallythrownovertheleftshoulder.
ForafurtherdiscussionofthevaseseevonBothmer1985,1479.
87
Thegravestele of Ampharete, dating to the late ifth century, depicts the Athenian
noblewomanholdingheryounggrandchildasshesitsonanelegantandexpensivehighbackedchair.Asistypicaloftheperiod,Amphareteshimationisdrawnaroundhertorso,
upontoherrightshoulderandontoherheadtoformaveil.Theskilfulrenderingofthe
limsybillowingclothseemstocaptureanimaginarybreezewaftingaroundher.Seefurther
Stears1993;Keuls1985,1389;Clairmont1970,912,ig.23.
88
c.400.Thesteleisanexcellentexampleofthetransparentstyleofdepictingtheclothes
offashionablewomenoftheperiod.Herhimation-veiliscloselyassimilatedtoherheadand
body,althoughinantiquityitsstructurewouldhavebeenmadeclearerbytheapplicationof
paint.FortheeffectofHegesossee-throughclothingseeStewart1997,120ff.
89
Dated to c.380360, Theano sits in the presence of her husband Ktesilaos. Her
himation-veilhasslippedoffherheadalthoughsheingersitsendinaveil-gesture(for
adiscussionofthistermseeChapter3).SeeBoardman1995,116andig.127.
90
Mid-fourthcentury.Asshestandsoneisclearlyabletoseethatherhimation-veilis
drapedoverthehead,underherrightarmandhasslippedfromoffherleftshoulder.For
detailsseeRepond1931,92,94.
91
Latefourthcentury.Bothsisterswearhimation-veilsandbothadopttheveil-gesture.
Onthisseebelow,Chapter3.FordetailsaboutthesteleseeBoardman1995,115andig.
119.
92
Avotive relief from the sanctuary at New Phalerum shows the dedicator, awoman
namedXenokrateia,standingamidstahostofdeities;twogoddessesstandatthecentreand
conversewhileanotherwatches.Thegoddessonthefarrighthasherbodyandheadswathed
inthefoldsofherhimation-veil,butitisallowedtoswagbeneathherbreasts,affordingthe
vieweraglimpseofherdivineform.Thiscontrastswiththechattinggoddessstandingin
frontofherwhosepharos-veilcompletelyenvelopsherbody.SeeBoardman1985,186and
ig.169;Repond1931,86.
93
The gravestone from Thespiae (Boeotia) was re-cut c.410 for Diodora. Following
Athenian fashion, she is dressed in alight chiton over which is draped ahimation that
bunches in heavy folds across her lap. Diodora has veiled her head with the end of the
himation,althoughmuchofherwavedandcrimpedcoiffureisstillvisible.SeeBoardman
1985,185andig.164.
94
SeeWeller1970.
95
ThissculpturewasprobablycreatedasacompanionpiecetothenakedAphroditeof

78

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
Knidos. See, Boardman 1995, 71 and ig. 49; Boardman (ed.) 1997, 13940. Astatue
tentativelyidentiiedasArtemisiafromtheMausoleumshowsherintheactofdonningher
himation,althoughthebacksectionisnotpulledoverherheadbutrestsonhershoulders.
SeeBoardman1995,27ff.andig.19.Themiswearsoneinmuchthesamemanneras
Themis (although here the excess fabric only falls on one shoulder). See Repond 1931,
82,84.AnimageofAphrodite(lateifthcentury)affordsarareviewofthehimation-veil
fromthebackanddemonstrateshowitwasideallyrequiredtofallinheavy(butsomehow
controllable)foldsaroundthehipsbeforeitwaspulledupoverthebackandontothehead.
ForafulldiscussionseeBieber1928,612andig.XXVII,23.Thestatuecertainlymakes
one consider just how impractical agarment the classical himation was. Nonetheless, it
continuedinpopularitywellintotheRomanage;theRomanpalliumwassimilarlyusedin
themannerofthe himationveilandcanbefound,forexample,wornbyLiviaontheAra
PacisAugustae.Itwasusedbytheempressfrequentlywhenshewantedtobeassociated
with(Greek)divinities.ForLiviasuseofthehimationveilandRomanuseofGreekdress
ingeneralseeBartman1999,406,8692.Forageneraldiscussionofthedrapingofthe
RomanpalliumseeRepond1931,8996.Aclearinterpretationofthedrapingofthepallium
anditsuseasaveilisprovidedbyScholz1992,27.
96
Boardman1989,98andig.247.
97
SeeStewart1997,120ff.;Boardman1989,96andig.179.
98
Althoughoneigureofastandingwoman,excavatedatTanagra,showsherwearing
ahimation, as indeed does atambourine player from the same site. Both are dated to
c.350330.SeeHiggins1986,10911andigs.131,132,andMerker1990,5462,esp.
56andigs.41,42.
99
See,forexample,KriseleitandZimmer1994,102,igs.21and22,114,ig.33,116,
ig.38,126,ig.47,145,ig.76,146,ig.77.
100
FromafragmentbytheKleophradesPainterthatdepictstheexploitsofthekomasts
commonlyassociatedwiththeresidencyinAthensoftheIonianpoetAnakreon.SeeFrontisiDucrouxandLissarrague1990;BoardmanandKurtz1986;Boardman1975,923andig.
131.2;Immerwahr1965,1524andpl.42.
101
ThatthewomanshouldbeidentiiedasahetairaiswellarguedbyRobertson1980.
Seefurther,Schfer1997.
102
ForcommentsontheMakroncupseeChilds(ed.)1998,107.Fortheidentiication
ofthedwarfasEros,andthewhoreasAphrodite,seefurtherDasen1993,2289.
103
SeeAustin1994,725.
104
CupbyDourisportrayingHeraandPrometheus.Thegoddessappearstowearaheadscarftiedaroundherheadoverwhichshehasdrapedtheshaal-veil.Theveilcoverstheback
ofherheadanddescendsdownherneckandrestsonhershoulders.SeeBoardman1975,
139andig.295.1.SeefurtherBuitron-Oliver1995,83andpl.100no.178.
105
Fragmentary cup by Douris showing Amphitrite, Poseidon and other deities. The
goddessshaal-veilistransparent,althoughDourissuggeststheconcertinapleatsbydepicting
thechevronhemofthecloth.Theunder-head-dresslookscomplicatedandputsoneinmind
ofAndromakheshead-dress,seeabove,Chapter2.SeefurtherBuitron-Oliver1995,pl.47
no.64withcommentsinthetext.
106
SeeWerner1986,14;Oakley1995,678.Edwards1984,62,n.18,suggeststhatthe
shortveilmaybeexclusivelybridal.Thisiscertainlywrong.
107
Ibid.71.SeealsoBuitron-Oliver1995,pl.31no.47.AvasepaintingofIphigeneia,
alsobyDouris,wearsthesamesortofveil.Ibid.pl.30no.46withcommentsinthetext.

79

Chapter3
GravestoneofKritoandTimarista,fromRhodes,c.410.SeeBoardman1985,185
andfig.160.XenokrateiasvotiverelieffromNewPhalerum(seeabove,n.92)showsthe
central female figure facing to the right and chatting to ahimation-veiled goddess. The
centralfemalewearsashaal-veilthathangsinsoftundulationsfromherheadandontoher
shoulderswhereitendsingentlefolds.
109
By the Sabouroff Painter, c.460. See Boardman 1989, 37 and ig. 52. The seated
womancouldbespinningorexamininganitemofjewellery.
110
The statue, aRoman copy of the ifth-century Greek original, probably represents
DemeterorHera.SeeBoardman1985,ig.74.
111
Davidson1997,pl.7.Davidsonsuggeststhattheveiledwomanisahetaira.
112
Seebelow,Chapter8.
113
SeeStafford1997,2002andpls.IIIandIV,ig.135.SeealsoMoignard1997,19.9,
althoughMoignarddoesnotrefertotheweddingcontextinherdescriptionofthescene.
SeefurtherOakley1995,72andChilds(ed.)1998,110.
114
FordetailsofthevaseseeBarringer1995,401.
115
CarefulstudyofthestatueattheMuseoNationaleRomanohasrevealedthisanomaly.
FurtherdiscussionofthestatuecanbefoundinLaRegina(ed.)1998,77ff.Iamgrateful
toMerrillGeorgeforthephotograph.
116
Italsohasthemeaningofloosefoldsinclothingingeneral.SeeIl.9.570;Aes.Pers.
539;Hdt.6.125;Theoc.15.134.Losfeld1991,332,deinesitasabouffantdeltoffeaudessusdelaceinture.Seefurther,ibid.2268.
117
Heuzey1922,16874,1916(repliservantdevoile).Ashestated,p.170:Jaimme
ralisimmdiatementlemotifdansplusieursposesdemoncourssansavoirencore,pour
cepplos-ouvertservantdevoile,aucunexempletirdesmonuments.
118
FromBoeotia,c.400.Sheispossiblyapriestess,althoughthatisinsigniicantasregards
herdress.SeeBoardman1985,185andig.163;Heuzey1922,1703.Polyxenaspeplosis
pinnedinsuchaswaythatthe kolposhangsasatriangularover-foldatthefront.Itsformation
intoakolpos-veilisclearlyseenunderherraisedleftarmwheretheclothcontinuesinone
elegantcurvefromherhiptoherhead.
119
Heuzey1922,1913.Herethepeplosisdouble-belted(ascanbeseenfromthebackof
thestatuette)andthekolposisshorter.Theconstructionofthekolpos-veiliseasilydiscernibleonthispiece.
120
Occasionallyhisreconstructionsstretchthelimitsofprobability.SeeHeuzey1922,
1945.Hesuggests,forexample,thatHeraasdepictedontheParthenonfriezewearsaveil
thatisconstructedfromthekolposofherclosedpeplos.Ithinkthatitisclearthatsheuses
aseparatepieceoffabric(thepharosvarietyofveil,Isuggest)fortworeasons:irst,ifthis
werethebackkolpos,thenitwouldbeverylongindeedanditwouldnotmatchthelength
ofthekolposatthefrontofherdress.Secondly,thereisnoindicationthatthefrontofthe
peplosissweptuptoformtheveilinthewaythatoccursonthePolyxenasteleandthe
Louvrebronzestatuette.
121
NolanAmphora(PhialePainter?).Thisremarkablescenehasreceivedsurprisinglylittle
comment.Keuls1985,87believesthatthemonkeyisinfactachilddressedinacostume,
butthisisprobablyanover-readingoftheartistsinaccuracies.Itishardtoknowwhatis
goingoninthescene,butIsuggestthatthewomanpossiblyveilsherfacetoavoidcontact
withtheanimal.Themonkeywasoftenconsideredtobeill-omenedandlackinginsexual
restraint (like goats and dwarfs). See Lucian, Pseudolog. 17. Alternatively, the womans
veilinggesturecouldbeinterpretedasanactofreverence.Shelooksasthoughshemight
108

80

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
havecometoconsultthemonkeyseatedontherock(oraltar)ratherasonewouldconsult
anoracle.Maybetheexplanationofthesceneliesinafolk-taleorafable.Aesop,Fabulae
38,39,3047,makesthemonkeyaigureoffunandacraftyuntrustworthymanipulator,
whileforSemonidesthemonkey-womanwastheworstofabadlot.Sheishideous,acomic
igure,butcraftyandschemingandcapableofgreatharm.SeeLloyd-Jones1975.Further
discussionontheiconographyoftheapeisprovidedbyBrijder1988.
122
AnexaminationofthegestureofveilingthefacefollowsatChapter4.
123
SeeVogelsang-Eastwood1996a,22andig.14.
124
RedigurecolumnkraterbytheEupolisPainter,c.450440.SeeGalt1931,374.Iam
gratefultoWendyM.Watson,thecuratoroftheMountHolyoakcollection,forproviding
mewithinformationaboutthisrarelydiscussedvase.
125
e.g.Od.1.333,10.559,11.64;Ar.Nu.1126,1488,1502;Men.Sam.246;Hdt.3.40;
Xen.Cyr.7.
126
tegeivdion (i.e. tegivdion): kosmavrion poio;n gunaikei'on.
127
TheniqabisworninmanyArabcountries(itisoftencalledaburqaa,althoughtechnicallythisiswrong).ItisderivedfromtheArabicwordnaqabmeaningtoperforate.See
Scarce1975,13.TheearliestknownsurvivingniqabwasdiscoveredattheEgyptiansiteof
Quseiral-Qadimandcanbedatedtoc.ad12501350,andanotherhasbeenfoundinNubia
andisdatedtoaslighterlaterperiod.SeeVolgelsang-Eastwood1983,356.Themodern
niqabvariesindesign,butisusuallymadefromasinglepieceofcloththatisfoldeddouble
toproduceanextrathickveil,andcanrangeinlengthfrom30cmto1mlong.Itcanbe
leftplainorcanbehighlydecoratedwithbraids,coins,disksetc.SeefurtherVogelsangEastwood1996a,57ff.
128
FromAlexandriac.latethirdcentury.SeeThompson1963,52andig.LXd.Asfar
asIamaware,itisonlyfromAlexandrianevidencethattheveilisevershowndownover
theface.
129
Reinarch1899,75,line38andcommentpp.97ff.AwomannamedXenokkodedicates
twoshortcloaksandawhitelittle-roof-veil.TheGreektextcallsittegivdiom (sic.) leukovn,
whichReinarchtranslatesaseitherunchapeaudepaille(?)blancorunevoilette.
130
HeraclidesCriticus(?)1.18.Theauthoroftheworkisunknownandissometimes
describedasPs.DicaearchusandsometimesasHeraclidesCriticus;itissometimesthought
thathewasofAthenianorigin.SeePister1848,25461andMller1855,97106.AconvenientcollectionofexcerptsisprovidedbyAustin1981,1514.IamgratefultoAndrew
Dalbyforirstdrawingmyattentiontothispassage.
131
ItisnotdissimilartothePharaonicEgyptiannemesheadcloth.FordetailsseeVolgelsangEastwood1993,1718andpls.434.
132
Thomas Burgon (17471858). His notes that accompany the watercolour state:
Handkerchiefwhichservesasahead-dress.Higgins1986,122commentsbrielyonthis
typeofveilandThompson1963,501suggeststhatthereweretwostagestothedevelopmentofthisveil-type:theirstvariety,foundinthefourthcentury,israrelydecorated
withabrooch;thesecond,developedinthethirdcentury,iswiderandsofterthantheirst
typeandhangsindroopingfoldsfromthetemples.Shesuggeststhatthechangeoccurs
becauseofthedifferenceinmaterialsusedandsuggeststhattheirstvarietywasmadeof
wool,whilethelattertypewascreatedfromstifflinenmadeonanarrowloom.Shestates,
thatathinface-veilwasmadeofwoolseemsnotimpossible,forthetarantinon,apopular
woolshawlwithafringe,wasneverthelessverythinandine.Thereisnothingtosuggest,
however,thatthetarantinonwasnecessarilymadeofwool(or,indeed,thatitwasashawl).

81

Chapter3
Allweknowofitwasthatitwascomekindofinegarmentworn(exclusively)bywomen.
SeeAthenaeus622b,Schol.Ar.Lys.45.Forthediminutivetarantinidion,seeLuc.D.Metr.
7.2.SeefurtherRayet1881.
133
Whiletheterracottasarethebestsourceofinformationonthetegidion,Iwouldsuggest
thatthegarmentisalsoshownonaRomanwall-paintingcopiedfromathird-centuryGreek
original.Itdepictsaseatedwomanwearingahead-dresswithadistinctlydiscerniblefolded
backlapwhichisperhapstheface-veil.Itissuggestedthattheveiledigureisinterpreted
asapersoniicationofPersia.HoweverthereisnothingPersianaboutherdress,although
Robertson1955,62suggeststhatshewearsonherheadthePersiantiaraandthatsherepresentsroyalPersia.Butthehead-dresslooksnothingliketheroyalPersiantiara,whichwas
stiffandshapedtoformaroundedprotuberance.
134
Theletterlistsamongarangeofgarmentsproducedbytwobrothers,theirmotherand
awife(wives?):ApollophanesandDemetrios,brothers,craftsmeninalltheskillsofweaving
womensclothing,toZenon,greetings.Ifyoupleaseandyouhappentohavetheneed,we
arereadytoprovidewhatyouneed.Forhearingofthereputationofthecityandthatyou,
itsleadingman,areagoodandjustperson,wehavedecidedtocometoPhiladelphiatoyou,
weourselvesandourmotherandwife(?wives).Andinorderthatwemightbeemployed,
bringusin,ifitpleasesyou.Shouldyouwishwecanmakecloaks,tunics,sashes,mantles,
sword-belts,shrouds;andforwomen:splittunics,littleroof-veils(tegivdia),robeswith
trains, purple-bordered robes. And we can teach people, if you wish. Instruct Nikias to
provideuswithalodging.And,tosaveyouwondering,wewillprovideyouwithguarantors,
menofsubstance,somefromhereandsomeinMoithymis.Farewell.Year30(ofPtolemy
II),Gorpieion28,Thoth28,ApollophanesandDemetrios,brothers.Trans.Rowlandson
1998,2656,withamendments.Sheisunabletotranslatetheword tegivdia,andmerely
statesthatitis,anitemoffemaleclothing,butitisunknownwhatitis.
135
TheconnectioniffullyexploredbyKleiner1942,43ff.
136
Onthestatuettesee,mostimportantly,Thompson1950.Forafurtherdiscussionof
veileddancersseebelow,Chapter10.
137
SeeThompson1950,37581foradiscussionofthetransparentgarments.Agood
illustrationisprovidedbyRichter1987,205andGrimaletal.1998,265.
138
SeeThompson1950,384foradiscussionofthemake-up.
139
ThewordprosopidioniscertainlylocatedinlaterByzantinetexts,afactthathasled
benMiled,1999,224,tostatethat,Levoilenonseulementducorpsmaisaussidetteet
devisageseprolongeradanslempireromaindOrient.AByzance,levoileduvisageportait
le nom de Prosopidion. Le port du Prosopidion tait trs rigoureux, car son absence
distinguaitlaprostituedelhonntefemme.Seulslesfemmesconsidrescommetantde
mauvaisevienenportaientpas.IltaitimpossiblepourunefemmedeByzancedesortir
danslaruesanscachersonvisagesousleProsopidion.
Seefurther,Gnther1988,2278.ThelistofclothingdedicationfromMiletus(c.274
272)mentions18prosopidiaintotal.HeraclidesCriticus(seeabove)notesthatthewomen
ofThebeswearlittlemasks(andIhavelinkedthesetothetegidia).
140
AP6.206(=G-PHE6),57;cf.AP6.207(Archias),56.
141
Fr.151K.-A.
142
SeePickard-Cambridge1968,179.
143
Noted by Adriani 1948, 78, and pl. III 1 and 4. He also noted seeing two other
examplesofthisstyleofveilonstatuettes(althoughtheveilswerefoldedbackontotheheads
oftheigures)inthehandsofaCairoantiquesdealerandintheBritishMuseum(c.irst

82

Veil-stylesintheancientGreekworld
centuryad).AsyetIhavebeenunabletotracethese.
144
FordetailsofthemaghmuqandsheshafveilsseeVogelsang-Eastwood1996a,51.
145
ThemostfamousformsofthelithmaarewornbyTuaregmen.TheTuaregveil(tagoulmost,teguelmost)isacombinationofaveilandaturbanandismadefromlightweightcotton,
whichvariesinwidthbetween25and50cmand1and5metresinlengthandischaracteristicallydyedavividindigoblue.Thefabriciswoundaroundthefaceandheadleavingonly
theeyes(andapatchattherearofthehead)revealed.Theloweredgeoftheveilisusually
foldedintwoandisdrawntightlyoverthenosetopreventitfromslipping.SeeVogelsangEastwood1996a,47.Agooddiscussionofthetechniqueofdrapingthetagelmustisprovided
byHawad-Claudot1992,2005.
146
ForthestatuetteseeMollard-Besques1963,pl.130,withcomments.

83

4
REVEALINGTHEVEIL:
PROBLEMSINTHEICONOGRAPHYOFVEILING
The aim of this chapter is to discuss how iconographic sources portray clothes,
especially the veil. Greek iconography, especiallyvasepainting,tendstobeused
arbitrarily by scholars to illustrate aspects of daily life; too rarely are questions
askedaboutthemediuminwhichthosepictureswerecreatedortheclientelefor
whomtheyweremade.Frequentlytheimagesfoundonvasesareusedbyhistorians
asfaithful,almostphotographic,depictionsofevidenceforancientlife.1Moreover,
theyareoftenusedtoaugmentourunderstandingoftheliteraryevidence.Butthis
isamistake.AsSianLewishasdemonstrated,
The images on pots are not in harmony with literature, neither are they in simple
counterpart:wecannotlooktopotterytoillthegapsleftbyclassicalwriters,because
paintingwasadifferentmedium,andpaintersworkedtoadifferentagenda.2

TheroutineveilingofwomenisafamiliarfeatureinGreekliterature,butithas
tobeacknowledgedthattheveilisoftenconspicuouslyabsentinart.3Certainly
mostwomenonpotsareunveiled,eveninsceneswherewewouldexpectthemto
becovered,suchasoutdoorfountain-housesettingsorimagesofvisitstofamily
tombs.Thereisanimbalanceinoursourcematerialanditistheaimofthischapter
toexplorethisdichotomyandtore-evaluatethevisualevidence.
Wherewomenareshownveiledinart,however,scholarsarepronetointerpretthe
imagesincorrectly.Manyrepresentationsshowveiledwomenperformingagesture
withasectionoftheveilwhichisheldoutbyaraisedhandtheso-calledanakalypsis
orunveiling-gesture.Iarguethattheusualinterpretationofthisactislawedand
areappraisal of the anakalypsis-gesture can throw light on use of concealment,
exposure,andfocusinGreekart,aswellasonideasaboutartisticrepresentations
ofthefemalebody.Inaddition,astudyofthedevelopmentofthemotifprovides
agoodexampleoftheevolutionofartisticskillsinnaturalism.
There are two parallel pulses running throughout almost the entire corpus of
Greekart(atleastpre-hellenistic):theeroticandtheidealizing.Sometimestheerotic
ismoreevident(asintheblatantlypornographicvase-paintingscreatedduringthe
period530460)4andsometimestheidealizingcanoutdothesexual,butforalarge
proportionofGreekartworksthetwoappearconcurrently.Whileimagescreatedby
Greekartistsarenotnecessarilypurelyfantastical(theydo,ofcourse,provideselected
85

Chapter4
andinvaluableglimpsesofreality),manycomponentsofanartisticcompositionare
givenspeciictwiststhatcanrenderscenesquirkyorabstractlysymbolic.5Greekart
(andvase-paintinginparticular)isasmuchacerebralconstructasarelectionof
actuality.6
Asimilarartisticconstructwasatworkamongtheburgeoningphotographersof
theVictorianage.PhotographswhichpurportedlyshowedNearEasterndailylife
(suchaswomenatwellsorpreparingfoodwithinthehomeimagesthatwereespeciallypopularaspostcardsrepresentingscenesthatChristknew)wereoftenspecially
constructedinthephotographersstudioamidthecorrectsprinklingofprops.7They
wereaimedatcreatingastereotypicalimageoftheEastand,moreimportantly,of
Easternwomanhood.VictorianOrientalistphotographersincreasinglypanderedto
theeroticwhimsofEuropeantasteandconstructedscenesinwhichnakedorseminudeOrientalwomenbecamethefocusofthemaleEuropeangaze,astheywere,
draped,posedandclampedatthephotographerspleasure(Fig.77).8
Orientalist photography was directed at
male fantasy, but the eroticizing and the
idealizing trends of Greek art are overt
for both the male and the female viewer,
althoughitsimpactismoreobviousinthe
caseofthemalegaze.TheGreekmaleisable
toseeatwillamassofimageswhichdepict
women (and men) naked or semi-nude as
hetakesuponhimselftheroleofvoyeurand
stares into scenes set within, for example,
private homes, public brothels, and other
mens symposia.9 Much of Greek art was
speciically designed to cater for this male
voyeuristic inclination in much the same
waythattodaymovieimagesofwomenare Fig.77.Semi-nakedwomanposedinanOriental
frequentlytransformedintoeroticexhibits setting,evokingtheigureofanodalisque.c.1855.
AfterGraham-Brown1988.
bythecontrollingmalegaze.10
RepresentingdressinGreekart
WhatiswornbyhumaniguresinGreekartislargelytakenfromreal-lifepractice.11
Nevertheless,thedepictionofclothinginGreekartisanexcellentexampleofhow
theidealandtheerotictrendsofrepresentingwomencanbeunited,sinceGreek
artistsconstantlymodifytheirdepictionsofclothing,especiallywhenwornonthe
femalebody,inallthemediaofart.12
GarmentswerecreatedathomewithinGreekhouseholdsofallclasses,through
everystageofproductionfromcardingtoweaving,anditisimportanttoremember
thatclotheswerewovenintorectanglestoittheweareraccordingtolength,but
theywerenevercutorstitchednordidtheyattainaclose-itting,letaloneaskin86

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
tight,shape.13Nonetheless,ithasoftenbeenobservedthatGreek(andtoacertain
extentRoman)clothing,sooftenclassedundertheheadingdrapery,existstoexpose
thebodytoitsbestadvantageandtoaccentuateitscurvesanditsmovements.14
TheGreeksfascinationwithimaginaryorabstractclothingis,ofcourse,most
conspicuousinarchaicfemalesculpture,wherebodiesandclothesareassimilated
intooneshape.However,separateconventionsexistedinclassicalartforthepainted
two-dimensionalrenderingofdress,andsoinGreekvasepaintingsthelinesdenoting
hangingpleatsorbunchedmaterialoftenappearunnaturalwhencomparedwith
sculptured solutions to the same problems dating from the same period. What
occupiesthevasepaintersattentionthereforeisthetransparencyofgarments.15From
thelatterhalfofthesixthcenturytotheclosingyearsofthefourth,artistsdeveloped
techniques of rendering clothing invisible or suggestive in avariety of ways. 16
The development of the method for portraying
the clothed female body in an overtly sexual way
began with the close assimilation of the dress and
igurewhichemphasizedthetorso,thecurveofthe
buttocks,thethighsandlegsand,mostimportantly,
accentedthebreaststosuchadegreethattheyappear
liketorpedoesstickingoutofthetorso,wherethey
culminate in detailed nipples which are also often
exaggerated(Fig.78).17Theloose-ittingclothingof
realityiseitherrenderedintoanimaginaryskin-tight
body-stockingthatrevealseverycurveofthetorso,or
insuchawaythatitsuggestsinvisibility.18
Thus, the depictions of dress do not necessarily Fig.78.LinedrawingofAmphitrite.
Theartistplacesconsiderableemphasis
giveafullyauthenticpictureofreallifebutinstead onthedepictionofherbreasts.
FragmentofaphialebyDouris,c.480.
meet certain artistic and social mandates centring J.PaulGettyMus.,Malibu81.AE.
ontheessentiallyeroticandidealisticconstructsof 213.
Greekart.Thehighlightingofareasofsexualattentionisachievedbythevisual
enlargementofthebreastsandgenitaliaandbytherepetition,framing,andoutlining
offoldsofcloth.Clothesbecomegenitalmaps.19
Divestingtheveil
ThereisastrongandrecurrentdesireonthepartoftheGreekartistandthespectator
ofhisworktoremoveobstaclesthatobscuretheidealisticview.Theveilisspeciicallydesignedtomakethefemaleformsociallyinvisible(asweshallargue),but
corporalinvisibilitywasnotapartofGreekart;onthecontrary,thebodythe
GreekMiraclewascentraltohelleniccultureandsubsequentlycametodominate
Western artistic tradition.20 If dress was an obstacle to aperfect vision, then the
veilmusthavebeenregardedasarealbarriertoartisticsensitivity,nomatterhow
necessaryitwasconsideredindailylifetoensureacivilizedsociety.21TheGreekartist
87

Chapter4
wasabletodepictveiledwomen,butmoreoftenthannothechosenotto.This
meansthatwemustenvisagearemarkabledichotomybetweenwhatwomenwear
inreallifeandwhattheywearintheartworks.OnthestreetsofGreektownsand
citieswomenwerecoveredup;inarttheyare,forthemostpart,uncoveredandon
display.Greekartdoesnotgiveustherealityoflifeatleastnotveryoften.22
ThepaucityofimagesofveiledwomeninGreekartcanbeexplainedbyadesire
torevealwhatisusuallyhidden,andthatrequirementcanexpressitselfintwobasic
formssothateithertheveilcanbeignoredentirely,oritcanbesuggestedasbeing
presentalthoughitisnotovertlywornontheheadorface.Thetwocategoriescan
beinterrelatedandcanbeplayedoffagainsteachother.
Inmostpaintedscenestheveilisentirelyabsent;thisisnottoosurprisingperhaps
forcompositionssetwithin,say,thedomesticspaceofthehome,orwherethereare
female-onlygroups,orwheremalepresencecanbedemonstratedasnon-threatening
(ifthemanisanimmediatememberofthefamily,forexample).23However,other
sceneswhichhaveanundeniablesettingoutofdoorscanalsoshowwomenunveiled.
Particularlystrikingaretheseventy-iveknownfountain-housesceneswherewomen
frequentlyinteractinananimatedfashionastheyfetchandcarrywaterinagenre
thatclearlyappealedtoanumberofartistsandtheirclients.Itismuchdebated
whether these scenes show respectable women or slaves, but whatever the case
maybe,thewomenaredressedinineclothes,reminiscentofthosewornbythe
Atheniankorai,andare,asfarasIamaware,alwaysunveiled,despitethepresence
ofmen(sometimesinloincloths,sometimesinvoluminousrobes).Itisrecognized
thatfountainhouses(idealspotstoindgroupsofwomen)wereplacesforromantic
assignationsorevenforfull-onsexualattacksandtheartistdeliberatelyaccentuates
theerotictensionsbyutilizingnon-realisticartisticdevices.24Theveilhasnoplace
inthesescenesor,infact,inanyrepresentationsofdomesticworkwhere,instead,
eroticismoftendominatesthepicture.25
The idea that the veil is present and can be created from several elements of
femaleclothing,althoughnotovertlywornontheheadorface,isaverycommon
device,especiallyinvasepainting.Infactthereareonlyafewinstanceswhenone
cansaywithcertaintythattheveildoesnothaveatleastthepossibilityofbeing
worn:certaintypesoffemaledressinparticularshorttunicsdonotrequireany
furthertypeofcoveringandtheabsenceofahimationorpharosseverelylimitsthe
possibilityofthewearerveilingherself.Furthermore,Ihavenotbeenabletoind
anyinstanceofawomanwearingachitoniskos,orskimpytunic,incombination
with,say,ashaal-veil.Afterall,thewearerofthechitoniskosisnotusuallyprincipally
concernedwithmodesty.26
Itisimportanttoobservethatvase-paintersfrequentlycreatescenesinwhich
many women are unveiled, but where one is either definitely veiled or where an
allusiontotheveilismade.Suchisthecasein,forexample,Fig.79,whereagroup
ofwomenareoutdoorscollectingapples,althoughonlyoneigureisveiled(second
fromright).Thescenereliesontheinteractionoftheiguresandasharedsenseof
88

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling

Fig.79.Womenpickingapplesinanorchardsetting.Onlyonewomanisobviouslyveiled.
CupbytheWeddingPainter,c.460.MuseAntoineVivenel,Compigne,L.1090.

communalactivity,butistheoneveilediguretoberegardedasrepresentativeof
allthewomen?Itisapossibility,althoughwecouldindotherexplanations:the
appleharvestisperhapssecludedfromthepublicgazesothatveilingisnotastrict
requirementandtheoneveiledgirlcouldbeanewarrivalonthescene,justcoming
intothisprivateworld,forshedoesnotseemtobepickingapplesorholdingfruit
baskets.27Theartistallowsustoenvisageaworldbeyondthesceneshownonthe
pot,amorepublicplaceinwhichwomenmustbeveiled.
Thisdeviceisemployedonseveralvases:apyxisbytheEretriaPainter,forexample,
placesaveiledwomannexttoadoorwhiletheotherwomeninthesceneareunveiled
butsetatagreaterdistancefromtheentranceorfocustheirattentionupontheseated
brideatthecentreofthepot(Fig.80).28Themostinterestingrepresentation,though,
isthatoftheMarsyasPainteronared-igurelebesgamikos:theoddly-veiledladyin
Fig.14seemstocomealmostattheextremityofaprocessionofwomenwhobring
gifts to anewly-wedded bride. Even though she is followed by two other female

Fig.80.Linedrawingshowingaveiledwomanstandingclosetoanoutsidedoor.
DetailfromapyxisbytheEretriaPainter,c.420.Nat.Mus.Athens,1250,34.

89

Chapter4
igureswhomovetowardstheleft,shedoes
not take an active part in the gift giving
and removes herself from the action by
turningoutofthescenetofacetheviewer
of the vase (Fig.81). She is balanced,
at the beginning of the procession, by
anotherveiledwomanwhoiswrappedin
anequallycomplicatedhimation-veiland
whoalsoviewstheprocession(movingto
the right) without actively participating
herself(Fig.82).Atthecentreofthescene
sitstheelaboratelyveiledbride,thefocus
oftheattention(Fig.83).Herethepainter
hascarefullyconstructedhiscomposition
andhasdeliberatelyplacedthetwoveiled
womenneartheextremitiesofthepicture
toframethesceneandtosuggestthatthe
bride is safely conined within her new
oikos,whilesimultaneouslysuggestingthat
theworldexpandsbeyondthelimitsofthe
vase,andthatevenifoutsidewomenneed
toveil,inthesafeconinesofthehomethey
canappearasslenderscantily-cladbeauties.
Thepossibilitythatonewomanshedsher
veilwhiletheotherisscrupulouslycovered
emphasizesthecontrast.
Of course the scenic composition of
avasecannotexplainthelackofveilsin
numerousotherpictures,includingthose
set outdoors. However, the erotic and
idealistic trends in Greek art are more
potent, even than the sense of narrative
oroflocation.Veiledwomenarepartof
adailyreality;whentheyappearinpublic
they are veiled, when they are glimpsed
in the home of afriend they should veil
themselves.Sowhywouldamanbother
buying avase showing aveiled woman
ifthemainpointofhavingartistswasto
improve on normality? Surely the vasebuying customer pays for the veil to be
removed,anditisthedeedofrendering
90

Fig.81.Heavilyveiledwomanonfarrightofan
interiorscene.LebesgamikosbytheMarsyasPainter
(detail)fromKerch,c.400.TheStateHermitage
Museum,StPetersburg,1475.3.

Fig.82.Veiledwomanintegratedintothescene.Lebes
gamikosbytheMarsyasPainter(detail)fromKerch,
c.400.TheStateHermitageMuseum,StPetersburg,
1475.3.

Fig.83.Bridesittingatthecenterofthescene.Lebes
gamikosbytheMarsyasPainter(detail)fromKerch,
c.400.TheStateHermitageMuseum,StPetersburg,
1475.3.

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
thewomanunveiledthatgrantshimfurtherprivilegedaccesstotheprivateworldof
women.Certainly,theOrientalistphotographersplayedwithimagesofveilingand
exposureandtheyquicklyrealizedthatonewayofbreakingthetaboooftheveil
wastousepaidmodelstoposeforthem,whichgavethephotographerthepowerto
decidewhatshouldbeexposedandwhatshouldbecovered.29
Veilingtheveil
Theveilisveryoftenmanifestinsceneseventhoughitisnotdepictedbystraightforwardmeans.Itcanbefoundintheiconographyinseveralcharacteristicways:
drapedinfoldsatthenapeoftheneck,hanginginswagsoverthetorso,clutchedin
thehands,andevenrepresentedasakindofhaloencirclingthehead.
Thereisamarkedtendencyamongartiststodepicttheexcessclothofamantle,
which had the capacity to be used as aveil, gatheredinfoldsatthenapeofthe
neck.Infact,thepleatedfoldsofthehimation
or pharos swathed around the neck are by far
themostpopularwayofsuggestingthattheveil
is present, although not worn on the head or
face. Hundreds of examples from avariety of
iconographicsourcescouldbeusedasevidence,
buttypicalofthegenreisasceneshowingseated
AmphitritefromthetondoofacupbyDouris:
thegoddesswearsainepharosthatarchesover
hershouldersanduptowardsherheadinregular
pleatswhichclearlyhavethepotentialofbeing
unfoldedandpulledfullyovertheheadasaveil
(Fig. 84),30 while avase by Makron (Fig. 85) Fig.84.LinedrawingofTheseusandAthene
actuallyshowstheprocessofliftingthefoldsof standingbeforeasemi-veiledAmphitrite.
TondoofacupbyOnesimos,fromCereteri,
thepharosontothehead.Similarneck-foldsare c.470.Louvre,ParisG104.

Fig.85.LinedrawingofPeithoveilingHelenwithapharos.SkyphosbyMakron,
fromSuessula,c.480.MFA,Boston13.186.

91

Chapter4
wornbyavarietyofwomenanditshouldbenotedthatwithiguresoflong-haired
females(asisthecaseinFig.86),thepharosisusedtoconcealthehairthathangs
downtheirbacksandfurthersuggeststhatthefoldscanbeactivelyusedtoveilthe
head.Itisalsoworthnotingthatyoungmenandboyscanalsoweartheveilofftheir
headsandinpleatsatthenapeoftheneckasthesituationdemands.31
Thehimationisfrequentlyutilizedinthesamemannerandthediagonalfolds
thatcrosstheoneshoulderareoftenstylisticallyrenderedandfrequentlyincludethe
customaryfoldofclothatthenapeoftheneck.Moreunusual,however,isavery
feminineigureofArtemisfromavasebytheAndokidesPainter(Fig.87)whois
shown wearing apretty peplos, an elaborately woven pharos, which is worn over
theshouldersand,mostinterestingly,ashaal-veilwithadelicatepatternedboarder
whichhasslippedoffherwreathedheadandhasgatheredinirregularfoldsatthe
napeofherneck.32
Sculptureandrelieffollowthesametrendsandregularlyshowthehimationand
pharosfoldedaroundthenapeoftheneck.Alatearchaicgravestele,forexample,
showsayoungwomaninapharoswiththedistinctivebackfoldsandcurveofcloth
(Fig.88)33andcorrespondscloselytooneoftheAkropoliskoraiwhoseuncommonly
arrangedpharoscoversthebackofherneckandherthickfallofhairindeeppleats.
AsfarasIamaware,thisistheonlymainlandkoreevertohintatwearingaveil
(Fig.89).34
Itisobviousthatthehimationandpharosutilizedanenormousamountofmaterial
intheirarrangementanditisclearthatthecarefuldrapingofthefoldswasamarkof
sophisticationandelegance.Asitwasthrownacrossthetorsoandoveroneshoulder,

Fig.86.Linedrawingofawoman
inavoluminouspharoswithdeep
neckpleats.AmphorafromVulci
byEuthymides(detail),c.510500.
Staat.Antik.Munich2307.

Fig.87.LinedrawingofArtemis
wearingadelicatepatternedpharos
andaineshaal-veilwhichhasslipped
offherhead.Bellyamphorabythe
AndokidesPainter(detail),c.530515.
Staat.Mus.Berlin2159

92

Fig.88.Youngwomanin
avoluminouspharos.Fragmentof
marblestelefromAthens,c.470
bc.ConservatoriMus.Rome987.

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
thedisposalofthecomplicatedpleatsofthepharosfrequentlyresultedinamultitude
ofgathersswathingthemselvesinheavyfoldsaroundthecollar.Theexcessfoldsat
thebackoftheneckwereoftenpulledovertheheadtoformaveilandwereworn
assuchbybothsexes(Figs.90and91)35,butartistsrepeatedlychosetoleavetheveil
offtheheadandsimplytorenderthedeepwrapofclotharoundthecollar,thereby
hintingthatithadthepossibilitytobeusedasaveil(Fig.92).36Therestrictivenature
ofawell-wrappedpharosisdemonstratedbythepopulardepictionofindividuals
whopullthefoldsofthecollarlooseandmanagetoworkfreeanarminorderto
holdawalkingstick,anecklace,oralower,orsimplytogesticulate.37
Itisclearthatthefoldsswathedaroundthecollararemalleableanditisnosurprise
toindthatthepleatsareoccasionallyshownpulleduptoveilthelowerfacewhile
theheadisleftbare.MostinterestinglyaPanathenaicprizeamphorabearingthe

Fig.89.Korewearingapharos.
MarblesculpturefromAthens,
c.480.Acrop.Mus.Athens688.

Fig.90.Youngmanveiledin
hiscloak.Tondoofcupbythe
EuaichmePainter(detail),c.460
450.AshmoleanMus.Oxford277.

Fig.92.Youngmanandwomanwrappedin
phare.Linedrawingofapelike,450.After
Kock-Harnack1989.

93

Fig.91.Womanveiledinapharos
withdeepfoldscreatedaroundthe
collar.Hydria,c.450bc.Unknown
provenanceorlocation.After
Boardman1975.

Chapter4
nameofthearchonTheophrastos(340/39or313/12)showsOlympias,thespirit
ofOlympicvictory,who,leaningagainstapillar,isentirelyshroudedinherpharos
whichisdrawnupoverhermouth,likeayamak(Fig.93).38Thesceneisdificult
tointerpret,butitmightbesuggestedthatsheveilsherfaceinordertodisplayher
modesty and her symbolic removal from the scene, despite the fact that, by her
verynature,shehastostandandwatchtwonakedboxerscompeteforaprize.The
discreetlyveiledappearanceoftheSpiritoftheOlympicGamesatanakedsporting
event seems somewhat contradictory. More unusual is the image, in Fig. 94, of
awomanwhoisintheactofraisingpartoftheswathedfabricthatsurroundsher
neckinordertoveilherface.Datingtothesecondcenturyad,thisdetailofaRoman
sarcophagusprobablypresentsagesturethatwasalsopractisedmanycenturiesearlier
throughouttheclassicalworld.39
Sometimesaformofface-veilingispractisedwhichdoesnotnecessarilyinvolve
thecompletecoveringofthehead:inarchaicartwomenareoftenshownholding
theirphareinwayswhichconcealtheirupperbodiesandarms;thephareappeartobe
heldoutfromthetorsoatvirtuallyanarms-length(Fig.95).40Thepharosiswrapped
aroundtheshouldersandthatthetwoendsarepulledupbetweenthehandsand
slightlyelevated(thusexplainingthefrequentlydepictedunevenarchedhem-line).
Thesepharecaneitherconcealthearmsandhandsortheymaybeanindication
thattheyareheldtogetherinthetwohandsbyrevealingtheingers.41Theextended
armstendtobedrawnclosetothebody,asthoughtheyarebentattheelbows,
althoughfullyextendedexamplesarenotunknown.Itmightbethoughtthatthis
motifcouldbebestexplainedasagestureofwrappingthebodyinthemantleand
holdingitinplace,wereitnotforthefactthatitisoccasionallymadeexplicitthat

Fig.93.DetailfromaPanathenaicprize-amphora
withthenameofthearchonTheophrastos.
NichomachosSeries.Harvard,ArthurM.Sackler
Museum,1925.10.134.

Fig.94.Linedrawingof
awomanraisingthefrontfolds
ofherveiltocoverherface.
Marblesarcophagusrelief,
c.secondcenturyad.Roman.
CapitolineMus.RomeC654.

94

Fig.95.Womenraising
sectionsoftheirphare.
Linedrawingafter
afragmentbySophilos.
AfterSchefold1992.

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
oneendofthepharosisraisedhigherthantheother,whilethebackofthegarment
veilspartofthehead.Thisraisedportion,foundinmanyexamples,isequivalent
totheoutstretchedarm,andbothgesturesmeanthesamethingthatasectionof
thepharosisbeingraisedtocovertheface.
This gesture inds, perhaps, its last presentation in the work of the Amasis
Painter42 and does not seem to have made an appearance in sculpture or relief,
althoughthemotifdoesnotstrictlydieoutatthispoint.AnamphorainWrzburg
showsthere-inventedmotifanddepictsayoungwoman,shroudedinherpharos,
whoraiseshercoveredhandtohermouthinordertoveilherface(Fig.96)43andthe
samegestureisperformedbyanumberofwomeninavarietyofscenes,mythical
andreal.Red-igurealsousesthegesture,andaparticularlygoodexampleshows
Iokastedrawingupherveilwithherconcealedhandtohideherface(Fig.97);44
here aparticularly good visual depth is achieved by the artist, an effect entirely
absentfromtheblack-igureexamples,becausetheveilisdepictedcrossinginfront
of(andtherebyobscuring)Iokastesface,whereasintheearlierblack-igurescenes
(whereitisdificulttorepresentthree-dimensionaldepth)theveiledhandisonly
liftedtothefrontoftheproiled-facetosuggestconcealment.Infact,reliefsculpture
actuallyusesbothofthesemodesofrepresentation:afragmentaryrelief,saidto
depictAriadne,showsherraisingherveiledhandtothefrontofherfacelikethe
black-igureexamples(Fig.98),45whilethered-iguretechniqueindsrelection
in one of the sculpted igures on the hellenistic Sarcophagus of the Mourning
Women.46
Itappears,then,thatfromtheearlyarchaicperiodthroughtothehellenistic
ageartistshadexperimentedwithaveryfamiliarmotifofdepictingwomenraising

Fig.96.Linedrawingofawoman
coveringherfacewithaveiled
hand.AmphorabytheGroupof
Wrzburg199Painter(detail),
c.450.MartinVonWagnerMus.
Wrzburg199.

Fig.97.LinedrawingofIokaste
raisingaveiledhandtoher
face.Siciliankalyx-kraterbythe
CapadarsoPainter,fromSyracuse
(detail),c.350.SyracuseMus.
66557.

95

Fig.98.Linedrawingofayoung
womanraisingaveiledhandtoher
face.TerracottaplaquefromAthens,
c.400.NatMus.Athens.1155.

Chapter4
their covered hands to veil their lower faces. Two different ways of exhibiting
thegesturedeveloped,oneshowingthecoveredhandbroughtupinfrontofthe
profiledface,andtheothertryingtodepictmorenaturalisticallytheveiledhand
concealingtheface.
Wehavealreadynotedthatlate-ifth-andearly-fourth-centuryreliefsculptures
tendtoassimilatefemalebodyanddressintooneform,andthateventheveilis
depictedwiththecustomarywet-looksothatitalsohangslimplyaroundtheheads
andshouldersofAmpharete(Fig.40).ButeveninthecaseofAmphareteweseean
earlyattempttopushtheveilasfarbackontheheadaspossible,sothatitdoesnot
obscureherface,whileinthecaseofHegeso(Fig.99),however,herdiaphanousveil
merelycoversthebackofherheadandherlargechignonanddoesnotobscureany
ofherfaceorherelegantlyarrangedcoiffure.Afurtherextensionofthisreluctance
tocoverexplicitlytheheadisfoundonarelieffromtheAthenianAsklepieion,dated
toc.410,whichshowsAsklepiosaccompaniedbyhisdaughterHygieia(Fig.100),
whowearsthecustomarywet-lookchitonthatrevealstheoutlineofherbreasts
andadelicateveil(eitherashaalorakolpostype,itisdificulttotell)whichshe
ingersdaintily.Interestingly,though,theveilisdepictedinsuchawaythatitdoes
notobscureherface,hair,orhead;itisalmostasthoughHygieiasfaceissculpted
inproilewhereastheveilisrepresentedfrontallysothatitmerelyactsasahalo
tooutlinethegoddessfeatures.Thesamehalodeviceofrepresentingtheveilis
usedfortheheroineonthewellknownOrpheusandEurydikereliefofroughly
thesamedate(Fig.101)47andcanevenbefoundinvase-paintingsofthelateifth
andfourthcenturies.48

Fig.99.DrawingoftheAtticgrave
stelaofHegeso.Athens,Kerameikos,
c.400.Nat.Mus.,Athens621/4.

Fig.100.Votivereliefofthegoddess
HygieiafromAthens,c.410.Private
collection.

96

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
Themostextremecasesofobscuringtheveiloccursinimagesinwhichitisonly
madeapparentbecauseofanaccompanyinggesture,aparticularconceitonlyfound
insculpturalreliefs,although,interestingly,itcanlocatedmainlyinLakonianand
EastGreekexamples.Datingtothelatterhalfofthesixthcentury,theso-called
heroreliefsofSpartashowabeardedmalefiguresittingonanelaboratethrone
and holding out akantharos as he gazes
directly at the viewer. He is accompanied
byawoman,renderedinprofile,whooften
holdsapomegranateinonehandand,with
the other, raises her veil (Fig. 102).49 Yet
there is nothing to suggest that the woman
isveiled(withapharos?)wereitnotforthe
accompanying gesture, as the sculptor is
keentodepicttheuninterruptedviewofher
delicateringletsandcurls(Fig.103).Theveil
is only represented being held aloft behind
the womans profiled features (in fact the
veil, which was probably originally brightly
painted,isusedtohighlightherprofile);the
veil is not represented covering the part of
herprofileimmediatelyvisibletotheviewer.
Similarly,butdatingtotheopeningdecades Fig.101.DrawingoftheOrpheusreliefshowing
EurydikestandingbetweenHermesandOrpheus.
ofthefifthcentury,arelieffromthefamous Marblerelief,c.420.Louvre,Paris.

Fig.102.Veiledfemaleseatedbehindamaleigure.
LinedrawingofamarbleherorelieffromSparta,
c.500.SpartaMus.4.AfterFitzhardinge1980.

Fig.103.Veiledfemaleseatedbehindamaleigure.
LinedrawingofamarbleherorelieffromKhrysapha
(Lakonia),c.540530.Staat.Mus.Berlin731.

97

Chapter4

Fig.104.Threekoraiapproach
aseatedfemale.Theirstgirls
pleatedveilisvisiblethroughher
gesture.MarblerelieffromXanthos
(TheHarpyTomb).WestFrieze,
c.480370.BM,London13287.
Photo:TheBritishMuseum.

HarpyTombfromXanthosinLyciadepictsthreeyoungwomendressedinthe
familiarfashionofthekoraiandwalkinginprocessiontoaseatednoblewomanor
goddess(Fig.104).Eachofthegirlscarriesadifferentobjectasanofferingtothe
mainfigure,butallthreeofthemweartheirhairhangingdowntheirbacksinamass
ofwavytresses,andstrandsofcurlsflowovertheirshoulderstoo.Thefigureheading
theprocessionisthemostinteresting:asshereachestheenthronedwoman,sheraises
herveilthedelicatepleatsinthefabricarerecordedinsomedetail.However,
wereitnotforthisgestureitwouldappearthatthegirlwasunveiled,sincetheveil
isnotrepresentedbeingwornbyherinanyotherway;itdoesnotcrossthesection
ofherprofiledheadvisibletotheviewernordoesitenshroudherlowerfigure.We
canpresume,therefore,thattheothertwokoraiaresimilarlyveiled,althoughitis
impossibletoknowwhattypeofveiltheartisthasinmind.50
Veiledorunveiled?Re-thinkingtheanakalypsis-gesture
Inabout1632,asatributetooneofhiswealthypatrons,AntonyvanDyckpainted
adouble-portraitofapairofsisterslaantique(Fig.105).Seatedtowardsthefront
ofthesceneisDorothy,ViscountessAndover,anewlyweddedbride,whomvan
Dyckportraysholdingabasketoflowers,symboloffruitfulness,offeredtoherby
Eros.Behindstandshersister,Elizabeth,LadyThimbleby,alsoarecentbride.Van
Dyckdepictshertouchingtheendofalame-colouredclothwhichshedelicately
raisesoffhershoulder.Thecolour,accordingtovanDykesnotes,ismeanttoput
one in mind of the Roman flammeum, the bridal veil, but the gesture of lifting
asectionoftheclothwasinspiredbyGreekprototypes.51ForvanDyckthemotif
encapsulatedtheessenceofwifelyvirtue,andheusedthegesturetoannouncetothe
portraitsadmirersthatherewehaveamarriedwoman.Hisexplanationofthepose
isperfectlyacceptabletoday,andscholarswidelyusethesameinterpretationofthe
so-calledanakalypsis-gesture,especiallyinthestudyoftheGreekwedding,whereit
isgenerallyusedinthecontextoftheunveilingofthebride.
98

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling

Fig.105.Doublewedding
portraitofLadyElizabeth
ThimblebyandDorothy,
ViscountessAndoverby
vanDyck,c.1637.National
Gallery,LondonNG6437.

Theanakalypsis-gestureisoneofthemostfrequentlyencounteredmotifsinGreek
art.Infact,therearesomanyexamplesthataclosestudyiswellbeyondthelimit
ofthepresentwork.Theanakalypsis-gestureisusuallyperformedbywomen,but
examplesofmenadoptingtheposearenotunknown,thoughthesetendonthe
wholetobeiguresofgodsandheroesandthegestureitselfcanbeabsurdlyabstract,
especiallywhenperformedbyamaleherowhoisalmostnaked.52Themotifisvery
ancientandisirstproperlyencounteredintheearlyseventhcentury;andfromthen
onitbecomesastandardpartoftheartisticrepertoireinthearchaicperiodand
remainsaverypopulardevicethroughouttheclassicalageandwellintotheRoman
era.Moreover,theanakalypsis-gesturecanbefoundthroughouttheGreekworld
fromSpartatoAsiaMinor,andfromtheAegeanislandstoNorthAfrica.Infact,
Spartanexamplesaresomeoftheearliestavailablewhichsuggeststhatnotonlywas
theveilafacetofarchaicLakoniansociety,butalsothattheartisticmotifmayhave
haditsoriginsinSpartan(oratleastPeloponnesian)tradition.53
Themotifalwaysincorporatesthegesturewherebyawomanraisespartofher
veilwithonearmwhichsheapparentlyextendsinfrontofhersothattheveilforms
alarge and distinctive lap of cloth which frames her face (Fig. 106), although
sometimesthegestureisreducedtoameredelicatetouchingoftheveil,particularly
inlaterclassicalexamples(Fig.107).Itisclearthatpaintersandsculptorsrelished
theopportunitythatthegesturegavethemtoexperimentwiththedepictionofthe
handsandingersandtherangeofeffectsthatcouldbecreatedbytheveilfalling
inavarietyoffoldsaroundtheface,head,andshoulders.Furthermore,thereare
frequentvariationsonathemeandtheanakalypsis-gestureisfoundinmanyimages
99

Chapter4
wheretheveilisnotwornonthehead,butinsteaditcanbeperformedwithanother
articleofclothing54suchasthesleeveofachiton(Fig.108),55asectionofthekolpos
ofachitonorpeplos(Fig.109),56thebackorfrontfoldsofahimationorpharoswhen
wornoffthehead(Fig.110)57orelseitmightbeperformedwithanindistinctand
ambiguousitemofdressperhapsaveil,asleeve,anoverhangorsomethingelse
entirely.Alloftheseactionsaresaidtobeananakalyptesthaianactofunveiling
andthegestureisconsequently(androutinely)giventhetitleanakalypsis.
Because the anakalypsis-gesture is such afamiliar artistic motif, it has received
considerableattentioninscholarship,albeitinacursoryandsometimessupericial
mannerandIbelievethatmuchoftheworkthathasalludedtotheanakalypsisas

Fig.106.Linedrawingofawoman
liftingaportionofhershaal-veil.
FromafragmentbytheBrygos
Painter,c.490450.AfterZimmern,
TheHomeLifeoftheAncientGreeks
1966.

Fig.107.Aphroditetouchesher
shaal-veil.Linedrawingofadetail
fromalekythosbytheMeidias
Painter,c.420.Nat.Mus.Athens
1284.

Fig.109.Linedrawingshowingthedepartureofawarriorfromhome.
Thewomanatthecentreofthecompositionlowersherheadin
adisplayofmodestyandraisespartofhergarment(perhapsthekolpos
ofherpeplos)asaveil.StamnosbytheKleophonPainter,c.430.State
HermitageMus.StPetersburgB1148(St.148,B809).

100

Fig.108.Linedrawingofawoman
liftingasectionofhersleeve.Pelike
fromthePolygnotosGroup(detail),
c.440.Nat.Mus.Athens.1182.

Fig.110.Youngwomanraisesher
pleatedpharosassheoffersalibation.
Linedrawingtakenfromastonevotive
relieffromSparta,c.520.NyCarlsberg
Glyptotek,Copenhagen423.

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
adeiniteunveilingisfallaciousandunsubstantiatedbyanysolidtextualevidence;
traditional scholarship fails to do justice to the term.58 It appears that scholars
frequentlyconlatethetext-basedactofunveiling(anakalyptesthai)withtheiconographicgestureoftheanakalypsis,andtheritualoftheanakalypteria,theunveiling
ofthebride,withoutcareoftheancientsources.ThusMargaretMayo,inabrief
publishedabstracttoanunpublishedconferencepaper,notedthat,Thederivation
ofthegesturefromtheanakalypteria,theunveilingofthebrideinthemarriage
ceremony, is evident from its appearance in early black-igure wedding scenes.59
Inasimilarvein,Kontoleonarguedthatwomenperformingthegestureonstelai
depictingbanquetingsceneswereundoubtedlymeanttoevoketheanakalypteria.60
Butweneedtorememberthatthetermsanakalypsis,anakalyptesthai,andanakalypteriaaredistinctandseparateentities,albeitonessharingacommonlexicalroot.
Ofcourseactsofunveilingarefoundinthesourcesbutitissurprisingtonote,
perhaps,thatwhenverbssuchasekkalyptoandanakalypto61areencountered,they
generallyhavethemeaningofdisclosureorrevelation(sometimesusedmetaphorically),62orelsetheyrefertotheuncoveringofanobject,63or,ifrelatedtophysical
humanunveilingatall,itisusuallyconinedtoamalecontext.64Rarelydotexts
recordwomenintheactofunveiling,andwhentheydoitisusuallyinthecontextof
acommandtouncovertheirfacesafteranoutburstofgrief:thusOrestestellsElektra
tounveilherface,andTheseusimploresAithratouncoverherhead.65Moreoften
womenareunveiledbyanotherperson,usuallyaman,inagesturethatspeaksofher
vulnerability:bridesundergoingtheritual(s)oftheanakalypteriaputthemselvesinto
averypassivepositionofdependabilityanddefencelessness.66Similarly,theheroine
Callirhoe,theprotagonistofCharitonshellenisticnovel,isunveiled(apokalypsas)
bythepirateTheronandpresentedthatway,withbareheadandloosehair,tothe
gazeoftheslave-dealerLeonaswholikenshertoagoddessbutnonethelessarranges
topurchaseheruncoveredandvulnerablebeauty.67
Unveilingwasnotanaturaldisplayforproperfemalevaluesandwasnotthe
kindofactionthatwomenreadilyandwillinglyperformed,certainlynotinpublic.
Itisessentialtonotethat,generally,whenthesourcesexplicitlyconnectwomen
withveiling,theyemphasizethecoveringofthefaceandnottheuncovering.Despite
this,RushRehmmaintainsthat,unveilingoccursfrequentlyinepicandplaysan
importantrolein[tragedy]but,oddly,onlycitesexamplesthatspeciicallyreferto
veilingandnottotheremovaloftheveil.68Aswewillsee,unveilingisundoubtedly
anessentialaspectofthefemaleexperienceinepic,butitisthecastingoff,tearing,
andabandoningoftheveilthatisstressedintheHomericcontext,notamerelifting
oftheveilorapeeringfrombehinditsfolds;raisingtheveilandcastingofftheveil
aretwoseparateissues.
So the word anakalypsis is problematical. Despite its common translation as
unveiling,itisimportanttorememberthatitisnotencounteredinLiddelland
ScottsmainLexicon,anditmakesonlyoneappearanceintherevisedsupplement,
whereitisgiventhecorrectmeaningdisclosure.69Ihaveyettoencounterareference
101

Chapter4
tothewordbeingusedtodescribethegestureofunveilingawomansfaceorhead,
thatistosay,anythingthatmakesclearthatinartthemotifofawomanholding
upalapofherveiliscalledanakalypsis.Whileanakalypsismaybeatermofart
routinelyusedinthemodernstudyofGreekiconography,ithasnoauthorityin
theancientsources;itisamoderninventiondesignedtolendvaliditytoaparticular
readingoftheiconographicalevidence.
Becausetheanakalypteriaisanidentiiableritualinthemarriageceremony,atime
whenweknowthattheremovalofthebridalveilwasacentralelementoftheproceedings,scholarshavebeenkeentolinktheeventtotheiconographicevidence.Thus
theyfrequentlyassumethattheanakalypsis-gesturehastobealogicalextensionof
theceremonialritefoundinliterarysources,andthatittoofocusesonanunveiling.
Ofcourse,noGreektextcategoricallystatesthattheraisedarmholdingoutaveil
equalsunveiling,butthenthatisoneofthefundamentalproblemsofinterpreting
and naming the varieties of gesture found in ancient art: text and image do not
necessarily correspond despite scholarships best efforts to force them together.70
Thus,OakleyandSinosplaceconsiderableemphasisintheirdiscussionofthebridal
veil,onapassagefromtheImagesofPhilostratuswhichdescribesapaintingofthe
weddingofPelopsandHippodamia:
[Thebride]isdressedinaweddinggarment,andhasjustunveiled(anakalyptousa)her
cheek,nowthatshehaswontherighttoherhusbandsembrace.71

OakleyandSinosarguethatPhilostratustextisclearlyareferencetotheunveiling
gesturefoundinmodernstudiesofGreekart,andthatthemotifhastobeconnected
withthemarriageceremony.TheytakeitforgrantedthatthedescriptionPhilostratusprovidesofHippodamiasunveiledcheekhastocorrespondtotheso-called
anakalypsis-gestureinmoderniconographicterminology,eventhoughPhilostratus
doesnotcategoricallysayanythinglike,sheholdsalapofherveilaloftwithher
hand.HemerelypointsoutthatHippodamiasfaceisuncovered,notthatsheis
unveilinginanyformalactionthatcannecessarilyberelatedtoanyiconographic
motif,andhecertainlydoesnotstatethatsheperformsanunveilinggesturethat
hasaspeciicname.Indeed,thefactthatwedonothaveorknowthepicturethat
Philostratuswasdescribing(orimagining)hastoberegardedasalawinOakley
andSinosargument.72
ForGerhardNeumanntheanakalypsis-gestureisasymbolofgreeting,andone
moreoverthatwasusedindailylife(heclassesitunderhisheadingGestenDesLebens,
gesturesofdailylife).Hestates,
Ofthemanyandvariedrulesofpolitebehaviour,whichbelongedirmlytoeveryday
life,arthasonlypreservedveryfew.Theseareusuallygesturesofgreeting,whichare
howevernotrepresentedwiththesamefrequencyindifferentperiods,buttendtooccur
sporadically.Examplesarethepoliteunveilingofthefaceofveiledwomen,thegiving
ofalowerasasignofgratitudeandasagreeting,orthefriendlygreetingwitharms
wideopen.73

102

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
Iindithardtoaccepttheideathatapoliteunveilingwasinfactawayinwhich
awomancouldperformagreeting(Grugesten)inGreeksociety,althoughNeumann
isnotaloneinhisbelief.74Whatisinteresting,though,ishisconvictionthatthe
artisticconventionisspeciicallyanunveiling.
ForKeulsthegesturehasconnotationsoffemalenubilityandsexualsurrender,75
andReederlikewiseinterpretsitasasignalofsexualsubmissiveness,especiallywhen
encountered in pursuit scenes where it becomes, the traditional gesture of the
submissivebride.76Infact,theanakalypsis-motifisusuallyregardedasthemarriage
gestureparexcellence,somuchsothatOakleyandSinosstatethat,
Thebrideisdistinguishedbythegesturethatshemakeswithherveil,holdingitout
fromherfacehergesturebelongstothesphereoftheweddingandallowsustoidentify
easilytheoccasionoftheprocession.77

SueBlundellexpandsonthenotionwhenshenotesthat,
Becauseitwassomuchassociatedwithweddings,theunveilinggesturewasusedinart
todenotenotjustabride,butalsoawife[On]theParthenonFrieze[Heras]pose
tellsusthatsheismarriedtothemalebyherside.78

These scholars are correct to emphasize the connection between the gesture
and marriage, since the motif is afundamental feature of wedding iconography
and of the married wife who often performs the gesture in the presence of her
husband(Fig.111).Infact,asasignofmarriedstatustheanakalypsis-gesturecan
beidentiiedinseveraldistinctcategories:itisadoptedbybridesingeneral,both
mortalanddivine,andbyHeleninscenesofherrecoverybyMenelaos(where
sheisadditionallyfrequentlyledbythehandinanotherfamiliarbridalgesture).79
ThegestureisfrequentlyperformedbyAriadne80andothermythicalbridesand,
indeed, concubines (Briseis, for
example).Itisalsoemployedbyone
ofthegoddessesoftheDeliantriad,
usuallyLeto,nodoubtinherroleas
the sexual partner of Zeus (where
Leto and Artemis appear together,
oneofthegoddessesisusuallyveiled
evenifthegestureisnotpartofthe
scene).81 In the mortal sphere, the
anakalypsis-gestureisseenperformed
by women at departure scenes
(presumably wives and mothers),
womenattombs(again,presumably
wives and mothers) and by women
seated at a(funeral) banquet, or
Totenmahl(awifewhoaccompanies
Fig.111.LinedrawingofZeusandaveiledHera.Relief
sculpturefromTempleEatSelinus.Palermo.
herhusband,itistobesupposed).82
103

Chapter4
However, the anakalypsis-gesture is not the sole preserve of wedding imagery
orofthewife.Itisfrequentlyencounteredinscenesthathavenodirectmarital
allusions.83Theanakalypsis-gestureisfoundenactedbywomenwhoappearalone
(especiallyinfree-standingstatueswhichinvariablylackanycontext),womenwho
are accompanied by children or other relatives, and the pose is even performed
bytwowomenwhoshareeachotherscompanyintheabsenceofmen(Fig.41).
Unmarriedwomen,mortalanddivine,arealsodepictedintheanakalypsis-posture
and many divinities adopt the gesture as an element of their iconography when
theoccasioncalls:Hygieia,theunmarriedvirgingoddessofhealth,forexample,is
sometimesveiledandoccasionallyusesherveilintheanakalypsis-gesturealthough
theredoesnotappeartobeanyhardandfastruleaboutwhereandwhensheshould
adoptthepose.84
To understand the variety of depictions and the persistent appearance of the
motifwehavetoconcludethatGreekwomenwerehabituallyveiled,atleastwhen
outofdoors,andthatthecoveringofthefacewithafoldoftheveilwasnotjustan
occasionalfashion.85Theveilcanthereforebecometheiconographicpropertynot
onlyofthemarriedbut,moreimportantly,ofthemodestandthecircumspect.86
Re-readingthegesture
Theanakalypsis-gesturecannotalwaysbereadasanunveiling;rather,weshould
considerwhetherthegesturecouldaseasilyportraytheveilingoftheface.Aswe
havealreadynoted,thegestureisveryancientandfromitsearliestincarnationsit
dependsonthemotifoftheraisedarmholdingaloftasectionoftheveil,butgiven
thelimitations(orapathy)ofarchaicartistsconcerningpaintinginthreedimensions
aswellastheirindifferenceinattemptingtodeineperspective,perhapsweshould
thinkthatthearmwhichholdstheveilisnotstickingoutaimlesslyintotheair,butis
beingcrossedoverthetorsotoallowtheveiltocovertheface.87Aswewillsee,during
theifthcentury,whenartistsbegantoturntheirattentiontowardsperspectiveand
greaternaturalism,theartisticrepresentationoftheveilingofthefacebecomesalittle
easiertointerpret.Therationaleforthegestureisonethatsupportsveilingasmuch
asitdoesunveilingand,giventhefactthatlexicographicalevidencecannotsupport
theideaofaspeciicunveiling-gesture,Iproposethatthetermanakalypsis-gesture
beabandonedinfavourofthemoreneutralveil-gesture.
Certainlythecontextofsomescenescanhelptheviewerdecidewhetherveiling
or unveiling is intended. The artist of the Mykonos pithos (Fig. 27) chooses to
depictthemomentwhenHelenfamouslyunveiledherfaceandbodyinfrontof
her estranged husband Menalaos.88 Blundell has suggested that the ifth-century
scenesofmale-femalerevelryinwhichawoman(probablyahetaira)lourishespart
ofhersleeveasaveil,willsurelyannouncetotheviewerthatthisisanunveiling,
andthatthetransitionforeshadowedwillinvolvetheexposureofthewholeofthis
womansbody.89Conversely,itislikelythatinthescenesshowingthedepartureof
awarrior(Fig.109)thewifesveil-gestureisoneofcovering,anactionwhichstresses
104

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling

Fig.112.Amphitrite(secondfromright)liftsasectionofherpharos.ShestandsinbetweenDionysosand
aseatedPoseidon.SkyphosbyMakron,c.480.BM,LondonE140.

hermodestyandisdesignedtodisplaytoherhusbandthefactthatshewillremain
chastelyconcealedwhilstheisabsentfromhome.
Butinaway,theambiguityofthegestureisitsmoststrikingandinteresting
feature,sothatthewomanadoptingtheposecouldbeseenaseithercoveringher
face,orpreparingtouncoverit.90Ifthegestureisindeedafrozenmomentthen
viewersofavasepaintingorasculptureareallowedtodecideforthemselveswhether
thegestureisaboutcoveringordivesting.Thus,forexample,ared-igureskyphosof
c.490(Fig.112)showsanassemblyofdeities,amongthemPoseidon(seatedatthe
right)andhiswifeAmphitritewhoperformstheveil-gesture.Ifthisstaticmoment
istobeinterpretedasaveiling,thenineffectAmphitritecouldbepullingtheveil
overherheadasifshepreparestoleavethescenewhilereassuringPoseidonthat,
Imgoingintotheoutsideworld,butdontworry,Illbeproperlycoveredup.
Conversely,ifsheisunveilingthensheispreparingtodisplayherselftotheonly
manwhocanlegitimatelylookatherherhusband.However,itshouldbenoted
thatPoseidonisnottheonlymanlookingather(infacthisfaceisturnedawayfrom
her,whileDionysus,standingonthegoddessleft,looksdirectlyather).Besides
theotherparticipantsonthepot,thequestionofthegazeoftherealviewerofthe
vase,hewhohandlesit,hastobeacknowledged.Inaway,nopaintedorsculpted
femaleiseverreallyaloneoreverallowedtoshareanintimatemomentwithher
spouse,forthevoyeuristicgazeoftheoutsideviewerisalwayspresent.Therefore
theideathattheveilcoverstheheadorfaceofthemodestwomanisessentialeven
iftheveilisnotexplicitlyshowninthatway.Theartist,likeMakronwhocreated
theskyphosofFig.112,iscaughtinthedilemmaofreassuringtheviewerthathere
wehaveagoodandmodestwoman,whilesimultaneouslystressingheridealized
beautyandhereroticcharms.91Howdoeshemeetthechallenge?Hesimplycreates
aniconographythatsuggeststhewomanisproperlycoveredbyherveil,eventhough
sheappearsunveiled.92
TheGreekswerereluctanttocoveroneimagewithanother;ifaviewerismeant
tofocusonthebeautyofHelenorAriadneorAphroditeorayoungbride,why
105

Chapter4

Fig.113.LinedrawingofPeleusstruggletowooThetis.Theshape-shiftinggoddessisrepresentedasawomanandasalion.CupinthestyleofDouris,c.480.AfterCarpenter1991.

coverherface(origure)withaveil?Theviewershouldbeabletorealizethatthe
veilisthereandthatitenforcesthesenseofaidos,butitshouldbetakenforgranted
thatitisdrawnacrossherface(orwrappedaroundherbody).Thefocusisonher
physicalbeauty.
Theveil-gestureisjustonemorefacetofthetrendthatprivilegesthefaceand
bodyinGreekart.Thisreluctancetohidewhatshouldbethefocusofthegazeinds
expressioninsomedepictionsoffamousmyths.Thus,intheartisticrepresentations
ofthestruggleofPeleustowinThetis,thecoupleareusuallyshownclinchedin
atightembrace(Fig.113).Thetisisshownfullyanthropomorphic,andherincarnationsasalionorasnake(amongothers)areonlyhintedatbytheadditionsof
thosecreaturesaroundher.ToshowPeleuswrestlingwithThetisinherlion-or
snake-formwouldtakeawaytheveryessenceofthegoddessbecausesheneedstobe
recognizedasThetisforthedepictiontowork,andtheviewerisaskedtoreadthe
iguresoftheanimalsaroundherasfurtheraspectsofthegoddessincarnations.93
Similarly,vasesrepresentingthedeathofAktaeonusuallyshowthehuntsman
beingbroughttothegroundbyhishoundswhotearhimapart.Inthemyth,of
course,Artemishastransformedhimintoastag,buttheartistsoftendepicthim
inhumanform,wearingadeer-skinaroundhisshoulders,inanattempttomerge
the two elements while highlighting the human tragedy of the story. To depict
Aktaeon as astag would deny the viewer the full human horror of aparticularly
gruesome,nottosayironic,death.94Thethemeisalsotakenupinthedepictionsof
KallistostransformationintoabearandtheambiguousreplacementofIphigeneia
byahindatthesacriicialaltar.95AsPenelopeMurraynotesinherstudyofOvids
Metamorphoses,Todepriveindividualsoftheirhumanshapeistodeprivethemof
theirhumanity.96
106

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
Onthemoremundanelevel,theGeometricartisticdeviceinthefamiliarekphora
sceneshastheshroudthatcoversthebodyofthedeceasedartiiciallysuspended
abovehimlikeacanopysoasnottoobscuretheviewofthecorpse.97Thefrequently
employedartisticdeviceofraisingthewarriorshelmetoffhisfacemayalsorelateto
theGreekreluctanceforartisticconcealment.TheLeonidasheadfoundinSparta,
withthehelmetscheek-piecesinplace,isanexceptiontotherulewherethehelmet
wasusuallyeitherpushedbackontothehead,asinthecaseofPeriklesfamous
portraitbust,orthecheek-pieceswereraisedtoshowthefaceclearly.98
With these thoughts in mind, perhaps we may accept the idea that an artist
wishedtorepresentawomanwithherfaceveiledwithoutactuallydepictingthe
veil.However,onefurtherpieceofartisticevidencedeservesspecialattention,for
not only does it provide some of the earliest iconographic evidence we have for
veiling,butitisalsothemostpuzzling.Theartistwhocreatedthearchaicbronze
mitrafromOlympia(Fig.28)placesKlytemnestraunderneathanarchofelaborately
workedcloth.Sheholdsherveilwithonehand,adevicewhichsurelysupposesher
tobeveilingherfaceandherbodyinaprotectivemovethatwardsoffthethreat
ofviolencefromherson.Thefactthatsheisshownunderneaththearchedveilis
anartisticdevicewhichallowstheviewertoseethequeendespitethefactthather
bodyisintendedtobeentirelyshroudedwithinherveil.Theconcentrationison
theigureunderneaththeclothing.99
Interestingly,anotherveil-relatedartisticgenreconcentratesontheiconography
ofHeraklesreintroductionofAlkestistoherhusband,Admetos.Accordingtothe
story,apivotalmomentintheproceedingswasAdmetosinabilitytorecognizehis
wifebeneathherveilandhisreluctancetounveilthestrangerwhoappearedin
frontofhim.100WhenEuripidespresentedhistragedyin438,themaskoftheactor
playingAlkestismusthavebeenveiledatthecrucialmomentofherreturnfromthe
deadinorderforthescenetoworkandforAdmetostounveilheratline1123.While
iconographyfromthelatesixthcenturyonwardsfrequentlydepictsthereunionof
thehusbandandwifeorthereturnofAlkestisfromtheUnderworld,thereisno
exampleofherfacebeinghiddenbeneaththeveilrealistically;insteadshealways
performsthestandardartisticveil-gesturetosuggesttheidea.101Laterhellenisticand
Romanexamplesofthesamescenealsodisplayareluctancetocovertheheroines
face,despitetherequirementsofthestory.102Wemaypropose,therefore,thatinthe
manycasesofbridesadoptingtheveil-gesture,theyareinfacttobeunderstoodas
scrupulouslyveiled,asAlkestisissupposedtobe,andthatunveilingisnotpartof
theiconographiclanguageofbridalscenes.103
Developmentoftheveil-gesture
Theformoftheveil-gesturedoesnotremainunalteredovertimebutevolveswith
artisticmaturation.Whilearchaicblack-igureevidencefortheveil-gesturedepictsthe
veilasatwo-dimensionallapofcloththatframestheproiledfeaturesofthewearer,
bytheearlyclassicalperioddevelopmentsinred-igureperspectivemeantthatartists
107

Chapter4

Fig.114.LinedrawingofLetosrescuebyApollofromTityos.Bellyamphoraby
Phintias,fromVulci,c.510500.Louvre,ParisG42.AfterCarpenter1991.

wereabletoexperimentwiththerepresentationofthepose.104Thisconsequently
producedamoreintelligible,lessstylized,representationoftheveil-gesture.
Thecontextofared-igureamphorashowingtheabductionofLetobythegiant
Tityos must certainly be understood as an act of veiling: Leto is shown pulling
herpharosinfrontofherface,andtheartist,Phinitas,clearlyattemptstosuggest
thatshesubmergeshervisagewithinitsfolds(Fig.114).Thisisaccomplishedby
depictingLetoholdingtheveilaboveherheadandallowingthefoldsoftheclothto
falloverherinner-arm,andeventhough
thescenelacksanykindofshadow,the
representation of depth is extremely
successful.105Thethemeisrepeatedon
the tondo of acup by the Penthesilea
Painter which also shows Leto in the
process of veiling, but this time with
ashaal-veil(Fig.115).106Heretooitis
clearthatthegoddessispullingherveil
acrossherface.
The same technique was still in
existenceattheendoftheifthcentury,
aswitnessedbyasquatlekythosshowing
the goddess Hygieia (Fig. 116). Again,
despitethelackofshadow,theimpressionofveilingisapparentintheartists
Fig.115.LetoveilsherselfasApolloslaughtersher
skilfuldepictionofforeground(thefolds
deiler.TondoofacupbythePenthesileaPainter,
oftheveilfalling infrontoftheraised
fromVulci,c.460450.Staat.Antik.Munich2689.
108

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling

Fig.117.Brideveilingwith
ahimation.Terracottaplaque,
c.400.AshmoleanMus.Oxford.

Fig.116.Hygieiaveilswithastar-spangled
himation.Linedrawingtakenfrom
asquatlekythosbytheMeidiasPainter(?),
c.410400.BM,LondonE698.

arm)andbackground(theveildisappearsbehindHygieiasproile).Fromthesame
date,aterracottaplaqueshowsabrideveilingwithherhimation,whichisdepicted
asawidearchthatdoesnotobscureherfaceinanyway(Fig.117).Herhandis
concealedwithinthefolds,andtension-creasesinthefabricarecreatedasshepulls
theveilaroundherheadandacrossherface.107
While it is true that there exists in many scenes an ambiguity as to whether
aveil-gesturereferstoaveilingorunveiling,itisclearthatwhenGreekartistswant
agesturetobespecificallyreadasunveilingtheyhaveadevicetoshowit;evidence
forthisislimited,butimportantnonetheless.Ared-igurelekythosbythePhiale
PainterinBoston(Fig.118)hasbeeninterpretedasarepresentationoftheritual
anakalypteria.108 It depicts aseated bridegroom who faces his bride and looks at

Fig.118.Weddingscene.Fragmentary
loutrophoros-hydriabythePhiale
Painter,c.430420.MFABoston
10.223.

109

Chapter4
her as the bridal veil is being removed from
offherface.However,itisimportanttonotice
thatthebridedoesnotperformtheunveiling
herself.Unveilingoneselfinpublicisnotpart
oftheimageordailyhabitofamodestwoman;
instead, the bride is unveiled by her bridesmaid (nymphutria), while she herself remains
apassive participant in the ritual. Greek
artists clearly have an explicit way of representingunveiling,althoughitisseldomused.
Representing amoment of the anakalypteria
ritualaffordedartistsauniqueopportunityto
representaceremonialunveiling,andindoing
sotheystressthenotionthatthebrideherself
doesnotperformtheaction.109Thegestureof
unveilingisalientotheGreekconceptoffemininity,buttheactionofveilingisfundamental
to the construction of the modest civilized
woman.
InRomanarttheveil-gestureisemployedin
artisticrepresentationsofwomenonthefringes
oftheclassicalworld,suchasthoseatPalmyra
(Fig.119).110Evenoutsidetheclassicalcontext
it can be demonstrated that artists working
in different traditions tend to use the same
devicestodepictstandardsubjects:anIndian
miniature painting, for example (Fig. 120),
depicts an elegant court lady holding part of
herveilinagesturereminiscentofthatfound
inancientGreece.Thesameveil-gestureisalso
foundtimeandagaininmodernveilsocieties,
but particularly noteworthy are the glossy
photographs of Indian fashion models and
Bollywood starlets wearing designer wedding
saris.Theseprofessionalbeautiesarefrequently
dressedasmodestbridesinordertosellnew
wedding-saridesignstoaworld-widemarket.
They are shown with their made-up faces in
fullview,althoughtheygentlyclaspasegment
of their veil between their delicate fingers
in amanner that evokes the ancient Greek
artworks(Fig.121).111
110

Fig.119.AwomanofPalmyranamed
Tammaadoptingtheveil-gesture,c.350ad.
BMLondon125204.Photo:TheBritish
Museum.

Fig.120.DrawingtakenfromanIndian
miniatureportraitshowinganelegantcourt
ladyemployingtheveil-gesture.Miniature
paintingfromRajasthan,c.1745ad.Victoria
andAlbertMus.London.

Fig.121.PhotographofanIndianglamour
modeldisplayingfashionablesaridesigns.She
holdsherveilinaposereminiscentofthat
foundinancientGreekiconography.

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
Veiledfrontalfaces
Wehavealreadynotedthefrequentoccurrenceofterracottafemaleigurineswhose
facesareveiled.Itwassuggestedthatfromthelatterhalfoftheifthcenturysuch
statuettesbecamecommonplace.Theyformaninvaluablesourceofinformationon
stylesandtechniquesofveilingintheclassicalandhellenisticperiodsbecausethey
display,withoutpretensionorcomplication,thedailydressofGreekwomen.Because
theterracottastatuetteswereinexpensive,coroplastswerenotundertherestraintof
idealizingtheirsubjectstothesameextentthatmakersofmoreimportant,largescale,workswere.112Thecoroplastwasatlibertytodisplayfemaledressasitreally
appeared,althoughinthecaseofthetegidion,aswehaveseen,theartistremained
reluctanttodepictithangingdownoverthefaceofhissubject.However,withthe
himationandpharosveilsthesituationwasclearlydifferent.
Terracottastatuettesofveiledwomenareirstencounteredinthearchaeological
recordatthecloseoftheifthcenturywheretheyformpartofaseriesofigurinesof
charactersfromcomedywhoareclearlyrecognizablestereotypes:theslave,theold
man,Herakles,andsoforth.113Thestockcharactersareinstantlydistinguishableby
theirmasksandbytheircostumesthat,despitetheheavypaddingandadditionof
leggingsandobligatoryphallusforthemalecharacters,aremodelledondresswornin
daily-lifebybothsexes.Becauseoftheirinexpensivematerialandsubject-matter,these
terracottacomedyigurinesaregoodsourcesforunderstandingtheeverydaydressof
thelaterclassicalperiod(andthehellenisticera)andtheyalsoindicatehowdresswas
usedindaily-life,evenifthedress-related-gesturestendtobeverystylized.
Fivetypesoffemalestatuetteareofparticularinterest:veilednursewithbaby
(Fig.122),veiledoldwoman(Fig.123),womanraisingherveil(Fig.124),young
womanveilingherface(Fig.125)andacourtesanraisingherveil(Fig.126).The
majorityofthefemalestatuette-typesdepictsomekindofveil-play,butthemost
commonmotif,evenforthenurseandthehetaira,istheveil-gesture.114

Fig.122.Comicveilednursewith
baby.Linedrawingofaterracotta
statuettefromAthens,c.375350.
Met.Mus.N.Y.13.225.13.

Fig.123.Comicveiledoldwoman.
Linedrawingofaterracottastatuette
fromAthens,c.375350.Met.Mus.
N.Y.13.225.14.

111

Fig.124.Comicveiledwoman.Line
drawingofaterracottastatuette
fromAthens,c.375350.Met.Mus.
N.Y.13.225.28.

Chapter4

Fig.126.Comiccourtesanraisingherveil
butpokingouthertongue.Linedrawing
ofaterracottastatuettefromAthens,
c.375350.Met.Mus.N.Y.13.225.24.

Fig.125.Comicmodestmaidenveiling
herface.Linedrawingofaterracotta
statuettefromAthens,c.375350.Met.
Mus.N.Y.13.225.29.

Fig.127.LinedrawingofascenefromAuge.SicilianKalyx-krater,ManfriaGroup,
fromLeontini,c.340330.Mus.Arch.Leontini.

TrendallandWebstersuggestedthatasetofsevenifth-centuryterracottasfound
inatombinAthensdepictcharactersfromtheMiddleComedyAugebyEubulos.
IncludedwithinthegroupareHeraklesandtheoldwomanandyoungveiledwoman
ofFigs.123and125.Itisclearthatthemodestgirl,mostlikelyAugeherself,raises
herpharosinordertoveilherfaceinwhatwasprobablyastockgestureforthis
typeofcharacter,anditisinterestingtocompareitwithascenefromakalyx-krater
ofc.340(Fig.127),115whereAuge,attendedbyhernurse,isassailedbyHerakles.
Notice,however,thatherhandholdsoutherveilinthetypicalvase-paintingveilgesture that surely can be correlated to that found on the statuette at Fig. 125.
Thetwoveil-gesturesinfactshowoneandthesamethingandthesamecharacter
adoptsthestockmodest-maidenpose,althoughthetwoartistsworkingintwovery
contrastingmediawereunderconstrainttodepictitdifferently.
112

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling

Fig.128.Oedipussitsamidstagroupofveiled
women.Chalkidianamphora,c.530.Stuttgart
65/15.

Averysmallbutnoteworthycorpusofvase-imagesbreakswiththisconvention
anddepictswomenwiththeirfacesveiledeitherstaringdirectlyouttotheviewerof
thevaseor,alternatively,theyareshowninthree-quarters-viewandlookinatthe
paintedscene.116Inthesescenesthepainterclearlyhasadifferentagendatothatof
thetraditionalveil-gesturecompositions:heretheveilingofthefrontal-faceisof
fundamentalimportancetothescene.ItprovesthattheGreekartistwasnotonly
capableofrealisticportrayalsofdailydress,butwasalsoabletoadjusthisperceptionsofrealitytosuithis(orhisclients)needs.Theveiledfaceofthefrontally
staringwomanimmediatelyconnectswiththeviewerofthevaseandweareirresistiblydrawnintohergaze.Fig.128,aChalkidianamphoraofc.530,showsOedipus
sittinginfrontoftheSphinxandsurroundedbyeightheavily-veiledwomenwho
squatinelegantlyontheground.117Thesearethemotherswhosesonshavebeen
carriedoffbythecreature;theyrepresentthefearfulpopulationofThebeswholong
forrevengeoverthemonster.Theyaredepictedasaunitedgroup,amotifthatis
emphasizedbytheirveiledfaces,whicharenecessarilydevoidofindividuality.They
sitandbroodasagroup,butasthewomaninthebottomregisterturnsandfaces
out,theviewerisbroughtintothescenethroughtheconnectionwithhergazeand
isaskedtoidentifywiththepaintedparticipants.
Whilethefrontal-veiledfaceoftheChalkidianvaseenliststheviewersgazeand
sympathy,otherscenesarenodoubteroticincontent.Theveiledwomenonakrater
nowinMountHolyoak(Fig.66)areunquestionablymeanttoteasetheviewer,and
thestarefromtheeyesofthecentraligure,theonlyfeaturesthatcanbediscerned
amongtheheavyswathes,hitsthespectatorwithforce.InGreekimaginationthe
unveiledeyesofanotherwisecoveredfacecontainedanimmensepower.118
Conclusion
Althoughtheveilmayappeartobeabsentinmanyfemale-relatedcompositions,
closerexaminationrevealsthatitisoftenworninapositionthatdoesnotmakeit
thecentralfocusofascene.ThismayhavesomethingtodowiththeGreekdesire
foreroticismandidealizationinartisticrepresentationinwhicharticlesofclothing
wereoftenrenderedwithaspecialtwistthatremovedthemfromreality.
113

Chapter4
In addition, the pose that has for so long been known as the anakalypsis
(unveiling)-gestureprovesinsteadtobeamisinterpretationofashorthandartistic
motifthatmightaseasilyshowanactofveiling.Thereluctancetoshowtheartistic
femaleformhiddenbeneathlayersofclothingmayaccountfortheunwillingness
torepresentwomenentirelyveiled,althoughartisticdevelopmentsthroughoutthe
classicalperiodshowthatartistswereexperimentingwithmorerealisticdepictions.
Incontrastterracottaigurinesregularlyshowwomenwithveiledfacesandasmall
corpusofvase-paintingsrelectsthistrend,butheretheartistsareworkingtowards
adifferentagenda.
Notes

See,forexample,Fanthametal1994,vi.68127;Brard1989;Rawson1973;Keuls
1985.Morerecentlyhowever,interpretationsofGreekvaseshavebeguntoquestionthe
reliabilityoftheimagesandscholarshavecontemplatedtheideathaticonographycanbe
receptivetoamlangeofreadingsdependingonthearchaeologicalcontext(althoughvases
depictingwomenarealmostpersistentlyreadinthedailylifesetting).See,forexample,
Moon (ed.) 1983; Spivey 1991; Lissarrague 1992. Moreover, it is now beginning to be
recognizedthattheclienteleforwhomthevaseswerecreatedhadafundamentaleffecton
thecreationoftheimageryanditisbecomingevidentthatmanyscenesofAtheniandaily
lifewerespeciicallycreatedfortheEtrurianmarketandwereexportedtoItalytosatisfy
theinexhaustibledemandforAthenianpotteryamongEtruscanpurchasers.Certainthemes,
suchaseroticaanddepictionsofworkingwomen,wereparticularlypopularinEtruria,while
weddingscenesandfunerarymotifsweremorepopularinAttica(althoughthedivergencein
tasteisrarelyafeatureraisedinscholarship)andindicatesthattheEtruscanclientswereable
tochoosethescenestheyenjoyedthemostandfoundrelevanttotheirownlife-experience,
andcouldignorethescenesthathadlittlepersonalorculturalmeaning.Ontheproblemof
theEtrurianprovenanceofAthenianpots,seeSpivey1991.ForanexaminationoffemalerelatediconographyseeLewis1997,14154;shesuggeststhatifweassumethattheviewers
ofthesepotsarenotAthenian,thenthequestionsweaskofthem(arethewomenreal?where
doesthescenetakeplace?isthescenetobeconsiderederotic?)areinappropriate;instead
LewissuggeststhatweplacethepotscreatedfortheEtruscanmarketinafunerarycontext
andre-readtheimagesofwomenasrelatingtotheidealizedworldofthedead.Asshehas
stated,Thismeansthatwemustlookatsomewell-knownsceneswithanEtruscaneye.
FurtherdiscussioncanbefoundinShapiro2000.
2
Lewis2002,21213.
3
Seeabove,Chapter1.
4
AsdeinedbyKilmer1993,1.
5
ForafulldiscussionseeLlewellyn-Jones2002a.
6
SchmittPantel1983,10.
7
Graham-Brown1988,45ff.IamgratefultoKeithHopwoodforthisreference.
8
Ibid.40.
9
InmuchthesamewaythatOrientalistphotography,andOrientalistartingeneral,
concentratedonimagessetwithintheharem,theprivateworldofwomenandthefamily.
Seeibid.70ff.,andCroutier1989.
10
IamverygratefultoSueBlundellforsharingherthoughtswithmeontheseissuesand
1

114

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
forallowingmetoreadherunpublishedarticle,GreekWomenandTextiles:Concealmentand
Exposure,1995.FortheideaofwomenaseroticdisplayinilmseeMulvey1988,5768,
6979.Seefurther,Llewellyn-Jones2001and2002a.
11
GermanscholarsoftenusethetermDaseinsbilder.See,forexample,thediscussionby
Himmelmann1998,105.
12
SeeBarker1922,410:ItmustalwaysberememberedthattheGreekrarelyfelltothe
levelofmererepresentation;hisartwasalwaysdesignandevenpattern-makinginhismost
literalmoments.Thisaffectsthevalueofallevidenceasliteralstatement,butespeciallyin
thistransformationoffactintodesign-motivesapparentinvase-paintings.Thesculptured
costumesarerarelydificulttodecipher[Icannotagree];thoseofthevasepaintingsare
oftenbafling[verytrue].
13
Ontheprocessseeespecially,Barber1991.Linenwasusedaswellaswool,andeven
intheifthcenturythereisevidencefortheuseofsilkthatwouldcertainlyhaveprovided
artistswiththeopportunitytorecognizeandrecordendlessvarietiesofthin,softfolds,worn
inlayers.See,Miller1997,779;Barber1991,32,204;Kbler1936.Sophistication,sexual
allure,power,andausteritycouldallbeexpressedbythestyleinwhichsimplerectanglesof
fabricsweredisposedaroundthebody,andnumerousandsometimeselaborateconventions
developed,receded,andco-existedbothforwearingtheseclothesand,moreintriguingly,
forrepresentingthem.
14
Aninvestigationintoartisticstylesofrepresentingdressinartfromtheancientworld
to the early twentieth century is provided by Hollander 1975. This is still the primary
studyofartisticrepresentationofancientdressdespitethefactthatHollanderherselfisnot
aclassicistbutanarthistorian.Ontheideaofdrapery,Clark1993,105,perceptivelynotes,
ClassicaldraperyhasbeensoprevalentinEuropeanartthatclassiciststendtothinkofit
notasclothingbutasanaspectofGreekandRomanart.
15
Ido not want to suggest that all women are necessarily represented in transparent
garments, but it is noticeable that even the most conservative depictions of women will
oftenhintattheshapeofthebreastsbeneaththeirclothingorattempttodelineateoneor
twolegshiddenbeneaththegown.ForagooddiscussionoftransparencyinGreekartsee
Losfeld1994,37199.
16
AccordingtoStewart1997,128,this,lookslikeaclassiccaseofwishfulilment.
17
CompareStewart1997,105ig.63.ForadiscussionoftheeroticismofbreastsinGreek
artseeLlewellyn-Jones2002a.
18
Themorerestrictiveblackigurepaintingcouldalsosuggestthefemaleshapebydeliberatelyemphasizingthefemalecontours,especiallythebuttocksandthelegs.See,forexample,
Boardman1974,igs.221,222,288,294;seefurther,Llewellyn-Jones2002a.
19
SeeHersey1996,12ff.
20
Stewart1997,3ff.
21
Ofcourseitisutilizedasaneroticgarmentinitsownright.SeeChapter10.
22
See,mostsigniicantly,Lewis2002.
23
AssuggestedbyGalt1931,388.
24
Thewomeninthesescenesalwayslooktall,handsomeanddigniied(almostgoddesslike)andaresometimesgivenlovely(nymph-type)names.Sometimestheyareaccompanied
bydeerorotherfeminine-relatedmotifs.GloriaPinney,inapaperentitledMythandGenre
onAthenianVasespresentedataconferenceonGreekIconographyatReadingUniversityin
August1999,arguedthatthefountain-housescenesaresetinsomesemi-mythicalAthenian
pastanddepictanimaginarydailylife.Iindherargumentsverypersuasive.Lesscredible
isKeuls1983,21014.

115

Chapter4
SeeLlewellyn-Jones2002a,177.Ofcourse,itmayalsobesupposedthatfountainhouses
wereareasoffemalesegregation,placeswherewomencouldcommuneinpublicwithout
the presence of men and that male intrusion into these places was seen as unacceptable
whichwouldexplainwhythefountainhousesaresofrequentlyalludedtoinscenesof
sexualassault.
26
ForthechitoniskosseeLosfeld1991,49,203,24750.
27
Brard1989,93.Whileheagreesthatthescenecouldhavearitualsigniicance,Brard
sensiblypreferstointerpretitastheprivateexploitsofwomenassembledinanorchard.
28
Boardman1989,98andig.234.
29
Graham-Brown1988,1346.
30
SeeRobinson1992,489,85.
31
SeeBoardman1975,132andig.214.2.
32
SeeOsborne1998,1378.
33
Richter1968,105,no.194,notesthat,thebackofthemantleispulleduptoform
aloop.Datedtoc.470.
34
Ibid.1023,no.184andigs.58790.
35
SeeBoardman1975,195.Seealso,Marcad1982.
36
SeeBoardman1975,112;Keuls1985,260.
37
SeeRobinson1992,1389.SeeMikroutsikos1995,14,11517;LIMCAriadne30.
SeeKock-Harnack1989,180.
38
Ibid.286.SeealsoHoppin1906,3889.
39
ThesarcophagusisinthecollectionoftheCapitolineMuseuminRome,butiscurrently
ondisplayinsemi-permanentCollezioniallaCentraleMontemartini.IamgratefultoRuth
Reesforthephotographfromwhichthelinedrawingwasmade.
40
SeeBoardman1998,109andig.226.
41
The shape created by the pharos has led to the wearers being dubbed Penguin
Women.
42
SeealsoanexampleonadecorativebandfromanamphorainvonBothmer,1985,49
ig.45aandSchefold1992,216,ig.268.Datingtoroughlythesameperiod,thegesture
isalsofoundonworksbythePainterofVatican309andArkhiklesandGlauklytes.See
Boardman1974,igs.73,116.2.
43
SeeBrard1989,46.
44
See,TrendallandWebster1971,67,6970,11415;Mikroutsikos1995,1023.Aredigurehydriadatingtoc.410,however,showsanelderlywoman(possiblythenursefrom
EuripidestragedyAiolos)coveringherfacewithherveiledhandinthemannerofblack-igure
representations.SeeTrendallandWebster1971,74,ig.III.3,4.
45
SeeLIMCAriadne73;Mikroutsikos1995,112.
46
Weller1970.
47
Carpenter1991,102,ig.141;Robertson1979,135.
48
SeeCarpenter1991,159,ig.234;Trendall1989,248,ig.432(top);Boardman1989,
ig.244.2.
49
For adiscussion of the reliefs, see Fitzhardinge 1980, 802; Hafner 1968, 989;
Boardman1993,165.
50
Foradiscussionofthetomb,seeRidgeway1993,227,243,397;Boardman1995,189
andig.211;Richter1968,1045,no.192andig.612.
51
OntheportraitseeRibeiro1986,823.
52
McNiven1982hasmadeastudyofancientgesturesandhascataloguedhundredsof
25

116

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
examplesoftheanakalypsis-gestureperformedbywomen,butthereareonly24representationsofmenadoptingthepose.SeealsoMiller1999,240,n.52.
53
SeefurtherRaftopoulou1993.
54
AfurtherexaminationofthemotifcanbefoundinBlundell2002.
55
SeealsoBoardman1989,igs.238,352,381,383.
56
SeealsoReeder1995,159,360.
57
SeealsoBoardman1975,ig.353;Reeder1995,161.
58
SeeCairns1996a,153,n.22.Galt1931,3809attemptedtoanalysethegesturebut
only gave agreatly abbreviated list of examples of sculpture, relief and vase paintings in
whichitisfound.
59
SeeMayo1973,220.SeealsoReeder1995,125.
60
Kontoleon1965,366.SeealsoSlund1970,105,173nn.424.
61
LSJs.v.ejkkaluvptw,ajnakaluvptw.
62
e.g.,Aes.PB193(pavntejkkavluyon kai; gevgwnhJmi'n lovgon);Eur.IA321(mw'n trevsa"
oujk ajnakaluvyw blevfaron, Atrevw" gegwv";); 872 (ejkkavlupte nu'n poq hJmi'n ou{stina"
levgei" lovgou");1146(a[koue dhv nun ajnakaluvyw ga;r lovgou");Plut.Arist.2.2(ajpo; th'"
filonikiva" ejkeivnh" ajnakaluvptesqai); Plut. Arist. 13.2 (e[gnw mhvt eja'n ajmelouvmenon to;
pra'gma mhvq a{pan ejkkaluvptein);Lys.30.2(kai; ga;r hJ peniva tou' Lusavndrou teleuthvsanto"
ejkkalufqei'sa fanerwtevran ejpoivhse th;n ajrethvn);Per.16.9(ejkkaluyavmenon ou\n to;n Anaxagovran eijpei'n pro;" aujtovn).
63
e.g.,Strab.6.2.3(w{ste latomiva" ei\nai creivan toi'" ajnakaluvyai boulomevnoi" th;n ejx
ajrch'" ejpifavneian);7.4.1(oiJ ga;r a[nemoi ta; tenavgh rJa/divw" ajnakaluvptousin);9.2.16(ajnoicqevntwn de; tw'n aujtw'n h] a[llwn ajnakaluvptesqai);Xen.Anab.1.2.16(e\con de; pavnte" kravnh
calka' kai; citw'na" foinikou'" kai; knhmi'da" kai; ta;" ajspivda" ejkkekalummevna").
64
e.g., Eur. HF 1202 (ajll, eij sunalgw'n g h\lqon, ejkkavluptev nin); 1226 (ajnivstas,
ejkkavluyon a[qlion kavra);1231(tiv dh'tav mou kra't ajnekavluya" hJlivw/;);Aeschin.3.55.11
(ejkkaluvyein mev fhsi proselqw;n kai; a[xein ejpi; to; bh'ma kai; ajnagkavsein ajpokrivnasqai);
Paus.4.18.6(trivth/ de; u{steron hJmevra/ yovfou aijsqavnetai kai; ejkkaluyavmeno").
65
Eur.Orest.294;Supp.111.Initselftheexhortationstounveilthefacemayonlybe
dramaticnecessitiestoallowthedialoguestoproceedsothatthescenesmaycontinue.
66
ForafulldiscussionseeChapter8.
67
Char.Call.1.14.1.
68
Rehm1994,40,16970,n.50.
69
LSJ (rev.sup.) s.v. ajnakavluyi". Plutarch (Mor. 518D), for example, speaking about
secrets,usesitthus: ou{tw d eJkavstw/ luphrovn ejstin hJ tw'n peri; aujto;n kakw'n ajnakavluyi",
w{ste pollou;" ajpoqanei'n provteron h] dei'xaiv ti tw'n ajporrhvtwn noshmavtwn ijatroi'". (So
painfulforallofusistherevelationofourowntroublesthatmanydieratherthanreveal
tophysicianssomehiddenmalady).Seealso,Plut.Mor.51D8;70F11;456D2;471A
9;516F.3;599C3;1012D7.AplaybyPhilemonentitledAnakaluvptonte"(fr.6),could
betranslatedUnveilers,butmoreprobablyhasthemeaningRevealers;itdoesnotnecessarilyrefertoabridalunveiling.SeeEdmonds1961,vol.IIIA,9,n.c.Thewordcanalsobe
usedfortheuncoveringofanobject,e.g.,Ar.fr.136K.-A.(ajqavrh" ajnakaluvyasa mesto;n
truvblion).
70
Someofthedificultiesencounteredinthestudyofancientgesturearehighlightedby
Bremmer1991.
71
Philostr.Imag.1.17.3,trans.Fairbanks1941,withamendments.SeeOakleyandSinos
1993,30.

117

Chapter4
Besides,weneedtorememberthatPhilostratuswasnotanarthistorianoratravelwriter
intentonrecordingwhathesaw.Hediscussespaintingsasiftheywereworksofliteraryart
andthebeautyofthepictureliesintheoverallemotionthatitexudes,notinthetechnical
details.AsFairbanksstressesinhisintroductiontohisLoebtranslation(1941,xxixxii),No
readercanforgetthatPhilostratusisasophist,thathisirstpreoccupationistheliteraryform
inwhichhewriteshisdescriptions.Whateverthepaintingsthemselvesmayhavebeen,itis
hisaimtoemphasizeanddevelopthesentiment,beitepic,tragic,oridyllic,whichhefound
inthepaintings.Theverysubjectsofthepaintingsshowthatthesentimentexisted,andthat
allthepowersofhisliteraryartwereusedinexploitingit Norarewetoexpecttechnical
dataaboutthepaintings.Rarelyhespeaksaboutdraughtsmanshiporofperspective.
73
Neumann 1965, 41: Von den mannigfaltigen Hlichkeitsformeln, die zum festen
BestanddesalltglichenUmgangsgehren,hatdiebildendeKunstnurwenigeberliefert.
Es sind vorzugsweise Grugesten, die aber nicht zu allen Zeiten gleich stark dargestellt
sind,sondernoftnursporadischvorkommenwiedashlicheEnthllendesAntlitzesbei
verschleiertenFrauen,dasfreundlicheDarreicheneinerBltealsZeichendesDankesund
derBegrungoderdasherzlicheEmpfangenmitausgebreitetenArmen.
74
Seefurther,Kenner1960,17andSchefold1964,90,bothofwhomendorsetheideaof
theanakalypsis-gestureasfreundlichesGrssen.Clement,LIMCs.v.Helene,nos.210,228,
281,alsoseesthegestureencounteredintherecognitionscenesasoneofgreeting.
75
Keuls1983,222.
76
Reeder1995,339.
77
OakleyandSinos1993,30.
78
Blundell1998,38.
79
ForthemotifseeinparticularDipla1997.
80
AriadnesweddingimageryiswelldiscussedbyHedreen1992,3166,esp.36.Again
thegestureisinterpretedasanunveiling.
81
IamgratefultoTimothyMcNivenforkindlysharingthisinformationwithme.For
furtherdetailsseehisPh.D.thesis,GesturesinAthenianvase-painting:useandmeaning,
550450bc.UniversityofMichigan1982,1035.
82
Seeespecially,Dentzer1982,4849.Hetentativelynotesthatthedetailofthegesture
found on some banquet-reliefs could link them to the Spartan hero stelai and thus to
afunerarycult,butthatthegesturemayalsobetypicaloftheepiphanyofagoddessor
adeceasedfemale.Iindthisunconvincing.
83
See,forexample,Sourvinou-Inwood1991,69inregardtopursuit-scenes:Someof
thepursuedgirlswearthemantleovertheirhead,orpartlycovertheirhead.Thiselementis
itselfpolysemic,andcannotdeinethesceneinanyparticularway.Howeverinthecontext
ofthisthemeitmaycontributetothenuptialallusionbycallinguptheigureofthebride
withthehimationoverherhead.Butthecomparativerarityofsuchconsensualelements
ineroticpursuitsiscorrelativewiththeplayingdownofthesemanticfacetconsent,forit
isthewildratherthanthecultural/institutionalsideoferoticrelationsandmarriagethatis
stressedinthistheme.SeealsoKron1988,299300.
84
SeeShapiro1993.Thedeitymoststronglyassociatedwiththeveiliswithoutdoubt
Hera.Sheisfrequentlydepictedintheanakalypsis-posture.
85
IfollowDentzer1982,488inhisclassiicationoftheposeasoneroutinelyencountered
inlaviequotidienne.
86
Foradiscussionseebelow,Chapter6.
87
SeealsoDipla1997,121.Theveilingofthefaceisstillinherentinallofthevariations
72

118

Revealingtheveil:problemsintheiconographyofveiling
oftheveilinggesture.Theampleamountoffabriccontainedwithinasleeve,anoverhang
ofadressoramantlewouldeasilyfacilitatethecoveringofthenoseandmouth.
88
The tradition of Helens unveiling is comparatively late however: the scholia are
consistentinstatingthatthestoryofHelensunveilingandrevelationofherbreastsinfront
ofMenelaosoriginatedinthepoetryofIbycusandLeschesinthesixthcentury.Thescholiast
ofEuripidesAndromakhe(630)inparticularseemstofocusonthreeessentialelementsof
Ibycustreatmentofthestory:HelenslighttothetempleofAphrodite,hermeetingand
conversationwithMenelaos,andhisactionofdroppinghisswordbecauseoflove(eij" ga;r
Afrodivth" nao;n katafeuvgei hJ Elevnh kajkei'qen dialevgetai tw'/ Menelavw/, oJ d uJp e[rwto"
ajfivhsi to; xivfo" ta; paraplhvsia <touvtoi" kai; Ibuko">).Fordetailssee,mostimportantly,
theexcellentaccountofDipla1997.
89
Blundell2002,161andig.10.
90
Someveil-gestures,suchasthatfoundonawell-knowntondoofared-igurecupby
Makronaretrulyambiguous.SeeBlundell2002,161andig.11.Itmightbethattheveilgesturecanalsobereadasatypicalfeminineorfeminizinggestureandthatitsadoptionin
artsigniiesagoodwoman.OnthisseeLlewellynJones,forthcoming(b).
91
OntheskyphosMakronemployshisusualtechniquestohighlightthebreasts,thelegs
andthepubicareawhicharerenderedinoutlinedespitethelayersofthegoddesspleated
gown.
92
Thethemeofaidosanditsrelationtotheveil-gestureisdiscussedbelow,Chapter5.
93
FortheiconographictraditionofPeleusandThetisseeReeder1995,34051.For
ageneraldiscussionofThetisasaclassicshape-shifterseeForbesIrving1990,1814.
94
Ibid.197201.AmovingaccountofAkteonstransformationisprovidedbyNonnos,
5.287ff.
95
ForbesIrving1990,2025.
96
Murray1998,8096.Plate51bisparticularlynoteworthy.
97
Garland1985,31ff.Aterracottamodeloftheekphora showstheshroudinplaceover
thecorpse.Seealsop.33,ig.9.
98
SeealsoGalt1931:Greektastedidnotpermitthenoblestpartofthestatue[theface]
tobesosubordinated.FortheLeonidasstatueseeFitzhardinge1980,879.
99
Giventhecontextofthescene,Ahlberg-Cornell1992,92hasinterpretedKlytemnestra
ashidingbeneathherveilasOrestesisabouttodeliverthedeathblow.Inthisway,Ithink
thattheQueensimprisonmentwithinherveilatthemomentofherdeathparallelsthedeath
ofAgamemnoncaughtwithinKlytemnestraswovenwebatthetimeofhisownslaughter.
SeeAes.Ag.13835.
100
Gantz1993,195notesthattheliterarytraditionforAlkestisfacingdeathisscarce.
ThereisnothingpreservedbeforePhrynichoslostAlkestis,SophokleslostAdmetos,and
EuripidessurvivingAlkestis.WeknownothingofSophoklestext,butwehaveevidencethat
PhrynichosplayincludedasceneinwhichAlkestiscutoffalockofherhairinritualpreparationforherdeath(fr.3Sn).PresumablyEuripidesborrowedfromtheseearliersources.
Gantznotes,however,thattheepisodeofHerakleswrestlingwithThanatosforpossession
ofAlkestismaynotbecanonicalandthattheincidentmaybeaninventionofEuripides.
However,black-igurevasepaintingdoesattesttoHeraklesintroductiontothestorybyat
leastthelatesixthcentury.IthasbeennotedthatEuripideswaskeentoassimilatetheideas
ofmarriageandfuneraryritualinhisversionofthestoryandthatheperhapsover-indulged
theweddingimageryusedintheplay,butagainvase-paintingrevealstheearliertrendto
depictAlkestisasaveiledbridesinceshealsooftencarriesatypicalbridalgarland.Onthe

119

Chapter4
conlationofweddingandfuneraryimageryintheplayseeRehm1994,8496.
101
See,LICMs.v.Alkestis,no.58.
102
Ibid.15(whereAdmetosappearstoperformtheveil-gesturetoo),16,21,24,30.For
adiscussionseeWood1978.
103
SeefurtherChapter8.Blundell2002,159seesitasanambiguousgesture:When
abrideisledinprocessiontoherhusbandsoikostheriteofpassagereferredtoisherown;
andtheambivalenceofhergestureneatlyexpressesthedualcharacteroftheroleawarded
toanAthenianwife.
104
SeeRichter1970,219.Shenotes(p.21),fortheirsttimeinthehistoryofartthe
artistbecameconsciousofthevisualaspectofthingsandtriedonalatsurfacetosuggest
spatialdepth.Eventhen,therewassomenotablehostilitytothedevelopmentofartistic
realism.PlatofamouslypropoundedinhisRepublic(10.596E597E)thatartshouldstay
illusionaryandnotattempttobereal.SeefurtherGombrich1960,836,99.
105
TheintroductionofshadowandshadingintoGreekartcamelate:SouthItalianvase
paintingsometimesdepictsindividualswheretheshapeoftheheadishighlightedonone
sidewithwhitepainttosuggestlight,andshadedontheothersidetosuggestshadow.
MosaicsofthelatehellenisticandRomanerasarefrequentlygivenasenseofdepthbythe
additionofshadow.OndepthandshadowinGreekartseeGombrich1960,357.Of
course,RomancopiesoforiginalGreekpaintingsattestthatGreekartistsshowedconsiderablelairinrealisticrepresentations.ForadiscussionofthePhinitasvaseandtheidentiicationofLetoseeCairns1993,319,n.203;1996a,1523,1568.
106
SeeKeuls1985,55.
107
SeeRichter1987,239.ARomancopyofanoriginalGreekpaintingofc.330bc,shows
theculminationoftheartisticresponsetotheveiling-gesture:standingtothefarright,the
delicatestoopingigureofBriseisisledtowardsAkhilleus;asshemovesforwardshelooksout
totheviewerbutraisesherveiledhandtoherfaceasshedoesso.Theartistsexcellentuse
ofcolour,light,andshadowleaveslittledoubtthattheconcubinesfaceisbeingshrouded
inafoldofherpharos,butdespitethis,evenatthislatestageofartisticdevelopment,heis
stillconcernedthatthefemalefaceshouldremainuncovered.SeeHafner1968,209.
108
SeeOakley1982,11318.SeealsoReeder1995,169withrefs.
109
Seebelow,Chapter8.
110
ForthedressofPalmyrenewomenseeGoldman1994.SeealsoColledge1976,378,
6972,856,25566.
111
OntheuseoftheveilinIndianpopularcinemaseeShirazi2001,6282.
112
SeefurtherGalt1931,382.
113
OntheComedyigurinesseegenerallyPickard-Cambridge1968,214ff.;Greenand
Handley1995,5961;Stone1981,67;TrendallandWebster1971,1268.
114
Onthemeaningofthehetairasgestureseebelow,Chapter10.
115
ForadiscussionoftheAthenianterracottacollectionseePickard-Cambridge1968,
21415;TrendallandWebster1971,127.Theyaresurelymistakenintheiropinionthat
theyoungwomanispullingherhimationawayfromherface.
116
ArecentstudyofthefrontalfaceinGreekartisthatofKorshank1987.Howevershe
doesnotdiscusstheveiledfemalefrontalface.Abriefdiscussionofthemotifisprovided
byFrontisi-Ducroux1995,124.
117
SeeKeuls1985,87.Shesuggeststhatalthoughwomencommonlywentaroundveiled,
theirfaceswerenotcovered.
118
Seebelow,Chapter9.

120

5
WHOVEILS?
VEILINGANDSOCIALIDENTITY
INTHEANCIENTGREEKSOURCES
ThehistoryofveilingintheancientGreekworldisconnectedtoissuesoffemale
socialstatusandidentity.Theevidencesuggeststhattheearliestformsofveiling
locatedinHomericepicpossiblystressedthehighsocialrankoftheveiledwoman(or
atleastofhermalekin)butthatbytheclassicalperiod,moreandmorewomenfrom
lower(orlessrespectable)walksoflifewereperhapsveilingtoo.Thisdevelopment
mightbeexplainedbythecomparativelyrestrictednatureofthesourceswhichdo
notprovideanoverallviewofwhoveilsinGreeksociety.FortheHomericperiodat
least,oursourcesallbutignorewomenofthepoorerclasses.Butweshouldbeopen
totheideathatfemalerankinvariousGreeksocietiesmayhavebeenendorsedor
afirmedbytheuseofveiling,andthattheveilitselfbecamesuchaclearindicatorof
socialstatusthatitcametobeusedbywomenaspiringtosocialposition.Ofcourse,
theuseofthewordstatusshouldbequaliiedhere:veilingasastatussymbolseems
tohavebeenassociatedwithfemalerespectability.Awomansrelationshipwith
aman,whetherherfather,brother,husbandorsonandtherespectabilitywhich
thoserelationshipsbestowedonherwasendorsedbyheruseoftheveil.Amarried
womanorawomanlivingundertheprotectionofamaleguardian(evenahigh-class
hetaira)wasgivenasocialstanding(regardlessofwealthortitle)whichwasautomaticallydeniedtotheunmarriedorunprotectedfemaleslaveandprostitute.
Inhismonumentalstudy,TheClassStruggleintheAncientGreekWord,deSte
Croix argued that for all periods of ancient Greek history, women, or at least
marriedwomen,shouldbetakenasasocialclassintheirownright.Theymaynot
havehadautonomouscontroloverinancesorpropertyrights,butasguarantorsof
legitimateoffspringwithamonopolyonreproductivefunctions,citizenwomen,at
least,weregivenaspecialroleinthereproductiveprocesseswhichmademenwant
todominateandpossessthemandtheiroffspring.1However,goingbeyonddeSte
Croixs theory, awifes position in society depended on her economic and legal
conditionasawoman.Hersexdeterminedherclassthroughherrelationshipwith
herfather,brothers,husband,andsons.Awomanoftheupperclasscouldclaim
highsocialstatus,butinrealityshedidnotnecessarilyhaveanyeffective(certainly
public)power,orwealth,orinluenceatherdisposal,sincethisresidedinthehands
ofthemenofherfamily.Thepeasantwoman,though,wouldnotnecessarilybein
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Chapter5
suchaninferiorpositiontohermalekin,whowouldhaveownedlittleproperty
andhadnooutletforthepracticeofsocialpower.Althoughmaleideologyabout
femalerespectabilitymayhavepermeatedintolower-classlife,thefactthatapeasant
womanwouldnodoubtbeexpectedtoworkthelandalongsidehermen-folk(asfar
aschildbearingandchild-rearinganddomesticdutieswouldpermit),hermembershipofthepeasantclassmighthavebeenafarmoresigniicantdeterminantofher
socialpositionthanhersex.
Toplaceawomaninasocialpositionindependentofhermalekinwoulddo
injusticetotheancientconceptsoffemalerank.Awomansclasswasdeinedby
herhusbandssocialstatusandcouldchangewithhisfortune.Independentwomen,
such as hetairai, operated in asystem outsideofthenorm,butcouldmakebids
forsocialrecognitionbyavarietyofdevices,includingallyingthemselvestoindividualwealthyclientsandevenwearingthedress-styles(andthereforetheencoded
messages)ofrespectablewomen.Dressisarelevantfactorintheclassiicationof
femalesocialroles.XenophonsIskhomakhosrebukeshiswifeforwearingmake-up,
clothing,andshoesthatconcealhertrueformandcharacterandmakesreference
toacommonbeliefinthepotentiallydeceptiveanddisruptivenatureofawomans
externalappearanceonsocialharmony.2Ideally,externalappearanceshouldrelect
socialworthandmoralvalue;economicstatuswasnotdistinguishedfromethical
behaviourinGreekcivicideology.3
Socialstatusenhancedbyanidealizedmoralworth,isrelectedbyoutwardappearances,anddressisanimportantvisualcluetocrackingthesocialcode.Femalesocial
rankwasamatterofmaleconcern,forlegitimacyofheirswasanissueofintense
anxietyand,consequently,thechastityandsexualcontrolofwomenwasacrucial
factorinsocialstructure.Sexualsegregationandveilingwerewaysinwhichfemale
respectability and male honour could be preserved since, when women emerged
fromtheirhomes,theyweremoreoftenthannotcircumspectlyveiledinanattempt
torenderthemsocially,andconsequentlysexually,invisible.Theveilmarkedout
awomanassexuallyinviolateandthepropertyofonemanwhosehonourwasreinforcedbyherveiledinvisibility.Shewasnotthepublicsexualpropertyofallmen
thatwaslefttocertaintypesofprostitutesandtosomeslaveswhowere,onthe
whole,probablyunveiledandthereforemarkedoutassexuallyavailable.
Thischapterwilllookatthenuancesoffemalesocialstatusandrespectability
bywayofexaminingwhenandwheretheveilwaswornandwhattypeofwomen
arefoundveiledintheevidencefromtheHomericperiodtothehellenisticage.It
islikelythatthereweredistinctionsinveilingthatrelectedsocialclass,muchaswe
indincontemporaryveil-societies.AncientGreeksocietiesmayhavebeenaliveto
thenuancedmessagescontainedintheactofveilingwhenperformedbydifferent
typesofwomen.
Homerswomen:epicveiling?
ThehistoricityoftheHomericpoemsisathornyissue.Thereareclearlyfeatures
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WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
oftheHomericpoemsthatprovideepicdistance(theuseofbronzeinthepoems
isthemostfamousexample)andweneedtokeepinmindwhethertheveilingof
thehead(andfaceatcertainmoments)mightbeanotherexampleofepicdistance.
Inotherwords,wemustaskifveilingisapracticewhichisintendedtodistinguish
Homeric society from later Greek societies rather than identify Homeric society
withlaterGreeksocieties?Thesamequestioncanbeposedforlaterevidencetaken
fromAtheniantragedy,ofcourse,wherethedeliberateapingofthefeaturesofepic
societyalsoneedstobeconsideredasapossibility.Ifthisisthecase,thentheuseof
classicalliteraryevidenceneedstobecarefullyranked,withevidenceofprosesources
generally(andoratorsinparticular)beinggivenpreferenceoverpoetryanddrama.
Fortunately,veilingiswellattestedinclassicalproseliterature(includingoratory)
as well as in the social comedies of Aristophanes, Menander and their contemporaries.Tragedy,ithasbeenobserved,presentsuswithifth-centuryideologies
masquerading behind aheroic veneer (the same can be said for many works of
classicalart,especiallyinthepublicsphere),buttheprinciplesandsocialpractices
foundindramamusthaveheldarelevancetocontemporaryaudiences,otherwise
whydiddramatistsincludethem?Tragediesrarelyexplaintotheiraudiencewhy
certainactionslikeveilingarepresented,whichsurelyleadsustobelievethatno
explanationwasnecessary,sincethoseactionsarepartoftheaudiencescontemporary
discourse.ThesamecanbesaidofHomerandhissociety.Thepoetneverexplains
therulesofthesocialsystemhedrawson;henever,forexample,explainswhyhis
femalecharactersareveiledorhowtheygesturewiththeirveils.Hisaudiencemust
havebeenfamiliarwiththeideologybehindveilingandwiththeveilingactionstoo
sincetheyarecustomsthatbelongtoaculturethathadexistedintherecentpast
orstillexistedsothatthepoetsaudiencewasabletounderstandthem.4Ifthesame
veil-gesturesandveilingideologycontinuetobefoundintheclassicalperiod(and
beyond),thatsurelyatteststoalongandcontinuoustraditionoffemaleveilinginthe
hellenicworld.Eventhoughveilfashionsmighthavechangedwithtime,attitudes
toveilingdidnot.Whatispresentedabouttheactionsandperceptionsofveiling
inHomericpoetryisessentiallytakenfromreal-lifepractice,butgivenaparticular
poeticglosswhichelevatesitoutofthemundaneandcommonplace.
MuchthesamecanbesaidofthedepictionofwomeninHomericepicasawhole,
althoughthewomenwemeetinHomertendtoperformallthetraditionalduties
thatcanbefoundinlaterclassicalsourcestheysatisfymenssexualneeds,they
aresolicitousoftheirchildren,theyperformhouseholdtasks,theyspincloth,and
theyperformthereligiousritestraditionallyreservedforwomen,andonlyfunction
in conjunction with men. Nevertheless, Homer accords his women characters
aremarkableplaceofprestige,asMarilynB.Arthurhasdemonstrated:
NowhereintheIliadortheOdysseydoweencounteranydisparagingremarksabout
womensroles,nowheredoweencountertheexpressionsofmisogynywhichappearso
frequentlyinlaterGreekliteratureTheHomericpoetfocusesalmostexclusivelyonthe
positivesideofwomen;[epicpoetry]emphasiseswomensinclusioninsocietyasawhole,

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Chapter5
ratherthanexclusionfromcertainroles;itcelebratestheimportanceofthefunctions
womenperform,insteadofdrawingattentiontotheirhandicapsorinabilities.5

SowomenrankhighlyinHomersopinion,andnoneoccupysoloftyaposition
asthemanynoblewomenoftheepics.Thereappearstobeaconnectionbetween
highfemalesocialstatusandveilinginHomerandfromthepoemsitseemsthat
(certain)womenwereroutinelyexpectedtocovertheirheads,atleastwhenoutof
doors,whilstface-veilingcouldbeemployedinfrontofunrelatedmen(although
speciicface-veilsarenotattestedinHomer).Thishabitualveilingcouldbeexplained
merely as an expression of female modesty, but this interpretation does not do
justicetoHomersshrewdperceptionanduseoffemaleveiling.Itisunnecessary,
forexample,toseeHelensactionofveilingassheappearsbeforetheSkaeanGates
inIliad3simplyasamarkofhershame.Instead,herreasonsforveilingencompass
manyemotionsandarouseseveralsimultaneousresponses.Itappearsthatasshe
leavesherchambertheveilgivesHelen(inadditiontootherthings)anincreased
senseofsocialstatus.6
In Homeric epic, we ind the veil worn by Helen, Hekabe, Andromakhe,
Penelope,Nausikaa,Thetis,Hera,Ino,KirkeandKalypsodaughters,wivesand
mothersofkingsandprinces,orelsedivinewomen.Sodoesthismeanthatinthe
Homericworldonlynoblewomenhadtherighttoveil?Itisdificulttotell,giventhe
fantasticnatureofHomericsociety.Itiscertainlythecasethatonlygoddessesand
elitewomenaredescribedasveiledintheHomericepics,butwhetherthisispurely
anartisticconceitonthepartofthepoetisdificulttoknow.
It is clear that in at least one early historical Near Eastern society Assyria
veilingwasusedasamarkoffemalesocialstatussince,remarkably,veilsareatthe
centreofaciviclawcodeusedbytheAssyriansfromatleast1250bc.Inhisstudy
ofthelegalrightsandmarriagecustomsofAssyrianwomen,ClaudioSaporettihas
demonstratedthatduringtheMiddleAssyrianperiod(c.14001050),thesexual
regulationofwomenofthepropertiedclassbecameincreasinglyentrenched,and
thevirginityofrespectabledaughtersbecameainancialassetforthefamily.7What
evidentlybecameproblematicfortheAssyrians,however,washowtodistinguish
clearlyandpermanentlybetweenrespectableandnon-respectablewomen;thiswas
accomplishednotmerelybyasocialpolicyofconformityasweappeartohavein
theGreekworld,butbytheenactmentofMiddleAssyrianLaw40,alawcodethat
seemstohavebeenappliedandacceptedthroughouttheseveralcenturiesofAssyrian
rule.Thelawitselfbeginsthus:
NeitherwivesoflordsnorwidowsnorAssyrianwomenwhogooutontothestreetsmay
havetheirheadsuncovered Thedaughtersofalordwhetheritis[with]ashawl,
robeormantle,mustveilthemselves8Whentheygooutontothestreetsalone,they
mustveilthemselves.Aconcubinewhogoesoutonthestreetwithhermistressmust
veil herself Aprostitutemust have her head uncovered on the street; she must
notveilherself.Herheadmustbeuncovered Hewhohasseenaharlotveiledmust
arresther,producewitnessesandbringhertothepalacetribunal;theyshallnottake

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WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
herjewelleryawaybuttheonewhoarrestedhermaytakeherclothing;theyshalllog
heriftytimesandpourpitchonherhead.9

Thisharshlawishighlysymbolic,sincethecoveringoftheheadwithpitchgives
theharlottheonlykindofveilsheisentitledtowear.Practicallyspeaking,itmust
haverenderedherunitforearningaliving,sincetheremovalofthepitchwould
necessitatetheshavingoffofthehair,leavingherdisiguredforalongtime.Thelaw
goesontostatethattheslavewomanwhoiscaughtwearingaveilwouldhaveher
clothestakenawayandherearscutoff,although,interestingly,thelawalsostipulates
thatifamanfailstoreportaviolationoftheveilinglawthenhewillbebeaten,his
earswillbepierced,threadedwithropeandattachedtohishands,whichwillbe
tiedbehindhisbackwiththesameropeand,trusseduplikeananimal,hewillbe
forcedtoperformhardlabourforamonth.10
Class formation demands this visible means of distinguishing between those
whobelongtodifferentstrataofsociety;clothingandornamentsarevisiblemarks
of status in all societies. In communities with sharp divisions of caste or class,
adornment that represents the most desirable symbols of social worth can often
beexclusivetotheupperclasselite.InChinaupuntilthe1940s,forexample,the
wivesanddaughtersofthenobleandmiddleclassesboundtheirfeetastheprimary
indicationoftheirrank,sincelivingwiththesetiny,crippledfeetwouldhavebeen
(theoretically) an impossibility for lower-classwomenwhoworkedinhousehold
industriesorontheland.11InAssyriaitwastheveilthatwasadoptedasasymbol
ofawomanshighsocialstatus;theveiledwife,concubineorvirgindaughterwas
visuallyidentiiedasawomanofrankwhowasundertheprotectionofoneman
and,assuch,shewasmarkedoffasinviolate.Conversely,theunveiledwomanwas
clearlylabelledasunprotectedandtherefore,intheory,couldbefairgameforsexual
violationbyanyman.
Isdress,andveilinginparticular,usedbyHomerinanyspeciicwayanddoeshe
relectarealsocialpractice?DoestheAssyrianevidencestandasamodelforGreek
practices?Itisdificulttotell,althoughitmustbesaidthattherearenocomparative
veilinglawsknownfromtheGreekworldonaparwithMiddleAssyrianLaw40,
whichsuggeststhattheAssyrianmodelcannotbeusedwithabsoluteconidence.
YettheprivilegegiventotheveilbyHomerasamarkofhonourforhisupperclassfemalecharactersdoesperhapsindicatethatHomerwascreatinghispoemsin
asocietythatatleastunderstood(andparticipatedin)thesocialvaluesofveiling.
Law40maybeausefulanalogue,butacorrelationbetweenAssyrianandHomeric
culture should not be taken too far since analysis of how female clothing functionedinearlyGreeksocietyisverydificult,givenHomersobviousunwillingness
tomentionthedressofhislower-classfemalecharacters.Thatreluctancestandsin
sharpcontrasttohisdetaileddescriptionsofelitefemaleattiresofullyexploitedin
thevarioustoilettescenesthroughoutthepoems(whichcorrespondintheirattention
todetailwiththemalearming-scenes).Wehavenodescriptionsoflower-classfemale
dresstocomparewiththatofthefemalenobility,nordowehaveanyinformation
125

Chapter5
onhowdressisusedbylower-classwomen,oreveniftheywereallowedtosharein
theveilingideologywhichissoevidentlythepossessionofHomersnoblewomen.
HomerstreatmentoftheoldslaveEurykleiamakesforaninterestingcaseinhis
presentation of non-elite women: she is afully rounded and believable character
who, we are told, is loyal, affectionate, and intelligent. Nevertheless, despite her
prominentpositioninthehouseholdsofLaertesandthenOdysseus,Eurykleiaisnot
necessarilyaccordedanyparticularhonours,andherseveralepithetsusedthroughout
thepoemtendtopraisehergoodsenseandlovingnatureorheroldage,nother
nobility.12Unfortunately,buttypically,herphysicalappearanceandherclothingare
notdescribedandwedonotknowifsheisentitledtowearaveilandparticipatein
thesymbolicshelterthatveilingoffered.
Ourknowledgeofthesocialorganizationofwomenintheperiodfromthetenth
tothelatesixthcenturiesisnotoriouslylimitedandtheHomericepicsofferonlyan
imperfect,semi-imaginaryglimpseofapeculiarkindofrealityandgiveusapuzzling
mixtureofsocialpractices.Theworldofmortalwomenseemstobesplitbetween
thosewhoaremarriedto,orareblood-kinof,kings,princes,andnoblemenand
thosewhoperformmenialtasksasslaves.Inbetweenthosetwosocialcategoriesthere
seemstobeaclassofwomenwhoindthemselvesinconcubinage,butthestratumof
freeworkingwomenseemstobealmostentirelyabsentfromthepoems,althoughat
Iliad12.4335wehearofavirtuouswomanweighingwoolinherscalesinorderto
earnalivingandsupportherchildren.13Theslimarchaeologicalevidencewehavefor
thelivesofnon-elitewomen(fromthelatearchaicperiodatleast)maysuggestthat
theyattemptedtoimitatetheirwealthiersistersindedicatingreligiousvotivesand
canperhapsbeimaginedconformingoraspiringtothesamestandardsofpraiseand
blamethatregulatedthebehaviourofthefemaleelite.Asparticipantsinthegame
ofhonour,freeworking-womenmaywellhavehadarighttoweartheveil.
Slaves,however,beingsociallydead,standoutsidethesystemofhonourand
shame.14Becausereputationandthepreservationofmalehonourisnottheconcern
of any female slave, it might be reasonable to suppose that female slaves in the
HomericworldappearunveiledandunprotectedjustasweindintheAssyrian
evidence.Atirstsightthisappearswellandgood,althoughitissuggestedbyHomer
thatslavesoftherankofamphipoloidoseemtobeveiled.Whyisthisso?
Thewordamphipoloshasthemeaningofhandmaidorwaitingwomanand
is used in epic to contrast with the more familiar term for afemale slave, dmoe.
Whiletheirnamedoesnotimplythatthesewomenenjoyfreestatusorthatthey
operate as ladies-in-waiting of the Medieval variety, the amphipoloi are usually
connectedwiththegreatladiesofepic;theyarepersonalservantsandmayhave
enjoyed amore elevated position within the noble household than other slave
women.15Certainlypersonalaccesstotheirmistressesmayhavegiventhemsome
relectedstatus.Sometimestheyarenamed:HelensamphipoloiatTroyarecalled
Aithra and Klymene,16 while at Sparta she is served by Adraste, Alkippe, and
Phylo.17Ononeoccasionthefatherofanamphipolosisnamed:Aithraissaidto
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bethedaughterofPittheusofTroezen,althoughthisdetailisnotinitselfunusual
sinceEurykleiasfatherandgrandfatherarenamedandeventhewantonslavegirl
MelanthoismentionedasthedaughterofDolius.WhatisunusualaboutAithrais
herpedigree,forherfatherwasasonofPelopsandthereforeabrotherofAtreusand
Thyestes.Aithraislinkedtoseveralheroes,includingBellerophonandAegeus,but
sheischielyrememberedasthemotherofTheseusandisoftenmentionedinhis
exploits.18Hermythology,however,alwaysplacesherinasubservientposition,and
sheappearsformostofherlifeasaslave,nurse,or(asinHomer)asacompanion
tothegreatandthegood.Sheneverseemstohaveenjoyedanyrealindependent
powerdespitebeingconnectedtotworoyalhouses.AccordingtoPausanias,Aithra
wasrepresentedinbondagetoHelenonthechestofKypselos:
PittheosdaughterAithraisdressedinblackandhasbeenthrowndowntotheground
underHelensfeet;theinscriptiononthemisinsinglehexameterversewithonename
leftover:ThesonsofTyndareostakeHelenanddragAithrafromAthens.19

UnfortunatelyPausaniassaysnothingaboutherappearanceorherclothing(except
its colour) and we cannot know if she was envisaged and represented as veiled,
although, interestingly, Bacchylides lays considerable stress on Aithras veil and
Euripidesmentionsherveiledinapharos.20
Thereisapossibility,then,thattheamphipoloi(oratleastsomeofthem)could
begenteelladiesfallenonhardtimesandtakenintocaptivity,althoughitisjustas
possibletoseethemasbornintobondageandspeciallyrearedtoserveaswaiting
womentoelitefemales.Naglerhasproposedthattheamphipoloiwhoaccompany
respectable women everywhere are symbols of chastity, and indeed the decorous
Nausikaaevensleepswithahandmaidoneithersideofher.Butwhilethesewomen
may act as moral guardians for young princesses (although once again there is
nothinginthetextsthatspeciicallystatesthat),theirpresenceatHomericcourts
canbeexplainedbeyondtheconinesoftheirperceivedroleaschaperones.They
areconspicuouslypresentinthecompanyofnoblewomen,perhaps,notsimplyto
protectandenhancetheirmistressaidos,buttoemphasizehernobilitytoo.
TheamphipoloiwhoaccompanyNausikaaonherjourneythoughthecitytothe
riverbank(wearenottoldtheirnumber),seemtoenjoyafriendlyrelationshipwith
theiryoungmistressandtheyallchipinwiththechoresofwashingthelaundryand
withthepleasuresofbathingandanointingtheirbodies.Thenoteworthydetailat
Odyssey6.100revealsthatatthecommencementoftheirballgameallthewomen,
servantsandmistress,throwofftheirveilsinordertoplayunhinderedbycumbersomehead-dresses.Thus,likePrincessNausikaa,theamphipoloihadbeendiscreetly
veiledfortheirjourneythroughthecityandintothecountryside.Perhapsweshould
envisagetheamphipoloiwhoservePenelopeandHelenasveiledinasimilarmanner.
So we seem to have evidence to imply that acertain type of Homeric slave was
veiled.TheveiledamphipoloicouldoperateinthesamewayastheveiledAssyrian
concubinesmentionedintheNearEasternlawcode(aconcubinewhogoesouton
thestreetwithhermistressmustveilherself ):theHomericslavesarenotveiledas
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amarkoftheirownstatus,buttheyboosttherankofthosetheyserve.Veilingis
nottheprivilegeoftheamphipoloi,butamarkofesteemforthenoblewomenthey
serve.Itmaybenocoincidencethatthewordchaperone(orchaperon)appropriatelyderivesfromtheMedievalFrenchchape,meaningahood,veil,orprotective
covering.21
SinceHomerdoesnotprovideanyinformationonthedressoflower-classslave
women,itisimpossibletomakeajudgementastowhetherornottheywereveiled,
buttheroutinesexualavailabilityoffemaleslaves(eveniftheyareonlyusedbythe
masterofthehouseholdandnotevenloanedouttohismalefriends)shouldclass
themamongtheunveiledoftheAssyrianmodel,togetherwithprostitutes,another
societyofwomenentirelyabsentinHomericpoetry,althoughnodoubtfoundinreal
life.Ifwomenoflowlysocialrankwereveiledinthisperiod(andlatertimes)and
weshouldcertainlynotcompletelyruleoutthepossibilityitisnottheconcernof
thepoettoshowthemassuch.Homerreservestheveilforusebyhisnoblewomen
andgoddessesaloneandforacertaincategoryof(skilledorgenteelorprivileged)
slavewomenwhoareprominentbecauseoftheirclosephysicalproximitytotheir
noblemistresses.22
WealsoneedtoaskwhethertheconspicuousappearanceoftheveiledHomeric
noblewomenrunscountertotheideathattheveilpromotesfemaleinvisibility.Not
necessarily.Accordingtotheiconographicevidenceoftheseventhcentury,thetype
ofveilmostprobablywornbyHomersnoblewomenwouldhavebeenthebright
andrichlypatternedpharos-typeinspiredbyNearEasternprototypes.Suchveilsno
doubtlookedexpensiveandwereintendedtobeeye-catchingwiththeirbrightly
coloured,tasselledandfringedhems.Infact,womensveilsofallperiodsinGreek
historymayhavebeenbrightlycolouredoratleastwovenwithcolouredstripesor
other designs,for there is ample evidence,especiallyfromepigraphicsources,to
showthatclothingcouldbevividlycolouredinawidevarietyofhuesandpatterns.23
Indeed,attheotherendofourtimescale,ArtemidorosDreamBookatteststhatitis
agoodthingforwomentodreamofwearingcolourfulclothes,especiallyiftheyare
noblewomenor,interestingly,hetairai.24Thereisnosuggestioninanysourcethat
Greekveilsweredesignedtobecolourlessgarmentsinthemannerofthemodern
blackchador.MorerelevantmaybecontemporarymediaimagesofAfghanwomen
wearingbrightblue,yellow,greenorlavenderburqaas.Eventhoughwomenmay
bestrictlyrequiredtowearall-concealinggarments,thereisnocontradictioninthe
ideathattheveilscanbebrightlycolouredorpatternedand,asvanBremenhas
notedinregardtothebrilliantbutconcealingfashionsofhellenisticwomen(inan
argumentthatholdsforHomericwomentoo),
Itisperfectlypossibletobecoveredandconspicuousatthesametime Thepublic
imageofelitewomenwaspartlyshapedbytensionbetweenthemodestlyretiringand
theopulentlyconspicuous.25

Ashasbeenobserved,onseveraloccasionsintheOdysseyPenelopeentersthe
great dining hall to confront her son, her suitors and, ultimately, her husband,
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always scrupulously veiled and accompanied by two (veiled?) amphipoloi.26 The
poetiskeentostressthatsheisthemistressofthehousehold,forshedoesnot
appearinmourningforherlosthusbandbutinsteadsheholdsherselfwiththe
dignityandpoiseofaqueen.Penelopehidesherfacebehindherveilnotsimplyas
anaturalreactiontoexpressmodestyandtoinstilafeelingofshameinothers,but
alsobecausetheveildistancesherfromhersocialinferiorstosome(signiicant)
extentsheveilsbecausethesuitorsareunworthytolookonherandbecauseher
rankofqueenisstressedbyherdeliberateandeye-catchingactofveiling.Thevisual
effectproducedbyHomerisstriking:Penelopesuddenlyappearsinthemegaron,
standingatthedoorwayandaccompaniedbyhertwoamphipoloi,bothofthem
theretobolsterherappearance.Then,inadeliberateaction,shetakesacornerof
herhead-veilanddrawsitforward,therebycoveringpartofherface.Theseactions
areclearlydesignedtomagnifyherstatus.
Infact,Penelopesveilisavitallinkinthechainofhercharacterization,forshe
is associated with textiles and their opaque quality on several occasions. For the
queen,textiles(andeventheloomonwhichtheyarecreated)actasmasksforthe
concealmentofhertruesuffering.Sheevenhidesbehindherloom,whichcanbe
interpretedasanimmovableveil,deepwithintheconinesofthedomesticquarters.
Her veil and her loom protect her from the snooping suitors and symbolize her
hiddenresources,herequivocalmessages,hermultiplicityandstrengthofpurpose
andherstatusasthewifeoftheruler.CommentingontheimportanceofHomers
useofdisguiseanddeception,Lateinerhasnotedthat,
TheOdysseyshuflesandmasksdisguises,supplementingcostumesandpostureswith
assumedsocialidentities Penelopehidesbehindcloth Shesheltershermarital
idelitybehindweavingLaertesshroudforthreeyears,andshedonsaveilwhenshe
condescendsanddescendstothesuitors.27

InthefamousToiletteofHerasequenceofIliad14,thegoddessuseoftheveil,
likePenelopes,canbeinterpretedinanumberofways.Itis,forexample,anerotic
prop,but,justasimportantly,theveilisasymbolofHerasrespectabilityasthewife
ofZeusandthequeenofOlympus.Homerhasnointentionofbesmirchingthe
moralcharacterofthegoddessinthishighlychargedsexualsceneandsohearms
herwiththeproperaccoutrementofthenoblewifetheveil.Sotoo,Helensact
ofveilingassheapproachestheSkaeanGatesinIliad3doesnotemphasizeher
questionablemodesty,buthersocialimportanceasaroyalwife,forsheleavesher
chamberveiledinshininglinen,accompaniedbyAithraandKlymene,andarrives
attheGatetobehailedbytheoldmenwhosurroundkingPriamandwholiken
hertotheimmortalgoddesses.28TheveilservesitspurposebygivingHelenboth
sexualappealandstatus,andthesceneisreminiscentofthePenelopeincidentsin
theOdysseywithshiningveils,waiting-women,andadmiringmen.Homersmain
concernistoemphasizethedignityofHelenandcertainlynotthedepravityofwhich
shelateraccusesherself.29
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Veilingasasymbolofstatusisapertinentideaincontemporaryveilsocietiestoo,
whereawomansbidforsocialrecognitionisoftenendorsedbytheuseofherveil,
althoughtherulesareusuallycomplexandawomanspropensitytoveilisoften
strictlydictatedbyherrelationshiptothemenofherfamilyaswasnodoubtthe
caseinantiquity.ThewifeofaBrahminmaninIndia,forexample,willnotveil
herselfbeforeamanoflowercasteinherhusbandscommunity,eventhoughhemay
beolderthanherhusbandandcallhimnephew;whileawomanofBerbercaste
(slightlydownthesocialladder)willveilherselfbeforeaBrahminmanofthesame
ageorseniortoherhusband,butincaseswheretwocastesinthesamecommunity
areaccordedequalstatusthereappearstobeveilingonbothsides.30
WehavenotedthatPenelopesveilingbeforehersuitors(menwhoarealmost
herhusbandssocialequals)couldinterweaveideasofmodestywithanotionofself
esteemandsocialposition.Duringhermeetingwiththebeggar(thelowestcaste
characterintheepic),however,sheremainsunveiled.Likewise,HelenandArete
areunveiledintheirspousescourtswhentheirhusbandsarepresent.Thiscouldbe
anindicationofaHomericcodeofveilingonaparwiththemodernethnographic
evidence,butitishardtotaketheideaanyfurther.Issuesofsocialstatusandrespectabilityareobviouslyinplayhere,butitisalmostimpossibletoteaseoutthesubtle
meanings of veiling etiquette from such sparse evidence. What can be said with
somecertaintythoughisthatHomerisconcernedtoshowthathisnoblewomen
arerespectablyconnectedtosomemanofhighstatuswhooffersherprotectionand
bestowsonheracertainrank,andthattheconceptofhersocialstationisenforced
bythenotionthatshecarefullyadherestotherulesofveiling.
Veiledbattlements
PerhapstheclearestindicationwegetfromHomerfortheveilbeingusedtosignify
awomansrankthroughherfamilialassociationwithanoblemancomesinIliad22
(44272)withthedeathofHektor.WhennewsreachesAndromakheofhistragic
and bloody end, she is discovered at home weaving arobe for her husband and
orderinghimabath.TheimpactofhisdeathisheightenedbyHomersreminding
usofhowitwillutterlydestroyAndromakhesidentityasawife,aroleinwhichshe
isfullyimmersedasthegrimnewsarrives.Accompaniedbyherpersonalserving
women(whoareonceagaintheretoemphasizeherpositionasawifeandaprincess),
sherunstothecitywalllikeafrenziedmaenadtowitnessAkhilleusdraggingHektors
corpse behind his chariot.31 Andromakhe swoons and then, as we have seen, in
apitifulactofdesperation,shetearsfromherheadthevariouscoveringsthatconceal
herhair,includingthekredemnonthathadbeengiventoherbyAphroditeonher
weddingday.32Itisavividsymboloftheintensegriefshefeelsathersuddenloss.33
Butitismorethanjustaroutinegestureofmourning;withthedeathofherhusband
Andromakheissuddenlyunprotectedandactsoutherdownfallsymbolicallywith
theremovalofherveil.Sheknowsthatwhatliesaheadforheristhethreatofsexual
violationandslaveryandthefearfulprospectofbecomingaconcubinetooneofher
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conquerors.TheremovaloftheveiltakeswithitAndromakhesrankofprincessand
wifeaswellasthesafetyshehadenjoyedunderthesexualprotectionofoneman.
In adeft acknowledgement to the power of the Homeric passage, Euripides
Andromakhe,livingasaconcubineinthehomeofAkhilleusson,Neoptolemos,
bemoansthedeathsofherbelovedhusbandandheronlyson,andherlossofstatus.
StandingbeneathastatueofThetis,themotherofherhusbandsslayer,shecriesout
inanguish,Ihavethrownhatedslaveryaroundmyhead.34
Ofcourse,theservitudewhichshroudsherheadislikeaninvisiblecovering,the
onlyveilAndromakhehasarighttowear.LiketheAssyrianslavesandharlots,the
widowedAndromakhehasbecomefairgameforviolation,andjustastheAssyrian
harlotisveiledwithpitch,theonlyveilthatAndromakhewillbeentitledtowearis
thatofslaveryandshame.
In asimilarly dramatic gesture in the Iliad, which is meant to correspond to
Andromakhesaction,Hektorsmother,queenHekabe,throwstheveilfromherhead
andshrieksaloudwhennewsreachesherofthedeathofherson:
And his mother tore her hair and lung far her shining veil (kaluptren) and let out
aterribleloudcryatthesightofherson.35

Whenweexaminethepowerfulimagesofthetwounveiledwomen,motherand
wife,andrecognizethatthewordkredemnon(usedforAndromakhesgarmentand
inferredforHekabes)hasameaningthatextendsbeyondveilandalsotranslatesas
citywalls,towers,orbattlements,thentheeffectoftheirunveilingisevenmore
devastating:thefemaleveilandthedefensivewallsofacity-stateareasone.The
themeisalsoapparentinanotherveil-wordglossedbyHesychiuserumawhich
issynonymouswiththewordforfence,fortress,orbulwarkandmoregenerally
forprotection.Infact,SophoklesusesthewordtodescribethewallsofTroyinhis
tragedyAjax.36InitsHomericcontext,withitshighwallslankedwithtowersand
gates,Troyisdescribedaswell-crowned(eustephanos)andisenvisagedascovered
withasacredveil(hierakredemna)ofbattlements,butthewallsarevulnerableand
theIliadicphrasekredemnonluesthai,tolooseaveil/covering/wall,isusedasavivid
metaphorforthesackingofacityandforthebreachingofawomanschastity.Zeus
isdescribedas
[Hewho]hasunboundtheheadsofmanycitiesandwhowillinthefutureunbind
stillmore.37

Withthisimageinmind,AgamemnonpraisesNestorbydeclaringthat,withmen
likehim,thecityofPriamwillsoonbetottering(emuseie),andtheverbheuses
emuoliterallymeansnod,droop,bowdown,likeheadsofwheatatharvest
time.38Theimageofthedroopingheadstrengthensthenotionthatthecitywalls
arelikehead-coverings;atthesackofTroybothheadsandveil-wallswillfall.Thus
itistoZeusthatAkhilleuspraysforstrengthinordertobeabletoloosenthesacred
veilofTroystowers(ophroioiTroieshierakredemnaluomen);hisrequestisgranted
andHomerpoignantlyanticipatestherapeofTroythroughthegesturesofHekabe
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andAndromakhewho,astheycasttheirprotectiveveilsafar,openthemselvesup
tosexualviolation.Infactthemetaphorimplicatestheentirefemaleelementofthe
citycontainedwithinitswalls:wivesfertile,modest,andchasteawaitviolation
whenthewallsarebreached.39Intheancientworld,theseizure,abuse,andshame
ofthewomenwouldautomaticallyfollowthetakingofacityand,asNaglerhas
pointedout,
Itispartiallyanartefactoftranslationthatseparatesbothkredemna,battlementsfrom
kredemna,veil,andaidos,shamefastnessinsexualdecorum,fromaidos,shamefastnessinbattle.40

Forwomen,sexualmaltreatmentmarkedtheverycharacterizationofenslavement,andinEuripidesTrojanWomen,eachcaptivewomanisdepictedascoming
outofthetentofthemantowhomshehasbeenallocatedastheytellofhowthey
weretakenfromtheirmaritalbedroomsaftertheirhusbandshadbeenkilled.Inthe
TrojanWomentherepeatedquestionis,WhosewretchedslaveshallIbeordained?41
EuripideshommagetoHomersnoblewomenisadditionallyexpressedinhisdesire
torepresentthecaptiveTrojanwomenasaristocraticandchaste,themesthatemerge
notonlyintheTrojanWomenitself,butalsointheHekabeandtheAndromakhe,
wherepersonalgreatnessshinesthroughinthewomenasthoughitwasinbornand
preventsthemfrombehavinginanabjectlyslavishmanner.42Ofcourse,thesearenot
realisticportrayalsofclassicalAthenianslaves,butEuripidestreatmentofthefemale
Trojancaptives,drawingsomuchontheHomericexample,doesemphasizethe
notionofclassthatpermeatesthetreatmentoftheTrojanwomenintheIliaditself.
Thesymbolicactofcastingofftheveil,alludedtobytheEuripideanAndromakhes
referencetoahatedveilofslavery,isoneofthemanydetailedIliadicfeaturesused
bythedramatisttoemphasizehispoint.
SointheIliad,HekabesandAndromakhesunveilingstakeonaddeddimensions
thatportendthecollapseofthewallsofTroyandtheviolationofthesacredcity.
Thewomensactionsofthrowingofftheirveils(notsimplyliftingthem,butcasting
themoff)denotestheirownlossofsocialstatus,thesocialdisplacementoftheroyal
women,andoftheTrojanwomenasawhole,andthedesecrationofsacredIlion
herself.Theself-imposedgestureofunveilingtellsofablurringoffemalesocialroles
andopensupthewomentoabuse,deilement,andimpendingslavery.43
Inalessovertlythreateningvein,ontheirday-triptotheriverbanktowashthe
laundry,Nausikaaandhercompanionsaresimilarlyopentothesexualadvanceof
strangers.Outsidethewallsofthecityandwiththeirprotectiveveilsdiscarded,
devoidofthefortiicationthatthekredemnonofwallsandthekredemnonofcloth
provides,theseyoungwomenareexposedandvulnerableastheyplaytheirballgame.ItisnowonderthatattheappearanceofthenearlynakedOdysseusthe
amphipoloi lee the scene, leaving the brave (and perhaps brazen) Nausikaa to
confrontthealien.44
Itisinterestingtonotethattheimageoftheveilasaprotectivewallhascontinued
tobeapopularliterarymotif.ItisencounteredinlatesecondcenturyadChristian
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WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
writingsofTertullian(nodoubtutilizingHomerasamodelforChristianethics),
forexample,inhisDeVirginibusVelandis(OntheVeilingofVirgins)inwhichhe
imploreswomento,
Putonthearmourofmodesty,surroundyourselfwitharampartofchastity,coveryour
sexwithawallwhichneitherallowsyoureyesbeyonditnoradmitsothersin.45

In Western tradition, the idea that the veil acts as abarrier usually involves
negativeassociationsofveilingandseclusion,andthus,innineteenth-andearly
twentieth-centurytravelwritings,aconstantthemearisesfromtheobservationof
Muslimwomenwalkingveiledinapublicspacewhichlikensthemtoimprisoned
creatures, forcibly jailed behind the secure walls of their clothing. Among many
suchliteraryworksisthatoftheComtedePariswhoinhis1861work,Damasetle
Liban,comparedthecityofDamascustoOrientalwomenwhoconcealtheircharms
behindwallsandveils:
DamascusislikethewomenIseeeverymorningpassinginfrontofourcamp,covering
theirembroidereddresseswithamiserablecottonveil.Theyhidetheirtreasuresand
showthemselvesinadismallight.46

Clearlytheauthorenvisagesthatbeautyandsensualityawaitshimbehindtheshabby
wallsofthecityandcottonveilsofitswomen,andhintsthattheremovalofthose
obstacleswillrevealtheanticipatedtreasures.Interestingly,though,theconceptof
treasurehiddenbytheveilorwallisathemereiteratedbymodernIslamicfeminists
who see veiling as the ultimate guarantor of female respectability and, indeed, of
empowerment. The gradual rise of Muslim fundamentalism has led prominent
Islamicfeministauthors,suchasZahraRahanavarad,tousetheveilasarallyingcall
forwomentoreturntothepropervaluesofMuslimlife.Whatisfascinatingabout
Rahanavarads argument for (re)taking the veil, however, is her reliance on the
imageryoftheveilasawalledcity,asacredfortressinfact,thatcontainsawomans
precioussexualityandheridentityasawife,mother,orsister.Shewrites,
Accept hijab [and] under its protective shield edify yourself It is not aprison! It
isasanctuaryofdecencyandchastity Itisaweapon,afortresswhichenshrines
notonlyyourphysicalattributes,butalsothedivineessenceofyourwomanhood,the
essencewhichendowsyouwithpowertobeamother,asister,asweetheartofyour
husband.47

Veilinggivesawomanasocialidentitybyallyingherwithprotectivemenwho
safeguardhersexualityand,inRahanavaradsview,herdivinewomanhood.Consequently,unveilingisnotapracticethatistakenlightlybywomenthemselves,because
theactofuncoveringcanremovethefortress-likeprotectivebarrierthattheveil
affordsandmayrenderawomandefencelesstotheexploitationofothermenas
wellasimposingalossofself-identity.Homersattitudetotheveilseemstooperate
onsimilarlinesanditisparticularlyinterestingtonotehowhemakesfrequentuse
ofmetaphoricveilstoclothethenoblewomenofhisepicsandgivethemasense
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ofdivineprotection.Thesemetaphoricnatureveilsofclouds,mists,darknessand
wavestendtosettleoverwomenattimeswhentheyareshownoutofdoorswithout
theirphysicalveilsandtheyensurethattheunveilednoblewomanorgoddessiskept
respectableinthemindsofthepoetsaudience.
The nature veils are used when the fortress-sanctuary that the physical veil
offersisnotablyabsent:thus,whenthegoddessInoleapsoutofawaveandhands
herphysicalveiltoOdysseus(anactwhichtherebysaveshislife),sheis,ofcourse,
unveiled, and her head is deliberately made bare. The act of unveiling thereby
exposesInotothedemeaningcircumstancesandinferencessuggestedabove,and
consequentlytosaveherfromthisthreat(andarathercompromisingpositiontoo),
Homerinterposesapoeticsubstitute:
Withthesewordsthegoddesshandedhimherveil(kredemnon)whileshedivedback
intotheswellingseainthelikenessofagannet;andablackwaveveiledher(melande
hekumekalupsen).48

Inosphysicalunveilingandsubsequentre-veilingwithawaveareonlytemporary;
Homerallowshertobere-veiledagainafewlineslater:
Intime,ashegottheairbackintohislungsandwarmthgatheredaroundhisheart,
[Odysseus]unboundtheveil(kredemnon),lettingitdriftawayontheestuarydownstreamtowhereawhitewavetookitunderandInotookitbackintoherhands.49

The two symbols the veil and the wave are clearly intended to be closely
assimilated(kumekalupsen-[a]waveveiledher),athemewhichisevenmoreevident
atIliad24(936)whereThetisgoesthroughanalmostexactreversalofthesubstitutionofthewaveforaveilwhensheascendsfromtheseatojoinherfellowgodson
Olympus.Inherwateryhomebeneaththesea,outofsightfrommortaleyes,Thetis
istobeimaginedwithoutaphysicalveil,althoughtheveilofwaveswhichentirely
engulfsherassuresherpropriety,anditisonlywhenshearisesfromthedepthsofher
waterykingdomthatsherequirestheformalprotectionthataphysicalveiloffers.
ForAndromakhe,though,weindthatHomergivesherafarmoreabstractmetaphoricalveilthanthosebestowedonInoor(inreverse)Thetis.Assheloosesher
physicalveilandotherhead-coveringssheisengulfedinawaveofunconsciousness:
Then the darkness of night came and veiled her eyes (ophthalmon erebenne nux
ekalupsen),andshefellbackwardsandgaspedforthherbreathoflife.50

Remarkably, it is Andromakhes grief itself that becomes her veil, acovering of

darknessthatshroudsherunveiledframe.SoconcernedisHomertodepictAndromakheasthequintessentialdevotedwifeandworthynoblewoman,thatevenatthe
momentofhermostintensedespairandinherownsymbolic(perhapsunconscious)
actionofdiscardingherveil,hecannotabandonhertotheravagesthatawaither
ortothemessagethatunveilingcontains,andsohere-veilsherwithaveilmade
ofmist.51

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Conspicuousconsumption
WhywastheveilsuchaneffectivesymbolofrankforHomerpoetically,ifnot
necessarilyrealistically?Whatwasitaboutthissimplegarmentthatmadeitaneficaciousemblemoffemalesocialstatusbothintheepicsand,perhaps,inreallife?
Isuggestthatinanagewhenclothingwasoneoftheprimaryindicatorsofsocial
worth,evenmoresothantoday,themorelayersofclothingwornnexttothebody
andthemoreimpracticaltheiruse,thehigherwastheperceivedsocialstandingof
thewearer.Forwomen,allthatwasnecessarytoworkintheieldswasasimple
dress,anythinginadditiontothatcouldberegardedasinessentiallongcloaks,
widesleeves,inepleatedlinens,mantles,andaccessoriessuchaslywhisksandfans
couldallberegardedasfripperiesandobjectsofunnecessaryself-indulgence.Free
womenwhoaspiredtosocialrespectabilitycouldweartheveilwhileworkinginan
attempttoboosttheirperceivedsocialstatus,butslavewomenwhodidthehard
andmonotonousgraftingshouldbeunencumberedbyanythingastiresomeasthe
veil.Thistypeofattitudestillsurvivesinsomemodernveilsocieties.
Following the Biblically-based Adam-and-Eve-theory of the origin of dress,
Victoriananthropologistsirmlybelievedthattherootofthefunctionofclothing
layinitsaspectofmodesty,butbyfarthemostwidelyacceptedviewtodayonthe
originsandfunctionofclothingseesclothesprimarilyasameansfortheindividual
to enhance his or her position over spirits, animals, and peers.52 The result of
thisdesireforself-aggrandisementisapsychologicalambivalencetowardsdress,and
overthecenturiesalmostallsocietieshave
struggledtosimultaneouslydisplaysuperioritywhiletryingtohide(varyingnotions
of)shame.Theresulthasbeentheadvancement,historically,ofavarietyofformsof
condemnation for asserting oneself too
overtly by means of clothes.53 The ability
tobuy,orhavecreated,articlesofclothing
that are not only superfluous to ones
needs, but, moreover, hinder movement
andpracticalliving,istheultimatemarkof
theprocessofself-aggrandisementthrough
dress. Headgear in particular is often
thought of as de trop, very often having
nopracticalreason:crowns,tiaras,judicial
wigs,mortarboards,andtophatsarenot
practicalaccessoriesbutdosayagreatdeal
aboutthewearerssocialattitude;sodoes Fig.129.AwomanfromGujeratBhuj,northern
theveil.54Byitsverynature,theveilisan India,adjustsherveil.Withkindpermissionof
GillianVogelsang-Eastwood(TextileResearch
impractical garment. It requires constant Centre)andtheRMV,Leiden.
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Chapter5
attention to keep it securely on the head or drawn across the face and incessant
vigilanceisneededtoensurethattheveilisworncorrectlyanddecorouslyandnot
allowedtoslip,twistorfalloff(Fig.129).Alargepieceoffabricusedasaveil(like
themodernsariandchadorandtheGreekpharos-veilandhimation-veil)isadificult
articletokeepundercontrol,whiletheniqabanditsGreekequivalentthetegidion
canbedificulttowearifthecoveredfacemeansthatsightisdiminished.Today
femaleagriculturalworkersintheMiddleEastandAsia,boundbysocialnorms,
religiousregulations,andcastetaboos,oftenweartheveilevenwhenworkingin
theields,buttheimpracticalityofthegarmentisrevealedbythefactthatinorder
tofreetheirhandsforwork,theveilisheldontheheadbyholdingacornerofitin
themouth.ItisnowonderthattheHomericnoblewomanisaidedbyamphipoloi
whofetchandcarryforher.Ideally,theveilissuitedonlytothemostrelaxedform
oflife-style;itisnotapracticalgarmentanditdoesnotitcomfortablyintoany
worksituation,althoughpracticalityisnotusuallytheirstconcernofmodernveiled
working-women.
InHomericGreecetheveilwasanaidtodisplayinganoblemansstatus;theveiling
ofhiswife,daughter,unmarriedsisterdemonstratedtotheworldthathewaswealthy
enoughtokeephiswomenfolkseparatedfromsocietyandinacomfortableenough
inancialstatethattheydidnotneedtolabour.Hisveiledwifeandfemalerelations
werealsocomponentsofhisdisplayofsexualprowessandsocialcontrol,because
theveiledwomenconirmedthefactthathislinewouldcontinuewithlegitimate
successors.Itispossiblethatanoblemansveiledwomencouldaccompanyhimon
publicoccasions,suchasfuneralsandweddingceremonies,toconirmhiswealth
andstationintheeyesofhispeers.CertainlyintheepicstheHomericnobleman
cutsanimpressiveigureandhisveiledwomenmakeanequallyimposingsightas
theystandonthewallsofTroyoverlookingthebattleieldsbeloworastheyprocess
throughthecitystreetsbearingofferingstothestategods.55Dressedinrichclothing
orarmourandsurroundedbyveiledwomen,theHomericnoblemanmarkedhimself
outasaigureofwealthandprestige.Whenamancompetitivelydisplayshispossessionschariots,horses,arms,plate,clothes,andrichlydressedandconspicuously
veiledwomenhemustalsoconveytheideathathehimselfdoesnotneedtotoil,
butthatheexploitssomebodyelsesphysicalwork,heistoopreoccupiedwithaffairs
ofstate,thewarriorethos,andwithighting.Veblenfamouslyanalysedthistypeof
behaviourandcametotheconclusionthatitrepresentedconspicuousconsumption
andconspicuousleisure,inotherwords,whatamanattemptstocommunicate
whenhespendshismoneyisthefactthathehasplentyofitanddoesnotneed
towork.56WhatVeblenandothersdonotnote,however,isthefactthatamans
spendingpowerandsocialpositionareoftenenhancedbythewaysocietyperceives
hiswomenfolk.57Tohavemorethanonewifeortohaveanumberofconcubines
andotherfemaledependantsisamarkofprestigeinitself,butwhenthosewomen
aredressedinasplendourequaltoorexceedinghisown(aswasthecaseinthe
nineteenthcenturywhenitwaslefttothefemalemembersofafamilytoappearas
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WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
anappendagetothefamilymalesandliterallytowearthefamilywealthontheir
backs)and,moreover,whentheydonotneedtoworkoutofdoors,thenhisown
socialworthismultipliedintheeyesofsociety.Furthermore,whenhiswomenare
veiledandtherebydistinguishedfromwomenoflowersocialandeconomicworth,
thenhissocialauthorityisheightenedoncemore.58

Ademocraticveil?
While comparatively prominent in Homeric poetry, the veil is only sporadically
foundinarchaicliterature;therearefewtextsthatcanbecomparedwiththeearlier
interestshowninveiling.Hesiodmentionstheveilbutrarely,althoughhisreferences
tothegarmentareimportantindicationsofhowitmighthavebeenperceivedand
usedinearlyGreekpractice.FirstlyhenotesthatPandorawasgivenashiningveilas
partofthecorrectaccoutrementforherroleastheirstbride,whichindicatesthat
theweddingveilplayedapartinearlymarriageceremoniesandsuggeststhatveiling
mayhavesubsequentlybeenusedtomarkoutawomanasrespectablymarried.59
Secondly,inamoremetaphoricvein,Hesiod(indealingwiththelargerissuesof
moralandimmoralbehaviour)referstotheveilbeingwornbytheabstractfemale
personiicationsofAidosandNemesis,whichsuggeststhatthenotionofveilingwas
closelyassimilatedwiththesequalities,butinparticulartheconceptoffeminine
aidos.60AthemethatpulsatesthroughoutHesiodsworkisthatofthemaledependencyonwomentoprovideheirstotheestateandtocontinuethefamilyline.As
aresultofthisrelianceonfemaleprocreativepowers,womensuncontrolledsexuality
emergesasathreatandrequiresextensivesupervisionandregulationbythemenof
thecommunity.61Thecontrolofwomenwhosesexualityorchastitywasafiliatedto
onemaninthisperiodmayhavebeenfurtheredbytheuseofveiling,althoughfear
ofwaywardfemalesexualitywasnotaHesiodicinvention,ofcourse,andishinted
atinHomertoo,whereithasalreadybeensuggestedthattheveilwasahallmarkof
arespectablewoman.62IfwetakeHesiodsautobiographicalinformationseriously,
theremaybeglimpsesofreallife(ofanearlyseventh-centuryfarmingcommunity)
interwovenwiththepoeticfantasiesofthemythofages.63Itispossibletoview
hisdetailedinformationontheminutiaeofcommunitylife(especiallyintheWorks
andDays,lines618ff.)asreliable;evenhisreferencestotheweddingveilandto
thedesirablefemalequalitiesevokedbyveilingmightberegardedasanaccurate
representationoftheuseoftheveilinhisowncontemporarycommunityandnot
necessarilyasmerelyaHomerichommage.Theveilingofallrespectablewomen
(thatistosay,mothers,wives,sisters,daughters,andanyotherwomenconnectedto
oneman)couldthereforebeseenasacommonplacepractisedwithoutinterruption
throughouttheHomericperiodintoHesiodsageandthroughintothearchaicera
too,butitishardtotaketheavailableevidenceanyfurther.
Reliableinformationonveilingpracticesintheperiodleadinguptotheearly
classicalageissparse:SapphodoesnotevenspeakofAndromakhesweddingveil
whenshedescribesthenuptialcelebrationsofHektor,althoughthereistalkof
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Chapter5
goldenbraceletsandpurplerobes.64Butincontrasttothepaucityofarchaictextual
referencestoveiling,archaicart,aswehaveseen,offersampleevidenceforveiling.
Moreover, the iconography traces avariety of veiling techniques which demonstratethattheveilwasanadaptablearticleoffashionableattire,althougharchaic
iconography(especiallyintheearlyperiod)doestendtoconcentrateonmythologicalscenesandprimarilydepictstheveilwornbygoddessesandheroines.But
theclotheswornbydivineandheroiciguresonthevases,reliefs,andsculptures
aretaken,Ibelieve,fromdailypracticeandrelectthefactthatthesameclothes
werewornbynoblewomen(orwomenfromwealthyfamilies)oftheseventhand
sixthcenturies.
Thatthereisachangeinthetypeofveilwornbywomeninthelatesixthandearly
ifthcenturyiscertain,butjudgingfromtheiconography(muchofwhichstems
fromAthens,whichnecessarilynowbecomesthefocusofourattention),thecategoriesofwomanfoundveiledalsoappeartobeexpandedtoincorporatedifferentlevels
offemalesociety.Bytheendofthearchaicageweinallyhavedeiniteconirmation
thattheveilwasnotsimplytheprerogativeofnoblewomen,althoughonceagain
weshouldbeopentothepossibilitythatveilinginearlierperiodshadbeenopen
tomarriedwomenorguardedwomenfromlowersocialorders,likethewomenof
Hesiodscommunity.Whethertheartisticevidencerelectsasuddenchangeinthe
socialperceptionofwomenisdificulttosay,butwemaybegintoindanexplanationforthesuddenappearanceofveiledworkingwomenandevenprostitutesifwe
takeintoaccountthechangestakingplaceinboththeAthenianpoliticalsceneand
thefashionableformofmensdressthroughoutthisperiod.
AnnGeddeshasnotedthattherewasadistinctchangeinthefashionableclothing
oftheAthenianmalefromthearchaicageintotheifthcentury.65Shearguesthat
whilearchaicnoblementookpleasureinineclothing(ofteninspiredbystylesfrom
theEast),66theirlate-sixth-centuryandifth-centurysuccessorstookadifferentline,
believingthatEastern-stylegarmentswereeffeminate,barbaric,andtyrannical.By
thelatesixthcentury,Athenianmenwerewearingplainclothes,afacetwhichmade
italmostimpossibletotellwhetherornotamanwaswealthy.AsGeddesstates,
The impression given by the artists isof standardisation an impression that is
conirmedbyderision,inliterature,forpeoplewhodeviated.The[clothes]likethe
[ChairmanMao]suitsoftheChineseinthe1970ssuggest,toanoutsideratanyrate,
anevennessandequalityindress.Theydonotconveythemessagethatthewearercan
affordconspicuousconsumption.67

In the archaic period, wealthy Athenian men had taken great pleasure in ine
clothes,agratiicationthatwasentirelycompatiblewithHomericmilitaryprowess,
butsomewherealongthelinetheineryhadlostitsattractionanditsassociation
withcourageandheroismand,instead,plainclothesbecameadmired.Powerinthe
archaicperiodhadbeeninthehandsofnoblemenwhohadacompletemonopoly
over military power (at atime when ighting equipment was expensive).68 Their
burialsrevealthattheyhadbeeninterredwithsplendourbeittingtheirsocialrank
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WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
andweremournedbywarriorswhoconspicuouslyparadedthedeceasedshorsesand
chariotsatthefuneraltoawethecrowds.ThesemenwereinluencedbyNearEastern
dress styles and wore long linen robes and gold jewellery that heightened their
dignity.Ofcourse,theseAtheniannoblemendidnotdisappearovernight;indeed,
despiteadeclineinpower,theydidnotdisappearatall.TheworksofAristophanes
andPlatoarefullofold-stylenobles:PeriklesandAlkibiadeswereconnectedtothe
ancientAlkmaeonids,andKalliaswasamemberofthedistinguishedoldfamilyof
theKerykes.69However,intheifthcenturytheirmeansofcontrollingpowerhad
changed,thankstoagradualprocessofmodiicationthroughoutthesixthcentury,
whichculminatedinthereformsofKleisthenes.Asmilitarystrengthcametoreside
withalargergroupofhoplitesoldiers,sothearistocratswhosoughtpoliticalpower
realizedthattheyneededtowinthesupportofthesewarriors.Appealingtothis
elementofsocietyforcedtheold-stylearistocracytochangeitsways;theycouldnot
beseentoliveinanextravagantandexpensivemannerbutnowhadtoliveamore
simplelife,likeeveryoneelse.Thisslowandcomplexprocesshadanequallyslow
andcomplexeffectonfashionabledress,asclothesrespondedtothesocio-political
changes.WhatemergedwasanAthenianNewLook.70
Essentially the message that the Athenian New Look conveyed was one of
equality.71Equalitywastheprimarycharacteristicofthehoplitedemocraticstateand
theabsenceofanyformalauthorityinsocietywasrelectedbyAthenianclothing,as
aristocratsceasedtowearextravagantdresswhicheasilyandcompletelydistinguished
themfrompoormen.Whilethedrapingoftheclassicalhimationcouldrevealgood
breedingandacertainaristocraticnonchalance,essentiallythisstyleofgarmenthad
nopretensionstowardsrank,wealth,orprestigeandwas,toallintentsandpurposes,
aclasslessfashion.72
Itisplausibletoarguethatthepoliticalandsocialchangesthatwererelected
in the change in male dress must also have profoundly affected the clothing of
women.Despitetheharsherrestrictionsplacedonthepublicappearancesofwomen
throughout the sixth and early ifth centuries, women were still expected to be
presentatgreatsocialoccasions,andinparticularatreligiousevents,whichprovided
them with unique opportunities for the public display of personal adornment.
Achangeinattitudetoostentatiousdressingisevidentinwomensapparelfrom
aseriesofsumptuaryregulations,whichforcedwomentoabandonsomeoftheir
moreextravagantitemsofdressinfavourofmoredemurestyles.InAthens,Solons
legislationcoveringmanyaspectsoffemalelife,includingdress,wasperhapsaimed
atstrengtheningtheharmonyofthepolisand,sincewomenwereoftenthesourceof
conlictamongmen,hisanswertotheproblemwastokeepthemoutofsightand
regulatetheirinluence.Theirstsignsofarestrictionplacedonfemalemovement
outdoorscomesintheSoloniclaws,forbidding,astheydo,awomantoleaveher
housewithmorethanthreeouter-garments,ormorethananobolsworthoffood.
Hislegislation,whichlimitedostentatiousfemaledisplayatfuneralsandfeastsand
intheirclothing(includingbridaltrousseaux),wasintendedtopreventawoman
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frommovingfreelythroughhersociety(asHomersNausikaadoes)andtolimitthe
powerofthelatearchaicAthenianaristocracyasawhole.73
CertainlyfromthelatesixthcenturywomensdressasdepictedintheAthenian
iconographylosesmuchofitsEasternopulence,asigureddesignsareabandoned
infavourofplain-weavecloth.Butigurativedecorationonclothingwasneverto
die out completely, and early ifth-century pots attest to the presence of igured
tapestry woven clothing, albeit usually depicted worn by deities.74 Epigraphic
evidenceatteststotheregularuseofiguredandpatternedclothingthroughoutthe
classicalperiod.75
Once the Near Eastern veil-modes disappear, the predominant veiling style
found throughout the archaic period becomes the pharosveil, although by the
520s(coincidingwiththeirstappearanceofthehimation-veil)therewasapopular
returnoftheshortshaal-veil,whichiscommonlyfoundintheiconographyworn
bygoddesses,heroines,mortalbridesandmarriedwomen(bothmortalanddivine).
Whatisnotableabouttheshaal,however,isthatitisalsofrequentlyfoundworn
bywomenwhocanbeidentiiedwithsomecertaintyasentertainersorprostitutes.
Thedelicatedepictionoftheaulos-playerinFig.46,forexample,showsherhead
coveredbyainelypleatedshaal-veil,similartothatwornbythe(ostensibly)rather
grandhetairai(?)ofigures47and54.Thetrendtowardsdepictingveiledhetairai,
aswewillsee,continuesthroughouttheclassicalperiodwhenwearegivenmore
evidence,bothvisualandliterary,thattheveilwasbecomingamoredemocratic
garment,wornbywomenofseveralsocialstrata,althoughstill,perhaps,deniedto
slaves.Iftheveilhadindeedbeenagarmentthatsupportedanddemonstratedthe
divisionoffemalerankintheHomericperiodassuggestedinepic,thenitseems
tohavelostitsclass-consciousconnectionsatthistimeasitbecamethepropertyof
progressivelymorewomen.Fromabout490thehimation-veil,thepharos-veil,and
theshaal-veilarewornbywomenofalmostallclassesintheiconographytosuch
adegreethatdistinguishingsocialrankthroughdressalonebecomesanimpossibility.
Goddesses,heroines,femaleAtheniancitizens,hetairai,andfemaleentertainersare
alldepictedasveiledinakindofsocialfree-for-all,withonlyslavesmarkedout
differentlyintheiconographybytheirunveiledheads.76
Femaleslaves:veiledorexposed?
ItisconceivablethattheAthenianslavewomanideallyneededtobevisuallydifferentiatedfromhermistressafterall,whatupperclasswomanwantsaslavetolook
justlikeher?Indeed,thereisagoodifth-centuryreasoningbehindthedemarcation
ofclass,sinceaccordingtoHerodotus,beforetherewereslaves,youngAthenian
womenwouldfetchwaterfromaspringoutsidethecitywallsbuttheyceaseddoing
sowhentheywererapedbyabandofPelasgians,andsoslaverywasinstitutedin
ordertosafeguardthevulnerablechastityofdecentfreewomen.77
The protection and sexual segregation thought necessary for citizen women
operatedwiththeaidoftheveil.Itwouldbelogicaltoexpectthatfemaleslaves,
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WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
therefore,weredeniedthissecurity.Thenotionthatslavesasadistinctandnoticeableclasshadsomekindofuniformoruniformedlookiscomparativelyeasyto
findintheliterarysources,asleastasfarasmaleslavesgo,butthepracticalrealityof
suchanidealizationisdificulttovisualize.78AsLewishasrecentlyargued,Athenians
mayhavebelievedthatstatusoughttobedeterminedbyappearance,butinpractice
socialrankwasdificulttodeterminemerelythroughoutwardshow,andAthenian
legalcasesfrequentlyattesttotheconfusionofidentifyingindividualsofvarying
status.79Intheartworks,slavesaremostcommonlyidentifiednotbyappearance
butbythetasktheyundertakeand,infact,commentingontheartisticdepictionof
class,Lewisnotesthat,status,thefactofbeingslaveorfree,isnotsomethingwhich
canberepresentedvisually.80
TheblurringofsocialstatusismostfamouslyexpressedbytheOldOligarchwho
commentsonthenearimpossibilityofdistinguishingAtheniancitizensfromtheir
slaves,andnotesthatbecauseofthemodeofwearinghumbleclothes,awealthy
mancanoftenbemistakenforaslave.81TheOldOligarchreferstomaledress,but
femaleslavesmayhavefollowedsuitandaspiredtodressnottoounlikethatoftheir
mistresses.Maybetheyadoptedtheveilaccordingly.Theabsenceofveiledslavesin
theiconographymightbeexplainedbytheneedtoendorseacceptedsocialconventionswithintheidealizingconventionsofGreekart,sothatunveiledfemaleslaves
intheartworksconformedtotheideologyofdemarcatingstatusthroughoutward
appearance.AsBeardputsit,Stereotypesaremostinsistentlystressedinareaswhere
theyaremostdificulttoestablishandwheretheyareleastself-evident.82
Soitispossiblethatfemaledomesticslavesmayhaveveiledregularlyandthey
mayhaveveiledwithsocietysapprovalorwithitscensureunfortunatelythereis
noevidenceforeithercase.Iffemaleslavesoftheclassicalperioddidveilindirect
contradictiontodesiredsocialconventions(asinAssyria),itisdificulttoknow
howtheywereprohibited,policed,orpunished.Thesilenceoversuchmattersmay
suggestthattherewasnoimpedimenttotheveilingoffemaledomesticslaves(any
morethantherewastotheveilingofprostitutes)intheclassicalAthenianveiling
free-for-all.Inartisticterms,however,theideologyofamodelsocietycontinuedto
markoutfemaleslavesasdifferentfromtheirmistressesandpersistentlyshowed
themunveiled,afacetthatisparticularlynoticeableonpublicmonumentssuchas
gravestelai.83
Nevertheless,iffemalesslavesdidveilthemselvesinpublic,theymayhavebeen
makingadeliberateattemptatupwardsocialmobilityanditisinterestingtonote
thatuntilrecently,thewearingoftheburqaainOmanwasasurestatementof
belongingtothemiddleclass.Slaves(once15percentofthefemalepopulationof
Oman)wereprohibitedfromveiling,forthatactwastheuncontestedprerogative
offreewomen,butwiththeabolitionofslaveryin1950,manyex-slavewomen
adoptedtheburqaaasaninitialstatementoftheirnewlyexperiencedliberation,
althoughitrapidlybecameamarkeroftheirhavingmovedupwardsociallyand
their new-found leisure that only someone of wealth could afford. The burqaa
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notonlyindicatedafreewoman,butonewhosehusbands,orfamilypatriarchs,
wealth allowed her some leisure instead of keeping her fully occupied working
in agriculture.84 This phenomenon is strikingly similar to the situation in early
twentieth-centuryEgyptasdescribedbyElGuindi,whonotesthat,Whenunveiled
peasantwomenventuredintothecitytheywereeagertowearaveilasasymbol
ofurbanizingandmovingup.85
Veiledprostitutes
Greekwomenmayhaveconscientiouslyusedtheveil,aone-timeclass-conscious
dress item, to blur the social perceptions of women who were not immediately
identiiableaseitherstreet-walkingprostitutes(atypeofslave),asfemaledomestic
slaves,oraselitewives.ThisiscertainlyanotablephenomenonofclassicalAthenian
socialorder,asJamesDavidsonhasnoted:
ForthemenofAthensthewomenofAthensareinvariousstagesofundress.Theextreme
exposureofthebrothelprostituteandthecompleteinvisibilityofthedecentladyforce
allotherwomentodanceastripteaseonpointsinbetween.86

Thisambiguityisexpressedinthewell-exploredcaseofthepseudo-hetairaNeaira,87
butalsointhatofTheodote,awomanwhoisneitherarespectablecitizen-wifenor
oftheranksofthepublicwhores.Xenophonrelateshowshecametotheattention
ofSokrates:
AtonetimetherewasabeautifulwomaninthecitywhosenamewasTheodote.She
wasthesortofwomanwhoconsortedwithanyonewhopersuadedher.OneofSokrates
companionsmentionedherandsaidthatthebeautyofthewomanwasbeyondexpression.Healsosaidthatpainterswenttopainther,andsheshowedthemasmuchof
herselfaswasproper.Weshouldgo,saidSokrates,tolookather.Foritisnotpossible
toknowfullybyhearsaywhatisbeyondexpression.88

Theodoteisnotassociatedwithamaleguardian,butshedoesnotworkasaporne
either;nordoesnotsellherselfformoney.Insteadsheiscastintheroleofatruly
grandhetairawhoneedstobepersuadedtoofferherservices.Likeanoblewoman
sheonlydisplaysofherselfwhatitisittingandpropertodisplay.89Expensively
apparelledandattendedbyanentourageofhermotherandwell-groomedmaids,
Theodotedeliberatelydistortsthemarginsofrespectabilityandavailabilityandshe
supportsherselfbyacceptingthekindnessofferedtoherbyfriendswhoarewilling
togivehergiftsinreturnforgratiication.Xenophonslanguagedeliberatelylocates
Theodotessexualfavourswithintheeconomyofaristocraticgiftexchangeand,
expandingonthis,Kurkehasarguedthatthehetairaistheproductofanaristocratic
lifestyleandwasdeliberatelyinventedforthesympoticspace.Withintheworld
of the symposium, she argues, the category of hetaira served several functions:
irst,shewasremovedfromtheexplicitmoneyedsphereofpubliclifeandtherefore
helpedtodividethesympoticworldfromthepublicspaceoftheagora.Secondly,
asasexuallyavailablefemale,sheintroducedanimportantelementofsexualityinto
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WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
thesymposiumand,assuch,becamepartoftheixturesofsympoticspaceand,like
thecouchesandcushions,sheservedtheneedsofthemalesymposiastsandcreated
therightatmosphere.Lastly,andperhapsmostinterestingly,therewasadeliberate
mystiicationofhersocialstatusaseveryeffortwasmadetoplaydownthedifferences
betweenthesymposiastsandtheirfemalecompanions.90Theconsciouslyindistinct
socialstandingofthehetairaassistedinerectingabarrierbetweenthosewithinthe
symposiumandthoseoutsideit.
Thedistortionofsocialboundariescouldbeemphasizedbywhathetairaiwore.
Iconographyfrequentlyshowsthemengagedintheirworkatsymposiaandlying
oncoucheswiththeirclients,engaginginconversationorsexualhorse-play.Toall
intentsandpurposes,hetairaiandsymposiastslooklikeequalpartners,andthey
evenshareopenandsplayedgesturesastheyholdoutwine-cupsorstretchuptheir
arms. Hetairai and symposiasts are frequently dressed the same, and very often
bothhavetheirlonghaircaughtupinailet,weargarlandsaroundtheirheads,and
sharethefashionofdrapingtheirhimatiaaroundtheirlowertorsostodisplaytheir
nakedchestsorbreasts.Butthesocialwatersarefurthermuddiedbywhathetairai
wearoutsidethesymposiumspace,forwhilepornaiwhoplythestreetsandpublic
brothelsareavailabletothegazeofallandsundryastheystanddisplayingtheir
nakedorsemi-nudebodies,thegreathetairaiaremorelikewives,andthuseither
remainconcealedwithintheirhomesor,wheninpublic,takecoverbehindtheir
veils.91Oneisabletocatchaglimpseofthegreathetaira,likeamarriedwoman,at
publicfestivalsorastheytaketripsthroughthestreets,butlikerespectablewives,
whenoutside,hetairaicoverup.
MachontellshowGnathaena,agrandemadame,andher(grand)daughterGnathaeniumwereonceeyedupinpublicbyageneralwhosepassionswererousedwhenhe
studiedtheyounggirlsmovementswithinherclothes,92andaccordingtoHermippus
ofSmyrna,thecourtesanPhrynerarelyexposedherselftothepublicviewand,in
fact,endorsedhercharmsandhermysterybykeepingherselfclothed.93Toyingwith
thenotionoftheveiledbutinherentlydeceptivewhoredisplayingashamaidos,the
fourth-centuryparodistMatronofPitanelampoonstheHomericformulaholdingup
tohercheekshershiningveil(liparakredemna)94whichisusedfrequentlyinconnection
withthecircumspectPenelope,andinsteaddrawsapictureofaprostituteemploying
roughlythesamedevice,sincesheisdepictedholdinguptohercheeksherfilthyveil
(rhuparakredemna).95Maybethisiswhythelittlegirl-piperofFig.46isveiledtoo:
sheisclearlyinasymposiumandsohersexualavailabilityandsocialpositionare
distortedbythemixtureofhertransparentgownandhermodestveil.Onemarksher
outasavailable,theotherasinviolateanindistinctnessthatcorrespondswiththe
generalconceptionoffemaleaulos-playerswho,togetherwithacrobatsanddancers,
compriseasigniicantgreyareaofwomenofuncertainstatuswhoprovidethelargely
unmarkedbackdroptothesymposium.Whentheyweremusicians,weretheyalso
hetairai?Whentheyprovidedsexualservices(astheyapparentlyusuallydid),were
theypornai?Theambiguitycouldbehintedatbytheartistofthered-igurefragment
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whoplayswiththeideaofsexualaccessibilityinthewayinwhichhedressestheyoung
womanwhoisconcealedbutyetrevealed.Thedichotomyofimagesofthedemurely
veiledheadbutrevealedbodyofthepipe-girlputsoneinmindoffragment8of
Praxilla(thepossibleinspirationbehindAsklepiades3):
Youwholookprettilyinthroughwindows:virgininyourhead,bridebelow.96

The dichotomy intrigues other authors too: writing in the irst century ad,
the philosopher Philo, for example, speculates on the effect that the veiled face
ofaprostitutehasuponthemalegaze.LikeningaveiledcourtesantotheBiblical
pseudo-prostituteTamar,who,whileveiled,toutsforbusinessattheroadside,he
declaresthat,
Herwishisthatenquiringmindsmayunveilandrevealher,gazeupontheglorious
untouchedbeauty,undeiledandtrulyvirginal,ofhermodestyandself-control.97

Here,inatypicalmotifinwhichtheveilisutilizedasanobjectoffemininetrickery,
Philo plays up the notion that the veiled prostitute is inherently deceptive and
deliberatelypresentstheillusionofthechasteandmodestvirgin,evenwhenthe
concealingveilisremoved.Afterall,henotes,itismansnaturetoexplorethings
thatarebeyondhisgraspandtounveilthingsthatareveiled.98
XenophonsdescriptionoftheThebancoupof379makesitclearthatthesight
ofveiledhetairaiwasnothingoutoftheordinary,fornocommentismadewhen
three men disguised as hetairai (together with anumber of other men disguised
astheirmaids)arriveatasymposiumheavilyveiled.TheyentertheThebanpolemarcheionwherethepolemarchsarecelebratingtheAphrodisiaandcoylyaskforthe
servantstoleavethediningroombeforetheyenter.Itisonlywhentheysitbeside
thesymposiaststhattheyunveiltheirtrueidentities,drawouttheirknivesandkill
theassembledguests.Xenophondescribestheincidentthus:
Phillidaswasmakingallthenecessaryarrangementsforthepolemarchswithregardto
thefeastinhonourofAphroditewhichtheycelebrateattheendofaperiodofofice.For
sometimehehadbeenpromisingthemthathewouldbringthemsomeofthegrandest
andmostbeautiful(semnotataskaikallistas)womeninThebesandnow,hesaid,wasthe
timethathewouldreallydothis.Asforthepolemarchs,theywereanticipatingspending
averypleasantnightindeed.Thatwasthetypeofpersonstheywere.Nowwhenthey
hadinisheddiningand,withthewillinghelpofPhillidas,hadquicklygotdrunk,they
keptonaskinghimtobringinthehetairai.Hewentoutoftheroomandcameback
withMelonandhismen.Havingdressedthreeofthemupasthemistresses(despoinas)
andtherestastheirattendants,hebroughtthemtotheante-roomofthetreasuryin
thepolemarchsbuilding,andthenwentinbyhimselftoArkhiasandtheothersand
toldthemthatthewomenwouldnotcomeinifanyoftheservantswereintheroom.
ThepolemarchsimmediatelyorderedthemalltoleaveandPhillidas,aftergivingthem
somewine,sentthemofftothehousebelongingtooneofthem.Hethenbroughtin
thehetairai(tashetairasde)andconductedeachtoaseatbesidesthepolemarchs.The
agreementwasthatassoonastheysatdowntheyshouldunveilthemselves(anakalupsamenous)andstabthemenatonce.99

144

WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
Weareprobablydealingherewithhigh-classcourtesans(oratleastmendressedas
high-classcallgirls).Althoughthewordssemnotataikaikallistaimightatirstsound
likeareferencetorespectablewomen,therunofXenophonsnarrativeimpliesthat
thepolemarchsseenoinconsistencybetweensemnotataikaikallistaiandthecategory
ofhetaira.100Itmaybeonethingtoacquirelute-girlsandotherprofessionalriff-raff,
buttoprocurethecostlyservicesoflesgrandeshorizontalesisanother.SoPhillidasis
promisingthepolemarchssomethingunusual:anightwithThebesclassiestwhores.
Thesehetairaiare,likeTheodoteandAspasia,respectableunrespectablewomen;
professionals,asitwere,notmanualworkers.Thereforetheyarrivewithacortge
ofservinggirlsandXenophongivesthemthehaughtytitlemistresses(despoinas).
Thepolemarchsarerepresentedasexpectingclassyhetairaiandwillnot,apparently,
besuspiciouswhenatleasttwiceasmanywomenturnupastheymightrequire.101
Thethreeveiledhetairaiareaccompaniedbyanunspeciiednumberoffemale
attendantswho,wecancontend,inorderfortheplantowork,mustbeascircumspectly concealed as their mistresses. The maidservants who wait on the veiled
hetairaiputoneinmindoftheamphipoloiofHomericepicwhoattendveiled
noblewomenasamarkofrespectforandauthorityofthewomentheyserve.These
classical Theban maids therefore bolster the image of the high-class courtesans.
Alternatively,ofcourse,ashasbeensuggested,maybetherewasnosocialrestriction
onfemaleslavesuseoftheveilindailylife.Butwhateverthecase,owingtothefact
thattheyareveiled,thesewomenmistressesandmaidsareabletotraversethe
streetsofThebeswithoutarousingcommentordrawingattentiontothemselves,
adevicethatobviouslysuitstheneedsoftheconspirators.
However, in his account of the Theban coup, Xenophon unusually expresses
adoubtaboutthereliabilityofthehetairaistoryandoffersthesuggestionthatan
alternativeaccounthasthemurderersdressedaskomasts.102ItislefttoPlutarchto
pickuptheseparatetraditionsinhistwotreatmentsoftheincidentcontainedin
hisLifeofPelopidas(11)andDeGenioSocratis(Mor.596D597A).103Theshorter
accountinthePelopidashastheconspiratorsdressinatypeoffemaleclothingwhich
discreetlycoverstheirbreastplatesandhasthemweargarlandsontheirheadswhich
areheavywithpineandirsprigs,sothattheyhangdownandcovertheirfaces.
ButinthefullerversioncontainedintheMoralia,Plutarchdividesthecompanyof
conspiratorsintotwo:someofthemaredressedaskomasts,wearsemi-breastplates
andarecrownedwithbushygarlandsofeithersilverirorpine,whileothersare
dressedaswomen,sothatthepartyresembledagroupofdrunkenkomastsinthe
companyofsomehetairai.Inthislongeraccount,thewomenarenotenvisaged
wearinggarlands,butarewellveiled(ampekhomenoi)bytheirclothing,adetailthat
itsmorecloselywithXenophonsaccount.Plutarchstressesthenotionthatthefaces
oftheconspiratorsareconcealedasmuchaspossible,sothatthedensefoliageof
thegarlandscastsadeepshadowoverthefeaturesofthemalekomastsandthatthe
envelopinggarmentsofthehetairaiconcealtheirfacestoo.Theplotrestsupon
thispoint.
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Chapter5
Itisworthspeculatingalittlefurtheronthenatureofthisveiling:thebandof
womencouldbeveiledinphare,withtheclothcarefullydrapedovertheirheads
andacrosstheirmouthsandnosessothatonlytheireyesarerevealed,although
Xenophoncouldhaveamorecompleteformofconcealmentinmind.Considering
thattheactiontakesplaceinfourth-centuryThebes,itisnotimpossiblethatthe
hetairaiandtheirmaidsareveiledbehindtegidia,theface-veilwhich,aswehave
seen,iscertainlyattestedinthiscityatthisdate.Wearingategidionbeneathapharosveilwouldcertainlymeanthatthefacewouldbeinnodangerofexposuresince
acompleteformofveilingisguaranteed;itwouldalsoleavethewearershandsfree
andthereforecapableofcarryingweapons.104
Hellenisticveiling
Itisclearthatveilingtrendsknownfromthearchaicperiodandmodiiedinthe
classicalagecontinuedintothehellenisticeratoo.Thewidevarietyofhellenisticfemalestatue-typesatteststhattheveil(inanassortmentofstyles)wasused
byroyalty,thearistocracy(manyofwhomhadcivicorpriestlyroles),respectably
marriedwomenandtheirdaughterswholiveddomesticlivesoutofthesocialgaze,
byhetairaiand(perhaps)royalcourtesanswhofunctionedinthehazyareabetween
respectabilityandindecency,105andevenbyworkingwomensuchaswet-nursesand
dancerswhoearnedalivinginthepublicglare.However,speciicevidenceforveiled
slave-womenisstilllackinginthehellenisticperiod,andthoseslaveswhoappearon
thepublicmonumentscontinuetofollowtheclassicalmodelandappearunveiled.106
Nevertheless,thenewhellenisticartisticinterestinportrayingindividualsfromthe
lowerechelonsofsocietyresultedinanincreasedawarenessofworking-women,their
lifestylesandtheirclothes,andavarietyofveil-stylesarefoundwornbyanumberof
workingclasswomen.107Standingalongsidetherealisticportrayalsofolderworking
womenarethedelicateyounggirlsoftheTanagraigurines,thelarge-scalestanding
sculpturesofelitecitywomen,andthegoldandsilvercoinportraitsofroyalwomen,
allofwhichtestifytothevarietyofveilstyleswornbyawiderangeofwomenin
theGreekworldduringthehellenisticage.Ofcourse,thequalityofclothusedfor
veilsnodoubthelpedtranscendtheclasslessattributesofthegarmentand,inan
inversionoftheclassicaldrapery,itiscommontoindlarge-scalesculpturesofelite
womenwearingaveryineveiloverathickeropaquedress,insteadofaheavierveil
overasemi-transparentgown.Theinepharos-veilisusuallydrapedinawaythat
accentuatesthesculptedbody,andthedressfoldsbeneaththeveilareoftenrendered
largerandsimpler,beingmadetoruncountertothepulloftheineveildraped
overthem.Thisisnotsimplyanexampleofautonomousdevelopment,butrelects
reality.EgyptianlinenandevenKoansilk(theCoaevestesreferredtobyRoman
writers)weretypesoffabricavailabletothewealthyhouseholdsofthehellenistic
age. Such material was costly and was depicted on statues speciically to express
statusbecause,achangeinrealdressfashionsandinpatronswishespromptedthis
brilliantformalinnovation.108
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WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
Conclusion
ItisclearthattheveilisattestedintheGreekevidencefromtheearliestperiods
throughtothehellenisticera(andbeyond).While,unfortunately,noancienttext
speaksaboutveilinginanydepth,enoughremainstobeteasedoutfromthesources
totestifytothewidespreadandenduringuseoftheveil.Moreover,theremaybe
indicationsinthetextualrecord(supportedbyartisticevidence)thattheveilsigniied
socialstatusamongfemalesanditappearsthattherearetwowaysofregardingthe
transmissionofveilingpracticesintheancientGreekworld.Firstly,itappearsthat
iftheHomericbiasofexclusivelydepictingnoblewomenbeneaththesanctityofthe
veilcanbeacceptedatfacevalue,thentheexclusiveuseoftheveilbyelitewomen
(and to those who serve them on apersonal level) is well and truly shattered by
theifthcenturywhenwomenfrommanywalksoflifehadtheirsocialpositionas
wives,daughters,orevenastheentertainersofmen,endorsedbytheveil.Secondly,
though,wemustbealerttothepossibilitythatwomenfrommanyclassesofsociety
wereveiledduringtheHomericperiodandthattheusewhichHomermakesofthe
(head-)veilwithintheepictraditionisbothbiasedandunrealistic.Inthatcase,we
mustseethelaterclassicalevidenceforawidevarietyofwomenveiling(mainlywith
head-veils)aspointingtoanuninterruptedtraditionfortheveilingofall(ormost)
classesofwomenfromtheHomericperiodonwards.
Allthatcanbesaidforcertainisthatinthelatearchaicandearlyclassicalperiods,
evidencefortheuseoftheveilincreasesandbeginstosupportthenotionthatwomen
outsidethearistocracywereveilingthemselves.Prostitutesofvarioussocialstations
areaparticularlyinterestingcase,althoughtheevidenceforveiledfemaleslavesstill
constitutesaproblem.Itisfairtoassumethough,thatbytheclassicalperiod(in
Athensatleast),theveilwasnotagarmentwornsolelybyhigh-statuswomenwho
wereafiliatedtooneman,beitahusbandorafather,oraguardian.Nevertheless,
issuesofstatusandwealthprobablycontinuedtobeexpressedbythequalityof
awomansdressandthejewelleryandaccessoriesshechosetowearand,nodoubt,
bythefactthatelitewomenwereoftenassistedineverydaytasksbyslaves.Eventhe
fabric,colouranddecorationoftheveilprobablyrelectedvaryingdegreesofthe
socialhierarchyandawomansaccesstomoney,whetherherownor(moreprobably)
thatofherguardian.
Notes

deSteCroix1981,98ff.
Xen.Oik.10.2ff.
3
deSteCroix1981,4256:TheGreeks,fromarchaictimesthroughtheclassicaland
hellenisticperiodsandonintotheRomanage,habituallyexpressedpoliticalcomplexionand
socialstatusinafascinatingvocabularywhichisaninextricablemixtureofsocio-economic
andmoralterminology,withtwosetsoftermsappliedmoreorlessindiscriminatelytothe
propertiedandthenon-propertiedclassesrespectively.Ontheonehandwehavenotonly
wordswhichmeanproperty-owning,richfortunate,distinguished,well-born,inluential,but
1
2

147

Chapter5
also,asalternativesforthesamesetofpeople,wordshavingabasicallymoralconnotation
andliterallymeaningthegood,thebest,theupright,thefair-minded,andsoforth.And
ontheotherhandweindappliedtothelowerclasses,thepoor,whoarealsotheMany,the
mob,thepopulace,wordswithaninescapablymoralquality,meaningessentiallybad.
4
Raalaub.1998,183.
5
Arthur 1973. Of course, there are more negative portrayals of Homeric women
(Klytemnestraand,toacertainextent,KirkeandKalypso).ForgeneralstudiesonHomeric
women,includingdiscussionsoftheirsocialstatusseeArthur1981;Naerbout1987;Beye
1972;Farron1979.
6
Il.3.13945.
7
Saporetti1979.
8
ForAssyrianveil-verbsseetheChicagoAssyrianDictionary,s.v.katamu.
9
MiddleAssyrianLaw40.Trans.DriverandMiles1935,4079(withamendments).
Another translation is provided by Roth 1997, 1679. See also comments by Gastrow
1921.
10
Itisnoteworthythattheveilinglawprovidespunishmentonlyforde-classedwomen
andnon-conformingmenandthatthereseemstobenopunishmentforwomenwhofailed
todenounceviolatorsofthelawastrangephenomenongiventhatancientNearEastern
lawheldwomenfullyaccountablefortheirdeedsinothercases.Lerner1986,1389has
foundanexplanationforthisanomalyinthesuppositionthatrespectableupperclasswomen
wouldneednoincentiveforco-operatingwithalawthatwaswritten,afterall,fortheirown
beneitandthat,therefore,theymayhavebeenkeenadherentsofthelegislation.Theshame
ofbeingunveiledtothepublicgazeissimilarlyaimedatthehigh-bornwomenofBabylon
bytheHebrewprophetsoftheirstmillenniumbc(fromtherareappearancesofwomen
inBabylonianart,itwouldseemthatthewomenofBabyloninheritedthestylesofdressof
Assyria.SeeWatson1987).ThevengeanceofYahweh,theystate,willfalluponBabylonand
itshaughtydaughterswhowillbeforcedtoperformmenialtasksorhardlabourandtheywill
bestrippedoftheirrichapparelandtheirveils;seeIsaiah47.13.Theveilwascommonly
wornbyIsraelitewomen,atleasttojudgefromtheAssyrianreliefsdepictingthecaptureof
thecityofLachish(forareconstructionseeWatson1987,47andpl.6.),althoughGastrow
hasargued,withjustiication,thatBiblicalevidencesuggeststhatamongtheHebrewsveiling
wasneverimposeduponwomenasanobligation.Insteaditwasaforeign,thatistosay
Assyrian,fashion,adoptedbymanywomenthroughouttheLevant.SeeGastrow1921,229,
contraMarmorstein1954,whoarguesthattheveilwasneverwornbyHebrewwomen.
VeilingisreferredtoinIsaiahsfamousinventoryofclotheswornbythewomenofJerusalem
(Isaiah3.1823),butheretheveilisoneofmanygarmentsthataremeanttocatchtheeye
andtoallure;itisnotagarmentofmodesty.TheclothinglistcanbecomparedtoAristophaneselaborateinventoryoffemaledressarticlesinThesmophoriazusaeII.Anincident
thatdoesbearreferencetotheAssyrianveilingpractice,however,isrelatedinGenesis38
thestoryofthepatriarchJudahandhisdaughter-in-lawTamar.Thetaleisapieceoftribal
traditionsetintheremotepastbutbearsthehallmarksofYahwistnarrativedatingtothe
irstmillennium.Itcertainlyshowstracesofaculturefarmoreadvancedthanitspatriarchal
setting.BackgroundanddiscussionsfoundinBach1997,625;Bird1999,10115;Kirsch
1997,10044.ThestorytellsofhowTamarsitsatthesideoftheroad,disguisedasaharlot
lookingfortrade(v.14)andcoversherfacewithhermantle-veil(saif )asJudahpassesby
(thetwoHebrewwordsusedforveilaresaif[Gen.24.65,38.14and19]andsammah[Song
ofSongs4.1,3;6.7;Isaiah47.2]).Butheaccostsherandtheynegotiateapriceforsex.It

148

WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
isoftenmistakenlyassumedthattheactofveilingherfaceinformsJudahthatthewoman
beforehimisaprostitute,butinlightoftheAssyrianveilinglaw,onlymarriedwomen,
orthoseafiliatedtoaman,wereveiledinpublic,notprostitutes.Tamarcoversherface
topreventJudahfromrecognizingher,nottoindicateherstatusasawhore.Hertradeis
announcedbythefactthatshesitsontheroadsideand,perhaps,byotheritemsofclothing
orjewellery(suchasnose-ringsandheadpendants)ormake-uporevenbyabagofmyrrh
lyingbetweenherbreasts(Kirsch1997,135.).Theveilisonlyusedasadisguise.Ofcourse
AssyrianunderstandingwouldindbothTamarandJudahequallyguiltyofviolatingLaw
40;TamarthewhoreveilsherselfandJudah,herclient,knowinglyhassexwithaveiled
prostitute.ThetwistcomesinthefactthattheaudienceofthestoryknowsthatTamar
is actually agood-girl-fallen-on-hard-times who would, in normal circumstances, have
therighttoweartheveilinpublic.Interestingly,theBookofNumbers(5.1131)recounts
aceremonyperformedbyapriestwithawifewhohadbeensuspectedofadultery.Inthe
ritualthepriestuncoversthewomanshairsheisamarriedwoman,sowecantherefore
assumethatitwasnormallycoveredwithsometypeofveil.Thewordusedforherunveiling
ispawra,whichactuallyhasthemeaningoftomakenaked,withtheideaofcastingoff
agarment.Theactisofcourseahumiliatingeventfortheaccusedwife,whosejeopardized
socialstandingisstrikinglyemphasizedbytheremovalofherveil.Thepassagesuggeststhat
evenifveilingwasnotenforcedinancientIsrael,theideaoftheveilasasymboloffemale
respectabilityandasignofsocialstatusforthemarriedwomanwasimportant.
11
ForChineseboundfeetseeEbrey1993,3743.SeefurtherSteeleandMajor1999,
3744.
12
SeeOd.1.428,438,19.346,353,etc.ForafulllistofherepithetsseeKarydas1998,
603.
13
OutsideoftheHomericevidence,twounusualdedicationsfromtheAthenianAkropolis
datedtotheearlyseventhcenturysuggestthatworkingwomenwereabletoaffordreligious
dedications.SeeLazzarini1976,47354.Nos.46and666.
14
Thalmann1998,30.
15
Theamphipoloitendtoberepresenteddoinglighterworkthanotherfemaleslaves.Helen
sitsandsuperintendsheramphipoloiastheyweave;Nausikaaisonlyservedbyamphipoloi,
justasPenelopeisaccompaniedbytwooftheminthemegaron.Foragooddiscussionof
theroleandstatusofthisgroupoffemaleslavesseeThalmann1998,624.Forthepossible
originsofthisgroupofworkersseeHiller1987.SeefurtherWagner-Hasel2002.
16
Il.3.144.
17
Od.4.1235,133.
18
SeeBell1991,132ff.
19
Paus.5.19.3.SeealsoPaus.10.25.7.
20
Bach.17.37;Eur.Supp.28690.
21
SeeRoche1994,40,whoalsonotesthatthedomesticservantsoftheFrenchancien
rgime were often well-dressed and afirmed the powers of their masters, but frequently
exploited their relected glory. They often acquired the clothing habits of their masters
too.
22
Wemustbepreparedtoaccept,however,thattherereallywerenovisibledistinctions
betweenthedmoeandtheamphipolos;thetermsmaybeinterrelatedandrefertoidentical
status.
23
TheclothingdedicationsatthesanctuaryofArtemisBrauroniaontheAthenianAkropolis
attesttothevarietyofpatternedandcolouredclothingwornintheifthcenturyandputpaid

149

Chapter5
tothenotionthatGreekclothingwaspurewhite.SeeespeciallyLinders1972.
24
Artemidorus,Oneir.2.3.
25
vanBremen1996,144.
26
Seeabove,Chapter2.FurtherdiscussionofPenelopesveilingfollowsbelow.ForPenelopesveilingseeOd.1.334,16.416,18.210,21.65.
27
Lateiner1995,257.
28
Il.3.15660.
29
Il.6.3546.
30
Sharma1978,224.
31
ForAndromakheasamaenadseeSeaford1994,3308.
32
SeethediscussioninChapter2.
33
ForveilingandgriefseeChapter10.
34
Eur.Andr.110.Seefurther,commentsbyAnderson1997,13355.Stevens1971,109,
hasnotedthatthewordamphibalousawouldbebetterinthemiddlevoice,butthatitisalso
usedatIl.17.742.ForadiscussionofthecharacterizationofAndromakheseemostrecently,
Allen2000,86ff.,esp.176.
35
Il.22.4057.Trans.Lattimore1951.
36
LSJs.v.e[ruma;seealsoSoph.Aj.467.
37
Il.2.11718,9.245.
38
Il.2.3734,4.2901.
39
SeealsoOd.13.388.OdysseusclaimsthattheAchaeansloosedtheshiningveilsof
Troy.ForthelinkwiththefemaleseeScully1990,334.
40
Nagler1974,54.
41
Eur.Tro.185.Seealsolines203,240ff.
42
ForadiscussionoftheTrojanwomenandclassseeRabinowitz1998.
43
For further comments on female violation and the breeching of city walls see
Chapter8.
44
AsnotedbyGarvie1994,106:thegirlstakeofftheirhead-dressestogivethemselves
greater freedom of movement. By doing so they unconsciously render themselves more
vulnerabletoanysexualadvance.
45
Tert.DeVir.Vel.16.34.
46
CitedinMarbo1991,44.
47
Rahanavarad 1990. For adiscussion of veiling and feminism see El Guindi 1999,
17785.Similarly,theArabictermsatrmeanstocover,toprotect,andalsotoveil.In
theArabic-Englishdictionarysynonymsforsatrincludehijab,niqab,burqaa,lithma-all
termsofdressdenotinghead-orface-cover.Thederivativenounsitarameansveil,curtain
andscreen,andlikehijabisusedinconversationandliterarytexts.SeefurtherElGuindi
1999,88.
48
Od.5.3513.Trans.Lattimore1965.
49
Od.5.45862.Trans.Lattimore1965,withamendments.
50
Il.22.4667.Trans.Lattimore1951,withamendments.
51
Lucan,inhisPharsalia6,pervertstheimageasheclotheshiswitchEricthoinamist
ofdarkness:Shewrappedhersinisterheadinaveilofmurkyfogandmovedamongthe
bodiesoftheslain(6256).
52
SeeLaver1969,7.
53
Inmanysocietiesmenareusuallycondemnedforelaboratedressingoneconomicprinciples,whilewomentendtobedenouncedonmoralgrounds.SeeRibeiro1986.

150

WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
SeeRoachandEicher1965,204.
Il.3.146ff.,6.286ff.
56
Veblen1899.ForarecentanalysisofVeblenstheoryinthelightofclassicalAthenian
evidenceseeDavidson1997,230ff.,243ff.
57
e.g.,Davidson1997;Geddes1987.
58
WhichperhapsaccordswithDavidsonsideathateconomicsareattheheartofalmost
allGreeksocio-politicalrelationships.SeeDavidson1997,21377.
59
Hes.Th.57380.
60
Hes.W&D197200.ForveilingandaidosseeChapter6.
61
Hes.W&D699705.
62
SeeArthur1973.
63
SeeOsborne1996,140ff.
64
Sapph.44.
65
Geddes1987.
66
See,mostfamously,Thuc.1.6.35.SeefurtherFrontisi-DucroixandLissarague1990.
67
Geddes1987,313.
68
SeeDavies1981,105.
69
ForadiscussionofclassseeDavidson1997,227ff.
70
Geddes1987,323hascommentedthat,Alookiswhatallmembersofacommunity
choosetoexhibitatthesametime.Whenthelookcanbeseentochange,asitcanbe
inAthens,whenwealthymenabandonedthechitonandworemoremoderateclothes
instead,theexplanationwilllieinchangingsocialstructure,lifestyleandvaluesClothes
expressanidealbuttheydonotnecessarilytellthetruth Buttheydotelluswhatother
peoplewantustothink.
71
Itwouldappearthattheincreasingplainnessofclothingcoincidedwithanincreasein
humblelivingconditionsandavogueforsimplehouses,atleastaccordingtoDemosthenes
wholooksbackonthelifestyleofhisancestorsandcommentsontheplainhousesofthe
ifthcentury.SeeDemosthenesOlynth.3.256,OnOrg.29,AgainstArist.207.
72
On the notion of social change being relected in dress see most recently and most
importantlyvanWees1998a.
73
SeePlut.Sol.20.223.2.ForSolonssociallegislationseefurtherOsborne1996,21726.
AgooddiscussionofthebasicnatureofsumptuarylegislationisprovidedbyRoche1994,
49ff.
74
Barber1991,360ff.
75
Linders1972.
76
Thedressofmeticwomen,ifandwhentheyarerepresentedatall,doesnotseemto
beanydifferentfromthatofAthenianwomen.Onthewhole,evenslavewomentendto
wearthesametypeofgarmentastheirmistresses,althoughsometimestheywearsleeved
tunics.SeeMiller1997,165ff.Shenotes,however,thatthesamegarmentwasconsidered
anappropriateofferingtogoddessesbycitizenwomen.Couldthetunichavebeenaslave
liverythatadvertisedthewealthoftheslave-owningfamily?Theheadsoffemaleslavesdo
notneedtobeuncovered,theirhaircanbeboundbyilletsorenclosedinsakkoi,butthey
arenotveiled.Foradiscussionoftheiconographyofslaveswithreferencetoaspectsofdress
andhairseeOakley2000.
77
Hdt.6.137.3.SeefurtherRabinowitz1998,57.
78
See,forexample,Ar.Lys.11506.
79
Lewis1998/99,7881.
54
55

151

Chapter5
Ibid.81.
Ps.-Xenophon,ConstitutionoftheAthenians1.10.
82
Beard1991,27.
83
OnthesimilaritiesbetweenfemaleslaveandmistressseeLewis1998/99,878.
84
SeeChatty1997,143.
85
ElGuindi1981,475.
86
Davidson1997,128.
87
Dem.59.ThebibliographyonNeairaisextensive,butseemostrecently,Kapparsis
1999.
88
Xen.Mem.3.11.1.Trans.Goldhill1998,withamendments.
89
Goldhill1998,11322.
90
Kurke1999,185ff.
91
SeeDalby2000.
92
Machon3367(Gow):meta; th'" Gnaqaivnh" ejx Afrodisivou tinov",tov t ei\do" aujth'"
tou;" rJuqmouv" te katamaqwvnFortheirrelationship,seeGow1965,9.
93
Ath. 590ef; cf. Hermippus of Smyrna FrGH IV A3 fr. 46a (= 68aI Wehrli) with
Bollanse(38390)adloc.
94
Seebelow,Chapter10.
95
Supp.Hell.fr.534.23.
96
ForadiscussionseeCameron1981,esp.27881.Forfemaleaulos-playersseeDavidson
1997,81ff.
97
Philo,Decong.er.gratia.124.
98
Ibid.125:tiv" ou\n oJ ejxetastiko;" kai; filomaqh;" kai; mhde;n a[skepton kai; ajdiereuvnhton
80

81

tw'n ejgkekalummevnwn pragmavtwn paralipei'n ajxiw'n ejstin.

Xen. Hel. 5.4.46. For comments see Tuplin 1993, 147ff.; Dillery 1995, 228ff.;
Soklowski1964,18.DeVoto1989,112,questionswhetherwomen,evenhetairai,would
wanderthestreetsofThebesatnight.Whateverthenormalpractice,giventhattheevents
ofthecouptakeplaceattheAphrodisia,therewasprobablyanopenlicenceforhetairai
(especiallyifveiled)towanderaroundwithoutcensure.
100
Fromtheinterpretationofferedabove,Iprefertoseethesewomenashetairai,although
thereisanother,radicallydifferent,wayoflookingattheevidence:InXen.Mem.1.2.24
Alcibiades is said to be pursued by lots of semnai gunaikes noble women or haughty
women.Doesthisrefertotheover-sexeddaughtersofcitizens?OrtheAthenianandforeign
courtesanswho,accordingtoPlutarch(Alc.8.4),weresuchanirritationtoHipparete?LSJ
s.v. semnov" isnotparticularlyhelpful:sincethewordseemstohavethesecuremeaning
nobleorhaughty.NeithertranslationisquiteproposfortheXenophonpassagebut,if
takenatfacevalue,semnotataikaikallistaimightwellrefertothenobleandbeautifulwives
ordaughtersofThebes.Ifthisisthecase,thenPhillidasispromisingthelustfulpolemarchs
somethingveryspecialindeed,viz,theprostitutionfortheirpleasureofrespectablewomen.
Xenophonclearlyintendstoportraythepolemarchsasdisreputablerenegades;theyanticipatedebauchingthenoblewomenwitheagerrelishbecausethatwasthetypeofpersonsthey
were.Theysubsequentlyrefertothewomenaswhores,whichalertsustothewaythey
intendtousethem.Asforthewomenthemselves,whentheyenterthesymposiumtheyare
reluctanttounveilinfrontofthemaleslaves.Again,twointerpretationscanbeofferedhere:
eitherthesewomenare,indeed,modestandrespectablegirlswhowillnotdisplaythemselves
toanymenbeyondthetermsalreadyagreedwithPhillidas,or,theyarehighly-paidhetairai
whowillonlystripforthepayingguests.Infact,whetherweseePhillidasmenmasquerading
99

152

WhoVeils?VeilingandsocialidentityintheancientGreeksources
asgood-girlsorwhores,Xenophonstextisstillimportantevidencefortheuseoftheveil.
Inaway,therealstatusofthewomenisimmaterial;ashasbeenstressed,theboundary
betweenhetairaiandrespectablewomenisblurred.Veilingonlyaddstothatuncertainty.
IamgratefultoChristopherTuplinandAntonPowellfortheirvaluablethoughtsonthis
debate.Isincerelyhopetoreturntothisinterestingquestioninfuturework.
101
Xenophondrawsonaliterarytoposinvolvingthedeceptionofanenemythroughthe
deviceoffemaledisguise.SeeHdt.5.20.Themotifofmendisguisedaswomentodeceive
theenemyisalsofoundinPaus.4.4.3,Herakl.Pont.fr.32,Plut.Sol.8.56,Polyain.Strat.
1.20.2,2.3.1,2.4.3.
102
Xen.Hel.5.4.7.
103
FortextualdetailsandPlutarchsvariationsseeGeorgiadou1997,118ff.
104
Itisaswelltorememberthatintheautumnof2001,maleAmericanandEuropean
journalistsmanagedtoiniltrateintoTaliban-heldterritoryinnorthernAfghanistanusing
exactlythesameruse.Thegrey-hairedsix-foottallBBCcorrespondentJohnSimpsonwas
theirsttodonaburqaaforthispurpose.Herecallsthat,WeourselvesgotintoAfghanistan
withthehelpofsomeofthecross-bordersmugglerswhooperatethefulllengthoftheborder
withPakistan.ThesmugglersinsistedthatthecameramanandIshouldwearburqaas
Merelyputtingontheburqaa,Ifound,hasanextraordinaryeffect.Itseemstomakeyou
disappear.Atroadblocks,guardsmaylookcloselyatthemeninacarbuttheysimplyignore
thewomenwhoaremostlyimmunefrombeingsearched,thoughinoneortwoplaces,it
issaid,womensearchershavebeenrecruitednow.Inourcase,thetacticworkedsuperbly
(TheTimes.Saturday,22September2001).
105
Therearenoexplicitreferencestoveiledroyalcourtesans,althoughtheauthoritythey
couldoftenwield,togetherwiththeirwealthandobviouspretensionstowardsrespectability,
possiblyledthemtowardsveilingonaregularbasis.Forthelifestyleoftheroyalcourtesans
ofthehellenisticageseeOgden1999,237ff.
106
See,forexample,asteleofaseatedwomanaccompaniedbyanunveiledslavefrom
second-centuryDelosdiscussedbyHannestad1997,289andpl.25.Thedepictionofslaves
followstheclassicaltraditionandresemblethetypesofcompositionsfoundonAtticgrave
stelai.Forveileddancersseebelow,Chapter10.
107
SeeRobertson1993,91ff.
108
Smith1991,85.Inaddition,itisworthspeculatingontheideathatsocialstatuswas
relectedinthewaythattheveilwaswornandutilizedbywomenofdifferentclasses.The
elitewomanmayhavewornherveilwithasenseofstylebeyondthegraspofthepeasant
womanandbecauseofherhighrankshemighthaveusedittoconcealherselffarmore
thanawomanofalowerclass.Therearemanyreferencestothecritiquesaimedatpoorer
individualswhoaspiretodresswell.Asfarbackasthearchaicperiod,Sapphocriticizesthe
peasantgirlfornotliftingherdresswithreinedelegance,whileclassicalliteratureatteststo
avarietyofwaysinwhichclassdifferencescanbeexpressedthroughtheminutiaeofdress
and deportment. See Ar. Ecc. 6313, Av. 156771, Vesp. 113171. See further Donlan
1980,162ff.

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6
VEILEDANDASHAMED
ThereisnosingleordeinitiveanswertothequestionwhydidGreekwomenveil?
Noristhereonemodelwhichwecanfollowtoexplainthecomplexitiesofveiling.
Issuesofmodesty,honourandshame,socialinvisibility,pollution,andsexualityare
allcomponentsinunderstandingtheveil,buttherelativeimportanceofthesecannot
beestablished.Veilingisavariable,notaconstant,andnosinglefactaccountsfor
thisvariation.1
Themultivalenceofveilingisshownbyawell-knownexamplefromtheIliad
where,compelledbyAphrodite,Helenveilsherselfandleavesherbedchamberto
visitthewallsofTroy:
Thegoddessilledherheartwithyearningwarmanddeepforherhusbandlongago,
hercityandherparents.Quicklyveilingherself(kalupsamene)inshimmeringlinen,out
ofherroomssherushed,livetearswellingup,andnotalonefortwoofherwomen
followedclosebehind,Aithra,Pittheusdaughter,andox-eyedKlymeneandtheysoon
reachedtheSkaianGates.2

Here,asshethrowsonherveil,Helenreminiscesaboutherformerhusband,her
parents,andherSpartanhomeland,andherveilingemphasizestheshameshefeels
forabandoningthepeopleandtheplacessheonceloved.Inaddition,sorrowingfor
herpresentunhappinessinTroy,sheweepsandherveilingsimultaneouslyconceals
hertears,hideshersuffering,andsymbolicallyseparatesherfromthosearoundher.
Yetassheleavesherchamberandwalksintothepublicspace,sheisaccompanied
byheramphipoloi,andthistimeherveilconfersuponherrespectabilityandsocial
standingassheconformstosocietysrules.
Likewise,whenOdysseusobserveshiscrewfoolishlyopeningthebagofwinds
given to him by Aeolus, his reaction is to veil his head with his cloak. But the
actionistakennotsimplyoutofanger,butforavarietyofreasons.Hisveilingis
alsoperformedtoexpresshisshame,hisfear,andhisdissociationfromthefoolish
actionsofhiscrew.3
So,whoveils?Forwhomdotheyveil?Howandwhydotheyveil?Anattempt
toanswerthesequestionswillencounterideasofwhattheveilcommunicatesabout
socialinteraction,especiallyinregardtothepresentationoftheselfandissuesof
malefemaleinteraction.Femaleveilingcanbeseenasanattempttoreducefearsof
andforwomenwhichrelatetowiderconcernsaboutsocialrelations.Thephysical
useoftheveil(howitisraisedandlowered)asanitemofsocialinteractionandas
155

Chapter6
apurveyorofsocialmeaningisthereforeofimmeasurableimportance.Afterall,the
gestureswhichwesometimescallemptyareperhapsthefullestthingsofall.4
Theveiliscontrollingonthepersonallevelaswellasontheinter-personallevel;
itworksasaprivatesymbolbecauseitdoessomethingtothefemalebodywhich
itcovers,whilethephysicalandvisualreactionthattheveiledfemaleigureevokes
inothersisintimatelylockedwithinexternalperceptionsoftheweareraseither
seductive, and hence potentially shameful, or as embodying social prestige and
upholding the social values and, by extension,thehonourofthemalemembers
(inparticular)ofthatwomansfamilyorsociety.Honourandshameareessential
componentsintheideologyofveiling.
Veilingandaidos
Aidosisacentralcomponentofthereasoningbehindveilingasasymbolofmodesty
(ofcourse),sexuality,invisibility,pollution,andstatus,anditsinluenceonthese
issues(andothers)cannotbeoveremphasized.5Initsmostsimpliiedform,aidos
meansshameandreserveandmodestyandrespect,anditisfrequentlyrelatedto
theconceptofhonourandself-awareness.6Cairnsencapsulatestheideabydeining
aidosas,aninhibitoryemotionbasedonsensitivitytoandprotectivenessofones
self-image[The] verb aideomai convey[s] arecognition that ones self-image is
vulnerableinsomeway,areactioninwhichonefocusesontheconspicuousnessof
theself.7
Cairnsalsonotesthataidosisnotonlysomethingthatonefeelsandsubsequently
respondsto,butitisalsosomethingthatothersfeelandsomethingthatothersrespond
to:aidosisreciprocal.8Thefeelingsofshameorreservecanstemfromanaction
beingwitnessedbyothers,andfromareactiontohowviewersmightperceiveone,
sothatafeelingofshamecanbebroughtaboutbyanexternalaudiencewhoactas
acatalystforanyfeelingofaidos.Alternatively,orinaddition,shamecancomefrom
withinanddoesnotneedanexternalaudience,oritcancomefromtheviewingof
oneselfintheroleofanother-self ,onewhoispurelyinternalizedyetstillactsan
observeroftheself,since,thestructureofshameisthesameinallcaseswhere
thereisarealaudience,whereanaudienceispresentinfantasy,andwheretherole
oftheaudienceisplayedbyoneself .9
Itisimportanttorememberthatmanysocieties,includingthoseoftheancient
Greekworld,setstandardsofmoralityandbehaviourfortheirwomenwhichwere
differentfromthosetheysetfortheirmenandthat,asinmanysocieties,themajor
socialrequirementsforwomenwerefaithfulnessandchastity.Amanshonouris
intrinsicallyboundupinthesexualpurityofthewomenofhisfamilyanditisfor
hisreputationthatwomenneedtobesociallyandsexuallycontrolled.Therefore
men lay down the rules that women have to observe and the subsequent sense
ofshamewithwhichtheyareassociatedisessentiallyamaleconstruct.AGreek
womancoulddeservethetitleaidoie,deservingaidos,ifsheobservedandadhered
tothestandardsofmodestbehaviourimposedbymen.Thus,inmaintainingher
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Veiledandashamed
own honour and that of her male protector awoman merits honour, which is
recognizedbyaidosinreturn.10
Aparticularfacetofawomansaidosisconcernedwithherloyaltytohermale
guardian(usuallyafatherorbrother)andhercarefulavoidanceofanykindofsexual
improprietywhichmayrelectbadlyonhermalerelatives.Thisisbestensuredby
hercompleteevasionofmalecompany.InEuripidesHerakleidai,Iolaus,themale
protectorofagroupofgirls,expresseshisaidosatthethoughtoftheirappearance
inpublicinthesightofmen,whileAntigonestutoralsofeelsshamebecausehis
chargeinsistsonshowingherselfinpublic.11Thus,awomansfailuretodisplaythe
requireddegreeofmodestyresultsinshameamongherkinandatendencyforher
tobelabelledaischrashamelessachargehurledatHelenwithsomefrequency.12
Amodestwomanshouldabjurethecompanyofmenorruntheriskofbeingcalled
shameless.13Infact,theoratorsofthefourthcenturycouldobservethat,asanideal
wayofbehaving,somewomenweresomodestthattheywouldnotallowthemselves
tobeseenevenbytheirmalerelatives.14
Aidosisparticularlyexpectedinyoungwomen,andEuripideanmaidenssuchas
Iphigeneia,MakariaandAntigonedisplaythedegreeofaidoswhichcorresponds
withtheirageandsexualinnocence.15WhenIphigeneiaencountersagroupofmen
andlearnsthatherproposedfuturehusbandisamongthem,thenrealizesthatshe
hasbeendupedoverthematterofhernon-existentbetrothal,hersenseofaidosis
soheightenedthatshedesirestohideherselfcompletely.16
StricturesofhonourandshameexpressedinGreektextsofallperiodsresemble
those placed upon women in modern veil-societies. The ancient Greek idea of
feminineaidos,thenotionofrespectfulmodestywithstrongovertonesofsexual
shame,canbelikenedtotheBedouinconceptoffemalehashamandthewidespread
Islamicnotionoffitna,aconceptionthatfemalesexualitycoulddestabilizesociety
unlesssuccessfullycontrolledandcontained,athemethatisparticularlyapparentin
theancientGreeksourcesaswell.17FitnaisdeeplyfearedinMuslimsociety,since
itisawordthatnotonlymeansdisorderorchaosbutalsoabeautifulwoman
whomakesmenabandonself-control.18Thisdreadoffemalesexualityisatthecore
ofMuslimculturewherewomenareseenashavingamorerapaciousappetitefor
sexthanmenandareskilledinluringmenawayfromthepathofrighteousness.19
Womenhavetostruggletoovercometheirnaturalsexualdesireandneedinsteadto
cultivateasenseofshamethatwill,inturn,relectuponthehonouroftheirmenfolk.
Butbecausewomenareweak-willedandcannotcontroltheirownpassionsfrom
within,theymustbecontrolledfromwithoutbymenwhoarenaturallyadeptat
masteringtheself-controlwhichbringsaboutpersonalhonour.Thisisallverysimilar
totheancientGreekconceptionofwomanhood,sincewomenwereseenasaraceset
apartfrommenandfundamentallylackinginself-control.Itwasthereforenecessary
tocultivatewithinthemasenseofshameinordertoupholdmasculinehonour.
In Bedouin society hasham, or modesty, is associated with femininity, while
honouristhepreserveofmasculinity.20Bydenyinghersexualitythroughcareful
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Chapter6
observance of the strict code of hasham, awoman may show respect for those
menaboveherinthehierarchyandforthesocialsystemasawhole.Moreover,as
awomanssenseofhashamintensiies,sothemenofhercommunityincreasingly
respecthersocietalrolebecause,ineffect,hershameservesthemwell.21
AmongtheAwladAli(aBedouinpeopleofEgyptandtheSinai),todescribe
awoman as someone who tahashshams (aderivative of hasham) means that she
knowstheemotionthatmotivatesthesexualdecorumofhashamandthatsheacts
toobserveitbyavoidingmalesightorcoveringherheadorfacewithaveil.Itisthe
highestcomplimentthatcanbepaidtoawomansinceitrecognizesherchastityand
hersexualremovalfromsociety.Conversely,awomanwhodoesnottahashshamis
knownasasharmuta(whore)oraqhaba(slut).22Awomanwhotahashshamsavoids
thesightofmenasfaraspossible;shedoesnotvisitthemarketplacenordoesshe
appearbeforestrangeguestswhentheyvisitherhome.Shedoesnotusemake-up
toattractmen,nordoesshedrawattentiontoherbeautybymeansofherdress.
Neitherwillsheeat,talkorlaughinfrontofmen;insteadsheadoptsaseriesofselfeffacingandformalactsthatarecorrelatesofmodesty.Veilingisafundamentalact
ofthetahashshamwoman.
InGreekthought,femaleaidosiscloselyconnectedtotheconceptofsophrosyne,
anidealisticstandardofdignityanddiscretion.AGreekwomandisplayingsophrosyne
and aidos, like aBedouin woman who tahashshams because she understands the
natureofhasham,shouldbesilent,submissive,passiveandvirtuous,andsheshould
notdrawattentiontoherselfinanyway.23Anexampleofthesewifelyvirtuesis
EuripidesAndromakhewho,followingthestandardirstsetbySophoklesTekmessa,
describesbythewordsophronherlifebeneathHektorsroof;shestaysathomeand
doesnotindulgeinfemalegossipbutkeepsherselftoherself.24
Thisisallverywellforawomanintheconinesofthehome,butwhenoutof
doorsthepressurestoconformtotherulesofrespectabilityaremultiplied.Ithasbeen
demonstratedthatamongthePirzadawomenofnorthernIndia,sexualapartheid
isexaggeratedinpublicbyawomansdeliberateactionsofbowingtheheadand
avertingtheeyesfromanymalepasser-by.Pirzadawomenhaveinternalizedtheir
senseofshameandtheimportanceofmaintainingdistancebetweenthesexestosuch
anextentthatithasbecomeanaturalphysicalreaction.Womenunquestioningly
acceptthattheyshouldnottalkloudly,orlaughordrawattentiontothemselves
inanywayandtheyknowthatmenandwomenshouldnotmixfreelyandthat
womenshouldstayindoorswheneverpossible.Inmixedcompanywithinthehouse,
womenshouldbereservedandmodestandsignaltheirrespecttothehierarchical
superiors. In their behaviour Pirzada women continually draw attention to their
abjectsubmissiveness.25
Similarly,sophrosyneandaidosareexpressedbyanexaggerateddisplayofselfdevaluationandovertsubmissivenessrelectedintheactsofloweringtheheadand
theeyes.Inmanyartisticrepresentationsthefemininearete(excellence)ofaidos
relected in downcast eyes and bowed head is exaggerated, although sometimes
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Veiledandashamed
asenseofcuriosityisixedintheeyeswhichareallowedtoglanceupashighas
physicallypossible(Fig.109).26Andromakhessubmissivenesstowardsherhusband
isemphasizedbysuchadeportment:
Igavemylordspresencethetributeofhushedlipsandeyesquietlydowncast.Iknew
whenmywillmusthaveitswayoverhis,knewalsohowtogivewaytohiminturn.27

Iphigeneiasembarrassedwishtohideherselffrompublicviewisalsoacharacteristicreactionofawomanlivinginthistypeofhonour-shamesociety.Infact,
afeelingofshamefrequentlyconjuresupthedesiretobecomeinvisibleortoremove
oneselffromthesightofothers.Eibl-Eibesfeldtsstudyofwithdrawalinsocialinteractionhasrevealedthatthedesiretohideisverystrongamonghumans,andthat
even very young infants will turn their heads away from strangers as asignal of
discomfortorshyness.28Theneedtomaintaindistanceisoneofthecharacteristics
ofhumansocietyandtheviolationofpersonalspace,whichdoesnotneedtobe
necessarilyovertoraggressive,frequentlyresultsinoneoftwopeoplebackingaway
andregisteringthatanintrusionistakingplace.Themostfamiliarwayofdoingthis
isbyloweringtheheadandlookingattheground(thisisespeciallynoticeablein
ameetingoftwopersonsoftheoppositesex),buteveninmorecomfortablesituationsanawarenessofphysicalspaceandaslightdesireforremovalfromasituation
canbeexpressedwiththeraisingofthehandstomasktheface.Coveringtheface
with ahand (and the simultaneous averting of the gaze) is anatural reaction to
shynessandmodesty,evenwhentheyaretingedwithpleasure,inallsocietiesand
forpeopleofallages.29Interestingly,whenapersonisinthepositiontoutilizesome
kindofprop(likeclothorclothing)toshowsocialremoval,itisusuallyemployed
tocovertheface.Clothingcanalsobeusedtomaintaindistanceandindividuality
indresswilloftenbesubsumedbeneathcoveringsthatallowapersontobecome
hiddenwithinthemassofsociety.30
Clothingisinextricablyconnectedtotheideaofmodesty,atleastinWestern
thought(andfromasfarbackasancientGreece).31Buttheconditionsandconstrictionsofmodestdressingaregender-nuanced.WhenaWesternmantakesoffhis
jacket in public he is not immodest, but he is if he should remove his trousers.
Generallymenneedtostripoffmorelayersofclothingthanwomenbeforetheyare
consideredimmodest,anditisusuallythecaseinWesternhistorythatmenhave
beeninclinedtowearheadgearandclothingthatcanberemovedatwilland,inthe
caseoftheancientGreekmale,vanWeeshasshownhowtheconscientiousslipping
offofthehimationandthemeticulouscareofthepostureofhissemi-nakedbody
expressedthatthewearerwasamemberoftheleisuredclassandthedominantmale
elite.Thusthehalf-clothedbodybecameanelementofdressinitsownright.32
Women, on the other hand, have had atendency to be placed beneath headdresses and clothing that are either ixed in place or are not easy to remove (at
leastnotbyasingleperson;wethinkofcorsets,laced-upgowns,pinned-insleeves,
powderedwigs,andjewelledhead-dresses)or,iftheycanberemovedeffortlessly
(asmusthavebeenthecasewiththefemalepeplosandchiton),womenarestrongly
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Chapter6
discouragedfromdoingso.Theveil(aheadorfacetype)isagoodexampleofsuch
agarment,althoughitshouldberememberedthatthereisanelementofreverse
thinking operating here too, since, because the veil is prone to slipping off, it
requiresconstantvigilanceandsoitkeepswomensattentionpersistentlyoccupied
onadjustingthecloth.
Theveilisalsosymbolicsinceitmarksoutpeoplesintentionsaboutmoralissues.
Veils are not covers intended to make women unfeminine. As will be suggested
later,theyemphasizefemininitybycoveringupfemaleimperfectionslikepollution
andsexualshame,whichinturnoftenhighlightaspectsofalluringfemalesexuality.
Veilsofferwomenendlessopportunitiesforthewearerstodrop,adjust,tightenor
loosenthecloth,therebymakingfulluseofthepotentialofthegarmentasasymbol
of female self-expression.33 The veil provides the illusion, if not the reality, that
awomanischasteandmorallyattentive.
Garment-veils and outer-wrap-veils (like the Greek himation and pharos-veils)
rarelyconcealmoreoftheleshthanthatwhichisalreadycoveredbytheclothing
wornunderneath.Itshouldbeobservedthatthepeplosandthechitoncovermuch
ofthefemalebodyand,oncewedisregardtheartistictrendtowardstransparency,
onlyrevealtoanygreatextentthearms(lesssoinachiton),theneck,faceandhair.
Thefactthatgarmentandouter-wrapveilsdolittletosecretetheigurebeyondwhat
isalreadyaccomplishedbyordinarydress,indicatesthatthesegarmentsshouldbe
consideredmoreassymbolsofmodestyandmoralityratherthanasguarantorsof
thatmorality.
Nevertheless, strictures about female modesty are deeply rooted in awomans
expectedpropensitytoveil.ItisnotconsideredunusualintheMuslimworldfor
mentobesemi-nakedwhenengagedincertainlaborioustasks,butwomenshould
nevertakeofftheirclothingevenwhenworkmakesitinconvenientforthemtobe
soheavilydressed.Awomanwashingclothesatariverbankorcanalmayhitchher
clothingroundherkneessothatshecanbenddowntoillherwaterjug,andshe
maywindupherveiltostopitfromdragginginthemud,butthatisthelimitofher
undress.Throughouttheworld,womeninveil-societiescontinuetoworkattheir
choreswellcoveredbytheirveils.
AncientGreeksocietyexpectedmalenudityatspeciicoccasions,permittedit
atotherevents,andappearstohavetolerateditatamorepedestrianlevel,34but
femalenuditywasnotacceptable,atleastnotifawomanwantedtomaintainher
goodnameorgiveanimpressionofamorallyuprightcharacter(aswewillexamine
later).Theissueoffemininemodestywasintertwinedwithherclothing,somuch
sothataidosissometimesenvisagedasatypeofgarmentthatcanbeputontocover
womanlyshameorpulledofftorevealit.35AsstressedintheHerodoteanstoryof
Gygeswife,thefactthatawomanundressesfor(orisundressedby)herhusband
(orunveilsandexposesherselfforhim),meansthatshesimultaneouslyshedsher
aidos,whichnormallyactsasabarrierbetweenherandtheworldatlarge.36AsCairns
states,Theclothedandveiledwomanistheacculturatedwoman,presentingtoher
160

Veiledandashamed
societyaproperregardforherownhonourandthatofher[guardian],andmeriting
therespectofhercommunityinreturn;forawomantobeunveiledorunclothedis
fortheeverydaysystemofhonourtobedisturbedexceptwhensheundressesor
unveilsforherhusband.37
ApassagebyDiogenesLaertiuspurportedlyrecallsadvicegivenbyTheanothe
wifeofPythagoras:
She advised awoman going in to her own husband to put off her shame with her
clothes,andonleavinghimtoputitonagainalongwiththem.Asked,Putonwhat?
shereplied,Whatmakesmetobecalledawoman.38

Theanoenvisagestheremovalofclothingasanactionthatthatleadstoshame,the
lossofaidos,andthecontroloverthesexual(andsimilar)emotionsthataidosusually
encompassestosuchanextentthatundressingshouldonlybeperformedforones
husbandintheprivacyofthehome.39
In his treatise Advice to the Bride and Groom, Plutarch notes that the Moon
(Selene),thoughbeautifulinherownrightwhenshehastheopportunitytoshine,
knowsthatshemustdisappearandhideherselfwhentheSun(Helios)drawsnear
toher.But,heargues,contrarytothecosmiccouple,avirtuouswifeshouldappear
beautifulinfrontofherhusbandwhenheiswithher,butsheshouldcompletelyhide
herselfwhenheisaway.PlutarchdisagreeswithHerodotusassessmentthatawoman
laysasidehermodestywithherclothingandsuggestsinstead(inasentimentalway
characteristicofthepro-marriagePlutarch)thatavirtuouswiferetainshermodesty
evenwhennakedifsheislovedandrespectedbyherhusband.40Theallureand
charmofthewifethatPlutarchtransposesontotheheavenlyworldofHeliosand
Seleneevoketheimage,Ithink,ofthenewlymarriedbride,andcanberelatedto
thenuptialritualsoftheanakalypteriawhichcentreontheplaybetweenthebrides
visibilityandinvisibilityandthecorrespondinggazeofhergroom.41
Dress and its intrinsic merits are also the focus of adiscussion by Xenophon
whorecountsthestoryofHeraklesmeetingwithVirtueandVice,personiiedas
beautifulifdivergentwomen.42Virtueisfair,nobleanddressedinwhite,whileVice
(orHappiness)isbuxomandblousyandwearsadressthatshowsfartoomuchof
heramplelesh.Moreoverhereyesdartaroundasshekeepslookingtoseeifshehas
beennoticed.ButVirtuekeepshereyesixedinplace,hereyelidsareloweredand,
ifherdressistakentobetheoppositeofVicesskimpyshift,thenwemustimagine
itasveilingasmuchofherbodyaspossible.43Virtueiscoveredup.
When,inEuripidesAndromakhe,Hermionelosesallself-controlandletsdown
hervirtuouspreserveofaidos,herjealousanguishovertheconcubineAndromakhe
andtheanxietyshefeelsaboutherownstatusasmistressofNeoptolemoshousehold
arerelectedthroughreferencetoherdress.Atline830sheunveilsherhead(which
hadobviouslybeensodecorouslyandrichlycoveredwithapharos-veilatherirst
entranceatline147)aspartofanagonizeddisplayofherlossofsophrosyne:
Woe!Woe!Awayfrommylocksine-spunpharos-veil,intotheair!44

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Chapter6
Hermionesunreservedlackofshameisintensiiedbythefactthatshenotonly
exposesherheadbutalsoherbreasts.45Herdazednursebegshertore-veilherbody
buttheSpartanprincessreplies,witharesignationthatcontrastsvividlywithher
irstentrancewhenhergorgeouscostumeexpressedandheightenedhersenseofher
ownstatusanddignity,
Whatisthepointofveilingmybreastwithrobes(sternakalupteinpeplois)?WhatIhave
donetomyhusbandisplainandevidentandunhidden.46

InMuslimthought,awomanlikeHermionewhoappearsunveiledinpublicbut
especiallybeforeaman,evenherhusbandisconsideredaryana(naked),47butif
sheappearsunveiledbeforeastrangerhergoodnameisseriouslycompromisedand
sheisgenerallyregardedasinherentlyimmodestandvulgar.48Attheheartofthe
Muslimideologyofveiling,andtheGreekideologytoo,istheideathatawoman
should only unveil for those men most closely related to her, in particular her
husband,andthatunveilinginfrontofanystrangemenisregardedasaviolation
ofthemaritalorfamilialbondorthehusbandsorfathersauthority.
Aidosandface-veiling
Specially constructed face-veils, such as the tegidion, make adramatic impact by
coveringwhatisusuallyleftexposedbyconventionalclothing,areasonwhyMuslim
face-veilsaresofrequentlyregardedinthewestasde-humanizing.Theevidencefor
theuseofconstructedface-veilsinGreeksociety(aswehaveseen)stemsfromthe
mid-fourthcenturyonward,althoughfromthesnippetsoftextsavailableandthe
wealthofartisticrepresentationsoftheveil-gesture,face-veilingwithasectionof
ahead-veilseemstohavebeenpractisedregularlyasawomansindividualreactionto
asocialsituation.Ifawomanisrequiredtoveilherheadbyasetofsocialmandates,
thentheveilingofherfaceasasignalofherawarenessofaidosbecomesanalmost
inevitableconsequence.ThusIphigeneiasmortiicationatthesightofstrangemenat
AulisisrecalledlaterinTaurisbyherdescriptionofherreactiontoherapproaching
marriage: Ihid my face in my ine-spun veil.49 Here the veil is acontainer for
Iphigeneiasaidos,anditsusecanbecomparedwithAntigoneslamentthatshe
willneverknowmarriageortheareteofcontainingherownsexualityinadisplay
ofrespectfulaidosthroughveiling:
Nomodestveilcoversthecurlinghairandsoftcheek;novirginalreservehidestheblush
undertheeyes,thehotforehead,asIcome,aBacchantofthedead,tearingloosethe
veil(kredemna)thatenclosedmyhair,lingingfreemyine-spunsaffronrobe,tolead
themarchofmourningforthesedead.Wailaloud,aiiie!50

ThenotionoffemininearetethroughveilingisalsofoundinAeliansaccountof
achancemeetingbetweenamanandhisex-wife.Infact,thewomanatthecentreof
theincidentisappropriatelynamedArete,andisthedaughterofDionysiusIofSicily
andthedivorcedwifeofDion,hischiefaide.Aelianrecallshow,oneday,Dionwas
approachedinpublicbyhissister,Aristomakhe,whohappenedtobeaccompanied
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Veiledandashamed
byherex-sister-in-law;straightawayAreteveiledherselfoutofmodestyandshame
(aidousegkalupomene)becauseshedidnotdarelookuponon,letalonespeakto,an
unrelatedmaninpublic,evenifhewereamanwhohadoncelegitimatelyshared
her bed.51 When he divorced her, Dion had straightaway reverted to the status
ofastrangerandnowAretehastorespondaccordingly.Aelianseemstoenvisage
acompleteformofveilingforArete,andwearenodoubtmeanttovisualizeher
coveringmuchofherheadandface.
Butthelocusclassicusoftheconnectionbetweenfeminineshameandveilingis
EuripidesHippolytus.52WhenthePhaedrairstappearsonstage,supportedbyher
nurseatline170,herheadisobviouslyveiledsinceshecallsforherhead-covering
(epikranon)toberemovedatline201.Thenhershamefulwordspourforthasshe
imaginesherselfrunningwildandfreeinthemeadowsandmountainsuntil,atline
239,sheisovercomewithaidosandlongstobeveiledagain:
O,Iammiserable!WhatisthisIhavedone?WherehaveIstrayedfromthehighway
ofgoodsense?Iwasmad.Itwasmadnesssentfromsomegodthatcausedmyfall.Oh!
Oh!Nurse,covermyheadagain.IamashamedofwhatIhavesaid.Covermeup.The
tearsarelowingandmyfaceisturnedtoshame.53

Thestageactionsuggeststhatthenursereplacestheveilonthequeensheadandthat
Phaedradrawsitoverherlowerface.Heraidosisbothinternalandexternal,forshe
isnotonlyconcernedwithherreputationbutalsofeelsanintenserevulsiontowards
herownpassion.54Herre-veilingdemonstratestoheraudiencetheawarenessofher
moraldilemmaofhowtopreservehertimeandsuggeststhatshefeelstheaidosdeep
withinandreactsaccordingtocustom.
Plato makes adeinitive connection between veiling and aidos: veiled and
ashamed(hypaiskhunesegkekalummenos)isthephraseheusesashepreparesto
castoffpreviousinhibitionsanddecidestomakeaforthrightrecantationreviling
Love,andhetestiiesthattheassociationbetweenthetwocanbejustaspertinent
formen.Neverthelessitisfemaleaidosthatisparticularlywellservedbyveiling,and
especiallybytheveilingoftheface.55
Thecoveringofthefaceorheadwithaveil,eveniftheveilingisonlytemporary,
isatypicalfemalereactiontofeelingshameandexpressesdesireforsocialinvisibility; it is practised in veil-societies worldwide, and afurther examination of
reasons behind veiling in modern veil-societies might expand the understanding
oftheancientevidence.Sojustasveilingpromotesandexpressesaidosamongthe
Greeks,fortheAwladAliveilingthefacewithasectionofahead-veilissynonymous
withhasham(oratleastisanindexofit)becauseitsymbolizessexualshameatthe
sametimeasitcoversit.Veilingisaperceptibleactofexhibitingmodestreverence
and its intimate connection to chastity and sexuality is evident in the fact that
Bedouinwomenneverveilforotherwomenandonlybegintoadopttheveilatthat
crucialstageinlifewhentheyaretransformedfromgirlsintowomenatmenarche
andareeligibletobecomesexuallyimportant.Conversely,whenawomanceases
tobesexuallyfertilesheislesslikelytoveil.Veilingandhashamgenerallyindicate
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Chapter6
awomansacknowledgementofhersexualityandtheplaceofthatsexualityinthe
socialsystemandadvocatesherwishtoseparateherselffromherownsexuality.56
Likewise,thewomenofGhanyariinnorthIndiataketheendsoftheirheadveils
(duppata)anddrawthemacrosstheirfacesinagestureknownlocallyasghungat,an
actwhichisonlyincumbentuponmarriedwomen.Theexpressionghungatnikalna
meanstodrawtheedgeoftheveiloveronesfacetocoveritcompletely,andso
liketheAwladAli,Ghanyarisocialdistanceandsexualmodestyareparticularly
emphasizedbytheveilingoftheface.57
Butbecauseawomanisnotexpectedtoveilforeveryoneallofthetime,theveil
isinaconstantstateofmotion,beingdrawnup,pulleddown,adjusted,withdrawn,
andredrawninsuchavarietyofwaysthatitbecomesanextensionofthefemale
frame.Infact,inastudyofIndiandresscodes,ithasbeennotedthatawomanmoves
herveilwiththesameself-consciousnessasshemovesherbody.58Greektextsalert
ustotheideathatwomensveilsaresimilarlyinaconstantstateofmotionandthe
actofpullingtheveilinfrontofthefaceisagesturethatisparticularlyprominent:
Penelope,Hera,Helen,andDemeterareallshownintheact,whileclassicaltexts
tellusthat,amongothers,Iphigeneia,Medea,andPhaedraareallconcernedwith
drawingtheirveilsupovertheirheadsoracrosstheirfaces.Iconographicsourcesare
equallyconcernedwiththisact,foritistheverymovementoftheveilthatrenders
itaninterestingartistic(aswellasliterary)motif.
Greeksourcesgivenodetailsofhowtheveilwasheldacrossthefaceortowhat
extentthefaceandheadwerehiddenbythegarment.Thisisunfortunate,since
ethnographicevidenceatteststotheimportanceofusingtheveiltoindicatevarying
degreesofrespect,modesty,andself-abasement.Thus,innorthGujaratwomenrefer
totheobservanceofghunghatbyveilingaslajkadvuorlajkarvu,literally,doing
shameandthereareanumberofwaysinwhich
shamecanbeexpressed,startingwithasimplelaj
whereby the head-veil is quickly pulled sideways
acrosstheface;thisiscommonlypractisedoutside
whenwomensuddenlyencountermenwhomay
wander by (Fig. 130). This stage is sometimes
performed as an intermediary state before going
into acomplete form of laj if the person who is
approaching is someone who must be avoided.
Where women need to walk through apublic
space,theygenerallyleavetheirveilshangingdown
overtheirfaces,butwithenoughofagaptoallow
themtotracetheirfootsteps.Iftheyarecarrying
heavyloadstheytendtokeeponehandontheir
Fig.130.AZoroastranIranianwoman
veil so they can lift it slightly without allowing
drawsherbrightlypatternedchadoracross
herface.WithkindpermissionofGillian
people to see behind it. The act of drawing the
Vogelsang-Eastwood(TextileResearch
veiloverthefaceanddowntowaistleveliscalled
Centre)andtheRMV,Leiden.
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Veiledandashamed
ardhi laj (literally half shame) and is usually
performed at home in the presence of asenior
relative and is meant to symbolize complete
invisibility and silence. The strictest form of
lajisknownasakhilaj(completeshame)and
involvespullingtheveilforwardatananglethat
obscuresthearmsandbosom;itsaimistomask
asmuchofthefemalebodyaspossibleanditis
particularlycommonamongBrahmanwivesand
brides(Fig.131).
While (pre-hellenistic) Greek veiling styles
allowedforavarietyofgesturesthatcouldwell
have corresponded to modern Indian practice,
ourancientsourcesaresilentontheintricaciesof
veilingandwedonotknowwhetherveilswere
worn in ways that expressed varying degrees of
deferenceorshame.However,severaldepictions
ofclassicalAthenianbridesshowthemcovered
bytheirveilsinatypeofveilingthatcorresponds Fig.131.AHindubridedisplaysthemost
completeformoflajbydrawinghersariverycloselytothestrictestformofakhilaj,and veilcompletelyoverherface.Withkind
nodoubtrelectstheveryhumbleanddeferential permissionofGillianVogelsang-Eastwood
(TextileResearchCentre)andtheRMV,
Leiden.
statusofthebrideduringtheweddingrites.59
Lajissomethingthatwomendoinresponsetothefeelingofshame(expressed
bythewordsharum);womenareconsideredtheresponsibleagentsfortheirown
actionsandiftheyfailtodolaj,theytaketheconsequencesfortheirdisobedience
andneglectofthesocialorder.Beingovercomewithsharumissupposedtooccurto
womenforavarietyofreasonsandinnumeroussituationsandwhiletheresponseto
itcanbelearned,thefeelingitselfshouldbenaturalandintrinsic.Whilefailuretodo
lajisconsideredadisgracethatbringsdishonourtothemenofafamily,awomans
inabilitytofeelsharumisseenasanunnaturalperversionandisconsideredinhuman
inthesamewaythatfailuretofeelthirstorhungeristhoughtofasbeingabnormal.
Similarly,womeninancientGreecewereexpectedtohaveaninherentsenseofaidos,
andthepracticeofveilingwasprobablythoughttobealogicalextensionofthat
naturalfeeling.Thedenialofaidosandareluctancetoveilwasthereforeabreach
ofsocialconvention.
Veiling,aidosandsocialnomoi
Veilingasadisplayoftheobservanceof,andfeelingfor,aidosisanomos,aconventionintunewithsociety.60Asacustom,veilingisasnecessaryinadisplayofaidos,
asisthecarefulavoidanceofthegazeofstrangersandtheloweringofthehead,
anotionthatEuripidesHekabemakesclear:Custom(nomos)forbidsthatawoman
lookintotheeyesofmen.61
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Chapter6
AidosandveilingarepartoftheancientGreeksocialorderasmuchassharumand
lajareinIndia,orhashamandtashashamareinBedouinEgypt.Thesefeelingsof
shameandthesubsequentactsofveilingadheretounwrittenprescriptionsandrules
ofbehaviourthattranscendlegalcodesinmuchthesamewaythat,whileveilingis
notdemandedofMuslimwomeninKoranicteaching,ithasbecomepartofIslamic
culturethroughother,lessauthoritative,routes.62Veilingbecameanimposedsocial
customthatprotectedmalehonourandwhile(atirst)nolawcodecouldbecited
toforcewomentoveil,thepressuretoconformtosocietyswishesquicklybecame
paramount.Eventoday,coerciontoobservecustomcanoftentranscendthedesire
toupholdanywrittenlaw,forcustomisaweavethathelpscreateandstrengthen
thefabricofsocialorder.Itisstrongerthanthelawwhichitfrequentlyexceedsand
surpasses;peoplewhoferventlyadheretosocialconventionoftenchosetoignore
thelimitsofthelaw.
AncientGreekjudge-madelawswereveryimportantandcustommayhaveplayed
onlyaminorroleasalegitimatesourceoflaw,butthisdoesnotruleoutthepossibilitythatsocialconventionandevenfamily-lawoccasionallybypassedtheformal
city-lawsinwhathasbeentermedextra-legalformsofsanctionsandcontrols.63Itis
known,forexample,thatadulterouswomenwereseverelydealtwithbythelaw:an
adulteresswastobedivorcedandostracizedfrompubliclife(thatistosayshewas
deprivedofherreligiousdutiesbecauseofherself-imposedpollution),andcould
bebeatentowithinaninchofherlifebyanyonewhotookituponthemselvesto
performthedeed.64Theseverityofthepunishmentwasintendedtoinstilasenseof
fearwithinwomenandencouragethemtobechaste,65althoughitisinterestingto
notethatsomemenpreferrednottomakepublicthesexualscandaloftheirprivate
lives,perhaps,ithasbeensuggested,outofdesireforinancialgain,orlovefortheir
wives,ortopreservetheirpersonalhonour.66Whilepunishmentsforadulterershave
beenwidelydiscussedinscholarship,ithasonlyoccasionallybeenproposedthat
malemembersofahouseholdmighttakethelawintotheirownhandsandpunish
atransgressingfemaleaccordingtoafamily-basedsetofnomoi.67
Yetdomesticviolenceagainsttransgressingfemaleswasprobablyroutine,andso
muchthenormthat(liketheveilitself)ithardlyreceivesamentioninthemalebiasedsources.FisherhasdemonstratedhowAtheniansociety(andprobablyGreek
culture as awhole) was propelled by asystem of honour-driven violence which
permeatedeverysocialstratum,andhehasnotedthatcasualviolenceagainstslaves,
children,andwomenwasnodoubtcommonplace.68EarlyGreekliteraturemakesthe
occasionalallusiontodomesticviolence.AccordingtoHomer,evengoddessescan
sufferabuseatthehandsoftheirhusbands,ashisdescriptionofZeuspunishment
ofHeramakesclear.69TheverynatureofSemonidesbitch-womancompelsher
husbandtoknockherteethoutwithastone.70Fifth-centurydramatictextsrecount
similarthreats:Medealamentsthelifethatawaitsanewlyweddedbridewholeaves
herfamilyhometomarryamanshedoesnotknowandwhosetemperandhabits
shecanonlyguessat.71AccordingtotheLysistrata,anover-talkativewifemightbe
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Veiledandashamed
threatenedwithbrutalitybyherhusbandafterabaddayattheAssemblyandsoshe
shouldbewiseandkeepquiet.72Amaximdeliveredbyananonymous(butprobably
male)characterfromEuripidesMelanippe,suggeststhatpunishmentistheright
treatmentforatroublesomewoman,butthatonlyherdeathwillensureahappier
future.73AhusbandmaybeabullylikeAlkibiades,whoseroughtreatmentofhis
wife,Hipparete,intheAgoraneverthelesspassedwithoutpubliccommentbecause,
Plutarch assures us, this type of violence was not regarded as inhuman or even
contrarytothelaw.74Atrendtowardsamoreblatantportrayalofdomesticviolence
beginsinthelatehellenisticperiodwhenCharitonhasthecharacterChaereas,the
hero of his novel Callirhoe, kick his young and innocent wife with such jealous
ferocitythathethinksherdead.75
Itappearsfromtheseleetingandwidely-spacedglimpsesofintenselyprivatelife
isthatwomenmayhavetakenbeatingsofvariousdegreesofseverityatthehands
oftheirmalekin,andthatwomenwerepunishedforoffenceswhichcompromised
malehonourorupsettheideologyofmaledominationoverfemaleinferiority.The
standardideologicalattitudewasthathusbandsshouldbeabletopersuadetheirwives
toobeyorconform,butphysicalchastisementwasseenasnecessaryifthewiferefused
tokowtow.TheGreektendencytoseewomenasnaturallyinferiorandlackingselfcontrolpromotedtheneedofthestabilizingthreatofmaleviolencetokeepthem
under guard, and can perhaps be compared with arecent Jordanian newspaper
columnthatpropoundedthefamiliarArab(butnotKoranic)nomosthat,
Itispermissibletobeatawomanifshedisobeysherhusbandsinstructions.Beating
doesnothurtawomansdignity.Thatisimpossible,becausewomanisbornwithout
dignity.76

Domestic violence in antiquity (as today) did not necessarily entirely operate
aroundchargesoffemaleadulteryorwantonness,butlaredupwhenevermanliness
wasatstake.Theancientexamplescitedabovesuggestthatviolenceorthethreatof
violencewasusedifawomanspoketoomuch,questionedmaleauthority,orappeared
inpublictoofrequently.77Moreovermaleprideis,andprobablywas,furtherendorsed
byhavingaccesstothehiddenfacesofthewomenofafamily,andthehadith(religious
teaching)thatthefaceofawifeisforahusbandaloneiscommonlyheardinMuslim
society,whilefathersandbrothersliketokeeptheirdaughtersandsistersveiledas
aguaranteeoftheirsexualpuritywhichinitselfisasourceoffamilialpride.
Inmodernpatriarchalsocieties,provocativedressingishighonthelistofreasons
behindattacksonwomenbyoutragedhusbands,brothersorfatherswhobelieve
thattheirwomenfolkareconfrontingtheirauthorityandhonourbydisplayingtoo
muchoftheirbodies,usingexcessivemake-uporfailingtoveilatthecorrecttime
andplace.Thesamemayhavebeentrueinantiquity.78InfactaRomansourcetells
oftheperceiveddetrimentformalehonourwhenproperveilingisnotobserved:
GaiusSulpiciusGallusdivorcedhiswifebecausehehadcaughtheroutdoorswith
herheaduncovered:astiffpenaltybutnotwithoutcertainlogic.Thelaw,hesaid,
prescribesforyoumyeyesalonetowhichyoumayproveyourbeauty.Fortheseeyes

167

Chapter6
youshouldprovidetheornamentsofbeauty,forthesebelovely:entrustyourselftotheir
morecertainknowledge.Ifyou,withneedlessprovocation,invitethelookofanyone
else,youmustbesuspectedofwrongdoing.79

AndthisfromasupposedlylessrestrictiveRomanviewpoint.
WhilenoancientGreeksourcespeciicallyconnectsfemaleunveilingwithabuse
orpunishment,thestrongassociationbetweentheveilandaidossuggeststhatdeliberate(orperhapsevenunintentional)publicunveilingmighthavebeenregarded
withhostilitybymenand,nodoubt,byotherconformingwomen.80Thethreatof
retribution,includingphysicalchastisement,andtheneedtomaintainanduphold
personalandfamilialhonourkeptwomensecurelyunderneaththeirveils.
TheancientGreekparanoiaaboutfemaledress,andtheinherentrespectability
whichspeciictypesofclothingbestowonwomenisshowninaseriesofformal
writtenlawcodesdatingtothehellenisticperiodinwhichfemalesarelabelledeither
respectableordisreputablebywhattheywear.81AtpublicfestivalsinSyracuse,for
example,aproperladywasforbiddentoweargoldjewellery,embroideredclothes,or
dresseswithpurplebordersunlesssheprofessedtobeaprostitute.82Theremayalso
havebeendressregulationsenforcedatThasoswhereallwomenexceptprostitutes
werebannedfromwearingpurpleandembroideredclothes.83Ifdressbecomesthe
focusofwrittenlaw,itisconceivablethatitwasalsoattheheartofunwrittensocial
anddomesticnomoitoo.
Asacontainerforandprotectoroffeminineaidos,itemsofclothing,andveils
in particular, were fundamental social necessities and the fact that veils are not
mentioned in Greek dress laws can easily be explained: because veiling was so
customaryindailylifetherewasnoneedtomentiontheinstitutioninanyformal
law.Socialruleswereallthatwereneeded.
It was unthinkable for awoman to appear uncovered in public, especially at
afestivalorataholyplaceunlessreligiousregulationsspecificallycommandedit.At
Rhodes,forexample,ritualpuritydemandedthatwomenenteringasanctuarywear
cleanwhiteclothes,bebare-footed,notwearleatherarticles,orwearbeltsaround
theirwaistsandshouldnotuseanykindofhead-covering.84Wearewellinformed
aboutclothinginthecultofDemeterbytheinscriptionofAndaniawhichprescribes
thatwomenparticipatingintheritesofthegoddessshouldrefrainfromwearing
goldjewellery,make-up,sandals,braided-hair,orheadbands,andasimilarlawfrom
asanctuaryatLykosurainArcadiaexplicitlycommandedwomennottobindup
theirhairorcovertheirheads.85Religiousoccasionsmusthaveprovidedwomenwith
uniqueopportunitiestodisplaytheirpersonaladornmentsbywearingcolourfuland
elaborateclothing,andtheseoccasionswouldprobablyhavebeenimportantevents
forwomen,giventheirlimitedaccesstothepubliclifeofthestateandthemarket
place.Butthesesacredlawsdonotrelectthesocialnorm;theyrequiredwomen
eithertowearclothingthattheywouldnotusuallyemployindailylifeortomodify
theirusualappearanceduringtheirvisittotheshrines.Thereforewomenaretoldto
appearinpurewhiterobeswiththeirhairhanginglooseandtheirheadsunveiledin
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Veiledandashamed
directcontradictiontothestandarddailycustom.86Barefeet,spotlesswhiteclothing,
anduncoveredheadsemphasizedthatthereligiousritesenactedatthesanctuaries
tookplaceoutsideeverydayexperience.Therefore,awomansunveiledappearancein
apublicreligiousritualwasuniquebecause,foralimitedperiodoftime,shedressed
inaspeciicwaytohonourthedeity.Itisprobable,therefore,thatwomeninitiated
intothemysteriesofDemeter,Dionysus,orOrpheuswereunveiledinreligious
rites.Fromthefactthattheinitiateisfullyveiledduringtheinitiation,onecould
concludethatthosealreadyinitiatedareunveiled.87
Normally, to appear publicly unveiled labelled awoman as shameful and the
menofherfamilywereconsequentlyperceivedtobeignominiouslydishonoured
and lacking control over their females. No doubt the consequences for awoman
appearing unveiled in public or before strangers could be harsh. In modern veilsocietiesawomansreluctancetoveilorinabilitytoveilquicklyorthoroughlyenough
becomesthecauseofmuchdomesticstrifeandoftenofsubsequentphysicalabuse.
Thefollowingquotation,fromayoungIranianwoman,showsabrotherscontrol
overhissisterandhisangeratherunveiledbutleetingappearanceinpublic:
Illneverforgetanincidentwhichhadagreatimpactonmylife.Iwaspeepingthrough
thefrontdoortryingtoseewhowasmakingsuchacommotioninthestreet.Suddenly
someonehitmefrombehindandjabbedthedoorhandleintomyeye.Ihadtobe
treatedinhospital.Itwasquitepainful.Mybrotherwassorryforwhathehaddone,
buthealsoblamedmeforinterferinginwhatwashappeningoutsidethehousewithout
puttingmyveilonirst.88

Inveil-societiesunveilingcanresultindisastrousconsequencesforthewoman
whodeiantlyunveilsorisneglectfulofherveiling-duties.Herfamilysreputation
(andnotjustthemensbutalsothewomens)isatstake,herhonourisquestioned
andhermoralityiscompromised.Shemaybeaccusedofinsanity(orpossession),
wickedness,impropriety,promiscuity,orofbeingcontaminatedandshemaybe
convictedofheresyandsedition.Unveiledwomenhavebeenstonedorburnedto
death,havehadacidthrownonthemorhavebeenimprisoned.Womenhavebeen
ostracizedfromsocietyaterriblefateincultureswhereinterdependenceoffamily
members is essential for survival.89 In ancient Greece, similar actions may have
persuadedwomentoremainbeneaththeirveils,insecurity.
Aidosandtheveil-gesture
ItisclearthattheIndianactionoflajisreminiscentoftheveil-gesturefoundin
Greekiconography.Theancienticonographicmotifitselfisstronglyrelatedtothe
conceptofaidos.90Ithasbecomeapparentthatveilingisadistinctiveresponseto(and
displayof)feelingaidos,andthecoveringofthefaceisanaturalreactiontoexpress,
contain,orrebuffsexualshameandtopreserveasenseofmodestdetachment.The
sceneofTityosattemptedrapeofLeto,discussedearlier,clearlyshowsthegoddess
veilingherface(Fig.114;seealsoFig.115)andhasbeenwell-describedas,atypical
responseoftherecipientofunwantederoticattentions.91
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Chapter6
Thered-igurevaseofFig.114containsaninscriptionwherethelettersspellout
thewordAIDOS (AIDOS).Cairnsconvincinglyarguesthattheyarenodoubtrelated
insomewaytoLetosactofveilinganddonotmakeuppartofthelongergenitive
word ARTEMIDOS (A[RTEM]IDOS)therebyrelatingtotheigureofArtemis
whostandsgesticulatingwildlyatthefarrightofthescene.92Isuggestthattheuse
ofthewordinthiscontextcanbetakenslightlyfurther,forafrequentdevicefound
inred-igurevasepaintingisletteringthatspellsoutawordortwoutteredbythe
person(s)portrayedinthepaintedscene,ratherasinacartoonspeech-bubble.93
ThesameuseofletteringispossibleonthePhinitasvasewheretheword AIDOS
couldinfactbeacryfromoneoftheparticipantsoftheaction.Suchashoutisnot
infrequentlyfoundinHomericepicwherethesimpleexclamationAidos!canbe
suficienttoinlateaheroshorroroftheslurofspinelessnessandtoincitewarriors
ontoactsofglory.94Ifthisisthecasethenonthevase,thecrycouldcomefrom
Letowhotherebynotonlyallowstheaudiencetounderstandherinnerfeelings,but
alsospursonApollotodefendhermodestyandhishonour.Alternatively,ifaidosis
usedasanappealtoanindividualsconcernforpersonalhonour,thentheutterance
couldemanatefromApollohimselfwhotherebybestowsuponhimselfthecourage
andwilltoslaythegiantandthusdisplayaproperilialregardforhismother.After
all,aidosinvolveslivinguptostandardsofbraveryandmanhoodandhavingregard
forotherpeople[and]considerationfordependants.95Whateverthecase,the
appearanceoftheword AIDOSneartheigureofawomancoveringherheadand
facewithaveilishighlysigniicantandthevalueofthissceneasatoolininterpreting
theiconographicveil-gestureisverygreat.
The very fact that the veil-gesture is found in Greek art with such regularity
(andoversuchalongperiodoftime)mustgiveitsomekindofsigniicanceandit
issensibleheretofollowFerrarissuggestionthat,whatiscommonplaceispacked
withmeaning.96Aidosisoftendescribedassomethingvisible:Pandoraiscreated
withtheappearanceofamodestvirginandAphroditerisesfromherbirth-foam
showingthecorrectfemininedemeanorofaidos.Thevisibilityofaidosis,ashas
been suggested, augmented by clothing and it is no surprise to ind that when
HesiodenvisagesthepersoniicationAidos,sheandhercompanion-deityNemesis
areveiledinwhitephare.97Theirwhiteveils,spotlessandunblemished,revealtheir
innerpuritywhileconcealingtheirfemininebeauty.Asanabstractconcept,aidos
isvisualizedbeneathaveilorasaveil.
Moreover,aidosisbestdisplayedbytheself-awareactionofveiling,andthisis
where the veil-gesture comes into its own, for it is the conscientious movement
ofraisingthehead-veiltocoverthefacethatenablestheviewertorecognizethat
awomanknowsthehonour-shamecodeandplaysbyit.Asaresult,theviewertoo
participatesinthegame.Incontemporaryveil-societies,whenawomandoeslajor
ghungatortahashshamsbeforeanotherindividual,theactionsignalsherawareness
ofhershameanddesiretopreservehonourandtoarouserespectfromtheviewer.
Isuggestthattheveil-gesturefoundinGreekartaskstheviewertoobservesimilar
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Veiledandashamed
socialrules.Thestylizedveil-gestureisanartisticrecordofthehabitualevery-day
practiceofGreekwomen.
Thelegendaryoriginofthegesturecentresonanactoffemininebetrayal,when
Penelope abandoned her father for the sake of Odysseus and veiled her head in
shame.Accordingtothisstory,theveilingoftheheadsofallmodestwomencanbe
associatedtoPenelopessenseofshame.98AccordingtoPausanias,astatueofAidos
hesawinSpartarelatestothetale:
TheimageofAidos,somethirtystadesdistantfromthecity,theysaywasdedicatedby
Ikarius,thefollowingbeingthereasonformakingit:whenIkariusirstgavePenelope
inmarriagetoOdysseus,hetriedtomakeOdysseussettleinLacedaemon,butfailing
intheattempt,henextpleadedwithhisdaughtertoremainbehind,andwhenshe
wassettingouttowardsIthakahefollowedthechariot,begginghertostay.Odysseus
endureditforatime,butatlasthetoldPenelopeeithertoaccompanyhimwillingly,
orelse,ifshepreferredherfather,togobacktoLacedaemon.Theysaythatshemade
noanswer,butcoveredherselfwithaveil(egkalupsamenes)inreplytothequestion,so
thatIkarius,realizingthatshewishedtoleavewithOdysseus,lethergo,anddedicated
animageofAidos;forPenelope,theysay,hadreachedthispointintheroadwhenshe
veiledherself(egkalupsasthai).99

There is astrong supposition that the statue, which is not described, showed
awomanveilingandperhapsperformingtheveil-gesture,andaspeculativeidentiicationhasbeenmadewithaifth-centuryseatedstatue-typeofPenelope(Fig.
132).100Iamnotconvinced,however,thataidosistheemotionbeingportrayed
here;theseatedstatue-type,whichcanbecomparedtotheigureofPenelopein
thefamousChiusiVase(Fig.44),showsherwearingaveil,butitisnotheldinthe
conventionalveil-gesture.InsteadthevasepaintingandthesculptureshowsPenelopeshandtouchingherchininagesturethatisusuallythoughttoindicategrief101
orpossiblypensivethought102or,lesslikely,sexualdecision-making.103Itismore
dificulttoassignPenelopesimagerythestandardveil-gesturepose.
IntheircommentaryonPausaniasBook3,
Musti and Torelli have suggested that his
explanatory tale may relate to apopular
tradition attached to astatue of aveiled
womansetup,perhaps,onaSpartantomb.
Alternatively,orinaddition,hisstorycould
well have been inspired by the Lakonian
hero-reliefswhich,ashasbeendemonstrated,
frequentlyshowafemaleinaveilingact.104It
isapparentthatwomenatSpartawereveiled
andthattheinluenceofaidos,expressedin
the hero-reliefs and other monuments, was
justasprevalentinLakoniansocietyasitwas Fig.132.Linedrawingofaseatedstatueofaveiled
Penelope.Romanmarblesculpture,copyof
inotherpartsoftheGreekworld.105
aGreekoriginalofc.460.Mus.Ch.Vatican754.
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Chapter6
IthasbeennotedthatRomanartusestheGreek
veil-gesture,andperhapsitsmostnotableuseisinthe
iconographyofPudicitia,theRomanequivalentofthe
Greek personiication Aidos.106 Astanding statue of
Pudicitia(Fig.133,possiblyderivingfromahellenisticoriginal),isheavilydrapedwithinapharoswhich
veilsherhead;herclothingcoversmuchofherbody
andonlyrevealshertoes,neck,face,andonehand.
Herleftarmisbentattheelbowandherforearmrests
acrosshertorsoaboveherwaistwiththehandenclosed
withinthethindrapery,buttheotherhandisraised
andsheingersherveilatface-level,whichemphasizes
theideathatsheisveiling.Thiscommonlyfoundpose
displaysamarkedlyclosedbodyposture,onewhich
isnotonlymodest,butdefensive.107Womeninthis
postureshieldthemselvesasiftheyareawareofthe
gazethatfallsonthem.Evengoddessessuccumbto
thistrendandstatuessuchastheAphroditeofKnidos Fig.133.VeiledstatueofPudicitia.
LinedrawingofaRomanmarble
andtheCapitolineVenustellusmuchabouthowmen
sculpturebasedonaGreekoriginal
thinkawoman(evenalove-goddess)shouldbehaveif ofc.200.Mus.Ch.Vatican.
caughtunawaresbyamalestranger.108
TheVaticanPudicitiacombinestheclosedpostureofdefensivebodylanguage
withtheveil-gestureofmodestyandreserve,deviceswhicharefrequentlyfound
inearlierGreekart.WehavealreadyobservedhowwomeninGreekartarelaid
opentothecommongazeandthatviewerswanttoseethefemalebody,butwish
tobeassuredoftherespectabilityofthemodel.Theideaisgivenafurthertwist
inimagesofwomencarvedintogravestelaiwhereidentiiable,sometimesnamed,
womenarefrequentlyshownholdingontotheirveilsastheyareexposedtothe
publicgazeeventhoughthescenesoftenattempttobedomesticvignettes.The
grave stelai frequently invite the passer-by to stop, read, and remember, but the
compulsiontowardsfemalemodestyremains,evenforthedead.Inasocietywhere
womenwerenotsupposedtohaveapublicidentity,theexistenceofportraitstatues
ofwomenseemsanomalous;therefore,thesculptedbodiesofwomenonthegrave
stelai invite the gaze, but simultaneously rebuff it and they deny the viewer the
privilegeoflookingatthembyadoptingtheveil-pose.Theveil-gestureasadefensive
signalofblockage,abarriertounadulteratedviewing,isperhapsbestencapsulated
onthefourth-centurygravesteleofthesistersDemetriaandPamphilefromthe
Kerameikos(Fig.41)wherethewomenfacetheviewerandarenotengagedinany
domestictask(asisthecasewithmostotherstelai),whichmakesitverytempting
tointerprettheirveil-gestureasaresponsetotheirawarenessofbeingseen.Inturn
theviewerisplacedintheuncomfortablyambiguouspositionofavoyeurwhohas
beendiscoveredlooking.109
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Veiledandashamed
Properlyregulated,womencouldbeputondisplayasstatuesandreliefsand
painted images and even celebrated in coin-portraits and could be open to the
publicview.Modestyexpressedthroughdressandposewasonewayofdemonstratingthatwomenwereconformingtotheestablishedsocialnomoiandthatthey
wereundercontrol.Theveil-gestureinart,likethephysicalmotionofveilingin
reallife,displayedawomansself-awarenessofaidosandinreturndemandedthe
aidosofothers.
Veilingascommunication
Amajorpropertyoftheveilisitsdynamiclexibility,whichallowsthewearerto
changeitsforminstantly.Theveilallowsawomantorelectherawarenessofsocial
regulationsandtoconformtothem.Inmodernveil-societiesthelexibilitywhich
veilingaffordsisusedbywomenasameansofcommunication;veilingbecomes
anon-verballanguagethatcanbebothnuancedandsuggestivebutalsooutspoken
andplain.
In ancient Greek society women were considered movables. While the oikos
(family unit) may have been permanent, its members were not. The residential
make-up of ahousehold was constantly changing and women in particular were
frequentlyincorporatedintoitsstructureoneitherapermanentorsemi-permanent
basis.Thisresultedintheconceptionthatawomanwasastrangerinhernewhome,
andonenottobecompletelytrusted.Suchanattitudemusthavehadafundamental
effectonhertreatment:ifshewaswellbehavedandquicklyproducedason,some
ofthisdistrustmighteventuallydisappear,butthatwasnotnecessarilythecase.
SeveralGreektextsalertustotheideathatabrideremainedastrangerinhernew
householdandthatshewasneverfullyassimilatedintoitsways.110Whatcanbe
takenforgranted,however,isthenotionthatthesightofamarriedwomanoran
unmarrieddaughterorsisterwas(ideally)fortheeyesofthefamilyaloneandthat
nostrangemanshouldbeallowedtoviewthewomenofanothermansoikos.This
attitudeenduredforcenturies.Thus,whenintheOdysseyPenelopecoversherface
withherlinenveilwhilstinthecompanyofhersuitors,shebecomespartofthatlong
traditionofwomanssocialconformitythroughtheactofveiling.Indeed,sofundamentalisthisacttotheconstructionofPenelopescharacter,thatHomerallowshis
audiencetowitnesstheepisodefourtimes,andforeachoccasionthesamerepeated
formulaisused:holdingbeforeherfacehershiningveil(liparakredemna).
ThemotifisirstencounteredinOdysseyBook1(334)inascenesetwithinthe
greathallofOdysseuspalace,whereTelemakhosandthesuitorsarelisteningtothe
dolefulsongoftheminstrelPhemios.Penelopeentersthemegaronhavingdescended
fromherprivatequartersandinterruptsthesong,beggingthebardtostop.Butshe
isrebukedbyhersonandsentbacktoherchamber.Allthewhile,shehasheldher
shiningveilinfrontofherface.ThephraseisthenrepeatedinBook16(416),but
thistimethemoodinthehallisconsiderablyaltered:thesuitorsarerestlessandare
plottingthedeathofTelamakhos.Penelopedescendsintothehallandreprimands
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Antinoosuntil,herangerapparentlyquelledbyEurymakhosreasoning,shereturns
toherchamber.Againsheobserves,itseems,astrictformofveiling.
ThequeensentranceintothemegaoninBook18(210)isinspiredbyAthene.
Penelopeadmonisheshersonandthesuitors,butreturnstoherroomawealthier
woman,takingwithherrichgiftsfromherprospectivehusbands.Thisisallenacted
whileher(lower)faceisveiled.Finally,sheissuesthearcherychallengetothesuitors
inBook21(65)whilststandinginherfamiliarspotandoncemoreholdingher
shiningveilacrossherface.
Throughout these tense scenes Penelope acts within the conines of expected
socialbehaviour.Asmistressofthehousehold,Penelopehaseveryrighttoenter
intothemegaronwhilethemendine,eventhoughherhusbandisabsent.Yet,just
likewomenincontemporaryveil-societies,sheveilsherfaceinfrontofmenwho
are non-kin, thereby conirming what has been described as, her good sense in
dealingwithanawkwardsituationaswellasstressingherheightenedawareness
ofaidos.111ItisclearthatPenelopeworkswithintheboundariesofanestablished
social nomos and she most likely feels that her act of appearing before unrelated
mencouldcompromiseherreputationandsotohelpdefusethesituation(andthe
inherenthighly-chargedsexualatmosphere),sheisaccompaniedoneachofhervisits
tothehallbytwomaidservantswho,inconjunctionwithherveil,servetouphold
heraidosandfamilyhonour,andtodispeltheerotictension.112Penelopepossibly
anticipatesthatherveilingandtheappearanceofheramphipoloiwillstirasuitable
senseofaidosinhersuitorstoo,althoughtheoutcomeofherdisplayofmodesty
hastheoppositeeffect.113
ObservingotherHomericbanquetingscenesinwhichwomenarepresent,wenote
thatHelendoesnotapparentlyveilherselfatthefeastheldinhonourofTelemakhos
atSparta,nordoesAreteinthescenessetwithinthePhaiakiancourt.114Asqueens
andwiveswhoaccompanytheirhusbandswithintheconinesoftheirhomes,neither
HelennorAreteneedhaveanyinhibitionsatsittinginthecompanyofothermen
and,beingunderthesafeguardoftheirhusbands,theyneednotveil.Similarly,when
thesuitorsareabsentfromthegreathall,Penelopedisplaysnoanxietyaboutsitting
inthehallwiththemaleguestbroughtintothehousebyTelemakhos(Odysseus
disguisedasabeggar)sinceheisofalowstatus(unlikeherpowerfulsuitors)and
sheisundertheprotectionofhersonwhoisalsopresent.115Thefactthatherhands
areoccupiedwithspinninginethreadclearlyshowsthatshecannotbeholdingher
veiloverherface,althoughherheadmaybe(infactprobablyis)covered.116The
workingofwoolisaproperattributeofawifeseatedatamalebanquet,andvan
Weeshasnotedthatwivesdonoteatordrink,butratherplytheirwoolandmake
lightconversation.Furthermore,daughtersanddaughters-in-lawseemtobeentirely
absentfromHomericbanquets,withtheresultthattheattentionisfocusedonthe
mistressofthehousehold.117AtthebanquetinSpartahowever,thewomenwho
servethestranger-guestsarethewivesoftheSpartannobleswhoareconspicuously,
ifbeautifully,veiledastheycarryouttheirduties.118
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Veiledandashamed
WhenNausikaapersuadesherfathertoallowhertoleavetheconinesofthe
palaceandtakethefamilylaundrydowntotheriverforwashing,shecircumspectly
veilsherselfforthejourneythroughthecityintothecountryside.Itisonlywhen
sheisatasafedistancefromthepalaceandoutofsightofanystrangementhat
shethrowsoffherveilandindulgesinplay.119Followingherremarkablycomposed
encounter with the naked Odysseus, she returns with the stranger to the palace
(althoughheisaskedtowalksomedistanceoffforthesakeofdecency)andweare
meanttoassumethatNausikaare-veilsforthehomewardjourney.120
Post Homeric sources occasionally mention events when it was considered
appropriateforwomentoveil,butmostauthorstendonlytohighlightthemore
dramatic or unusual circumstances surrounding veiling and usually attempt to
offer an explanation. Plutarch twice has reasontorecountveil-relatedincidents
as emblematic of the more abnormal aspects of the societies he studies. In his
QuaestionesGraecaeheasks,
WhyhavethewomenofChalkedonthecustom,whentheymeetstrangersandparticularlyoficials,toveilonecheek(parakaluptesthaipareian)?

andprovidestheanswerthus:
TherewasawarbetweenthemandtheBithynianstowhichtheywereincitedbyevery
provocation.WhenZeipoetesbecamekingofBithynia,theChalcedonians,infullforce
andwiththeadditionofThracianallies,devastatedthecountrywithireandsword.
WhenZeipoetesattackedthemneartheso-calledPhalion,theyfoughtbadlythrough
rashnessandlackofdisciplineandlostovereightthousandsoldiers.Itwasonlybecause
ZeipoetesgrantedanarmisticetopleasetheByzantinesthattheywerenotcompletely
annihilatedatthatpoint.Sincethentherehasbeenatremendouslackofmeninthe
cityandmostofthewomenwereforcedtoconsortwithfreedmenandresidentaliens.
Butthosewomenwhopreferredtohavenohusbandratherthanthistypeofmarriage,
actedforthemselvesinbusinesswiththejudgesortheoficials,drawingasidepartof
theveilthatcoveredtheirfaces(apagousaithateronmerostouprosopouteskaluptras).
Andthemarriedwomen,feelingashamed,followedtheirexamplesofthosewhothey
thoughtwerebetterthanthemselvesandadoptedthesamecustom.121

Itwouldbewrong,ofcourse,tosuggestthatPlutarchistryingtoaccountfor
theoriginoffemaleveilinghere,anditisalsomistakentoassumethat,becausehe
emphasizesthatthewomenofChalkedonwereveiled,thatthiswassomethingout
oftheordinaryinGreeklifeandthathewasmoreusedtoseeingwomenwalking
aboutpubliclyunveiled.122No,inthispassagePlutarchstressesanunnaturaland
cruelperversionofthesocialorderwhere,becauseofthelackofhighstatusmen
withinthecity,certainhonourablewomenchoosetoremainaswidowsorspinsters
ratherthancompromisetheirsocialstandingbymarryingbeneaththem.Theyhave
nomentodefendthemandsotheymustventureoutintopublictoconducttheir
businessaffairsthemselvesbut,beingmodestwomenofgoodbreeding,theywill
onlygooutsideifproperlyveiled.Whentheyneedtoconductbusinesswithmen
magistrates,judgesandprobablyshopkeeperstootheykeeptheirveilstightly
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Chapter6
overtheirfacesbuttemporarilyliftasectionoftheminordertospeakandtransact
theiraffairs.Subsequently,outofshame,thewomenwhohadmarriedbeneaththeir
socialclassbegantoemulatetheunmarriedwomenandalsostartedtomakepublic
transactions,andsothesightofwomenpubliclyunveilingpartoftheirfacessoon
becomeanestablishedcustom.123ItisnotveilingitselfthatPlutarchindsanomalous
amongtheChalkidianwomen,butthefactthatintheabsenceofmentheyare
compelledtopartiallyunveilandconductmalebusiness.
Inasimilarvein,attributedtoPlutarchisaratheravant-gardeveilingtradition
thatwaspractisedinearlySpartaatthetimeofkingKharillos,acontemporaryof
Lykourgos.IntheSayingsoftheSpartansitisstated,
Whensomeoneaskedwhythey[theSpartans]tooktheirgirlsintopublicareasunveiled
(akaluptous), but their married women veiled (egkekalummenas), he [Kharillos] said,
Becausethegirlshavetoindhusbands,andthemarriedwomenhavetokeepthose
whohavethem!124

ThestorydoesnotsuggestthatSpartanveilingisnecessarilyoutoftheordinary
butinsteadheassumesthatSpartaispartofalongpan-hellenictraditionwhereby
womenarehabituallyveiledinaccordancewithestablishednotionsofsophrosyne
andaidos(andwehavenotedthatHomeralsoreferstoveiledSpartanwivesand
thatearlyLakonianiconographicevidencetestiiestotheuseoftheveil).125Kharillos
explicitlystatesthatthereasonwhySpartanwivesareveiledisinorderthattheystay
loyallyandmodestlychastefortheirhusbands;sothereasoningbehindveilingthe
wivesofSpartaisfundamentallynodifferentfromanyotherveil-society,ancient
ormodern.Theshock-factorcomesintoplaywiththementionoftheSpartangirls
(mensdaughtersandsisters)whoaretakenintopublicareasunveiledinadeliberate
bidforthemtobeseenbymenandsubsequentlymarriedoff.126Thepublicdisplay
ofthefaces(andigures)ofyoungwomenisinaccordwithPlutarchslargeragenda
ofenvisioningLakoniansocietyasbeingemphaticallyandessentiallydifferentfrom
other Greek communities, adivergence that is well emphasized by the Spartan
treatmentofwomen.127
ConcerningthewiderPeloponnese,Athenaeus(quotingPythaenetus)notesthe
startling effect that unveiling had on (male) observers of Peloponnesian girls in
generalwhoappeareduncoveredinpublic:
PythaenetusinthethirdbookofhisOnAeginasaysthatPeriandersawinEpidaurusthe
daughterofProkles,Melissa,dressedinPeloponnesianfashionthatissheworenoveil
(anampekhonos)butwasdressedinasimplechitonwhilesheactedaswine-pourerfor
theworkmenintheields.Andfallinginlovewithher,hemarriedher.128

Incontrasttothelimited(andearly)LakonianandPeloponnesianiconographic
evidence,Melissa,itseems,merelyaccommodatedtotypicalPeloponnesian(and
perhaps Spartan) customs for young women. If Plutarch and Athenaeus can be
believed(andthereisnoreasontodismisstheirevidencesummarily),theartistic
representations may show only married mortal women or goddesses. Melissas
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Veiledandashamed
appearanceinmalesocietywithoutherveiliscondonedbyPeloponnesiansociety;
thegirlappearsincloseproximitytostrangemenasshepoursthemwine,andit
isclearthatsheisonparadewiththehoped-forresultthatmarriagetooneofthe
mensheserveswillfollow,asindeedisthecase,albeitshedoesnotmarryalocal
man,butaKorinthianstranger.
Outside the Peloponnese, the more familiar notion of awoman carefully
observingtheetiquetteofveilingisplayedonbyApolloniusRhodius,whodepicts
Medeagazingatthemuch-desiredJasonfrombehindherveil:
themaiden,lookingsidewaysbehindhershiningveil(kaluptren),glancedathimwith
wanderingeyes.Herheartsmoulderedwithpainashelefthersightandhersoulcrept
outofherasinadreamandlutteredinhissteps.129

It is clear that women need to be vigilant with their veils and awell-known
anecdotefromPlutarch(onceagainconcerningTheano)emphasizesthepoint:
Theano,inthrowingonhermantle-veil,exposedherforearm.Somebodyexclaimed,
Alovelyforearm!Butnotforthepublic,shesaid.130

UnfortunatelywedonotknowhoworwhenortowhatdegreeGreekwomen
veiledwhenconfrontedbycertainindividuals(maleorfemale),butenoughevidence
suggeststhatwomencoveredthemselvesinfrontofstrangemen,althoughwecan
gather little else from the texts or iconographic sources to ascertain some of the
morenuancedaspectsofGreekveiling.Abriefinvestigationintoveilingpractices
inmodernsocietiesmaysupplyideasonhowtheGreekveilfunctionedandwhat
messagesitmayhaveconveyed.
Ethnography reveals that veiling is situational and that modern women, just
like their ancient counterparts, will automatically veil at appropriate moments,
inparticularsituations,andinfrontofcertainpeople.WomeninGhanyarihave
masteredadozenwaysofdrawingtheirveilsacrosstheirfacestodenoteadozen
degreesofrespectandSharmaevennotesthat,Ihaveseentheveilusedinsolently,
althoughitwouldbeimpossibletoachieveinwordsjusthowtheeffectofinsolence
wasachieved.131
Sowhiletheveilde-personalizeswomen,itdoesnotleavethemwithoutameans
ofself-expression.ResearchundertakenontheTuaregoftheSaharahasstressedthe
roleoftheveilasameansofcommunicatinganindividualsdispositionandsocial
situationand,eventhoughthestudiesrelatetomaleveiling,theinformationoffered
onveilmanipulationasarelectionofmoodarestillpertinenttothestudyofveiled
women.HenriLhotesinquiryintotheTuareghasnotedthat,
Thereisapsychologyoftheveil;bythewayinwhichitisset,onecangetanideaof
themoodofthewearer Thereisthereservedormodeststyleusedwhenoneenters
acampwheretherearewomen,theelegantandrecherchstyleforgoingtocourting
parties,thehaughtymannerofwarriorsconsciousoftheirownimportancethereis
alsothedetachedandlaxfashionofthejovialfelloworthedisorderedoneofthe
unstablemanofirritablecharacter.Theveilmayalsoexpressatransientsentiment.For
example,itisbroughtuptotheeyesbeforeawomanorprestigiouspersons,whileitis

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Chapter6
asignoffamiliaritywhenitislowered.Tolaughfromdelightwithajoke,theTuareg
willliftupthelowerpartofhisveilveryhighonhisnose,and,inthecaseofirritation,
willtightenitlikeachin-straptoconcealhisanger.132

Tuaregmenveilspeciicallyfortwospeciicreasons,bothofwhichhavemoreto
dowithsocialnecessitythanwithpersonalfeelings:irstly,theyalwaysveilinfront
ofwomenand,secondly,theyveilformenwhoaretheirsocialsuperiors.Outside
Tuaregsociety,thesamerulesapplytowomeninotherveil-societies;theyhabitually
veilforthosehigherupthesocialladderandgenerallyveilbeforeallmenwhoare
strangersorfamilymemberswhomeritrespect.
IntheYemen,womenrelaxtheirveilingwhentheyarealone,whentheyarewith
otherwomen,orwithmenofmahram(malekinwhoareboundbyanincesttaboo,
thatis,inarelationshipofunmarriageabilitytothewomen).Womenveilinthe
presenceofstrangemen,thosewhoarenotmahram(as,intheGreeksources,do
Penelope,Helen,Nausikaa,andIphigeneia,tonamebutafew).Awomansmahrim
(thepluralofmahram)compriseoffather,brother,son,fathersbrother,mothers
brother,brothersson,sistersson,andsucklingbrother(amanwhosharedthesame
wetnurseasthewoman).133AsimilarsituationisapparentinAfghanistanwherethe
limitofincestprohibitionisthebeginningofinteractionalmodiicationbyveiling,
seclusionandotheracts.Awomancannotmarry(andisthereforenotsecludedfrom)
menwhoareascendantordescendenttoher,theirbrothers,orhersistershusbands.
Thesemen,amongothers,areatonetimeoranotherkorwala(home-inhabitants)
andwithinakorcontext,relationsareunveiled.Outsidethatgroup,menandwomen
onlyinteractwitheachotherthroughthedirectiveofveilingandseclusionsothatthe
socialarenaissharplydividedintothosewhosharethesamekor(domesticquarters
andnatalormaritalafines)andthosewhoveilfromeachother.134
ThecomplexitiesofveilingprescriptionswithinBedouinsocietyisbothsituationalandvoluntaryandwomendonotnecessarilyseeveilingasaninstitutionforced
onthembymen.Indeed,ifanyonebesidesawomanherselfhastheliabilityfor
imposingtheuseofthefaceveil,itisotherwomen,for,theyguidenovices(brides)
along,teasingyoungwomenforveilingformenwhodontdeservetheirdeference
andcriticizingthemforfailingtoveilformenwhodo.135Thereisapossibilitythat
femalegroupscouldhaverespondedinasimilarwayinancientGreeksocieties.136
Ceasingtoveilthefacecanbeinterpretedasabidforstatusandtheonlycategory
ofpeopleforwhomwomenusuallyveilarestrangersandnon-kin.YetinBedouin
society,unlikeAfghanandYemenitraditions,womengenerallyveilfortheirfathers,
elderunclesandcousinsandolderafines.Ifawomansfatherisdeadandtheleadershipofafamilyhasbeeninheritedbyherelderbrother,thewomanwillmostlikely
veilforhim,butwomendonotgenerallyveilfortheirhusbands,youngerbrothers
andcousinsormenoflowerrankthantheirhusbands.Theprincipleoperatinghere
isthatwomenwillnotveilforthoselowerinthesocialhierarchy,onlythosewho
haveauthorityoverthemmeritthisrespect.Thesystemislexible,however,allowing
womentojudgerelativestatusandeventonegotiatestatus.137
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Veiledandashamed
InnorthernIndia,wheretheactofghungatispractisedonlybyamarriedwoman,
anunmarriedgirlisexpectedtokeepherheadandshoulderscoveredwithherveil,
althoughshedoesnothavetodrawherveilacrossherfaceforanyoneanditisonly
duringtheweddingcelebrationsthatherfaceisirstcoveredbyacloth.Butfrom
thatpointonshewillobserveastrictcodeofetiquettetowardstheoldermenof
hercommunity.Shewillnevershowherfacetoherhusbandsfather,tohiseldest
brother,ortoanyofhisseniormalekin.Herhusbandsyoungerbrothersandjunior
kinmayseeherfacealthoughshewillveilherselffromthehusbandsofherhusbands
sistersandfromthemalekinofhermother-in-law.Shedoesnotveilherselffromher
childrensparents-in-law,fromherownmother-in-law(norfromanyotherwoman)
norfromherownsistershusbands(althoughtheseadditionalprescriptionscanbe
foundinothersocieties).
Itisclearthattherearenohardandfastrulesaboutwhoveilsforwhom,but
generally the operating principle seems to be that women veil for men who are
unrelatedbytiesofbloodordomesticbondingandformenofhighsocialstatus.In
thecaseoftheAwladAliandGhanyariwomenthough,thesetwocategoriesseem
tobeintertwinedandtherespectthatwomenshowtotheseniormenofawomans
maritalfamilyrelectstheideathatthemenarenotapartofherbloodfamilyand
thattheyarealsohersocialsuperiors.Inmostveil-societiesasawomangetsolder,
shewillindherselfhavingtoveilbeforefewerandfewerpeople,sincetherewillbe
eitherfewermenaliveinthecommunitywhoareseniortoherhusbandorherown
blood-familyincreasesinsize.Awomansprogressiveincorporationintohermarital
groupisparalleledbyadiminutionofthedepersonalisingsymbolismoftheveil.
Whileyoungbridesmaylookinterchangeable,mothersdonot.138
WehavelittleideaifancientGreekwomenveiledonlyinfrontofunrelatedmen
orwhethertheconventionwasextendedtoincludecertainmalemembersofthe
familyoreventootherwomen.Abridesdeferencetohernewfatherinlaw,andeven
herhusband,mighthavebeendemonstratedbyanabjectdisplayofstrictveilingfor
theirstfewmonthsfollowingherwedding,butthesourcesareabsolutelysilenton
whetheraveileddeferencewastobeobservedbythebridetowardstheotherinhabitantsofhernewhousehold.Nordowedeinitelyknowifawifeordaughterveiled
beforeherkin,butbalancingtheHomericandclassicalsourceswiththeanthropologicalevidence,Isuggestthatthiswouldbeunlikely.Itisimpossibletomakeany
irmjudgementsontheuseoftheveilinvariousGreeksocietiesinawaythatmight
correspond to modern evidence, but it is nevertheless useful to speculate on the
complexitiesofveilingthatmighthavebeenemployedbyGreekwomentoconvey
their social awareness and their individual reactions to social situations. Homeric
evidencecentredonthecharactersofPenelope,Nausikaa,andHelensuggestthat
thereasonsforveilingcouldbehighlynuanced,andpost-Homerictextsoccasionally
conirmtheuseofveilingasanindicationoffemalealertnesstosocialconventions.
Asanactwithinherpower,veilingisawomanswayofencasingherbodywithin
the restrictive and protective conines mandated by her culture. She veils herself,
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Chapter6
therebysituatingherselfinherproperpositioninthesocialhierarchy.Inveil-societies
theveilisbothasignalofawomansownauthorityandpowerandasignofher
weaknessandpowerlessness(relative,thatis,tomen).Butwhileontheonehand
sheretainsthepowertoveilherheadorface,inthatsheveilsherself,ontheother,
thiscannotbeallowedtomasktheideologyofveiling(ancientandmodern)asaway
ofeffectingthesubordinationofwomen.Byveilingherself,awoman(willingly?)
implicatesherselfintheideologythatjustiiesherseparationfrommalesocietyand
thecontrolplacedoverherasaweak,dangerous,andpollutingelementofsociety.
Conclusion
Itisclear,then,thattheveilincreasedasenseofaidosinwomenwhotookitupon
themselves to veil in accordance with established social norms and, in addition,
veilingactivatedafeelingofaidosinothers.Veilingallowedawomantorespondto
asocialsituationand,nodoubt,differingdegreesofveilingperformedinfrontof
avarietyofpeoplehighlightedfemaleresponsetoissuesofstatusandself-expression.
Whilenowrittenlawcodesappeartohaveforcedwomentoveilinpublic,astrong
notionthatveilingwasrequiredanddesiredforwomeninpublicseemstohavebeen
inherentin(male)Greekthought.Womenprobablyacquiescedtothatdictumoutof
fearoftheconsequencesoroutoftheirownconceptionthattheveilaffordedthem
respectabilityand,indeed,acertaindegreeofindependenceofexpression.
Notes

SeeAnderson1982,398.
Il.3.13945.Trans.Lattimore1951,withamendments.
3
Od.10.4855.
4
Goffman1956,497.
5
Hani1980,10312notesthatthewordaidosisalmostuntranslatable,likesomanyother
culturally-speciicwordsthatarepregnantwithmultipleandsecondarymeanings.Theword
containstheconceptsofmodesty,shame,fear,respectandhonour.Cairnsbalancedand
thoroughstudieshaverevealedarichandnuancedwordandhaveexposedamyriadofways
inwhichaidosfunctionedasapowerfulsocialentity,butitisimportanttostressthatthe
ideologyofaidosliesattheheartoffemaleveiling.Somuchso,infact,thatitisimpossible
toseparateaidosfromanyotherreasonsforveiling.Furtherstudiesofaidosareprovidedby
Eckstein1981,3513;Riedinger1980,6279;Ferrari1990and1997;andLvy1995.
6
ThewordsreserveandrespectarepreferredtomodestyandhonourbyElGuindi
1999,83.Ithinkthatallfourwordsareequallyapplicableandthatonesetoftermsdoes
notcancelouttheother.
7
Cairns1993,2.
8
Cairns1996b.79:aijdwv"is...fundamentallyathomeinreciprocalrelationships.
9
Ibid. 18. This present study is particularly concerned with the connection between
womenandaidos,anassociationthatemphasizesfemininecoynessandmodestyanddiverges
frommasculineconnotationsoftheterm,since,intheGreekconception,womenofall
classescanbedescribedasaidoie,ordeservingaidos.
1
2

180

Veiledandashamed
Cairns1993,121.
Eur.Hcld.414;Ph.934.
12
Eur.Hec.443;Tro.773,1041,1114;Or.11819,1154,13612.
13
Eur.Andr.220,238,244,8768.
14
Lys.1.223;Demost.47.53;Isaeus3.314.
15
Eur.Ph.127680,1691;Hcld.4747.SeefurtherCairns1993,30714.Modestyis
alsoarequirementforyoungmen.See,forexample,Aesch.1.26;Xen.Lac.Pol.3.4.Interestingly,KabyleproverbsstatethatShameisthemaidenandthatanewson-in-lawisthe
veilcastovershame.CitedinCohen1991,58n.102.
16
Eur.IA13404.
17
See,forexample,Fisher1992,111;Ferrari1990,185200;Reeder1995,299ff.The
harnessingoffemalesexualitybymeansofseclusion,segregation,veiling,orconstantsurveillanceisafundamentalprescriptofthekindofsocietyclassedbyMurdock1965,273asone
inwhichastronginternalizationofsexualprohibitionsduringthesocializationprocess
operates.BothancientGreekandsomemodernIslamicsocietiesfallwithinhisdeinition.
18
SeeAmin1928.
19
SeeinparticularMernissi1975andBrooks1995.Thesamefearisexpressedinthe
GreekmythofTeiresias.
20
Abu-Lughod1988,78.ContraElGuindi1999whocriticizesAbu-Lughodsfocuson
modestyasadistortionofculturalidentityandasareductionistreading.Shearguesthat
translatingsuchqualitiesashashamandtahshashudasmodestystressesthewrongquality
becausefemalesexualityisnotascentraltotheconceptofwomanhoodasarethenotionsof
respect,privacyandidentity.Shealsoarguesthatthewordseclusiondoesnotadequately
account for female separation in Muslim society and prefers the word sanctuary. But
Isuggestthatthisistooversimplifyandmakeover-optimistictheIslamicviewofdangerous
femalesexuality.
21
Abu-Lughod1988,78134.
22
Ibid.152.
23
ForsophrosyneseeEur.Hcld.4747;Andr.235,365,594,595601;Tro.1027;Hel.
932;Pho.1692.ForfemalesophrosyneseeNorth1966,6971,74.
24
Eur.Andr.645ff.
25
Jeffrey1979.
26
Maturemenaresometimesdepictedwithbowedheadsandloweredeyeswhenstanding
beforegodsoraltars,whileyoungermenmightadopttheposeinfrontoftheirmaleelders.
Themaindifferencewasthatmenwerenotexpectedtokeeptheireyesandheadslowered
atalltimes.InMuslimtraditiontheconspicuouslyloweredeyesofawomanisreferredto
aseyemodestyoreyepurdah.SeeChowdhry1994,287.
27
Eur.Tro.6546.
28
Eibl-Eibesfeldt 1989, 170. He emphasizes (p. 335) that human social interaction is
simultaneously both arousing and frightening, although the latter quality is not always
subjecttoanegativeexperience,sincewereactwithshynesstospeciiccharacteristicsof
theotherparty,andthedispositiontobehavethiswayisoneoftheuniversalsofhuman
behaviour.
29
Japanese women in particular are prone to this action, which clearly relates to the
Japaneseconceptofthesilentwomanandtotheancientbeliefthatthefemalevoiceand
laugharepolluted.TheJapaneselanguagehastermsforlaughterthoughtappropriateonly
forwomen:ohohoisafemale-onlylaughofgreatrestraint,whichismadewiththehandover
10
11

181

Chapter6
themouth.SeeMcNeil1998,243.
30
SeeEibl-Ebesfeldt1989,337.
31
Langner 1959, 76 understood the link between modesty and clothing as conditionswheresexualmodestycomesintoplay,wheresomethingisrevealedinpublic,and
something is covered up. Uncover that which is usually covered up in public, and you
becomeimmodest.
32
vanWees1998a,347ff.
33
In much the same way that fans were used in Europe in the 17th, 18th and 19th
centuries.
34
Theliteratureonmalenudityisenormous,butseeinparticularRidgeway1996,901;
Spivey1996,11213;Stewart1990,79,106and1997,26ff.;Bonfante1989,54370;
Osborne 1998, 80104. Ifollow Osbornes argument that male nudity in Greek art is
asymbolicconstructthatrepresentstheheroicandmaturemaleandworksalongsidethe
imageofthebeardlessyouth.Idonotagreethatmengenerallywalkedaroundnakedindaily
life,butthatnuditywasanacceptedpartofathleticsocietyatthegymnasiumandother
sportingeventsandnodoubtwasacentralelementofthepublicritualoflookingatboys
genitalswhichsodelightedPhilokleon(Ar.Wasps578).Itishighlylikelythatpeopleeven
turnedablindeyetoanopenrobeorcarelesslywrappedhimationatanight-timerevel,but
IindithardtobelievethatnakedAthenianmalesparadedalongsidevulnerablemaidens
uptothetempleofAtheneduringtheGreatPanatheneia.Malenuditywasacceptablein
controlledcontexts:wheretheAtheniancouncilinspectedthebodiesofyoungmen,orat
placeswherewomenwerebannedfromentering.Moreover,theGreekwordaidoiaused
forsexualorgans(liketheLatinpudenda)testiiesthatmalenuditywasnottotallyaccepted.
LSJs.v.aijdoi'on. SeefurtherFerrari1990,189.
35
SeeFerrari1997.Shestates(p.6)thatthemosttheatricaldisplayofaidosismadebythe
all-envelopingmantle,whichcoversavarietyofcharactersonpaintedvasesandinsculpture.
Althoughitiswornbymalesinparticularstatesofgrief,shame,orparticipationinrituals,
thisismostoftenthegarboffemalesandboysand,initsextremeformreachesuptothe
mouth.Itisunclearwhethersheregardsthemantle(shedoesnotusethewordveil)asan
itemofdailydress,sincetheclosingparagraphofher1990article(p.200)saysconfusingly,
thereremainsonelastpointtobemadealthoughitmaynowbeobvious:thepictureof
theenvelopingmantledoesnotrefertoclothesbuttotheigureitcovers.Thisseemsto
suggestthatsheunderstandstheimageofthemantlediguretobeasymbolicconstructbut
notrootedinreal-lifeexperience.
36
SeeHdt.1.8.34andthediscussionbyCairns1996a,81.
37
Ibid.SeealsoFerrari1990,198.
38
Dio.Laer.8.43:
39
AsFerrari1990,199200notes,Aidosdoesforthesocialpersonawhatthemantle
[i.e.veil]doesforthepersonwearingit:within,itconcealstheshame,theconsciousness
ofbeingatfaultthatengendersrespectandsubmission;initsoutwardpresence,itshields,
bysettingaboundarynottobetransgressed.TheRomannotionofpudicitiawaslikewise
embodiedinawomansdress,especiallythestolawhichwasdesignedtoindicatethemodest
respectabilityofthewearer.FromthereignofAugustus,thestolabecamethecorrectcostume
formatronsandwasseenasthefemaleequivalentofthemaletoga.Liketheveil,thestola
alsocarriedamessage,foritpronouncedclearlytheinherentrespectability,chastityand
maritalidelityofthewearer,anddonningthegarmentconferredesteemuponawoman.
IllustratingtheimportanceofpudicitiainRomanhistory,ValeriusMaximus(6.1)begins

182

Veiledandashamed
hisstudywithahymnicinvocationtothepersoniicationoftheconceptanddeclaresthat,
Becauseofyourguardianshipthematronsstolahasitsvalue.FortheideologyoftheRoman
stolaseeSebesta1998.ForadiscussionofpudicitiaseeWilliams1999,97ff.
40
Plut. Mor. 139C 910. Cf. Pl. Rep. 457.6. For Plutarchs pro-marriage stance see
Nikolaidis1997.
41
IamgratefultoAnastasiaSerghidouforallowingmetoreadherunpublishedpaper
Mens cloaks and womens robes: the politics of dress, delivered at the conference on
Womens Dress in the Ancient Greek World at Hay-On-Wye in May 1999, in which she
discussedtherelevantPlutarchianpassage.Fortheunveilingofthebride,seeChapter8.
42
Xen.Mem.2.1.212.
43
SeeFerrari1990,189.
44
Eur.Andr.82931.
45
Ibid.832.
46
Ibid.8335.SeecommentsbyAllen2000,187.HeiswronginthinkingthatHermiones action of unveiling and disrobing eroticizes her and places her in the position of
aconcubine.
47
See Mernissi 1975, 144. In northern India an unveiled woman is said to go about
exposingherbreaststogetherwithherface.SeeChowdhry1994,283.
48
SeePapanek1973,283325,esp.297.
49
Eur.IT3723.SeefurtherCairns1993,307n.150,310,318n.201.
50
Eur.Phoe.148591.
51
Aelian,VariaHist.12.47.
52
Onthispassageseeinparticular,Cairns1993,32140,esp.322n.212forprevious
interpretations. He argues that aidos is one of the fundamental elements of Phaedras
motivation.
53
Eur.Hip.23947.Thewordagain(palin)suggeststhatalthoughPhaedrasheadmust
havebeenveiledwhenindoors,herfacewasunveiledassheenteredthescenebecausethe
chorusnoteshercolourandfacialexpression(172,180).But,asBarrett1964(1992),206
suggests,nowthequeenseekstohidehertearsandherlookofshame,andseemstoenvisage
areversiontoaveilingmorecompletethanshecanhavehadat175and172.
54
SeeCairns1993,3323andSegal1970,2818.
55
Pl.Phaedr.237a,243b.FormensveilingandaidosseealsoEur.Her.115962;Or.
45961;Pl.Phaedo117c;Aesch.1.26.SeealsoFisher2001,1556.
56
Abu-Lughod1986,165notes,toshowrespectforthatsocialorderandthepeoplewho
representit,womenmustdenytheirsexuality.
57
Sharma1978,21833,esp.226,notesthatveilingasasymbolofsocialdecorumis
stronglydidactic,butthatindividualinstancesofveilingdonotnecessarilyneedtohaveany
meaning;awomanwillveilherselffrommen(andsometimesevenfromotherwomen)
simplybecausesheisfeelingshy,althoughthecomplexrulesofveiling-etiquettewillhave
been made clear to her and will have taught her that there are certain (usually public)
occasionswhenitisproperforawomantofeelshy.MuchthesameistrueofBedouin
women,asAbu-Lughod1986,1612suggests:Theinalindicationofveilingsassociationwithsexualityisthatwomenresorttoitwhenembarrassedbyreferencestosexuality
eveninthecompanyofmenforwhomtheyordinarilydonotveil.Duringmyirstvisitto
theBedouinhouseholdinwhichIwaslatertolive,Inaivelypulledoutmynotebookand
askedtheheadofthehouseholdwhowasmarriedtowhom.Allthewomenpresentblushed
andpulledtheirveilsovertheirfaces.IrealizedIhaddonesomethingwrong,butitwas

183

Chapter6
along time before Iunderstood what At agathering of kinswomen brought together
byawedding,anolderwomanbeganteasinghernephewabouthismaritallife.Atthis
pointintheconversation,theyoungerwomen,whohadbeensittingapartwiththeirbacks
totheman,suddenlyveiledandmovedtoanotherroom.Inanotherinstance[awoman]
suddenlypaledandpulledherveiloverherfacewhentheone-and-a-half-year-olddaughter
oftheseniorlineageheadwithwhomshewassittingrevealedabarebottomassheplayed
nearby.
58
Tarlo1996,160.
59
Seebelow,Chapter8.
60
FornomosseePlatoLaws700b,722e,734e,775b,799e.Agooddeinitionofnomoscan
befoundinCartledge,MillettandTodd(eds.)1990,2312.Cf.LSJs.v.nomov".
61
Eur.Hec.9745.
62
ThedevelopmentoftheearlyIslamicpatriarchyiswelldiscussedbyMernissi1987,
238ff.
63
Cohen1991,98.ContraTodd1993,63,whoarguesthatreligionandtheoikosexist
onlywithinthelimitsofthepolis.
64
OnthisseeCohen1991,99.
65
Theliteratureonthisisenormous,butforsomegoodoverviewsseeOgden1996,136ff.
and1997;Cohen1991,98ff.;Patterson1998,107ff.;Foxhall1990.
66
See,forexample,Aesch.AgainstTimarchos107;Arist.Rhet.1373a35.
67
ThisisacommonfeatureoflifeinGreekmountainvillagesintherecentpast.Seein
particularCampell1964,1601,240,2659,308.ForatreatmentofAthenianpunishment
seeAllen2000.
68
Fisher1998,77.Hearguesthatwhilewife-beatingisnotexplicitlyreferredtointhe
sources,itseemsunlikelythatitdidnotoccurprettyroutinely.Thatisnottodenythat
goodmaritalrelationshipsandhappyfamilyhomesroutinelyexisted.Obviouslyabalance
needstobestruck.Weshouldrememberthatlaw(writtenorcustomary)byitsverynature
emphasizes prohibition and consequently fails to emphasize the positive and thus the
arguments for female chastity are always presented negatively. For adiscussion of good
maritalrelationshipsandlovingfamilygroupsseeLefkowitz1996,6782.Itisinterestingto
note,however,thatinMuslimthoughtwomenshouldbetheobjectofmalesexualpleasure
butshouldnotbeobjectsofemotionalinvolvement.Allahrequiresthetruebelieverstotal
love:Emotionalattachmentdividesamansheart,andAllahhathnotcreatedmanwith
twoheartsinhisbody(Koran3.4).Lovebetweenahusbandandwifeisdangeroustothe
believersreligiousdevotion.
69
Il.15.1633.
70
Semonides7.
71
Eur.Med.242.
72
Aes.Lys.51021.
73
Eur.Fr.497.
74
Plut.Alc.8.
75
Charit.Call.1.4.12.Romanauthorstendtospeakmorebluntlyaboutthephysical
abuseofwomenandValeriusMaximus(6.3.912)inparticulareulogizestheby-gonedays
whenwife-beaterswereregardedasnobleupholdersofpublicmorality.Themostremarkableevidenceforwife-beating(astonishingbecauseofitsintenselypersonalnature)comes
fromtheConfessionsofStAugustinewhosemother,Monica,sufferedyearsofabuseatthe
handsofherbrutishhusbandPatricius.Yetsheborehersufferingwell,notleastbecauseshe

184

Veiledandashamed
wasnotaloneinhertormentsforAugustinemakesitclearthatmanywivesanddaughters
inThagasteenduredsimilarlifestyles:Manywomenborethedisiguringmarksofblows
evenontheirfacesAndsotheyusedtomeettogetherandcomplainofthebehaviourof
theirhusbands(Augustine,Confessions9.19.Trans.Pine-Cofin1961).Agoodtreatmentof
thesubjectisprovidedbyClark1998.SeealsoPower1995,71ff.;Arjava1996,1302.
76
CitedinGoodwin1994,264.
77
InnorthernIndiaacommonlyheardmaximisbeatuptheshamelesshussy,anditis
oftenusedasadvicetoahusbandwhohasanon-conformingwife.Beatingofwomenis
verymuchpartofIndianruralcultureandisacceptedbywomenasamatterofcourse.To
understandthisideology,anotherproverbisuseful:Aquarrelbetweenamarriedcoupleisof
noconsequence.Thereforeneighboursrarely(ifever)interferewithdomesticviolenceand,
infact,thewifeherselfresentsoutsideintervention.FordetailsseeChowdhry1994,278ff.
Abu-Lughod1986,89putsaninterestingspinonthesituationandrevealsthatamongthe
AwladAli,maletoughnessisadmiredand,toacertaindegree,womenliketheconceptof
realmenandgenerallysharemaleidealizationofdomesticpower.Butbothmenandwomen
condemnexcessiveuseofdomesticviolence.InEgyptiansocietyifahusbandisknownas
arealmanwhocontrolshishouseandjealouslyguardshiswife,shehasnoopportunity
tobetrayhimandisthereforehonourable.SeevanNieuwkerk1995,162ff.
78
SeediscussionsinAbuOdeh1993.
79
ValeriusMaximus6.3.10.Trans.ShackletonBailey(Loeb)2000,withamendments.
InhisRomanQuestions(Mor.267C14),PlutarchmakesreferencetotheSulpiciusGallus
incident but states that he divorced his wife because he saw her pull her clothing over
herhead.WhetherhehasmisunderstoodValeriusMaximusorisusinganothersourceis
uncertain.However,PlutarchcouldbesuggestingthatGallussawhiswifepubliclyunveiled
butasshesawhimshebegantocoverherhead,althoughthisisunlikely,forhestatesthat
formerly[i.e.,inthedaysofValeriusMaximus]womenwerenotallowedtoveiltheirheads
atall.Thisisratherstrange.
80
Thepressureonwomentoconformtoconventionisfrequentlyemphasizedbyother
women.Cohen1991,161notesthat,womensinformationnetworksplayacentralrole
inthepoliticsofreputation Literarysourcesportraywomensgossipasamediumfor
fosteringordestroyingotherwomensreputations.
81
See Ogden 2002. The hellenistic dress codes have been studied by Mills 1984 and
Culham1986.ThedresslawsareconvenientlycollectedtogetherinSoklowski1968.
82
Athen.521b=PhylarchusFGH81F45.
83
SeePouilloux1954,no.155(late4thcentury).
84
Sokolowski1962,91.
85
Dittenberger1915,736and939.
86
Dillon1997,197.
87
However,priestessesofDemeterinAsiaMinorareportrayedveiled(usually,itappears,
intheshaal-veil).Thismightbebecausethepriestessidentiiesherselfwiththegoddess.See
PfuhlandMbius19779nos.403,407,409,410.SimilarlypriestessesinthecultofIsis
werecoveredbyalightlinenveil.SeeApuleius,Met.11.10andPfuhlandMbius,19779
no.222.
88
QuotedinAl-Khayyat1990,25.
89
See,forexample,Goodwin1994,107,109,2478,2823.
90
SeeCairns1996a.
91
Ibid.153.

185

Chapter6
Cairns1996a.
See,forexample,RobinsonandFluck1937andBoardman1992.
94
SeeIl.13.95,15.502,16.422.Seefurther,Cairns1993,68.
95
Cairns1993,70.
96
Ferrari1990,186.
97
Hes.W&D197201(leukoi'sin favressi kaluyamevnw).
98
TheRomansalsohadatraditionthatthebridesveilwasassociatedwithanactof
betrayal.Commentingonthecustomofveilingthebrideshead,thelexicographerFestus
(174.24L,s.v.nuptias)notedthattheactofcoveringthehead(andtheverbobnubere)was
identicaltotheactofcoveringtheheadsofparricides:AeliusandCincius[onthederivation
ofnuptias]:sincetheheadofthebrideisveiled[obvolvatur]withalame-colouredveil,[an
act]thattheancientstermedobnubere.Forthisreason[theysay]thatthelawalsobidsveil
[obnubere]theheadofhimwhohasslainaparent,thatistosay,obvolvere.Boththebride
andtheparricideareguiltyofbreakingthebondwiththefather.
99
Paus.3.20.1011.Trans.Levi1971,withamendments.
100
LIMC s.v. Aidos. The name of the seated woman in the statue type is certain. See
Boardman 1985, 51; see also Cairns 1996a, 155 and n.37; Buitron-Oliver and Cohen
1995,438.
101
Neumann1965,139andig.69.
102
Buitron-OliverandCohen1995,46.
103
Ibid.47.
104
SeeMustiandTorelli1991.ItisarguedthatthefemaleigureofAidosislinkedtothe
cultofHades/AidoneusandthatthestatueofAidoswasavestigeofapre-existingcultof
Hades.Theremaywellhavebeensomeconfusioninfactaboutthereadingandwritingof
thewordAIDEUS (Hades)inscribedonastatue.FordetailsseeRicher1999.
105
SeealsoOd.4.623.
106
FortheRomanimageryofPudicitiaseeDAmbra1993,56ff.Shenotes(p.57,n.29)
that,AsdepictedinAtticvasepainting,thegestureofliftingtheveil(torevealtheface)
mayindicatesexualavailability InRomanart,however,thegestureofdrawingtheveil
(tocovertheface)usuallyexpressesmodestyorchastity.Shethereforesuggeststhatthe
motifinGreekartstandsforunveiling,butRomanartusesthesamedevicetoshowveiling
andthatthereforetheGreekgesturespeaksofsexualitywhiletheRomanonetellsoffemale
modesty.ThisisaratherstrangeandunnecessaryseparationofwhatisobviouslyaRoman
continuationofaGreekdevice.
107
Davies2002.IamgratefultoGlenysDaviesforallowingmetoreadherunpublished
paperTherepresentationoffemalemodestythroughposeanddressinclassicalartwhich
containsmuchofvalue,includingaverygooddiscussionoftheimageryofPudicitia.
108
Contra Osborne 1994 who suggests that the Aphrodite of Knidos says nothing to
women.
109
Evenwhentrueportraitstatuesofwomenbecamemorecommoninthehellenistic
period,theappearanceoftheveiledheadwasanessentialpartoftheacceptableiconography
eventhoughtheportraitfeaturescouldnotbemaskedbyaveil.SeeSmith1991,836,igs.
11116.ForpublicimagesofwomeninthehellenisticperiodseevanBremen1996.
110
Eur.Med.23840.SeealsoSoph.fr.583.
111
vanWees1995,156.Lateiner1995,256isinagreement:Hertact,aconvenientname
forverbalandnonverbalsocialstrategies,couldnotbeimprovedon.OnPenelopesaidos
seeOd.18.184.
92
93

186

Veiledandashamed
Womenssenseofaidosshouldkeepthemawayfromsexuallychargedscenes.InOd.8
shynessofsexpreventsthegoddessesfromseeingtheconsequencesofAresandAphrodites
dangerousliaison.
113
Seebelow,Chapter10.
114
Od.4.12137;6.12,62,310;7.65,123,142,170;8.116,119,130,370.
115
Od.17.96100.
116
ThusitisconceivablethatHelenandAretealsowearveilsovertheirheads.
117
vanWees1995,15663.
118
Od.4.623.Theyaredescribedaskallikredemnoi.
119
Od.6.100.
120
Certainly,asCairns1993,123hasnoted,theprincesssenseofaidosandherownrealizationthatsheistreadingadelicatepathunderlinesthewholeepisode,anditwouldmake
sensetoenvisageNausikaare-enteringthepalacedisplayingthesamedecorumwithwhich
sheleftdespitethefactthatshehasastrangemanintow.SeealsoCairns1990.Oneofthe
scenesontheChestofKypselosatOlympiawasthoughtbyPausaniastodepictNausikaa
ridinginacart.5.19.9:Theythinktheyounggirlsinamule-cart,oneholdingthereins
andtheotherwithherheadveiled(kalummaepitekephale),areNausikaa,thedaughterof
Alkinoos,andherservant,drivingtothewashingplace.
121
Mor.302E303A.Trans.Babbitt(Loeb)1927,withamendments.
122
ForcommentsseeHalliday1928,1967.HenotesthatitwasaparticularlyGreek
approachtoexplainallcustomsastheconsequencesofaspeciiclegendaryorhistoricalevent.
Vogelsang-Eastwood19996a,22correctlynotesthatinthispassagewehaveclearevidence
thatChalkidianwomenusedahead-veilormantlewhichwaspulledoverthefaceratherthan
aspeciicface-veilwhichwouldhavetohaveremainedinplaceatalltimewheninpublic.
123
Owing to the small scale of the city, amilitary catastrophe may well have had farreaching consequences and could have resulted in some strange and outlandish social
changes.
124
Mor.232C.FortheproblemsofusingPlutarchasasourceforSpartanwomensee
Powell1999.
125
OnSpartannotionsofsophrosyneandaidos,seeHumble1999andRicher1999.
126
Foradiscussionoftheageofveilinggirlsseebelow,Chapter8.
127
Since,Plutarchstates,theSpartanssawnothingdisreputableaboutfemalenudity,but
actuallyreveredthecultofthefemalebody,theunveiledappearanceofyoungwomenof
marriageableage,wecanassume,wouldnotbethoughtshamefulorcompromising.His
non-SpartanreaderswerenodoubtmoreastonishedbyhisrevelationsofSpartanfeminine
authority,immodestyandtheabuseofregularveilingpractices.ForPlutarchscommentson
SpartanwomenseeespeciallyLyc.1415.MarioBick,inaseminal,butunpublishedpaper,
suggestedthataneroticstyleisnotnecessarilyessentiallyfemininebutoneassociatedwith
acertainpositioninwhathecallsthesexualmarketplace.ForBick,thesexualmarketplace
haslittletodowithmarriagepersebutisessentially,thearenainwhichpremaritaland
adulterinerelationshipsarecontracted.InhisanalysisofEuropeanpeasantwomenhenotes
thatwomenareondisplaybeforemarriageandtendtowearcolourfulclothingandexpose
theirhair.Aftermarriagetheirdresstendstobecomemoredrabandtheirhairisgenerally
hiddenundersomekindofveilorkerchief,indicatingthattheyarenottechnicallyavailable
foradultery.BickstheoryiscitedinGregersen1983,121.
128
Athen.Deip.589F.Trans.Gulick(Loeb)1933,withamendments.
129
Apoll.Rhod.Argo.3.4447.
112

187

Chapter6
Plut.Mor.142C;cf.Clem.Alexand.Strom.4.121.2.
SeeSharma1978,224.
132
Lhote1955,309.SeealsotheimportantstudiesofMurphy1964andHawad-Claudot
1992.
133
Markhlouf1979.ThefollowingKoranictext(24.31)isspeciicinitsdesignationof
whoisconsideredmahramtoawoman:thatthey[femininegender]shouldnotdisplay
theirbeautyandornamentsexceptwhat[mostordinarily]appearthereof;thattheyshould
drawtheirkhimar[head-veil]overtheirbosomsandnotdisplaytheirbeautyexcepttotheir
husbands,theirfathers,theirhusbandsfathers,theirsons,theirhusbandssons,theirbrothers
ortheirbrotherssons,ortheirsisterssons,ortheirwomen,ortheslaveswhomtheirright
handpossesses,ormaleslavesfreeofphysicalneeds[eunuchs],orunderagechildren.The
deinitionofmahramiselucidatedfurtherat4.23:Prohibitedtoyou[malegender]are
yourmothers,daughters,sisters,fatherssisters,motherssisters,brothersdaughters,sisters
daughters,sucklingmothers,sucklingsisters;yourwivesmothers;yourstep-daughters
underyourguardianship,bornofyourwives,wivesofyourbiologicalsons.SeefurtherEl
Guindi1999,85,98ff.
134
SeeAnderson1982,400ff.Henotesthatacrucialcaseisthepatrilateralparallelirst
cousinswhoareallowedtomarry.Ifacousinmarriageiscontemplatedhowever,greatcare
istakenfromchildhoodtopreventanydirectinteractionandsibling-likebonddeveloping
betweenthetwocousins.
135
SeeAbuLughod1988,159.
136
SeealsocommentsinAllen2000,182,n.102.
137
SeeAbuLughod1988,163.
138
SeeSharma1978,222.
130

131

188

7
APHRODITESTORTOISE:
VEILING,SOCIALSEPARATIONANDDOMESTICSPACE
ImagesofAphroditeusuallyshowherstandingalone,oftensemi-nakedorswathed
intransparentcloth.Sometimes,though,sheisrepresentedwithbirdsoranimals
thoughtappropriatetohercharacter:theelegantswan,orthepowerfulgooseorthe
potentbilly-goat.Onatleastoneoccasionsheisrepresentedplacingoneofherfeet
onthebackofatortoise(Fig.134).Theimageofthepowerfullove-goddessresting
herfootupontheshellofatortoiseisstrange.WhyisAphroditeassociatedwiththis
slow,ancient,andhumblecreature?WhatimageliesbehindAphroditestortoise?
TherearetwoancientGreektextswhichmentionthegoddessandhertortoise;
bothdescribeacertainstatueofAphroditecraftedbythemaster-sculptorPhidias
anderectedinthetownofElisinthenorth-westPeloponnese.Theirst,longer,text
comesfromPausanias:
Behindthestoabuiltfromthespoilstakenfrom
KerkyraisatempletoAphrodite;theprecinct
isintheopenairnotveryfarfromthetemple.
Inthetempleistheimageofthegoddesswhom
theycallOurania;itismadeofivoryandgold
anditistheworkofPhidias;itstandswithone
footuponatortoise.1

A briefer, but more intriguing, account is

providedbyPlutarchwhocommentsthat,
PhidiasrepresentedtheAphroditeoftheEleans
assteppingonatortoisetotypifyforwomankind
stayingathomeandkeepingsilent.2

PausaniasaccountcallsAphroditebyhercult
epithetOuraniaHeavenlyincontrastto
her other title, Pandemos Of the People
(orVulgar).3AsAphroditePandemosshewas
primarilyworshippedasthegoddessofsexand
lust and associated with prostitution, but as
AphroditeOuraniashewasreveredasanancient
andrespecteddeity,allinallagoodgirl.The
189

Fig.134.FragmentarystatueofAphrodite
standingwithonefootonthebackofatortoise.Marblesculpture(byorafterPhidias?),
latefifthcentury.Staat.Mus.BerlinSK1459.

Chapter7
EleanAphroditeisthepurerformofthegoddesswhorejectsunlawfulandsinful
lustinfavourofmarriedloveandwifelydevotion.Plutarchsaysthatthetortoise
onwhichsherestsherfootisthesymboloffemaleprivacyandsilence.Itisclear
fromtheoutsetthatthetypeofwomanbeingrepresentedbyPhidiasimageisquiet,
modest,andhusband-and-home-loving.
ButwhydoesAphroditeOuraniarestuponatortoiseandwhatdoesPlutarch
meanbysayingthatitisasymbolofawomanssilenceandprivacyathome?The
tortoisedoesnotappeartobeaparticularlyinspirediconforGreekwomanhood,but
onreflection,thenotionisparticularlyapt.4TheGreekshadapopularassumption
thatthetortoisewasamutecreature,and,moreover,thatalltortoiseswerefemale.
Soasasilentsex,thetortoiseisaperfectparadigmforGreekwomenwho,according
toGreekmen,shouldnotspeakinpublicorpreferablyeveninprivate.5
Thesilenttortoisestandsasanexampletowomanhoodtokeepquietandcause
notrouble,foritisonlyinthehandsofamanthatthismuteanimalhasthepower
ofvoice,becausetheshellofthetortoisewasfirstusedbyHermesasthesoundingboardforthelyrehepresentedtoApollo:Indeaththecreaturegotavoice,inlifeit
hadnone,saysthenymphKyllenetothebandofsatyrs,inSophoklesfragmentary
playTheTrackers.6Thetortoisesings,butonlyatthecommandofaman(orgod).7
Plutarchdevelopstheidea,assertingthat,
Awomanoughttodohertalkingeithertoherhusbandorthroughherhusband,and
sheshouldnotfeelaggrievedif,liketheluteplayer,shemakesamoreimpressivesound
throughatonguenotherown.8

Butmorenoteworthy,perhaps,isPlutarchsstatementthatthetortoiseisalsothe
symboloffemaleprivacy.Thereasoningbehindthisideaisobviousthetortoise
carriesherhousewithherandbeingarathertimidcreature,shespendsmuchofher
timeenclosedwithinhershell.Infact,analternativemeaningtotheGreekwordfor
tortoise,khelone,isthresholdthatistosay,theplacebetweentheinteriorofthe
houseandtheoutsideworld,animageparticularlyaptforthetortoisewhosehead
constantlymovesinandoutofthethresholdofhershell,justasthewomanpeeps
outfromthedoorofherhouseorherveil.9Tobeenclosedwithinthehomewas
centraltotheGreekideologyofmarriedwomanhood,forwhilemenwereexpected
tospendtheirtimeoutofdoors,inthefields,oratthelaw-courts,andmarkets,and
gymnasia,womenwereideallysupposedtostayathome,anideologywhichismost
famouslystressedbyXenophoninhisOikonomikos.10
Even when she ventures out to find food, the tortoise is physically forced to
carryherhousewithher.ThusEmpedoklesspeaksofstone-skinnedtortoises.11
Aristophaneswasalsoawareofthetortoise-housemotifandlaudsthepracticality
ofthedesignbydeclaiming,
Otortoises,Ienvyyouyourshells!Itwasgoodandbrainyofyoutoroofyourbacks
withtilesandsocoveryoursides.12

Interestingly, the legacy of the image of Aphrodite Ouranias tortoise became

190

AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace

Fig.135.Aphroditestandsontheshellofatortoise.
Woodblockprint.Dutch,Seventeenthcenturyad.After
Schama1987.

Fig.136.EastorWest,HomeisBest.
Woodblockprint.Dutch,Seventeenth
centuryad.AfterSchama1987.

apertinent theme for seventeenth-century Dutch moralistic artists who believed

that,despiteHollandsexpansionintotheworldfortradeandsettlementinthe
earlyBaroqueperiod,peace,virtue,andprosperitywerestillideallytobefoundat
home.13Anengravingofthe1640scalledOntheExcellenceoftheFemaleSexdepicts
atorch-bearingAphroditestandingonthetortoise(Fig.135);accordingtoDutch
understanding,shehasconqueredtheworldhometensionthroughthesolutionof
themobilehome,andifsheshouldneedtoleavethehouse,thevirtuouswoman
shouldconductherselfasifitwerealwayswithher.Inthebackgroundoftheprint,
AdamdiligentlyworksoutsidewhileEvespinswithin.Anotherimage,thistimeof
thetortoisealone,bearsthelegend,Thuysbest;inotherwords,EastorWest,Home
isBest(Fig.136).
Theveryshellthatmakesupthetortoisesbody,herclothing,isalsoherhome
whereshesitsinsecurityandsilence.Theinter-relationbetweentheGreekhouseand
Greekdresshasnotreceivedanyseriousstudy,notwithstandingtheheavysymbolism
thatisattachedtoandsharedbyboth.Liketheshellofthetortoisethatissimultaneouslyitsclothinganditshome,theveilalsoactsasashellforawomanandbecomes
anextensionofherliving-space.Plutarchstortoise-motifcertainlysuggeststhatthe
Greekswereawareofthisconnectionbetweenthecoveringcreatedbydressand
thecoveringcreatedbyahouse,andfurtherinvestigationintothewaysinwhich
theyobservedandevennamedpartsofthehouseanditemsofclothingwillquickly
revealthattheassociationwasverymuchatthefrontoftheGreekmindand,infact,
acomponentoftheGreeksubconscious.IntheDreamBookofArtemidorusitis
notedthatallobjectsthatsurroundapersonforexample,cloaks,houses,walls,and
shipssignifyoneanother,sothat,Artemidorosreports,whenamanoncedreamed
thathiscloakwasrippedinthemiddle,hishousefellin.Conversely,someonewho
dreamedthatthetiledroofofhishousewasdestroyed,lostallofhisclothesandno
longerownedwhatshouldhavecoveredhim.14
191

Chapter7
Houseandveil,publicandprivate
Ideasofwhatconstitutedpublicandprivateintheancientworldcanlookatodds
with our modern Western views. While Western notions of privacy relect the
ideaofanindividualsrighttonon-intrusionbyothers,manycontemporaryArab
societieshaveamoreluidunderstandingofprivacy,basedonaspeciiccultural
construction of space and time which is in tune with the dynamics of Muslim
genderidentiication.
Themorethatisknownaboutancientattitudestoprivateandpublicspace,the
more scholars incline to believe that Middle Eastern (and some Mediterranean)
modelsofspatialusecanbeofenormousvalueindecodingtheancientconcepts.
InIslamicandancientGreekconceptsalike,apublicareacanbetransformedinto
aprivateplacealmostinstantaneouslybyemployingwhathasbeencalledspaces
withinspacesoroverlappinguniverses.15
InMuslimideology,publicspaceandpointsintimearefrequentlyinterwoven
andareusuallygender-specificsothatforalimitedtimeperiodwomencaninhabit
apublicworldfreeofmenandmencanwalkinstreetsclearofwomen.Thisis
theparadigmaticnotionatleast,andeventhoughsocialpracticemaybeatodds
withtheideology,neverthelesstheunderlyingmodelissodeep-rootedinMuslim
thought that the sexes are able to operate in apublic sphere while remaining
essentiallyinaprivatesex-specificspace.IsuggestthattheancientGreeknotion
ofpublic-privateandmale-femalecouldhaveworkedonasimilarprinciple.The
ancientGreeksdidnotunderstandtheconceptofprivacyinthesamewayaswe
doandseparationfrompublicisatermbettersuitedtotheGreekunderstanding
ofprivatespaceorprivacy.16
WhilesomeGreektextsspeakofwomenbeingstrictlyconfinedtotheirhomesin
atypeofpurdah,otherstellofwomenoperatingfreely,andwithoutnotoriety,inthe
publicsphere.XenophonsOikonomikosandsomesalientpassagesfromtheorators
givetheimpressionthatwomenwereimprisonedbehindtheirouterdoorsandwere
rarelytobeseeninpublic,althoughthiscontrasts,forexample,withAristophanes
whoseplaysareliberallysprinkledwithscenesandreportsofwomenvisitingone
another,gossipinginthestreets,andactingaspettytradersandretailersinthemarkets.
Evenoutsidethelimitsofcomicevidencethereisasuggestionthathigh-bornladies
couldattendpublicevents:accordingtoPlutarch,Athenianwomenwerepresentat
PeriklesgreatfuneralorationandwereeveninthehabitofvisitingtheAkropolisto
viewtheworksofarthousedthere.17Womenwereundoubtedlypresentatpublic
funeralsandattheritualssurroundingweddings.18Perhapsthebestsensethatwecan
makeofthiscontradictoryevidenceisthatfemaleseclusionwasadesirablestateand
that,ifitwasatallpossible,womenwerekeptwithintheirhomesandonlybrought
outattimesofsocialorreligiousnecessity.Butmanyfamiliescouldnotaffordthe
luxuryofkeepingtheirwomensegregatedandsecludedandinsteadneededthemto
carryoutdomesticchoressuchasfetchingwaterfromthewell,oreventohavethe
chanceofearningalivingbysellingproduceatthemarket.19
192

AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace
The word seclusion is frequently used in the discussion of Greek womens
domesticspace,althoughthetermisactuallymisused;thereisamarkedtendency
inscholarshiptoconfusetheinstitutionsoffemaleseclusionandseparation.20That
womenareexpectedtoleadlivesessentiallydifferentfrommenandaremeantto
follow the principle of female/private/inside and male/public/outside, does not
mean they are supposed to live in isolation within their homes. We should not
imaginewomenlivinginastateofOrientalseclusion,neverseeinganyonebuttheir
immediatefamily,becauseweknowthatAthenianwomenformedclosefriendships,
especiallywithneighbours,andthatwomenvisitedoneanother.21True(ostentatious)
seclusion,ifitwaspractisedatall,wasamarkofthehighestsocialorderandindicated
thatafamilywaswealthyenoughnottohaveitswomenworkingoutdoors.
Ingeneralthough,theseparationofgenderedspheresofactivitydoesnotsuggest
absolutesubjectionorseclusionforwomenanddoesnotbarthemfromhavingsocial
andpublicrolesoftheirownaslongastheystaywithintheexceptedconines
ofcorrectfemalebehaviour.Theideologybehindfemaleseparation,likeveiling,
wastoinsurethatawomansgoodreputationstayedintactbecauseanattackon
hercharacterwastantamounttodenouncingthehonourofthemenunderwhose
guardianshipshebelonged.22
ThedebateastowhetherGreekwomenweresecludedorseparatedfrommale
publicsocietyisstillaheatedoneinscholarshipandhascometoincludetheinterior
ofthehouse.Certaintextssuggestthatitwasnotenoughforwomentobeseparated
frompublicsightbystayingwithintheirhomes,butthatevenwithinthehouse
therewerecleardemarcationsbetweenmaleandfemalespace,definedastheandron
(malearea)andthegynaikon(femalearea).Somehistoriansandarchaeologists
believethattheseareasareeasilydeinableeveninthescantarchaeologicalevidence
ofGreekhouses.SusanWalker,forexample,arguesthatfemaleseclusionisclearly
visibleinthearchaeologicalevidenceandaccordinglydrawsupplanstosupporther
arguments.23Indirectcontradiction,however,MichaelJamesonarguesthatthere
wasnodistinctionbetweenmaleandfemaleareasintheactualplanningorbuilding
ofGreekhouses,24whichisperhapstoonegativeaviewbearinginmindthatone
ofthemostdistinctivefeaturesofmanyexcavatedhousesisthemensdiningroom,
the andron. Amore prudent line, however, has been taken by Lisa Nevett who
comparesthespatialdivisionoftheancientGreekhousetothatofhousesfoundin
theIslamicworld.25Shenotesthatoneofthemostwidespreadhouseformsinthe
Islamicworldisthecourtyardhouse,comparabletothosefoundinmanyareasof
ancientGreece.26Rooms(likethemainlivingroom,bedrooms,andstoragerooms)
areallarrangedaroundoneorsometimestwocourtsthatareborderedbygalleries.
InafewinstancesintheIslamichouse,roomsarementionedasbeingofspecificuse
bywomen(theseareusuallylocatedupstairs),althoughtheyhavenospecialcharacteristicsintermsofarchitectureorfurnishingstosinglethemoutasfemaleareas.
OnestrikingfeatureoftheIslamichouseistheprovisionofalobbyorofseparate
guestquarters,toexcludethepossibilityofoutsidersenteringthedomesticareas.
193

Chapter7
Thispreventsthewomenofthehousecomingintocontactwithstrangemen,and
entrancestothehousearepurposelydesignedtohampercasualsocialorevenvisual
interaction.Thedesiretokeepwomenawayfromunrelatedmenisnotexpressed
throughadivisionofmaleandfemaleroomswithinthehousebutthroughafar
moreconvolutedpattern:womenarenotconfinedtoparticularareasofthehouse
butinsteadafarmorepracticalsolutionofseparationexistswherebystrangersarenot
permittedtoenterthemainlivingareasofthehouseatall.Thisallowsthewomen
ofthehouseholdtomoveaboutmoreorlessfreelywithintheirhomes.
TheancientGreekhouseprobablyoperatedasimilarformofasymmetricalspatial
organization,sincemosthousesunearthedareconstructedonaninward-lookingplan,
withroomsgroupedaroundacourtyardwhichisusuallysurroundedbyacolonnade
inmuchthesamestyleasthemodernIslamichouse.Asimilarconcernforprivacy
musthavepromptedtheinward-lookingarrangementofGreekhouses.Furthermore,
anyvisualcontactbetweenthewomenofthehouseandvisitingmenthatmight
conceivablyoccurinthecourtyardcouldhavebeenavoidedeitherbyschedulingof
domesticactivityorbyscreensandcurtainstoshutoffareasofthehouse.
MuchoftheevidencefortheGreekhousehasnotsurvivedthecenturiesand
doesnotappearinthearchaeologicalrecord;therearenosurvivingupperfloors,for
example,norevidencefordoors,shutters,oranyinteriordcorbesidesmosaicsand
floorpainting.Woodenandtextileevidencerarelysurvives,butliteraryandartistic
informationdoestestifytotheuseofshutters,woodenpanelsandtextilesthatacted
ascurtainsandscreens.27Loosecoversandtextilehangingswereacommonfeature
oftheGreekhousebut,beingofperishablematerial,theyhaveallbutdisappeared
and only afew fragments have accidentally survived to our time.28 But avariety
of curtains are depicted on some hellenistic reliefs, Roman wall-paintings and
sarcophagiandalthoughsomeofthedrapesarelinkedtofunerarypractice,others
have an undeniable domestic function. In the houses discovered in the classical
cityofOlynthusinnorthernGreecetherewasatotalabsenceofpivot-holesinthe
pavedrooms.Thissuggestedtotheexcavatorsthatinsteadofdoors,hangingswere
used.29Inaddition,Polluxreferstocurtainsatthedoorsofbedchambers30and
Theophrastosmentionsringsforembroideredhangings,31andcurtainringsarealso
mentionedbyPlinyandAthenaeus.32Suchringshavebeendiscoveredatanumber
ofexcavationsrangingindatefromthefourthcenturytotheRomanperiod.33
MostoftheGreekwordsforcurtainarederivedfromverbsmeaningtocover,
butseveralofthemshareameaningwiththeterminologyusedforclothing.The
wordepiblema,ashasbeenseen,hasthegeneralmeaningofthatwhichisthrown
overorcovering,butismorespeciicallylinkedwithatapestryorhangingwhile
itsimultaneouslymeansouter-garmentand,byextension,veil.Butavariation
oftheword(epibles)isusedforacross-beaminaroof,whichseemstoindicatethat
thereisacorrelationbetweenthethingsthatcoverawomanshead:aveilandaroof,
anideawhichwasalsopresentinArtemidorosDreamBook.34Thecommonword
forroof inancientGreek,tegos,35isofcoursetherootofthediminutivetegidion,
thenamegiventothelateclassicalandhellenisticface-veil.Moreover,thepopular
194

AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace
veil-wordkalummaiscommonlyassociatedwithwordsreferringtothehouseand
itsdecoration:AiskhylosdescribesHelenofTroysteppingoutofherveiledbed
chamber(prokalumma),36andAthenaeusrelatesthatthekingofPersiawouldview
hisdinnergueststhroughafineveilthathungbeforethepalacedoorandseparated
himfromhissubjects.37Butkalummadoesnotonlymeanveilandcurtain,because
itisalsoappliedtoroofbeamsandtowindowshutters,whichampliiestheassociationbetweentheveilandthehouse.38
Theparallelisnotconfinedtoancientliteraryevidence;Greekiconographycan
alsoofferproofofthehouse-veilconnection.Thestandarddepictionoftheveilgestureshowsawomanraisingonearmtoholdoutalengthoftheveilsothatit
formsalargeflapofcloththatframesherprofiledfaceandcanbeparalleledwith
anotherpopularartistictheme,thedepictionofawomanpeepingfrombehindthe
doorofahouse.Greekdoors,itappears,wereusuallyconstructedintwohalves
with acentral entrance and opened inwards. Acommon motif shows awoman
standing(butsometimessitting)insuchadoorway:theearliestevidenceforthisis
theFranoisVasefromChiusiofc.570,whichillustratesthegoddess-brideThetis
(identifiedbynameinFig.137)seatedwithinherhouseawaitingherbridegroom.
Onlyoneofthedoorsisopenandwecanseethelegsofthegoddesswhoperforms
theveil-gesture,althoughmuchofherfacewould(ifthevasewerenotbrokenat
thissection)havebeenhiddenbythecloseddoor.Ineffectwecatchaquickglimpse
of the bride behind the half-opened door and the enveloping veil; the goddess
outstretchedhandthatliftstheveilintensifiestheeffectoftheopendoorandher
clothing,likeherhouse,demarcatestheprivacyofthefemalebody,aspaceideally
removedfromthepublicgaze.39
Aifth-centuryAthenianpyxisintheBritishMuseumshowsaweddingscene
anddepictsthebridesmothersendingoffherdaughterfromherfamilyhome(Fig.
138).Themotherstandsbackfromtheopeneddoorandwellwithinthehouse

Fig.137.LinedrawingoftheveiledbrideThetisseated
withinahouse.Detailtakenfromavolute-kraterby
KleitiasandErgotimos,c.570.Mus.Arch.Florence4209.

195

Fig.138.Linedrawingofawomanstandingat
ahalf-openeddoor.DetailfromapyxisbytheMarlay
Painter,c.420430.BMLondon1920.1221.1.

Chapter7

Fig.139.Awomansfaceispartiallyconcealedbyasectionofan
opendoor.FragmentofGnathiabell-kraterbytheKonnakisPainter,
c.360350.MartinvonWagnerMuseumderUniversittWrzburg
(no.4696).Photo:K.Oehrlein.

Fig.140.Linedrawingdepictingayoung
womanraisingherveilasshepeersfrom
behindadoor.DetailofaTarentine
skyphos,c.355.BMLondonF124.

(only her hand protrudes outside). An interesting variation on the theme, from afourthcenturySouthItalianvase,showsawoman(or
atleastanactorinfemalecostume)peeringout
frombehindtheclosedportionofthedoorthat
masksoffhalfofherface(Fig.139).Thereisan
analogyworkingherebetweenthedoorandthe
veil;theoneclosedshutterandtheportionof
theveilthatissymbolicallyhelduptoindicate
thatthewearerhasveiledherfaceseemtosay Fig.141.Ayoungwomanveilsherfaceas
similar things.40 The image is strengthened in shelooksthroughanopenwindow.Line
drawingofadetailfromanApulianbellascene from another fourth-century South krater,c.340bc.BMLondonF142.
Italiancomedyscene(Fig.140)whereamodest
maiden peeps out from behind the door that veils half of her face while she
simultaneouslyraisesherlongveilinfrontoftheexposedportionofhervisageto
avoidthestareofthestrangemanhoveringaboutoutside.Itcanbecomparedto
ascenethatshowsanotheryoungwomangazingoutfrombehindanopenshutter
ofawindowassheraisesherveiledhandtoconcealhermouth(Fig.141).
AremarkablyincisivediscussionbyPlutarchentitledOnBeingaBusybody,makes
clear the direct correlation between that which clothes the body and that which
housesthebody:
Itisnotcustomarytowalkintoahouseofsomeoneelsewithoutirstknockingonthe
door;butnowadaystherearedoormenandformerlytherewereknockerstobestruckat
thedoorandgivewarning,sothatthestrangermightnotcatchthemistressofthehouse
ortheunmarrieddaughterunawares,oraslavebeingpunishedorthemaid-servants

196

AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace
screaming.Butitisfortheseverythingsthatthebusybodyslipsin.Asoberandrespectablehouseholdhewouldnotwillinglyenterasaspectatorevenifhewereinvitedto
come;butthematterstoconcealwhichkeysandboltsandstreet-doorsareusedthese
arewhatheuncovers(anakalupton)andcommunicatestooutsiders.Andyet,thewinds
withwhichwearemostvexedasAristonsays,arethosewhichpullupourgarments,
butthebusybodydoesnotstripofftherobesandtunicsofthosenearhim,buttheirvery
walls;helingsthedoorswideopenandmakeshisway,likeapiercingwind,through
thetender-skinnedmaidenandcreepsin,searchingoutwithslanderousintentdrunken
revelsanddances,andall-nightfestivals!41

Plutarchdrawsparticularattentiontothewomenofthehouseholdandemphasizesthedistressofhavingtheuninvitedpresenceofastrangerbehindtheprivate
wallsofahouse.Itistheequivalenttotheshameofhavingonesbodystrippedof
clothingandunwillinglyexposedinpublic.Asthebusybodypenetratesthroughthe
doorofthehouseheunveilsitsoccupantstohisunwantedandshaminggazeand
deilesthesanctityofprivacythatthehouseusuallyoffers.
Inadecisivestatementonwomensveiling,Menanderinformsusthatwomen
needtobeconstantlyvigilantwiththeirveilseveninsidethehouse.42Inhiscomedy
Perikeiromene,thelong-lostsonMoschionmusesalonetohimselfonhowhewill
visithisestrangedmotherandthegirlofhisdreamsandheimagineshimselfand
hisslavecallingonthemwithintheirhouseanddelivers,inamatter-of-factway,
acrucialpieceofevidence:
She[ll]beembarrassedwhenwegoin,thatisclear,andshe[ll]veilherself,forthats
[quitenormal].43

Theattestationthatwomenveiltheirfacesinfrontofstrangersasamatterofcourse,
asaninbredreactiontoasocialsituationandacollectivenomos,isnowherebetter
stated than here. Moschions honest and simple description of female behaviour
shouldbetakenatfacevalue:whenwomenfeelembarrassedorself-conscious,for
whatever reason, they veil themselves.44 Asimilar testimony, from Aristaenetus
collection of Greek Letters (c.ifth century ad), inspired by an earlier genre, is
provided by ayoung man who, having been caught looking at agirl at ashrine,
writestoher,notingthat,
You,seeingmelookingatyou(ashappenswithrespectablegirls),lightlyveiledyourself
(eremaparekalupso).45

ItisinterestingtocomparethiswiththereactionofanthropologistPatriciaJeffery
who,whilstsharingapurdahhouseholdwithagroupofwomen,hadanunexpected
malevisitor:
Onlyunderexceptionalcircumstancesdounrelatedmenenterthehomesandtheir
arrivalalwaysputsthehouseholdintodisarray Screensandcurtainsareerectedif
guestsorworkmenhangaround [Once]someguestswalkedinwithlittlewarning
andthewomanIwastalkingtoburrowedunderablanketandleftmeexposedand
confusedaboutmyownfeelingsofembarrassment.46

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Chapter7
Makhlouflikewisedemonstratesthispointassherecallsaninstancewhenaman
unexpectedlycameintoahouseand,eventhoughhehasirstsignalledhisentry,the
womenrushedtoputontheirlithmas.Butsomewomenwhohadtakentheirveils
offcompletelyandwereunabletodrapethembackquicklyenough,hadtograbany
availablepieceofclothorshareaveilwithanotherwoman.47
FormenlikePlutarchsBusybodytoenterintoaspacethatiscurrentlyinuse
byfemalesisadiscreditableactthatbringsdishonourontheviolatedfamilyand
particularlyshamesthewomen.ThethemeisalsofoundinanorationofLysias:
I think it proper that you should hear the numerous offences that [Simon] has
committedagainstmyself.Hearingthattheboywasatmyhouse,hecametherein
adrunken state, broke down the doors, and entered into the area the women use.
Withinweremysisterandmynieceswhohadlivedsuchwell-orderedlivesthatthey
wereembarrassedeventobeseenbytheirrelatives.Thisman,then,carriedinsolence
tosuchalevelthatherefusedtogoawayuntilthepeoplewhoappearedonthespot
andthosewhohadaccompaniedhim,thinkingitanterriblethingtointrudeonyoung
womenandorphans,drovehimoutbyforce.48

The veil-house analogy was part of the ideology of Greek perceptions of

womenandspace.49ForevaluatingGreekideasofseparatingthesexes,wemaybe
helpedbytheanthropologicalevidenceoffemalespaceinMuslimculture,where
societyisdividedintotwostrictspatialdivisions:theworldofmen(theumma,
thesphereofreligionandpower)andtheworldofwomen,theenvironmentof
domesticityandsexuality.Inordertopreventsexualinteractionbetweenmembers
oftheummaandthemembersofthedomesticuniverse,separationandveiling
whichisafterallasymbolicformofseparationareobserved.Theidealplace
forthewomaniswithinthehousebecause,traditionally,womenwhousepublic
spaceareseenastrespassingonthe
umma universe and it is only by
wearing aveil when they leave
thehousethatwomenareableto
walk through the predominantly
male space of the street. Wearing
the veil means that the woman
canbepresentinthemensworld
althoughsheremainssymbolically
invisible(Fig.142).Ifthewoman
wastoappearunveiledinthemale
sphere then aserious predicament
would result and the status quo
would be severely breached; as
notedearlier,inArabicthoughtan
unveiledwomanisnakedandso
Fig.142.Aloneveiledwomanpassesthroughmalepublic
forawomantoappearwithoutthe
space.Palestine,c.1930.AfterWeir1989.
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AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace
veilinamalepublicspacewouldconstituteanopenactofexhibitionismandlead
mentolabelheraswanton.50
InancientGreecethewomenwhoattractthemostnotorietyarethosewhoare
conspicuouslyuncoveredtothepublicview.Lower-classprostituteswhoareatthe
callofallmenanddonotenjoytheprotectionofahusbandorguardian,comein
for particular attack. These women stand outdoors, half-naked, in the sun; they
arewomenitispermittedtolookat.Asonecomicfragmentattests,Theirdoor
isopen.51ButthemajorityofwomenintheGreeksourcesarousenocriticismfor
theirappearancesinthepublicsphere.52
Cohencorrectlynotesthecontrastoftheancientsourceshostiletotheideaof
womenspublicappearancesandthosethatspeakofthemparticipatingroutinely
inpubliclife.Scholarship,henotes,doesnotknowwhattomakeofthedichotomy
andthetensioninthesources,hesays,isnotresolved.53Thisisnotsatisfactory.
Cohen,andothers,failtoconsiderwhatwomenwearwhentheyleavethesecurityof
theirhomesandenterintothemansworld.Isuggestthattheconlictintheancient
sourcescanbeatleastpartlyresolvedintheuseoftheveil.
Thetegidionandfemalevisibilityinthehellenisticworld
Althoughasocialrequirementforawomantocoverherfaceisanextensionof
theideologicalcomplexthatobligeswomentocovertheirheads,itisadrastically
greater step to have an item of clothing specifically designed to cover the face.
Face-veilingisundeniablysigniicant.Ifthereisnotageneralsocialobligationfor
awomantocoverherface,thenforhertodosocanhaveahostofothersigniicanceswhichmayvaryfromemotionalexpressiontosocialmanipulationofher
own.Theintroductionofthetegidionatthecloseofthefourthcenturyisafacet
offemalelifethathaspassedvirtuallyunnoticedinscholarshipbutmusthavehad
aprofoundinluenceuponthelivesofGreekwomen.Itishardtotelljusthow
widespreadthisfashionwas,butitdoesnotseemtohavebeencentreduponone
locale(Thebes)becausethetegidionisfoundinEastGreeceandEgypt,andmight
wellhavebeenworninAthenstoo.54
Aveilspeciicallydesignedtocoverthefemalefacewasasigniicantmovetowards
thepubliccontroloffemalesexualityasaguarantorofmalehonour,yetthetegidion
irstappearsatatimewhenitisgenerallyassumedthatwomensliveswereliterally
opening up as they began to take increasingly conident strides into public life.
EvidencefromhellenisticAlexandriainparticularsupportsthissuggestionanditis
hardtodisagreewiththedatawhichsostronglysuggeststhatwomenwerebecoming
increasinglyvisible.55Buthowfarcanwetaketheideaoffemalevisibilityinthe
hellenisticworld?VanBremenhassuggestedthateventhoughthewomenofhellenisticAsiaMinorwereactivelybeginningtoparticipateincivicroles,theycontinued
tooperatestrictlywithintheconfinesofamaleframeworkasrepresentativesoftheir
families.Correspondingly,Nevettsinvestigationintohellenistichousinghasrevealed
someremarkablefinds:shesuggeststhatfromthemid-fourthcenturyanewgroupof
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Chapter7
exceptionallylargeandelaboratehousesbegintoappear.Mostsignificantforhouse
and household structure was the rise of wealthy and influential individuals who
begantousetheirhomesascentresofpersonalpowerasthegapbetweenpublicand
privatebegantowiden.Soontheprivatehousebegantoofferanarenawheremen
couldcompeteforprestigeasindividualsbegantosubvertdemocraticpower.56
Theredeveloped,fromthelatefourthcentury,adivisionofthehouseintoprivate
areasfordomesticactivityandpublicareaswhereguestscouldbereceivedinstyle.
Eachareahaditsowncourtyardandforthefirsttimewecanprobablyusetheterms
andronandgynaikoninthemanneroftheancientsources.57Inthisnewdouble-
courtyardhousedomestictasksseemtohavebeencarriedoutinseclusionfromthe
restofthehouse.Womenwereprobablymorerestrictedinthisnewtypeofhouse
thantheywereintheone-courtyardmodel.Werewomenmoretightlycontrolled
fromthefourthcenturyon?58Thissuggestioncertainlycorrespondswiththeintroductionofthetegidion.Iftheveilisindeedanextensionofdomesticspace,thenthe
increasingseparationofwomenfromthemaleworldrelectedinthetwo-courtyard
houseindsaremarkableparallelintheuseoftheface-veilinthesameperiod.
ThisisalsothetimeatwhichGreekartemploysitsirstuseoffull-sizednude
femalestatuaryintheformofavarietyofAphroditeigures.Butnuditydidnot
transferfromthedivinerealmtotheworldofmortalwomen.Infact,heavydrapery
aroundthebodyandtheclosedPudicitiaposearealsofeaturesofpublicstatuaryof
hellenisticwomen;furthermoretheoriginoftheposeisthoughttodatetoc.300.
So,asAphroditewassheddingherclothes,hermortalworshipperswereputtingon
morelayers.
Onamoremundanelevel,theintroductionofthetegidioncouldhaveallowed
womenmorefreedomtoparticipateinsocietyandthefrequentreportswehave
ofAlexandrianwomenshopping,visitingfriendsandpublicplaces,andattending
festivalscouldhavebeenfacilitatedbytheuseofthefaceveil.Afterall,aveilspeciicallydesignedtobetiedaroundtheheadinordertoconcealthefaceallowedthe
wearermorefreedomofmovementwithherarmsandhands,forshenolongerhad
toholdalengthoffabricacrossherfaceorontopofherhead.Thissmalldetail
couldhavehadaprofoundeffectuponwomensaccesstoamoreactivelifestyleand
herampliiedparticipationinpubliclifecouldhavebeentoleratedbymenbecause
hertegidionmadeherevenmoresociallyinvisible.
Portableseparationandtheharemwithin
Asanextensionofthedomesticspaceandasymbolofseparation,theveilenables
womentomoveoutoftheirhomesinakindofportabledomesticspaceandas
aresult, despite the Western perception of its negative aspects, the veil can be
consideredaliberatinggarmentthatfreesawomanfromtheconinesofanyform
ofpurdahandletsheroperateinthepublicsphere.Theveilisviewedthiswayby
manywomenthemselves.59Infact,asinglesentenceinabrieffragmentofthesixthcenturypoetTheognisofMegaraactuallyhintsatthisbelief.Inithehasafemale
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AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace
charactervoiceheropinionofthekindoflewdmenwhooglerespectablewomen
inthestreet,sayingthat,
Ihateabadman,andpassbyveilingmyself(kalupsamene),keepingmymindaslight
asalittlebirds.60

Inotherwords,Idontletvulgarmengetmedown;Isimplyveilmyselfandpass
by,untroubled.
That awoman takes her symbolic separation with her into the public domain
solvesthepracticalproblemsoflivinginasocietywheretherearerigidlyenforced
restrictions on interaction between marriageable adults. The veil makes awoman
sociallyinvisible,allowinghertoenjoyprivacyandtobeinpublic.Buttoensure
thattheirinvisibilityworks,womenhavetoobservesocialconventionsandremain
silentwhenoutofdoors,oratleastabstainfromtalkingtomenandshatteringthe
illusionoftheirnon-presence.Womenneedtobecautiousinpublictoensurethat
they are always properly covered and silently respectful in front of strange men,
because consequences of failing to observe the modesty code can be severe.61 In
Greece,thecivicbodyknownasthegynaikonomoimayhaveensuredthatinsome
Greekcitieswomensclothingwasbothmodest,sober,andconcealing.62Butcontrol
overwomensbehaviourandmovementsmayhaveemanatedfromthefamilyand
community.Tragedyhintsatsuchbehaviour,andEuripidesElektra,forexample,
issharplywarnedbyherhusbandthat,Itisshamefulforawomantobestanding
aroundwithyoungmen.63
InIslam,asenseofproprietycanextendbeyondtheconfinesofthehouseand
theveil.Femaleseclusionorsexualseparationdoesnotnecessarilyneedwallsorveils
becauseonceeveryoneknowstherulesofwhatisforbidden(haram)betweenthe
sexes(suchastalking)andwhatisproper(suchasloweringtheeyesandturning
away)thenoneisabletocarrywhereveronegoesasenseof,whathasbeencalled,
theharemwithin.64Theideaofaninvisibleharem,alawtattooedinthemind,is
apotentforceinMuslimsocietywherewallsareneededonlywheretherearestreets.
Inruralcommunitieswomentendtocomeandgomorefreelybecausethereisless
chanceofseeingstrangemenintheremotecountrysidethanthereisinacrowded
town.Ifbychanceawomanshouldmeetwithanunknownmaninthefields,and
heseesthatsheisunveiled,hewillcoverhisownheadwiththehoodofhisdjellaba
toshowthatheisnotlookingatherorelsehewillturnhisbackonher.Bothof
themacknowledgewhatisharam.
Thisraisesaninterestingpoint:theveilisaccompaniedbyanassemblageofother
behaviourswhichhaveequivalentsorcounterpartsformen.Socialseparationcuts
bothways;menveiltoo.Sometimesthisisaphysicalveiling,butmoreoftenmen
psychologicallyveilthemselvesfromwomen;theycoverfromnon-relatedwomen
byactionswhichareanalogoustowomens.
Ideologicallyspeaking,menarekeptasmuchontheoutsideaswomenareon
theinside,butwhenunrelatedmenandwomenmeet,restraintappliesequallyto
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Chapter7
both.Toavoidawkwardnesswithinthehome,uponenteringaroomarespectful
and considerate man should make some kind of noise (usually acough or even
aformalannouncementofhisintentiontoenter)toalertthewomeninsideofhis
presenceandimminententrance(althoughjudgingfromMenandersPerikeiromene,
Moschiondoesnotappeartoregardthisasanecessity;heisreadyinsolentlytoburst
inonthewomenunannounced).Moreover,inanattemptnottonoticeanunrelated
woman,attheveryleastarespectfulmanwillaverthiseyes,orcoverhisface,orturn
tofaceawallexactlyasawomandoes.Hewillcertainlycoverhismouthandavoid
eyecontact,justasshedoes,iftheycannotavoidspeakingtooneanother.65
ThisseemstohavebeenanaturalreactionforGreekmentoo.Akhilleusresponse
to meeting Klytemnestra in the Iphigeneia at Aulis, provides agood example of
respectfulaidosordinarilyshowntowardstheoppositesex.66Withtheirstappearance
ofthemainfemalecharactersonstageatline607,therebeginsalessonincorrect
behaviourandAgamemnon,forexample,iskeentostresstohiswifeanddaughter
thatwomenshouldstayoutofpublicview(line735),althoughitisAkhilleuswho
mostrigidlyenforcestheconceptthatwomenshouldnotbeseeninpublicandshould
certainlynotconversewithunrelatedmen.Klytemnestraswordsofgreetingimmediatelycontradicttheestablishednomosasshestepsoutofthetent(hertemporary
domesticspace)toaddresstheyounghero.ImmediatelyAkhilleuscryofOhLady
Aidosrevealshisshockedrecognitionthathestandsaloneinfrontofanunrelatedand
unaccompaniedwoman.67HissenseofaidosissoacutethatKlytemnestraisforced
toadmitthathisresponseshowscorrectsophrosyne,butAkhilleusaidospersistsand
hestartstoleave,explaininghisactionbystatingthat,Itisshamefulformetobe
exchangingwordswithawoman.68CairnshasnotedthatAchillesshynessatbeing
inthecompanyofawomanisbothaninnerethicalattitude,inthatitoperatesin
himinstinctivelyandispartofhisupbringingandsocialrole,andaresponsetothe
externalstandardsofconvention;hefeelsthatitiswrongtoassociatewithanother
manswomanandfearsdisapprovalfordoingso.69
Seeingandvisibility
ItwascruciallyimportantforaGreekmantobeseenbecausehiswholesocial
personawaslinkedtohispubliclifeashefunctionedinthelawcourts,gymnasia,
marketplaces,andtheatres.Amanwasonlyasimportantashisperceivedpublic
lifestyle and within the face-to-face-societies of the ancient Mediterranean, men
neededtoberecognizedbyhowtheylookedandhow(andwhat)theyspoke,for,as
Gleasonsstudyoftheancientartofphysiognomyhasrevealed,theclassicalworld
wasoneinwhichthescrutinyoffaceswasnomereidlepastimebutavitalskillwhere
issuesofgenderdifferentiationwereofutmostimportance.70
Amansfacewassupposedtobeuncoveredforalltoread.Theprominence
of portrait sculpture in Greek art from the late archaic period on, attests to the
importanceofindividualmalefacialfeaturesnotonlyofcontemporaryeminences,
butoflong-deadindividuals(likeHomer)whosefacialidentitieswereinventedin
202

AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace
subsequentperiods.71Additionally,thesculptedandpaintedmalebodywasalso
supposedtobeunrestrictedbyclothingandevenindailylife,thenakedmalebody
wasexposedtotheadmiringandapprovinggazeofothermenatparticulartimes
andplaces.
ThisnotionofvisibilityisstronglyconnectedtotheGreekperceptionoflight,
fortobeinthelight,tobebrightlylitandfullyvisible,isregardedasapositivetrait,
whereastobeconcealed,hidden,andindarknessisanegativecharacteristic.72In
SophoklesOedipusTyrannus,forexample,Kreondeliberatelyattemptstoremovethe
shamedOedipusfromthesunlight,whileOedipusownself-blindingandsubsequent
lifeofdarknesshasthesamesymbolicconnotationsasveiling.73WhenintheHomeric
HymntoDemeter,thegoddessdecidestorevealhertruedivinitytoMetaneira,she
throwsoffhermortaldisguiseandallowslighttolashforthfromherbody.74
Sotheconversenotionofamanassiduouslycoveringhisheadmusttherefore
havebeenregardedassuspect.InPlutarchsaccountofthedeathofDemosthenes,
therefore, the Orator, having been hunted down by Archias into the temple of
PoseidonatKalauria,hasapropheticdreamofhisdefeatbyArchiasatadramatic
festival.ThedreamalmostbecomesrealitywhenArchiasconfrontsDemosthenes
who,asifrelentingtoArchiaspower,begshimtobeallowedtimetowritealetter
tohisfamily:
[Demosthenes]retiredintothetempleandtakingascroll,asifabouttowrite,heput
thepenintohismouthandbitit,aswashiscustomwhenthinkingaboutwhattowrite,
andkeptitthereforsometime,thenveiledandloweredhishead.75

ThesoldierswhoarechargedtoguardDemostheneslaughathiscowardlyand
feminizingaction.Butunbeknowntothem,Demostheneshasactuallyusedhis
veiling to hide his purposeful action of sucking poison from his pen. Once he
beginstofeeltheeffectofthepotionheunveilshisheadandixesArchiaswith
aresoluteandmannishstare,uttershisinalwords,andstaggersoutofthetemple
todie.Hisactofveiling,whichhisopponentswerereadytotakeasasymbolofhis
dishonourandsubservience,wasonlyaruseforhisownpersonalvictoryenacted
inahonourablesuicide.
Ithasbeensaidthatveilscarryasinisterconnection,sincetheyputthewearers
outsidetheprovisionsofnormalsocietyanditisnotpossibletotellwhotheyare
or what they are up to.76 Certainly Greek literature attests to an analogous and
widespreadbeliefthatamanwhotakespainstocoverhimselftooassiduouslywith
hisclothingmusthavesomethingtohide.Consequentlymaleveiling,aninversion
ofthenorm,isfrequentlymentionedinconnectionwiththenotionofconcealing
adarksecret,oramisdeed,oranegativetrait.Inaddition,judgesinalegalcasewho
failtorecognizethetruthsetbeforethemaresaidtohavetheirperceptionsveiled.77
There are other occasions when men literally veil themselves in order to escape
notice,andadulterersinparticulararedepictedsneakingawayunderthecoverof
arobe.Aristophanesnotestheruseusedbyawomanandherlovertoensurehissafe
getawayfromhermaritalhome:
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Chapter7
Andthisonehesnevertoldabouteither,howthiswomanwasdisplayinghermantleto
herhusbandsohecouldseewhatitlookedlikeagainstthelight,andbydoingthisshe
gotherloveroutofthehousewithhisheadveiledhesnevertoldaboutthat.78

Theideahereisthattheveil,evenwhenwornbyaman,confersontheweareran
invisibilitythatallowshimtofunctionunnoticed,likeawoman.79Infact,Philo
statesthatadeceitfulmanislikeawaywardwomanwhooutwardlydisplaysasense
of shame and propriety and veils herself accordingly, but beneath her modest
coveringssheiswickedandtreacherous.Thisnotionthattheveilmightcontain
something inherently bad and may be utilized by those who have something to
conceal,canbetracedbacktoHesiodwhohasPandora,thebeautifulevil,covered
byashiningveil.80Thereforehonestmenshouldabstainfromveilingthemselves,
apart from times of crisis when they want to emphasize their social invisibility;
otherwiseamansactionofveilinghastoberegardedassuspect.
Becausetheveilenforcesaconceptofinvisibilityonthewearer,italsoconfers
alossofidentity;thismaybeallwellandgoodinthecaseofawomanwhoseown
namewasusuallysubmergedbeneaththatofhermaleguardian,butforamantolose
hisindividualitywasunthinkable.81Lucianstressesthepointinhissatiricaldialogue
PhilosophiesForSale,atextwhichrecountsameetingbetweenaStoicwhoiskeento
sellhisthoughtslikeamarkettraderandamansimplyidentiiedasabuyer.Oneof
thethoughtstheStoicputsupfortradeisanargumentovertheissueofvisibilityand
invisibility,andrecognitionandanonymity,amusingwhichheentitlesTheElektra
andtheVeiledFigure.Thedialoguebetweenthesellerandbuyerrunsasfollows:
Buyer:WhatdoyoumeanbytheVeiledFigureandtheElektra?
Stoic:TheElektraisthefamousElektra,thedaughterofAgamemnon,whoatone
andthesametimeknewanddidnotknowthesamething;forwhenOrestesstood
besideherbeforetherecognitionsheknewthatOresteswasherbrother,butshe
didnotknowthatthiswasOrestes.AstotheVeiledFigure,youshallhearavery
wonderfulargument.Tellme,doyouknowyourownfather?
Buyer:Yes.
Stoic:ButifIputaveiled(egkekalummenon)igurebeforeyouandaskedyouifyou
knowhim,whatwillyousay?
Buyer:ThatIdont,ofcourse.
Stoic:Butthatveiledigureturnsouttobeyourownfather;soifyoudontknow
him,youevidentlydontknowyourownfather.
Buyer:Notso:Ishouldunveil(apokalupsas)himandindoutthetruth!82

Thediscussionsuggeststhatifamanisveiledthenhecannotberecognized,noteven
byhisnearestanddearest,becausetheveiltakesawayanysenseofindividualityand
personality,somuchso,thatAristotleascertainedthataveiledmanlacksanyidentity
atall:if,hesays,amannamedKoriskusisseenwalkingtowardsone,thenoneknows
whoheis,butifaveiledmanwalkstowardsone,heisunknown,eveniftheveiled
igureisinfactKoriskus.KoriskusneedstobeidentiiedasKoriskusforKoriskusto
exist,otherwiseheisjustamanwithhisfacecovered(prosiontieegkekalummeno).83
Lucianquestionsfurtherwhetheraveiledigurecanevenberecognizedashuman,
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AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace
butsuggeststhatifonewasshownonlythehandofamanwhowasotherwisewell
veiledbeneathlayersofclothing,thenonecouldknowthatthecoveredigurewas
humaneventhoughmostofthebodywasconcealed.Onecan,heasserts,make
judgmentsfromsamples.84
When,accordingtoXenophon,thejokerPhilippusarrivesatKalliassymposium
toindtheotherguestsinasoberandrelectivemoodandnotpreparedtolisten
to his jokes or laugh at his antics, his immediate reaction is to cover his head
withhiscloakandtolieontheloorinagesturethatdemonstrateshisremoval
fromhissurroundingsandparodiestragicconventions,suchasthoseobservedby
Herakles.85Buttheactofmakinghimselfinvisiblehastheintendedoppositeeffect,
andstraightawayKalliasgetsupandwalksovertoPhilippustoenquirewhatthe
matteris.Philippusrepliesthatwithlaughtergonefromtheworldhemightaswell
bedead,andblowshisnoseandcries.Everyonepresentthenassureshimthatthey
willlaughoncuenexttime;reassured,heunveilshishead,rejoinsthecompany,and
continueswithhisdinner.
It takes an exceptionally good physiognomist, like Polemon of Laodikeia, to
iniltratebehindtheveilandreadanysignsofhumanityinafacecoveredbycloth.86
Thus,avignetterecordedinhissecond-centuryadtreatiseonPhysiognomyissetat
theTempleofArtemisatPergeinPamphyliawherelocalwomenclearlygoabout
thecitycompletelyveiled(alongstandingGreekcustomwhichDioChrysostomtells
uswasupheldatTarsustoo),87althoughwearenotinformedoftheexactnature
oftheveiling.Frominferencesinthetext,itappearsthatthewomenofPergewear
himation-orpharos-veilspulledovertheirheadsandacrosstheirlowerfaces,sothat
theireyesandnosesremaininview.Howeverthetegidion,sofrequentlyfoundin
thisareaoftheGreekworldinthehellenisticperiod,isunlikelystilltobewornat
thislatedate,becausethetegidionwouldprobablynotrevealthenosewhich,aswill
becomeclear,isavitalpieceofevidenceinthestory.
Inthenarrative,Polemonscrutinizesagroupofveiledwomenmakingtheirway
into the temple and almost immediately picks out one shrouded igure who, he
declares,willsoonsufferadreadfulfate.Herecalls:
Greatwastheadmirationoftheassembledbystanders(fortheyallwonderedhowIwas
abletopassjudgmentonhermerelybyobservinghereyesandapartofhernose)when
Iexclaimed,howhugeisthedisasterbearingdownonthatwomanandhowsoonit
willstrike!Therehadbeenasign,becausehernostrilsandnosehadbecomedarkened
andagitated,whilehereyeshadturnedgreenandwereopenedabnormallywide;her
headshowedtoomuchmovementandherfeet,asshewentaboutthetemple,moved
aboutasifshewereinpain.Thesesigns,unlessyouseetheminalunatic,youmaybe
suretoportendimminentdisaster.88

Polemonhasbarelyinishedspeakingwhenanotherwomanrushesscreaminginto
thetempleandtellstheveiledwomanthatheronlydaughterhasfallenintoawell
anddrowned:
Whenthewomanheardthis,shethrewoffherhead-dress,veil,jewellery,andallher

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Chapter7
clothes,tostandnaked,withbeatenbreast.Ingriefsheranoffdowntheroad,crying
outassheran,Ohmydaughter!89

Assherushesoutnakedfromthetemple,agroupofmenchaseherandcover
herupinritualvestmentsfromthetemplesstorerooms.90Polemonsexceptional
physiognomicgiftisevenabletopenetratebehindtheprotectivebarrieroftheveil,
oratleastisabletoascertainsomethingofawomansemotionalstatefromthesparse
areasofleshthattheveilallowshimtosee.Suchtasksarebeyondthecapabilities
ofmostmenwhoregardtheveilasablockagetounderstanding,ortheneedto
understand,thefemalepsyche.
Playingbytherules
In Muslim thinking any space has its own invisible rules and whether one is in
acourtyard,aterrace,oraroom,oreveninthestreet,whereverthereissocialinteractionthereisaqaida,aninvisibleruleofdecorum.Playingbytherulesensures
harmony but breaking the rules brings about punishment and often violence.
Often the qaida is much more severe than
wallsorgates,forwithwallsandgatesatleast
womenknowthattheyarebeingsegregated
andwhatisexpectedofthem.Thenotionof
qaidaindsacloserelectionintheissuesof
Greeksocialnomosofaidos,whichestablishes
therulesofthegamewhichallself-respecting
individualsmustfollow.Manyexamplesfrom
Greek literature and art attest to the notion
thatthemenandwomenofGreecehadtheir
own version of the harem within. In the
Fig.143.AveiledLedahoversatthedoorwhile
Heracleidae,forexample,Heraklesdaughter,
Helenisbornfromanegg.Linedrawingof
followingnecessarydramaticconventionsby
acomicscenefromanApulianbell-kraterbythe
DijonPainter,c.350.Mus.Bari3899.
appearing on the stage, nevertheless abjectly
apologisesforbeingbrazenenoughtoventure
out of doors to speak to men, because she
knowsthatawomanshouldbesilentinfront
ofstrangemenandthatsilenceaugmentsthe
senseoffemaleinvisibility.91
The social rules of invisibility and veiling
canoccasionallyberepresentedintheiconography.Forexample,theDijonPaintersphlyax
scene of the birth of Helen shows awoman
(perhaps Leda) loitering at adoorway (Fig.
143).Shehassteppedoverthethresholdand
Fig.144.Linedrawingofaveiledwoman,
standsinthepublicspaceoutsidethehouse,
wearinghighboots,running.Detailfrom
alekythos,c.420.Nat.Mus.Athens17612.
although the left side of her body is still
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AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace

Fig.145.Womengatherinahouse.Aseatedveiledlady(farright)returnstheviewersgaze.Linedrawingfroman
Atticred-figurepyxis,c.540.NicholsonMuseum,Sydney53.06.

inside,behindthehalf-openeddoor.Eveninthissemi-public,semi-privatespace
thewomanemergesfromthedoorcorrectlyveiled.
Amorepuzzlingsceneispaintedonamid-ifth-centuryred-igurelekythosthat
simplyportraysathoroughlyveiledwomanrunninginapairofcuffedboots(Fig.
144). Beazley believed that the scene shows a woman running after bathing;
whateverthereasonforherrunning,sheobviouslywantstokeepherselfhidden
asshescurriesfromonelocationtoanother.92AnincidentrecountedbyMakhlouf
comestomind:
Ihaveobservedthat,shouldagirlwishtowalktheshortdistancebetweenherhouse
andthatofafriendorrelative,shemayborrowapieceofmaterialtocoverherhead
andshoulders.Then,gigglingalltheway,shewillruntheshortdistanceseparatingthe
twoentrancedoors.93

Despiteherconspicuouslaughter,thegirlstilladherestotheprinciplethatcovering
offersherasocialinvisibilityandthatsomekindofveiling,nomatterhowmakeshift,
shouldbeemployedtocoverevenshortoutdoortrips.
Itwasnotedearlierthatcertainvase-paintingshintattheconceptofindoorsoutdoorsandthattheuseofveiledcharactersinascenecanhighlightthecontrast.
One further scene deserves abrief discussion: Fig. 145 shows adetail of arather
sketchylate-ifth-centuryvasethattoallintentsandpurposesseemstobeascene
setwithinaprivatehouseandperhapsdepictsavisitbyagroupofwomentothe
ladyofthehouse.Shestandsatthecentreofthescenewearingapatternedchiton
and ahimation which is not pulled over the head as aveil, in contrast with the
otherthreewomen,herguests,whoarewellveiledinphareasthoughtheyhavejust
arrivedindoors.Thewomenseemrelaxed(theseatedwomensitcross-legged)and
animated(thehouseholdergesticulatesandthewomanonthefar-leftleansforward)
andappeartobechatting.Theseatedwomanonthefarrightstillhasherveildrawn
acrossherface,nodoubtinthestylethatshehadworninthestreet,andsheturns
totheviewerofthevaseinafamiliarmotifandseemstoinviteusintotheclosed
worldoffemalegossip.Itistheveilthatreceivestheartistsattentionanditisthe
veilthatallowshisaudiencetounderstandhowthishomevisitcameabout.
Veilingisnotsimplyadevicetorenderallwomanasanonymousigures;infact,
theveildoesnotpreventwomenfromrecognizingeachotherinthestreetsorfrom
207

Chapter7
chattingtogetherwhentheymeet.Evenifwomenareveiledfromheadtofootand
wearingface-veils,theycanstillberecognizedbyotherwomenwhoidentifythem
byvariousalternativesignssuchasstature,gait,andmannerisms.94
Conclusion
While it was desirable for the women of Greece to remain separated from male
society,whentheywereallowedoutoftheirhousesandprovidedthattheystayed
withintheboundsofestablishedsocialcustom,theiruseoftheveilensuredtheir
respectabilityandthehonouroftheirmaleguardianswhileenablingthemtooperate
withsomeautonomyinthepublicsphere.SotheimageofAphroditestortoiseisnot
necessarilyasymbolofcompletesubjugation;infactthetortoisecanpresentarather
positivepictureforwomanhood:likethetortoise,aveiledwomandisplayingthe
requiredamountofaidoscouldcarryherdomesticspacewithherandoperatewith
amodicumoffreedominamalesociety,aslongassheplayedbytherulesofspace.
Justasthetortoisepeersfromitsshell,soawomancouldpeerfrombehindherveil.
Butnottoofar
Notes

Paus.6.25.1.Trans.Radice1971,withamendments.
Plut. Mor. 142D. For Aphrodite standing with one foot on aturtle or tortoise see
Boardman 1991, ig. 213. See also LIMC s.v. Aphrodite II (1) 28 and II (2) no. 177
(AphroditemitderSchildkrte).
3
OnthetwoepithetsseeThornton1997,556.Itshouldbenotedthatthereweretwo
EleanAphrodites,theirstcontrasting,orbalancing,thesecond.Thus,thebronzeAphrodite
by Skopas sat on the back of a billy-goat (to make the sexual point obvious), although,
interestingly,Skopasstatuewaskeptenclosedbyawalledfencetosuggestacurbingofthe
sexualappetite.SeePaus.6.25.1.
4
ThetortoisewasafamiliarcreaturetotheancientGreeks,asitwascommonlyfound
throughoutthewholecountry.Ithasalongtraditionofappearinginfablesandtalesand
seemstohavehadapurposeasateaching-aid;Aesop,forexample,usesthetortoisetosignify
steadinessandpatience,andletsitspeakthemoralofhismostfamousfable,Ploddingwins
therace.celwvnhhastheadditionalmeaningfootstoolandtheimageofAphroditeresting
herfootonthetortoisethusplayseffectivelyonthewordsdoublemeaning.SeeSext.Emp.
Adv.Math.1.246;Hesychiuss.v.celwvnh.
5
Aristotleismoreinquisitiveandrealizesthatthereareofcoursemaleandfemaletortoises,
althoughthetesticlesofthemaleareenclosedwithinhisbody,probablyaccountingforthe
popularbelief.Healsodeclaresthatthetortoiseisnottotallysilent,becauseitcanmake
afainthiss.SeeHist.Anim.536a.8and509b.8.
6
Soph.fr.314,300.
7
Hom.HymnHer.25ff.;Soph.fr.314,284331.SeealsoSissa1990,195n.4.
8
Plut. Mor. 142D. See further Williams 1978, 28 and Bothwick 1970, 37387. See
alsoCercidasfr.2Lomiento,andLiveraandWilliams(eds.)forthcoming.Iamgratefulto
ProfessorFrederickWilliamsoftheQueensUniversityBelfastforthesereferences.
9
LXXJudith14.14ff.Seealso,Hesychiuss.v.celwnivdo": oujdo;" th'" quvra" th'" skhnh'".
1

208

AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace
ForadiscussionseeEnslinandZeitlin1972,11n.14.
10
Xen.Oik.7.20ff.SeeduBois1988,103.Forherdiscussionofthefemalebodyasstone,
aconceptthatislinkedtotheinternalizationofwomenwithinthehouse,seepp.86109.
11
Empedoklesfr.76.
12
Ar.Wasps12926.
13
SeeSchama1987,389ff.
14
Artemidorus4.30.Seefurther,White1975.
15
Ardener(ed.)1993,3.
16
The Greeks certainly understood public (expressed in words like koinov", dhvmio",
and dhmovsio"), but they had afar more nuanced attitude to deining private. Privacy
derivesfromtheLatinprivare(adjectivefromprivus,laterprivatus).Woodhouse1910
(1987)includesundertheentryPrivatethewordsi[dio" andoijkei'o"andoffersejrhmiva as
atranslationofPrivacy,butnoneofthesewordsconvincinglyconveythemodernideasof
privacyandprivate.SeefurtherSciama1993,91.
17
Plut.Per.13.910.
18
Isaios8.212.
19
Thiswaswithoutdoubtanoptiononlyforthosefamilieswhowereverypoorsincethe
textsagreethatforwomentoworkinpublicwasadegradingexperience.Onworkingwomen
seeBrock1994;Scheidel1995and1996;Herfst1922.OnseclusioningeneralseeJust1989,
111ff.;Cohen1991,149ff.TheshamefeltbyIslamicandHinduwomenworkinginpublic
spacesraisesthequestionofwhetherGreekwomenfounditparticularlydesirabletoleave
thehome.Conceptionsofstatusandmodestyandofmaintainingdistanceandseparation
betweenthesexescouldhavebeenmaintainedbythewomensowninternalizednotions
ofconstraint.ComparethefeelingsofthepirzadewomenofIndiawhounquestioningly
acceptthattheyshouldnottalkloudlyordrawattentiontothemselvesinanyway.Men
andwomenshouldnotmixfreelyandthemodest(andrespected)womanshouldnotleave
herhome.Inmixedcompanyathome,womenshouldbereservedandshowproperrespect
totheeldersofherfamily,especiallytheeldermen.SeeJeffery1979,109ff.Furthermore,
asPapanek1973,296,argues,purdah-societiesoperatedifferenttypesofsegregationand
seclusionconcurrently,fromstrictobservanceofpurdahtointermittentpurdah.Much
thesamewasprobablytrueofancientGreece.SeealsothecommentsofSlocum,Akhtar
andSahi1960,23:Everywomanisexpectedtocoverherheadandbreasts[withadupatta
wornoveratunicandtrousers]toshowherselfmodestandrespect-worthy.Awomanwho
doesotherwiseisthoughtimmodestandvulgar.Thisistheusualwayofobservingpurdah
withinthevillage.Inastrictsensepurdahisonlyobservedbythewomenofthosefamilies
whichcanmanagetheiraffairswithoutthewomengoingoutoftheirhouses.Othersmay
wearaburqaaonavisittorelativesorfriendsoratriptothecity.Observationofpurdahis
asymbolofprestigeandfashioninPunjabivillages.
20
Cohen1991,149.
21
Ibid.154ff.SeefurtherRabinowitz2002,althoughherargumentsforfemalehomoeroticismareperhapsoverstated.
22
SeePapanek1973,293.OnthefundamentalGreekideologyofmale=publicandfemale
=private,seeVernant1983,12775.
23
Walker1983(2ndedn1993).
24
Jameson1990,17195;cf.Pomeroy1994,2937.
25
SeeinparticularNevett1999;cf.Sourvinou-Inwood1995,11120.
26
Nevett1994,89112.

209

Chapter7
JudgingfromalistofdomestictextilespresentedbythelexicographerPolluxOnom.
10.42,theseseeminglyexpensivehangingswouldcertainlyhaveprovidedabrilliantsplashof
colourinthehouse;hecallsthemdelicate,well-woven(euuphes),wovenwithainethread
(euetrios),glistening(stilpne),shining(stilbousa),beautifullycoloured(eukhros),diverse
(polumorphos),purple(porphura),sea-green(halourgas),sea-purple(haliporphuros),green
(praseios),scarlet(husginobaphes),violet(ioeides),crocus-coloured(krokerides),decorated
withredlowers(kokkoanthousa),withapurpleborder(periporphuros),shotwithgold
(epikhrusos),decoratedwithiguresofanimals(theriaenegegrapto),andshiningwithstars
(astra enestrapten). Pollux and other ancient lexicographers, such as Hesychius and the
anonymouscompileroftheSuda,areaninvaluablesourceforthenamingofancientfurnishings.Fromthesesources,weareabletonameavarietyofcurtainsanddrapes:paraploma,
parakalumma, epiblemata,epibolaia,parapetasmata,ephestridesandkhlainai. Foradiscussion
oftheimportanceofcostlydomestictextilesseeVickers1999.
28
Richter1966,177n.2;Barber1991,379ff.
29
Althoughitisconceivablethattheyworkedonlyonhinges.SeeRobinsonandGraham
1938,251.SeePomeroy1994,297,whosuggeststhatcurtainsweretheusualmethodof
dividingspacewithintheGreekhouseandthat,accordingtotheinventoriedlistofthe
furnishingsoftheHermocopidae,doorswereconsideredmovablefurniture.SeePritchett
1956,2334.
30
PolluxOnom.10.32.
31
Theo.H.P.4.2.7.
32
PlinyNH13.62;Athen.12.71(548e).
33
Richter1966,ig.600.Curtainsareusedaspartitionswithinthehouseontheso-called
Ikariosrelief inNapleswhereIkariosandhiswifereclineonacouchinfrontofalarge
curtain,whichisclearlysuspendedinfrontofadoorway.SeeDeCaro1996,376.
34
ForthecrossbeamseeLys.fr.175S,IGII144A58(Delos,4thcenturybc),2(2)463.62,
1672.193.Cf.LSJs.v.dokov".
35
e.g.Od.1.333,10.559,11.64;Ar.Nu.1126,1488,1502;Men.Sam.591;Herod.
3.40;Xen.Cyr.7.5.22.Withthemeaningofanycoveredhallorchamber,seePi.P.5.41.
Seealso,Il.6.248;Emp.fr.142.
36
Aes.Ag.691.
37
Athen.4.26(145b).SeealsoTheo.Char.10.6.2;PhiloMut.43.2,Mos.2.87.5,2.101.4;
Diod.Sic.19.22.3.3.;Plut.Alex.51.10.1.
38
Roofbeam:Ar.Fr.73.1.Shutters:Diod.Sic.20.91.6(onasiegeengine).ThehouseveilanalogyispertinenttoMuslimbelieftoo,wherethetraditionalIslamiclattice-screened
windowknownasthemashrabiyyapreventspeoplefromseeinginand,becauseofthegrid,
givesonlyarestrictedviewoftheworldfrominsidethehouseandcaneasilybelikened
totheburqaa-veilwhichhasagridovertheface.TheKoran(33.53,59)certainlyequates
theveilofawomanwithaninteriordividingcurtain(hijab)thatseparateswomenfrom
strangemen.
39
SeefurtherLissarrague1992,1467.Padel1990,33665hassuggestedthatthehalfopeneddoorinvitestheviewerofavase,liketheaudienceofatragedy,toguessandfantasize
aboutwhatliesbehindit;thehalf-openeddoorremindsusthatwecanneverseeandknow
allaboutthosethatdwellbehindit.Shesuggeststhatthisworksonadeeperleveltooand
thateveryhumanhastheirowndoortotheinterior,thesoul,anddeclaresthat,Themouth
istraditionallyafenceddoor.
40
PossiblyascenefromEuripidesStheneboia.SeeTrendallandWebster1971,101.
27

210

AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace
Plut.Mor.516EF.Trans.Babbitt(Loeb)1927,withamendments.
Seealsoabove,Chapter1.
43
Men.Perikeir.31314.hJ me;n aijscunei'tejpeida;n eijsivwmen dhladh parakaluvy[etaiv
t,e[qo]" ga;r t[o]u't[o]Trans.Arnott(Loeb,1996)withaslightamendment(heusescover
ratherthanveil).Millerstranslation(Penguin1987)has:Shellbeshywhenwegoin,
naturally,andhidebehindherveil.Thatswhatwomendo.Therestorationofthetextcomes
fromKrte(Teubner,1938,correctedreprint1957).CompareAristaenetus2.2,2.8.
44
GommeandSandbach1973,486,speculatethatMoschionmeansthatitisthemanner
ofthedemi-mondainetoshowthatshecanbehavelikearespectablelady.Inotherwords,
theysuggestthatthepassagehasthegeneralmeaningof,Shewillbeshy(orpretendto
be) after that last meeting of ours. That is the way of women. This is an unnecessary
addition.
45
Aristaenetus 2.2.78. Compare 2.18.12 For comments on these texts see below,
Chapter10.
46
Jeffery1979,1089.
47
Makhlouf1979,334.
48
Lysias3.67.Trans.Lamb(Loeb)1989.SeecommentsbyJust1989,123ff.andGould
1980,esp.47.SeefurtherCohen1991,148ff.,withrefs.
49
CertainlyfortheIslamicparallel,Papanek1973,294ff.,arguesfortwoinstrumentsof
femaleseclusion:thesegregationoflivingspacefromoutsiders,andthecoveringoftheface
andbodywithaveil.Shearguesthattheveilisalogicalsupplementtotheuseofenclosed
livingspaces.
50
SeeespeciallyMernissi1975,144ff.
51
Philemo3.12K.-A. SeeinparticularDavidson1997,137ff.Thelackofclothingand
correspondingabsenceofmodestyismadeexplicitinXenarchos4.46K.-A.
52
Cohen1991,155:Womenwerenotphysicallyisolatedfromtheircommunity,and
theirdailyactivitiestookthemoutoftheirhousesandbroughtthemintocontactwithmen,
whetherintheagora,atafestivalorawedding,orinthehouseofafriendsorneighbour.
53
Ibid.162.
54
Whenthisveil-styleismentioneditisusuallyisinthecontextofadiscussionofHeraclides Criticus. See, for example, Walcot 1998, 169. Burr Thompsons inluential series
ofstudiesontheTanagranigurineshasconvincinglyarguedthatthevarietyofmodelled
iguresderivefromAtticprototypesandwereoriginallytheproductofAtheniancraftsmen
whosculptedtheiguresfromreallifeAthenianmodels.Ifthisisindeedthecase,thenthe
tegidioncouldhavehadamajorimpactonAthenianwomanhood.Aconvenientaccountof
BurrThompsonsresearchiscontainedinUhlenbrock(ed.)1990,4853.Forthedistributionofthetegidion,seeabove,Chapter3.
55
Seeinparticular,Pomeroy1984,4182andRowlandson1998.
56
SeeFisher1988,1184;vanBremen1996,156callsthismovementthedomestication
ofpubliclife.
57
Virtruvius (7.17) commonly makes these distinctions. For adiscussion see Nevett
1999,1819,224.
58
Ibid.158ff.
59
Papanek 1973, 295. Cf. Jeffrey 1979, 151ff. The journalist Veronica Doubleday
(1988,10)agreedtobeveiledwhenshewaslivinginHeratinAfghanistanandreported
that,Wearingaveilinpublicinitiatedanimportantandsubtlechangeinme,cultivating
anauraofmodestyandself-containment.Itmaskedmyforeignness,enablingmetojoin
41

42

211

Chapter7
manywomensoutingswhereIwouldhaveotherwisehaveattractedunwantedattention,
anditbroughtawelcomeprivacy.Itwasalsofascinatingandsalutarytodiscoverthatbeing
invisibleisseductive.
60
Theognis57980.Asitturnsout,thewomanmaynotbeasrespectableassheirst
appearssince,inthenexttwolines,amanpresumablythewomanshusbandstates,
Ihateawomanwhoroamsabout,andalecherousmanwhowantstoploughanothermans
land.Finally,thewomanandaman,eitherherhusbandorlover,declarethatitsnouse
lamentingwhathasbeendoneinthepast;theyshouldlooktothefuture:Butthesethings
havehappenedalreadyanditisnotpossibleforthemtobeundone;thefuture,forthatlet
usbeonourguard(5834).
61
Talibanmodestylawsgoverningthedressofwomenplacedparticularlyharshpunishments on non-conforming women, including on-the-spot beatings. Adisturbing BBC
PanoramaprogrammeofOctober2001showedthisrulebeingenforced.
62
ForadiscussionofthegynaikonomoiseeinparticularOgden1996,36475and2002.
SeealsoMills1984.Whileitisdificulttoknowexactlyhowthisinstitutionoperated,it
ispossiblethatagroupofoficialsactedaswomenpoliceandcontrolledthemovementsof
womeninmanyGreekstatesfromthelateclassicalperiodon.Idonotwanttooverstressthe
importanceofthisinstitution(ifindeedthatisanappropriateword)becausetheevidence
forthegynaikonomoiasanactive,organized,andestablishedpoliceforceisfragmentary
tosaytheleast.Nonetheless,muchofthescantevidencesuggeststhatthegynaikonomoi
controlledfemalebehaviouratpublicfestivalsandfuneralsandcheckedtherespectabilityof
femaleparticipantsinstaterituals.InaratherpuzzlingstatementHypereides(fr.14Jensen)
notedthat,Womenwithoutorderinthestreetwereined1,000drachmas. Itishardto
understandwhathemeansbywithoutorder(akosmousai)butIthinkthatitisperhaps
aconvenientcatch-allphrasewhichhintsthatgynaikonomoiactivitywasnotconinedto
festivalsandcouldincludethedailypolicingofwomeninpublicwith,perhaps,regardto
overseeingtheirmodestdress.Thiswascertainlytrueforwomenatfestivals,butitisconceivablethattheircontrolextendedbeyondtheconinesofspecialoccasions.Thepunishment
fortransgressingtherulesofthegynaikonomoiwastohavethenameoftheoffenderwritten
onawhiteboardandpinnedtoaplanetree,andtobesummonedwithainethatwas,of
course,payablebythewomansoficialkurios.(Hesychiuss.v.plavtano").Theshamebrought
aboutbythepublicdisplayofawomansnamewasaharshpunishmentsinceitbrought
dishonouronherfamilyanditispossiblethataphysicalchastisementoftheerringwoman
couldhavefollowedatthewillofherguardian.Ofcourse,Hypereidestermwithoutorder
couldmeanthatthegynaikonomoiwerevigilantincontrollingfemalebehaviourinother
waysincluding,perhaps,keepingwomenfrominteractingpubliclywithmenorevenfrom
speakingtomeninthestreets.
63
Eur.El.3434.
64
Mernissi1994,65ff.TheArabicwordharam(forbidden,taboo)istherootofthe
wordsharemandharemlikwhichrefertobothwomensquartersandtoaplacewhichis
sacredandoutofbounds.ForafullerdeinitionseeLlewellyn-Jones2002b.
65
El Guindi 1999, 11819, recounts an incident when amale teacher visited agroup
offemalestudentsinthewomensloungeoftheirstudentaccommodation.Hissenseof
proprietywasemphasizedbyhisactions:Hepulledhiskufiyya(headshawl)overhisfaceand
enteredverycarefully,literallyrubbingagainstthewalltryingnottolookinthedirectionof
thewomenuntilhereachedacurtaindiagonallyhunginthecorneroftheroom.Hewent
behinditandsatfacingthewomenfrombehindthecurtain.Thatis,itwasthemanwho

212

AphroditesTortoise:veiling,socialseparationanddomesticspace
bothface-veiledwhenwithwomenandsatbehindthehijab(curtain).Hisshadowshowed
himliftinghiskuffiyyaoffhisfaceandlettingitdownoverhisshoulders,butkeepingiton
hishead.HeproceededtodiscussKoranicsuras,particularlythosepertainingtohijab
Afteraboutthirty-iveminutesheexcusedhimself,andwentthrougharitualizedexit,similar
tohisentry.Heclosedthedoorafterhimandthewomenstartedtorelaxtheirhead-and
face-coversandproceededwiththeactivitiestheywereengagedinbeforehisinterruption.
Someate,sometalkedandlaughed,somechangedasothersrushedtoclass.
66
Eur.IA821ff.SeeCairns1993,309ff.
67
Eur.IA821.HippolytuscriesoutthesameinvocationatEur.Fr.436N(2).Cairns
1993,293suggeststhatthegestureofveilinghisheadmayhaveaccompaniedHippolytus
wordsatthispoint.
68
Eur.IA830.
69
Cairns1993,31112,contraLombard1985,67.
70
Gleason1995,55102and1990.
71
SeeWalker1995,245,2849.
72
AfurtherdiscussionofbrightnesscanbefoundinChapter10.
73
Soph.OT142431,141112.SeefurtherCairns1993,21619.
74
HH22789.
75
Plut.Dem.29.4.SeefurtherCairns2002.
76
Stevens1998,398.
77
Seeforexample,PhiloConf.71;116.ForveiledjudgesseePlatoGrg.523d3;Plut.
Mor.121B10.Agoodjudgeshouldbeabletodiscerncharacterandtruthevenifheis
veiled.SeePlatoMen.76b4.
78
Ar.Thes.498501.ForametaphoricaluseseePlato,Resp.503a8:Somethingofthis
sortwesaidwhiletheargumentslippedbywithveiledfaceinfearofstartingourpresent
debate.Cf.Phaedr.237a4.
79
See also Luc. Merc. Cond. 39, Rh. Pr. 21; Plut. Mor. 594E 3. The man who hides
himselfunderacloakinSoph.Ajax1145istrampleduponbecause,likeaveiledwoman,
heispracticallyinvisible.
80
Hes.Th.574;cf.PhiloMut.nom.199.3.
81
OnwomensnamesandindividualidentityseeSchaps1977.
82
Luc.Vit.Auct.223.
83
Aristot.SE179b.2.
84
Luc.Herm.54.
85
Xen.Symp.1.1116.SeefurtherMilanezi2000.
86
Gleason1995,48.
87
ThissuggeststhatstrictGreekveilingstylescontinuedtobeobservedintheGreekEast
wellintotheRomanperiod.SeeDioChrys.33.489.
88
PolemonPhys.68(1.284.414F).Trans.Gleason1995,489.
89
Ibid.1821.
90
SeefurtherGleason1995,49.
91
Eur.Herakl.4747.Itwasthoughtshamefulforwomentohangaroundatthefront
doors of their houses: after the battle of Chaeronea in 338, free women stood in their
doorwaystoaskfornewsoftheirrelatives,thusbehavinginafashionunworthyofthemselvesandtheircity.SeeLycurg.40.InMuslimsociety,thedoorisneveraneutralspace.In
Iran,forexample,mosttownandcityhousesareequippedwithtwodoorknockers;theirst
iscalledthesoftknockerandisusedbyfemalevisitorsandmalemembersofthehousehold.

213

Chapter7
Thesecondiscalledthehardknockerandislimitedinusetostrangersandbusinesspeople.
Womeninsidethehousearethereforeabletodistinguishwhoiscallingatthedoormerely
bythenoiseofthedoorknocker.Ifthesoftknockerisstruck,thewifeordaughtersofthe
housemayopenthedoor(butremainhiddeninsideuntilthecallerhasentered),butifthe
hardknockerisused,aservantormalememberofthehousewillanswer.Alternatively,if
therearenomenorservantspresentinthehousetoanswerthehardknock,thenthevisitor
willhavetowaituntilamalehouseholderreturnsbeforebeingadmitted.
92
BeazleyARV(2)645,no.7.SeealsoPickard-Cambridge1953(1969),206.
93
Makhlouf1979,34.
94
Ibid.32.

214

8
FROMPARTHENOSTOGYN:
VEILINGANDTHEFEMALELIFECYCLE
Inmanyveil-societies,theveilhighlightsprogressionthroughvariousstagesoffemale
life.Agirlreachingpubertyisveiledinrecognitionofherbuddingsexuality,and
ayoungbrideisveiled,amongotherthings,tohighlighthersexualripeness.This
chapteraimstoinvestigatewhethersimilarveilingpracticesaccompaniedthefemale
lifecycleinancientGreece.
AtwhatageweregirlsinancientGreeksocietiesveiled?Needlesstosay,evidence
forthisisnoteasilylocatedintheancientsources.Inthemajorityofmodernveilsocietiesfemaleinfantsarenotveiled,althoughthesituationchangesasthechild
growsandbeginstoparticipateinsocialactivities.Themomentwhenagirlstarts
tobeveiledvariesfromonesocietytoanotheralthough,normally,attheonsetof
physicalmaturity,atmenarche,veilingmarksachangeintheconductofagirl,in
howsheisperceivedsocially,and,accordingly,inwhatshewears.Mightthishave
beenthesameinancientGreece?
Insomeveil-societiesthestagesofagirlsphysicalandsocialdevelopmentcan
berelectedinhergarments:ayoungBedouingirlinArabia,forexample,wears
asmallcap(quba)untilsheisabouteightyearsold,whensheisexpectedtowear
ahoodedgarmentknownasthebukhnuq.Attheageoftwelveorthirteenasecond
garmentisadded,theabayaorsleevelessrobe,until,atmenarche,thesegarments
arechangedforawomansveilandabaya.Inotherwords,theolderagirlgets,the
morelayersofclothingsheisexpectedtowear.Moreover,thesechangescanbe
identiiedbybestowingonthegirlavarietyoftitlesthatrelectherchangeofdress
andcorrespondwithherprogresstosexualmaturity:amongtheRashydaofthe
ArabPeninsula,thetermbintumgargash(virginwearingagargash-veil)refersto
agirlapproachingadolescence,whileabintumnaggab(virginwearingamungabveil)isagirlwhosebreastshavestartedtodevelopandmustthereforebecovered
bybothagargash-veilandamungab-veil.1Hereagirlspathtomaturityismarked
bothbythenumberoflayersofclothingshewearsandbytheadditionofanextra
veilthatadvertisesthearrivalofherphysicaldevelopment.Aninterestingpicture
ofagroupofIraqiwomenandgirlsperhapshighlightsthisnotion(Fig.146):the
younggirlontherightofthephotographwearsnokindofveilorcovering.Nextto
her,ateenagegirlcoversherheadwithatemporaryveil,asleevedrobe;thewoman
standingnextinlineiswellcoveredinafringedandcolouredveil,althoughherface
215

Chapter8

Fig.146.FourgenerationsofIraqiwomenrevealdifferentattitudestoveilingaccordingtoage
andmaritalstatus.Iraq,c.1912.AfterGraham-Brown1988.

(albeitheavilyshadowed)isexposed.Sheistheeldestwomaninthegroup,probably
themotherofthegirls.Finally,atthefarleft,isayoungwomanwhosefaceand
bodyarecompletelyveiled.Thiscostumeshowsthatsheisaprospectivebrideand
hervisor-likeveil,thehailiyi,highlightshersexualmaturityevenasitparadoxically
emphasizeshersocialinvisibility.2
EvidenceforthedressofGreekgirlsissparse,althoughitappearsthattheywore
miniatureimitationsofadultfemaledress,whileforveryyoungchildrenitseems
thatnuditywascommonplace.3Thereislittleevidencethatpre-pubescentgirlswere
veiled,butthesilenceofthesourcesshouldnotnecessarilyruleoutthepossibility.
Therearehintsthatveilingwasimposedon(orwasevenkeenlyanticipatedby)girls
whohadreachedpubertyandhadexperiencedmenarche.Weknowthatthisriteof
passagewasmarkedbytheadditionofatleastonegrownupgarmentsinceclassical
sourcestellhowthezone,orwaist-sash,wasirstwornbyagirlatpubertyonlytobe
dedicatedtoArtemisaspartofthesubsequentmarriageprocess.4Onthewedding
nightthegroomloosensthebrideszoneandinchildbirthawomansympathetically
hadherwaist-sashuntied.Thezoneisfrequentlyeroticizedinthetextualevidence
inmuchthesamewaythattheveilisfetishized.Infact,theveilandthesashare
frequentlyassimilatedintheGreekpsycheassexualizinggarments.5
Veils often feature in contemporary female rites of passage, particularly when
agirlcrossesthethresholdofwomanhood.Whilewecannotbesurehowsuchritual
transformationswereenactedinancientGreekcommunities,itispossiblethatgirls
reachingpubertywereveiledinaccordancewithsocialregulationsandthattheveil
216

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
simultaneouslyprotectedandsexualizedtheirbodies.Certainly,ifwetakePlutarchs
statement, that Spartan girls were paraded unveiled in public by their fathers, as
evidenceofapracticethatdeliberatelywentagainstthesocialnormforotherGreek
societies,thenwecanimaginethatordinarilygirlswereveiledfromatimepriorto
marriage,perhapsfromtheonsetofpuberty,asanindicationthattheyhadreached
acertainstageinlife.6FromHomericepicweknowthatthepubescentNausikaais
veiledforherpublicappearancesandthatthepoetclearlyconsideredheroldenough
toparticipateinthecomplexveilingcodesthatheusessowellthroughouttheepics.
Likewise,intheArgonautika,theyoungMedeatoyswithherveilassheraisesand
lowersitoverherfaceandhead,inactionsthatparadoxicallyhighlightherbudding
sexualityandhersexualinnocence.7Intheiconographicsources,Helenisveiledat
themomentofherabductionbyTheseus;atthetimeshewasconsideredonlytohave
beeninherearlyteens.8Numerousyoungfemalesintragedy,aswehaveseen,referto
theirveilsorarenotedbyothersasveiledandmanyvirginheroinesareshownveiled
intheartisticsources,whichisprobablyarelectionofdailypractice.
Foragirlsfertilitytobebeneicialtohercommunity,hersexualityshouldreally
beutilizedforthegoodofherfamilyinhercapacityasprocreator,sofemaleritesof
passagesurroundingpubertyareonlypreliminarytotheritualscelebratingaforthcomingmarriagewhenagirlgoesthroughalife-changingtransformationfromvirgin
towifetomother.ThepreparationsfortheGreekweddingwereascrucialinthe
ritualorderofthingsasthewedding-proper;itwasitting,therefore,toindboth
thebride-to-beandthefuturegroompropitiatingthecorrectdeitieswithsacriices
andofferingsbeforeundertakingthismomentousstep.9Knowingwhichdeityto
propitiatewasvital.DiodorusSiculustellsofthesigniicanceofAphroditeatthis
time, although it was recognized that to enter into communion with Aphrodite
meantthatthebride-to-behadtoleavethesphereofArtemis,thevirginguardian
oftheyoung.ButforayoungwomantolosethedivinesupportofArtemis,who
wasalsogoddessofchildbirth,wouldbefatal;itwasthereforecriticaltoretainthe
linkwiththismostickleofdivinities.10
It was recognized that by offering the goddess textiles of their own making,
women were especially able to please Artemis, claim her support, and draw the
goddess of woods and mountains into the intimacy of theoikos. Garments and
textilesdedicatedtodeitieshaveonlysurvived(onthewhole)asinventoriescarved
intostone.11Suchdedicationsaccompaniedeverystageofthefemalelife-cycle,so
thatwhenvirginshadcomethroughtheirirstencounterwithmenstruation,it
wascommonforthemtoconsecrateexamplesoftheirweavingorarticlesoftheir
clothingtoArtemis.12Themostdetailedaccountsoftextilededicationssurvivein
theformofifth-centurystone-inscribedcataloguesofferedtoArtemisBrauronia
on the Athenian Akropolis which may be used in conjunction with (mainly)
fourth-century clothing inscriptions found at Miletus and Tanagra to provide
uswithaninsightintoGreekclothingtermsaswellasaninvaluableindication
of asocietys reaction to life-changing events, especially in the female sphere. 13
217

Chapter8
Particularlyimportantinthetextileofferinglistsaresashesandveils.14Itseems
thatgirlsirstworeaveilandasashattheonsetofpubertyandbothwerethen
dedicatedtoagoddess(Artemisinparticular)atthetimeofapproachingmarriage
atthemomentwhentheirfertilitywasperceivedtobeatitsheight.Theywere
thenreplacedbydifferingvarietiesofthesamegarment:aspeciicweddingveiland
aspecialweddinggirdletiedwitharitualknot.
In his examination of textile gifts collected in the Greek Anthology, Losfeld
cataloguesthirty-ivevarietiesofclothingandrevealsthatveilsarementionedfour
times.15Thus,fromlinesattributedtoArchilochuswehave,
Alkibiadedicatedthesacredveil(kaluptren)thatcoveredherhairtoHera,whenshe
reachedthetimeofherlegitimatewedding.16

AntipatorofSidonprovidesamoreintricatetextwhichliststheofferingsofivegirls
ofthesameage,whodedicatethemselvestoAphrodite:
Bitinna gives these sandals, agreat comfort for her feet, the pretty work of skilled
shoe-makers;Philaenis,thenet,dyedwithsea-purple,thatbindstightherlonghair;
Antikleia,herfan;lovelyHerakleia,herface-veil(kalupteirandeprosopou),assheeras
aspidersweb;andthedaughterofAristotle,whobearsherfathersname,hercoiled
snake,thegoldornamentofherslimankles.Wegirlcompanions,allofoneagegive
giftstoOurania.17

The same girls, now identiied as living at Naukratis, are also alluded to by
Archias:
Bitinnagivesthesesandals,Philaenia,thepurplenetthatconinesherabundanthair;
fair-headed Antikleia, her fan in which waits the strong wind, her defence against
theviolentheat;Herakleia,thissheerface-veil(prokalummaprosopou),wroughtlike
aspidersweb.AndAristotelia,whobearsherfathersname,thesnake,herbeautiful
anklet.Girlsallofoneage,dwellinginlow-lyingNaucratis,theyoffertheserichgifts
toKypris,whopresidesoverweddings.18

Finally,NikiasprovidesevidenceforthededicationoftwoveilstoEileithyiaby
awomannamedAmpharetawhohassurvivedtheordealofchildbirth:
Theveil(kredemna)andwater-blueveil(hudatessakaluptra)ofAmpharetarestonyour
head,Eileithyia;forthemshevowedtoyouwhensheprayedtoyoutokeepdreadful
deathfarawayfromherwheninlabour.19

This epigram, although alluding to awoman who has gone forward to the next
stageoffemaleexperienceapparentlybybeingsuccessfullydeliveredofachild
nonethelessallowsustowitnesstheactofofferingtwoveilstothegoddessof
childbirth.Theepigrammakesitclearthatbothoftheveilshadbeenworninlife
byAmpharetawhonowgivesthemtothegoddesstowearby,perhaps,draping
astatueofthedeitywiththecloths.20Thepracticeofdrapingstatuesofgoddesses
witharticlesofdedicatedclothingiswellrecorded:threeampekhonai,forexample,
areofferedtoArtemisBrauroniaandaredrapedonthestatueofthegoddess.21
218

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
TheotherthreeepigramsfoundintheGreekAnthology(6.137,6.206,6.207,
composed over along period between 650 and 120) attest the well-established
traditionoftextileofferingsandrecordveilsbeingdedicatedtoHera(byAlkibia)and
Aphrodite(byHerakleia).22Allthreeepigramsarelinkedcloselytoanapproaching
wedding;AntipatorandArchiasrecordtheveilasonlyoneofanumberofitems
ofadornmentthatweresuitabletoofferadeityupontheapproachingmarriage,
butArchilochusmakesfarmorecandidlytheconnectionbetweenAlkibiasoffering
oftheveilthatoncecoveredherheadandtheapproachingtimeofhermarriage.
Bydedicatingherveil,Alkibiabidsfarewelltoherlifeasanunmarriedvirginand
preparestotakethestepintowomanhood.23
Bythetimethewedding-daydawned,ayounggirlwouldhavegonethrough
atransformation,bothallegoricalandphysical;shewouldhavesimultaneouslygiven
awayherchildhoodclothes(oraproportionofthem),andwouldhaveremovedthe
sashthathadboundherwaistsincetheonsetofpuberty.Shealsodedicatedaveil,
probably one she had been accustomed to wearing since at least her menarche,
althoughitispossiblethatsheofferedherbestveiltothegoddess.Theresultof
thesepreparationsleftayoungwomansymbolicallystrippedoftheaccoutrements
commonlyassociatedwithhervirginstateasshestoodmetaphoricallynaked,ready
tobere-clothedinspecialweddinggarments.Fromtheconinesoftheritualclothing
thevirginwouldemergeasasexualizedbeing,awifeconnectedtoahusbandbyher
roleasprocreator.Ametamorphosiswouldhavetakenplace.

Veilingthebride
Inadditiontothededicationofclothingtodeities,thebrideunderwentaritual,
perhapsonthenightbeforethebeginningoftheweddingfestivities,ofbathingher
bodyinspringwater,anactthatwasintendedtowashawayherformerlifeasagirl
andprepareherforwomanhood.24Thiswasfollowedbytheritualdressingofthe
brideontheirstdayofherwedding.Inmostsocieties,ancientandmodern,the
bridaloutitisaverysigniicantitemintheweddingritualandtheclothingofthe
brideisoftenpackedwithsymbolicsigniicance.
InancientAthensthedressingofthebridewassupervisedbythenymphokomos
whohadabsoluteauthorityoverthebridesadornment.25Whilethetextsnotethat
thegroomwasalsorichlyclothedandperfumed,26mostoftheattentionisgivento
thedressofthebrideanditisclearthattheweddingbecameanoccasionforwhat
wasprobablythemostextravagantdressinginawomanslife.Thisisinkeeping
withwiderconceptsoftheweddinggarments;afterall,theweddingisanoccasion
ofexpansionandaugmentationandinmanysocietiesthebrideandgroomassume
awesomesigniicanceduringtheweddingcelebrationsandareoftenregardedasakin
toroyalty.Consequently,aspecialanddistinctivedressforthebrideiscommonplaceinmostsocieties,whilemagniicenceischaracteristicofweddinggarments
generallythroughoutworldhistory.Colour,qualityoffabric,andlayersofclothing
helptransportthebrideandgroomfromtherealmofthemundanetoatemporary
219

Chapter8
pinnacleofsocialstanding.27Thebridalweddingdressandtheweddingveilareoften
oftheultimateimportance.
Clearly the bride wore an elaborate wedding costume augmented by delicate
sandals and masses of jewellery, which sometimes had symbolic designs.28 Her
headwascrownedwithastephanewhichappearsiniconographytobeofmetal,
althoughPlutarchstatesthatinBoeotia,afterveilingabride,herheadiscrowned
withachapletofasparagus.29TheaccountofthepreparationofthebridePandora
inHesiodsTheogony,bringstogethertheelementsofritualadornment.Theroleof
nymphokomosisplayedbyAthene:
Thegoddess,grey-eyedAthene,girdedandadorned[Pandora]
inagleamingsilvercrown,anddownoverherheadsheplaced
anintricatelywovenveil(kalyptren),awondertosee.
AroundherheadPallasAtheneputagarland
Freshblossoming,beautiful,withmeadowlowers.
Andsheplacedonherheadagoldencrown
whichthegodhimselfmade,thefamousLameGod,
makingitwithhishands,delightingFatherZeus.30

ApassagefromtheWorksandDaysaddstothisscene,asPandoraisfurtheradorned
withnecklacesandloralcrownsbyPeitho,theGracesandtheHorai;sheisgiven
skillsbythegodsandisnamedPandorabecauseallthegodsofOlympusbestowed
giftsuponher.31EventhoughPandoraiscreatedasblighttomortalmen,apunishmentfromZeus,inoutwardformshetakesontheappearanceofabride,radiantin
jewellery,lowers,brightclothingandaglisteningveil.32
OncehertoilettewascompletedtheGreekbridepreparedherselftomeetthe
groom.Shestoodinacostumethatexempliiedhertransitionalstate.Theriteof
passageforabrideinancientGreeksocietyfollowsvanGennepsplanofsymbolic
orphysicalseparationleadingtothetransitionalstateandthenre-incorporationinto
anewstatus.33Whiletheweddingritesservedtomovepersonsintoanewsocial
standingandtobringtogetherthetwoseparateworldsofmaleandfemaleinthe
personsofthebrideandgroom,itdidsowithinthenarrowandrigidconinesof
Greeksocialstructure,ideology,andtraditionaboutfemaleinequality.Eventhough
abridewasdeckedoutlikeagoddess,shestillremainedasilentpassiveobjectofmale
control.Thiswasemphasizedbyplacingherbeneaththeconinesofthewedding
veil,which,liketheveilwornindailylife,keptawomanseparatedfrom(male)
society.ItisclearthattheGreekweddingdresswasmarkedlydifferentfromfemale
daily-wear,notnecessarilyintermsofconstruction,butinregardtocolour,decoration,andornamentation.Thedecorativebridalveilinparticularwasimbuedwith
arichsymbolicsigniicance.34
Thetraditionofabridesheadandfacebeinghiddenbeneathoneormoreveils
canbefoundinmanysocieties.AlthoughinmodernWesterntraditiontheveil(if
wornatall)issimplyonethinlayerofwhitenetting(whichisnotreallyintendedto
hidethebridesface),inothertraditionssomuchclothisusedtocoverthebrides
220

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle

Fig.147.Abridewearsashaal-veildecorated
withstars,perhapsarepresentationofthecolour
ofthebridalveil.Linedrawingofadetailtaken
fromaloutrophoros,c.425.MFABoston03.802.

Fig.148.Abridedonsastarryveil.Line
drawingdetailfromalebesgamikosbythe
WashingPainter,c.440430.Staat.Antik.
Munich7578.

Fig.149.Courtshipscene.Thebride-to-bewears,andissurroundedby,star-encrustedtextiles.
Linedrawingtakenfromanalabastron,c.470450.BibliothqueNationale508,Paris.

head,faceandbody(eitherintermsoflengthorlayers),thatthedebilitatedbridehas
tobephysicallyescortedthroughouttheceremony.Itseemslikelythattheancient
Greekveilstraddlesbothoftheseextremes:whileitcouldbemadefromadelicate
clothlinenorperhapsveryinewool,orevensilktheveilwasstillopaqueenough
tohidethebridesfacefrompublicview.Itcouldhavebeenworkedwithwoven
designs. Pandoras wedding veil is described as intricately wovenawonder to
see,35whichcertainlysuggeststhatitwasamarvellousexampleofskilledweaving.36
Occasionallyvasepaintingsdepictbrideswearingveilsdecoratedwithstar-motifs
orsmallhatchedcrosses.Ared-igureloutrophorosinBoston(Fig.147)forexample,
showsabrideabouttoenterhernewhomeastwoErotesadjustherstar-spangled
veil,whileFig.148showsabrideabouttodonherstarryveil.
Aninterestingscenedepictingdecoratedbridalclothingiscontainedonaredigure alabastron in Paris (Fig. 149). It represents an idealized scene of courtship
betweenaprospectivebrideandherfuturehusband.Ayoungman,identiiedinthe
inscriptionashandsomeTimodemos,standsinfrontofaseatedwoman,thebride
221

Chapter8
tobe,whodelicatelyholdsawreath.Herclothingisdecoratedwithsmallhatchedcrosses,asisaclothhangingonthewallinfrontofher.Timodemosextendshishand
towardsherandoffersaveil.37Couldthisbetheweddingveil,agiftfromthegroom
tohisbride?Itappearstohaveaspangleddecorationandevenafringededge,which
couldidentifyitasanoteworthygarment.
Itwasprobablyregardedassociallydesirableforthebridetobebedeckedincostly
attireatherwedding,andtheexpensewouldfalltothemenwhohadmetatthe
engue(betrothalceremony).Whilethebrideskurios(guardian)wouldnodoubtbe
expectedtoprovidehischargewithherweddingoutit,itisnotimprobablethatthe
groomandhisfamilywentsomewaytowardsmeetingthecostaswell.Itseemsthat
thepublicspectacleofabrideattiredincostlyfabricsandjewellerywasanopportunity
tomakeapowerfulstatementoffamilyafluence.Theveilwhichconcealedthebride
throughoutmuchofthefestivitieswouldsurelyneedtobeparticularlyexpensiveand
memorable.AMuslimbridesveilisdescribedbyoneauthorityas,trulyaclothof
gold,dazzlingtheeyesandtakingonesbreathaway.38
A well-known wedding scene created onthebodyofalekythosbytheAmasis
Paintershowswomenengagedinvariousstagesofwoolworking,fromspinningand
weavingtofoldingthecompletedcloth(Fig.150).Theshoulderofthevasedepicts
aseatedwomanadoptingtheveil-gestureandholdingawreathassheisapproached
by two groups of four dancing girls, all of whom link hands. These groups are

Fig.150a.Womenspinatextileonalargeloomwhileaboveabridesitsand
adoptstheveil-gesture.LekythosbytheAmasisPainter,c.550.TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt(N.Y.),FletcherFund,1931.(31.11.10)

222

Fig.150b.DetailofFig.150a
showingaseatedbrideintheveilgesturepose.

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
precededbytwosetsoftwomen,oneofwhom,differentiatedbyhisshortcloak,
turnsbacktowatchthegirls.Thescenehasbeeninterpretedasadanceincelebration
oftheweavingofthePanathenaicpeplosforAthene,butitismorelikelythatthe
performanceonthelekythosisnotcarriedoutasareligiousrite,butasadomestic
one.Thedanceisprobablyperformedaspartofaweddingcelebration.Whathas
beenmissedininterpretationsofthisvasetodateisthefactthattheveiledwoman
ontheshoulderscene,probablyabrideinthemaking,sitsabovethegreatwarpweightedloomonthebellyofthevasesothatherlargeveilseemstocorrespond
withthegreatuninishedtextilebelow.Itislogicaltosupposethatthetextilebeing
madeontheloomisherweddinggownor,indeed,theveilthatshewearsinthe
sceneabove.39Theyoungmaninthedistinctiveshortcloakcouldthereforebethe
groomwhohaspresentedthegiftoftheveiltohisfuturebride.40
ItdoesnotappearthattheGreekweddingveiltookanyonespeciicshapeor
size.Insteaditfollowedfashionablemodesincontemporarylife.Thereforephare
aredrapedoverbridesheads,himatiaareusedasweddingveils,andshaal-veilsare
wornbybrides,allofwhichfollowthefashionableevolutionofveil-styles.While
iconographyprovidesindicationsofhowweddingveilsmayhaveappeared(although
nothowtheywerenecessarilywornintheceremony),thelimitedcoloursfound
onpotsandthenow-monochromesculpturesarenotthemosteffectivesourcesfor
tryingtodetermineanythingaboutthecolourofbridalveilswhich,Ibelieve,was
averyimportantaspectofthisdistinctivegarment.
UnfortunatelythereisnoGreektextthatdirectlycommentsonthecolourofthe
weddingveil,althoughitispossiblethatmentionoftheflammeuminRomanComedy
couldderivefromaGreekprototype.Romanaccountsofbridalattirecanbeofhelp,
ascananthropologicaldataonweddinggarmentsinthemodernMediterraneanand
MiddleEast.EventhoughtheGreektextsdonotspeciicallyaddresstheissueofthe
colourofbridalveils,thereareenoughhintsavailabletotacklethepuzzle.
Ofnecessity,theinvestigationsstartingpointhastobethefamousbutperplexing
sectionofAiskhylosAgamemnoninwhichIphigeneiashedsherkrokoubaphas.41
Inhiscommentaryonthepassage,Hermannsuggestedthatatthemomentofher
slaughter,Iphigeneiaunveiledherfacewhenshepouredherkrokoubaphas,orsaffron
dyes,tothegroundandsilentlygazedintotheeyesofthemenwhosurrounded
her.42Surprisingly,Fraenkelalmostignoresthepassageinhiscommentary,43butit
hasmorerecentlyreceivedmuchneededattentionbyCunningham,44Armstrong
andRatchford,45allofwhomagreethatathersacriiceIphigeneiaisclearlywearing,
andcastsoff,aveilsincetheideaissupportedinbothcontemporaryiconography
andliterature.46
ButIphigeneiawearsnocustomaryheadcovering;shewearsaspecialmarriage
veil.Bytheclassicalperiod,Iphigeneiawasclearlyperceivedtohavebeendressed
asabrideatthetimeofherdeath.ThereisnospeciicreferenceintheAgamemnon
totheforthcomingmarriageoftheprincess,butherpresenceatAulistocelebrate
herweddingtoAkhilleuswasanestablishedtraditionbytheifthcenturyandwe
223

Chapter8
canassumethatAiskhylosaudiencewouldhavebeenfamiliarwiththeeventsat
Aulisfromreferencestotheminepiccycle.47Euripidescertainlyusesthetradition
ofIphigeneiasimpendingweddingtogreatdramaticeffectinhisIphigeneiainTauris
whenhehastheheroinerecollecthowshecoveredherselfinherbridalveilassoon
assheheardnewsofherforthcomingmarriagewhileshewasstillathomeinArgos.
Shewassoexcited(butalsocorrectlyembarrassed)attheprospectofherwedding
thatsherefusedtoliftherveileventokissfarewelltoherbabybrotherorlittlesister
beforesherushedofftoAulis.48ItisclearfromEuripidesstorythatIphigeneiawent
toAulisundertheillusionthatshewastobejoinedinmarriagetoAkhilleus,that
shearrivedtheredressedinherbridalinery,andthatitwasonlyatthelastmoment,
asshewasduetobesacriiced,thatsheregisteredwhatwashappeningtoherand
dramaticallytoreoffherweddingveil.
Evidently,inpopularimaginationIphigeneiawasperceivedtohavebeendressedin
bridalattireforherordealatAulisand,therefore,sincehergarmentswereparticular
totheweddingceremony,thetermkrokoubaphascouldbeappliedtothebridalveil.
Itclearlyimpliesthattheweddingveilwascoloured.Butwhatcolour?Whatcanbe
madeofthewordkrokos?
Essentially,itisthewordforthecrocuslower,butitisalsousedasacolourterm
todenotedyedgarments.Referencestoclothesdyedkrokosareplentiful,andmost
scholarstranslatethetermassaffroncoloured.FordeRonchaud,saffronwasla
couleurhroque,49anditisindeedlinkedwithgodsandheroes:itisthepigment
oftheclothingoftheDawn,oftheMuses,andofDionysus.Althoughitisacolour
foundwornbymen,itisoverwhelminglylinkedtowomen:intheIliad,krokopeplos
isanepithetofEos;50intheTheogonyitisusedasanappellationofEnyo,goddess
ofwar;51itisanadjectiveappliedtoMetis,themotherofAthene,tothenymph
Eurynome,themotheroftheGracesandtoTelesto,oneoftheOkeanides.52In
Alkman,theMusesarerobedinsaffrongarments,53whileintheHekabeofEuripides
thechorussingoftheelaboratelyworkedsaffronrobeofAthene.54InAristophanes
comedies, Blepyros wears his wifes delicate little krokos-dyed shift during his
nocturnalescapade;55Kleonikespeaksofsittingathomeinkrokos-coloureddresses
andlookingprettyascentraltothefemalecondition,56andLysistratarealizesthe
eroticeffectsthataprettykrokos-huedfrockcanhaveonmen.57
Sokrokos-colouredgarmentsarecertainlysuitableforwomen,especiallythose
undergoingsomekindofritualtransformation.Moreover,thecolourofthekrokos
dye(whateverthatreallywas)wouldhavebeenanexpensivecommodity,suitable
foronlythebestkindofclothing.Itwouldbeanappropriatecolourforbridalattire,
forthegarmentsofagirltakingthestepfromparthenostogyne,withallthemedical,
magical,social,andsymbolicupheavalsthatwereinvolved.Withthebridalveilbeing
apre-eminentemblemoffemalepassageandabadgeoffamilialwealth,itslinkto
thecolourkrokosiswhollyappropriate.
Sincewehavethewordkrokos,itisreasonabletoassumethatthecrocuslower
wasinvolvedinthecolourationofthebridalveilsomehow,whetherasanactual
224

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
dyemadefromthestamenorsimplyadescriptivenameforacolourorrangeof
coloursinspiredbythecrocuslowershue(s).Manyscholarstranslatekrokoseitheras
saffronorasyellow,butneitherofthesetermsentirelyjustiiestheancientusage.
IamreluctanttopronounceirmlyupontheshadeoftheGreekbridalveil,yetitis
plausibletoseeittakingonsomekindofreddishhuethatistosay,amixtureof
themaincolourcomponentsofkrokos.Itwouldbefutiletoattempttoqualifythe
exactshadeoftheGreekbridalveil;infact,suchataskismeaningless.Investigation
oftheGreekandLatintextsshowsthattheancientviewofredactuallyincorporatedacolour-bandthatrunsfrommodern-dayyellowtoredtopurple.IntheAttic
NightsofAulusGellius,afterall,Favorinustreatiseontheredyellowbandofcolour
conirmsthatwhatwewouldordinarilyclassifywithintheyellowcolourstratum,
theancientswerehappytoseeasred.58ForFavorinus,flammeum,croceum,aureum,
xanthos, erythros, pyrros and kirros are all shades of red, and, in this, the Roman
philosopherfollowsalinetakenbyAristotleinhisMeteorologica.59
Thestudyofabstracthuesisfrustratingandconfusing,althoughaninvestigationintothesymbolismofthecolourofaparticularitemcanbemorerewarding
andenlightening.Inherstudyofgemstonesfromantiquity,forexample,Meierhas
shownasubtleunderstandingofthewayinwhichperceptionsofcolourmaybe
affectedbyconceptionsofwhatsymbolismthegemstoneinquestionholds;thesame
materialmaybeseenasvariouslycolouredaccordingtotheneedformeaning,and
thisimaginedneediswhatmatters,ratherthantheactualperceptionofthecolour.60
Thismightworkforparticulartextilesortypesofgarmentstoo.Thebridalveilwas
imbuedwitharichsymbolismandtheprecisecolourofthegarment,withincertain
conines,mightnothavemattered.Itcouldactuallytakeonanyofthehuesofthe
yellowredpurplecolourband.Whatreallycountedwasthatthegarmentmetaphoricallyrepresentedcertainthingsthatcouldbevisualizedwithinthatparticular
colourband.Furthermore,thecoloursthemselveshadasymbolismwhichcould
berelectedbackontotheveil.Gemstonesnaturallychangecolouraccordingto
thelightortheangleofviewing;dyedtextilesworkinthesamewayofcourse,as
Aristotlefamouslyrecalls:
Brightdyesshowtheeffectofcontrast.Incloththeappearanceofcoloursisprofoundly
affectedbytheirpositionsnexttooneanother(purple,forexample,appearsdifferent
onwhiteandonblackwool),andalsobydifferencesoflight.Thereforeweaverssay
thattheyoftenmakemistakesintheircolourswhentheyworkbylamplight,anduse
thewrongones.61

Whateveritspreciseshade(whichwasopen,then,tochangeinlightandvariety
inthedyedhue),asacostlycommodity,red(dish)dyedclothingmadefrom,say,
saffronwouldofnecessitybelimitedinusetospecialgarments.Theweddingveil
woulditthebillverywell.62
Bridesinweddingritesaroundtheworldwearredveils.63Redbridalveilsare
foundin,amongotherplaces,Albania,Serbia,Armenia,Estonia,Russia,Mongolia,
China,KoreaandIndia.TheyarealsocommoninNorthAfrica,theLevant,Iran,
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Chapter8
Iraq, and many other Middle Eastern countries,includingBedouinlands.64Red
bridalveilswerealsotobeseeninMacedoniaandGreeceaslateasthe1940swhere,
itwasgenerallybelievedbylocalinhabitants,theyhadaverylongtradition.65All
theseredveilsaredesignedtohidethefaceentirely;evenwherespeciicallyredveils
arenotworn,itiscommonforbridestobeadornedwithstrandsofredsilkorred
ribbons,whicharetiedaroundtheirnecksorarms,orintertwinedwithintheirhair
orwoundaroundtheircaps.Hence,thecolourredhasbeenanessentialingredient
ofthebridalattireofmanyracesthroughoutvarioushistoricalperiods.
TheRomanweddingveilwasalsoofreddishhue.66Theflammeumwascentral
totheRomanmarriagerite,67anditseemstohavehaditsoriginsinarchaicItalian
society,asitwaspartofthedailydressofthewifeofthehighpriestofJupiter.If
we accept that, like the Roman flammeum, the Greek wedding veil was indeed
areddishcolour,thenweneedtoquestionwhythisspeciiccolourwasused.68What
wasitaboutredthatwasparticularlyappealingtotheGreeks?Certainly,inancient
Greece,redwasthecolouroftheclothingwornbythosewhostoodoutsidesociety,
orthosewhounderwentatransformationfromonestateofbeingtoanother.69Red
woven cloths are attested covering corpses at funerals,70 and in the artworks (on
whitegroundlekythoi)redmantlesarewornbyThanatosandHypnosandHermes
andChairon.71Redisalsoacolourparticularlyassociatedwiththemantlesworn
byephebes.72Moreover,theofferingofredilletstobeautifulboysattheeuandria
conirmsthattheyouthsareinatransitoryperiodoflifeaswellasbeingattheirmost
sexuallydesirable,anditisinterestingtonotethesimilaritybetweentheredribbons
tiedaroundthenakedbodiesoftheyouthsandtheanthropologicaldatatestifying
totheredribbonstiedaroundthelimbsofbrides.Soasacolourwhichalludesto
socialtransition,redisparticularlyappropriateforthebridalveil.
FortheGreeks,redtextileshadashiningquality;thisisaconstantinancient
descriptions of red, which is repeatedly noted for its brilliance and lustre.73 Red
especiallytakesontheluminosityofstarlightfor,accordingtoAristotle,starsare
shinybecausetheyrelectlightandmakethingsbrilliant.74IntheArgonautika,Jason
isgivenasplendidredmantlebyAthene,whichgivesoffanirresistiblebrilliance,
likethelightofastar.75IntheIliadHekabeoffersAthenearobesobeautifulthat,
itshonelikeastar76andtheMykonosPithosseemstodepictthisexactepisodeand
showsqueenHekabeandherservantsconveyingatextileofferingtowardsAthenes
temple.Therobesofthewomenareembellishedwithstar-designsenclosedwithin
circles, which might be an artists interpretation of the Homeric simile.77 More
precisely,though,thestellarimagerycontainedwithinApolloniusdescriptionof
Jasons red cloak may connect it to the series of vase paintings examined above,
inwhichbridesdonweddingveilswhicharedecoratedwithstar-motifsorsmall
hatchedcrosses.Whileitispossiblethatthedecorationcouldbewovenorembroidered designs, like those alluded to by Hesiod in his descriptions of Pandoras
weddinggarb,thestarsmightsymbolicallyrepresentshiningorbrightlycoloured
cloth and might be avisual interpretation of the common term liparokredemnos
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Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
shiningveil.Dowehaveanartisticshorthandforcolourhere?Aretheartists
tryingtodepictbrightredveils?Itisverylikely.
Redisalsothecolourmostcloselyassociatedinnaturewithripenessandfertility.78
Femalesexualmaturityinprimatesisoftenaccompaniedbyaswellingandreddening
oftheareaaroundthesexualorgans,andhumansoftenblushasasexualresponse
whichisbothalluringandprovocative.Referencestotheblushingbrideinancient
andmodernsources,aremorethanjustcolourfulimagesofayoungandmodest
womanabouttoenterthestateofmatrimony.TheLatinauthorMacrobiusstates
thatinblushing,naturespreadsthebloodbeforeherselfasaveil.79
Redwasperceivedtohavebeenahighlycharged,erotic,colour,especiallywhen
compoundedbytheepithetliparos,shining.Thus,BacchylidesseventeenthOde
dwellsonthesexualawakeningofTheseuswhenhemeetsAmphitriteandisgiven
thegiftsofaredrobeandwreathofroses.Interestingly,BacchylidesOde13tellsof
theredveilsoftheMuses(phoinikokrademnoisMousais),whichisanaptportrait
fordivinitiessoclearlyrelatedtothenotionofbrightness.Morenotable,however,is
hisdescriptioninOde11ofLetooftheredveil(phoinikokrademnoLatous),analtogetherappropriateconnectionsinceLetonaturallytakesontheattributesofdivinity
andnobilityforwhichred-dyedclothingisappropriate.ButLetoisalsoasexual
being;afterall,shearousesthepassionsandloseshervirginitytoZeusandspillsher
bloodgivingbirthtothedivinetwins,althoughheramorousadventuresdonotend
there.LetoispursuedandalmostrapedbythegiantTityus,andtheiconographyof
thisattemptedviolation(aswehaveseen)repeatedlyinvolvesLetosactofveiling.
Bacchylidesallusiontored-veiledLetoisespeciallyappositetoagoddesswhose
mythologyissocloselyconnectedtosexualallure.Thesamesexualdesirabilitywas
transferredontothered-veiledbride.
Red clothing is also symbolically associated to blood, especially the blood of
sacriice.Redclothwasappropriateformilitarydress,symbolizingasitdidtheblood
spiltinbattle,andthebridesassumptionofaredveilcouldthusbeinterpretedas
asignofsubstitutesacriice.80InAiskhylosAgamemnon,therefore,thefamousmotif
ofIphigeneiasheddingherkrokos-dyedveilsismeanttoevoketheimageofsacriicial
virginalbloodshed(italsoalludestothefactthatkrokoscanbedirectlyinterpretedas
red).Indeed,thebride-cum-sacriicial-victimmotifisaparticularlystrongthemein
tragedy,althoughtheanalogyneednotbeconinedtodramaandepic,sincemedical
textsalsoofferampleevidenceforaconnectionbetweensacriiceandfemaleblood
loss.81Theredveilmaywellalludetothecolourofthebloodlostduringthebrides
irstsexualintercourseor,moreintrinsically,tothecolouroftheperforatedhymen.
Indeed,asweshallsee,theveilhymenanalogyisnottobedismissedlightly.82
Unveilingthebride
The Greek wedding ritual known as the anakalypteria, the unveiling, gave an
important symbolic function to the bridal veil. The ceremony of covering and
uncoveringtheheadsofbridestransformedthemintowivesandpotentialmothers
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Chapter8
andwas,therefore,centraltotheideologyofthewedding.83Similarritualactsfound
inRomanandancientJewishritesstronglysuggestthattheactofunveilingwas,
conceptuallyifnottechnically,thepivotalmomentoftheweddingceremony.84In
itsmostbasicform,theritualoftheanakalypteriawasthemomentwhenthebride
lifted,ormoreprobablyhadremovedforher,theveilthatcoveredherheadand
faceandfortheirsttimethegroomwasabletoviewhisnewwifewhohaddemonstratedbyherparticipationintheunveiling(beitactiveorpassiveparticipation)her
acquiescenceinhernewstatus.85Buttheissueoftheanakalypteriaisnotassimpleas
itirstappears.Tobeginwith,ourancientsources(andthosewhohaveinterpreted
them)donotagreeovertheactualtimingoftheceremony.Didittakeplaceatthe
beginning,middleorendoftheweddingfestival?Wasitactedoutatthehouseofthe
bridesguardianoratthegroomsdwelling?Wasitaprivatemomentbetweenthenew
husbandandwifeorwasitapublicdisplay?Furthermore,theactualgestureitselfis
opentovariousinterpretations.Wasitasymbolicritualofdelowering,aconsensus
onthepartofthebride,orarebirthasanewwoman,asawife?
Scholarshavedebatedtheactualtimingoftheceremonywithoutcomingtoany
speciicconclusions.AproblemwithscholarlyaccountsofancientGreekwedding
ritualsisthatmanyauthoritieshaveatendencytoseetheceremoniesasinlexibleand
ashavingtohappeninacertainorder,ataspeciictime,andatapreciselocation.
ThisisanalmostimpossiblescenariogiventhatoursourcesfortheGreekwedding
spananenormousperiodandcoverawidegeographicalarea.Itisunlikelythatthere
wasonestandardweddingceremonyandthatvariationsovertimeandplacedidnot
occur.AnyexplorationoftheGreekweddingshouldattempttofreeitselffromthe
restraintofhavingtooformalaconstructionplaceduponit.Weddingritualsand
weddingetiquettewouldhavevariedaccordingtotimeandplace.86
Mostofwhatweknowoftheanakalypteriacomesfromlatelexicographersand
antiquarianswhosetestimoniesoftheritualaredisappointinglysparse,usuallybeing
coninedtothebarestfactsofwhattheeventwas(unveilingandgift-giving)and
roughlywhenitoccurred.Butthereisnoancientconsensusastotheactualtimingof
theceremony.Modernscholarlyconfusionastowhereandwhentheceremoniestook
placecanbeattributedtotheevidenceoftheifth-centuryadlexicographerHesychius
andthesixth-centurybcprose-writerPherekydesofSyros(twoauthorswhodemonstrate the problems of using sources that span such awide period). Both writers
acknowledgedtheimportanceoftheanakalypteriatothemarriagecelebrations,but
donotspecifyaprecisetimeorlocale.TheoutlinebyHesychiusreads:
Anakalypterion:Whenthebrideisledoutofthebridalchamberfortheirsttimeon
thethirdday.87

ThefulleraccountcomesfromPherekydeswho,around544,gaveamythological
originfortheanakalypteria.Thesurvivingfragmentarytextreadsasfollows:
Andwhenitisthethirddayofthewedding,thenZas[i.e.,Zeus]fashionsarobeboth
bigandbeautiful,andonitheembroidersEarthandtheabodesofOgenos[Thetext

228

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
breaksoffformanylinesandresumeswhenZasisspeaking:]sinceIwishmarriages
tobeyours,Ihonouryouwiththis.Receivemysalutationandbemyconsort.These
theysayweretheirstanakalypteria,andthusarosethecustomforbothgodsandmen.
Andsheanswers,receivingtherobefromhim.88

Takingthesesourcesasastartingpoint,scholarlyopinionabouttheanakalypteria
is divided into two camps. Some, following the suggestion of Pherekydes, argue
thatittookplaceduringthebridalfeastondaytwoofthethree-dayweddingat
the brides fathers house. Alternatively, some, taking what can be gleaned from
Hesychius,arguefortheanakalypteriaoccurringintheprivacyofthethalamos(bridal
chamberinthegroomshome)onthenightofday-twoandthatthefollowingday,
ataceremonycalledtheepaulia,specialgiftsoftheunveilingwerepresented.89
Whilst both arguments have some logic, much remains problematical. Scholarly
reasoningbecomesunstuckintheinsistencethattheunveilingofthebrideoccurred
onceandonceonly.
Goingonestepfurther,Carsonnotonlyfollowstheideathattheanakalypteria
wasaone-offact,butalsobelievesthattheoneunveilingoccurredastheclimaxof
theceremony.90Suchcertaintyinattributingatimingtotheceremony,considering
theconfusionofthesources,doesnothingtoresolvetheimpositionofourmodern
prejudiceswheninterpretingtheancientrituals.Whatmayseemrighttousnow
wasnotnecessarilythewaythingswereconductedthen.Icannotconcurthatthere
wasoneceremony,northatitendedwithadiscernibleclimax.InsteadIwantto
advance another version of affairs that presents the concept of the anakalypteria
not as one deinitive unveiling, but as aseries of unveilings which began in the
publicsphereandendedinawhollyprivateact.Thisideamayseemtobeafudged
compromise,butthecontradictoryandconfusingnatureoftheevidencecompels
onetowonderwhetherdifferentwriterswerenotsimplyrelectingthesomewhat
ambiguousorderofasetofancientandchangingceremonialsthatcentredonthe
brideandherunveiling.
Anthropologicaldatatestiiestothefrequentuseofthebridalveilinwedding
ceremonies,whichindicatesthatour(necessary)relianceonentirelymale-dominated
ancientsourcesmaywellhaveresultedinimportantfemaleritualisticelementsgoing
largely unreported. Traditional veil-societies whose weddings have parallels with
theancientGreekritualsmakeuseofthebridalveilinamyriadofminorrituals
andeventsthatgofarbeyondourlimitednotionsthatitsuseshouldbeconined
tooneincidentonly.WhileMuslim,Hindu,andJewishweddingsallcontainone
essentiallypublicunveilingceremony,theyalsocontainaseriesoflesserunveilings
inwhichabridehasherveiltemporarilylifted,butnotremoved,sothatherfaceis
neverfullyexposed.Herveilisraised,forexample,toallowacupofwineorsome
foodtobepassedtoherlips,orinorderthatsomeoneusuallyafemalerelative
canwhisperaninstructionintoherear.Inaddition,familymembersandhonoured
guestscanrequestaleetingglanceofthebridesfaceandtheveilisliftedjustenough
toaccommodatetheviewersgaze.91
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Chapter8

Fig.151.Abridesdecoratedveilisliftedwhilesheisofferedadrink.Drawingtakenfromapyxis
fragmentbythePenthesileaPainter,c.460450.Acrop.Mus.Athens.AfterSutton1997/98.

Veil-manipulationistypicalofveil-societyweddings.Therearehintsofasimilar
lexible use of the garment in the ancient Greek wedding ceremony too. One
intriguing vase painting in particular alludes to akind of veil-manipulation: an
Atticred-igurepyxisfragment,attributedtothePenthesileaPainterandfoundon
theAthenianAkropolis,evidentlyshowsamoment(orasequenceofevents)inthe
weddingritual(Fig.151).Suttonarguesthatthisisarepresentationoftheanakalypteria,althoughIamnotconvinced.92Ifwefollowthescenearoundthebodyof
thepyxis,itbecomesclearthatthebeardedmaleandthenowlostigureofwhat
wasprobablythegroom,addresstheirgazetooneanotherandnottothebridewho
is,inanycase,outofviewontheoppositesideofthepot.Oneneedstorevolvethe
pyxisinordertoseethebridalscene.Nodoubtthebeardedman(possiblythebrides
father)isleadingthegroomintohisdaughterspresence,butthegroomsviewof
hisfuturewifeisblocked.Thepointisemphasizedbythefathersfrontalstanceand
twistofhisheadawayfromthecentralscene,andbytheposeofthenympheutria
whostandsinfrontofthebride.Butwhatisofinteresthereisthefactthatthe
nympheutrialiftstheseatedbridesveilandoffersheradrinkfromaphiale.93What
isbeingshownonthislittlepotisnottheanakalypteria,butasnatchedopportunity
forthenympheutriatoraisethebridesveilandofferheradrinkbeforetheformal
ceremonialsproceed.TheimageputsoneinmindofKassandrascommentonthe
inevitabledemiseofherpropheticpowers:
Nomoreshallmyprophecypeepforthfrombehindaveillikeanew-weddedbride.94

Theanakalyptria:a[nother]chronology
Stage1:Thebridalbanquetattheparentalhome.
Thereareseveralancienttextsthatsuggestthatitwasherethatthepublicpartofthe
anakalypteriawasenacted.Itsimportanceatthisjunctureisnodoubtemphasized
bythetermtaanakalypteria,thedeinitearticletaaccentingthecentralityofthe
event.95
230

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
Thus,atnightfall,thebridesfathergavehisdaughtertohernewhusbandinfull
viewofanassemblyofguests.Lucianrecordsthemomentofenteringtheroomthat
hadbeenpreparedfortheoccasion:
Ontherightasyouenter,thewomenoccupiedthewholecouch,astherewereagood
manyofthem,withthebrideamongthemveryscrupulouslyveiled(akribosegkekalummene)andhedgedinbythewomen.96

It is clearly apublic event although the guests are divided according to gender,
withmenononesideoftheroomandwomenontheother.Theimportanceof
havingalargeassemblyofguestsataweddingisrecountedbyPlutarch;97afterall,
theweddingwasatimeforanostentatiousdisplayoffamilywealth,inclothing
and furnishings, and especially in the lavish supply of food for the bridal feast.
SomelinesofaplaybythecomicauthorEuangelosdescribesthepreparationsfor
suchaweddingbanquet.TheplayitselfiscalledAnakaluptomene (TheUnveiled
Woman), which meant, presumably, that the bridal anakalypteria was apivotal
element of the comedy which takes place at the house of abrides father in the
immediatebuilduptothewedding.98Althoughweknownothingelseoftheplay,
itstitleandthethemeofweddingpreparationsgivessomereasontolinkstageone
oftheanakalypteriawiththebridalfeastatthenatalhome.
Atsomepointduringthebanquetattheparentalhome,thebridelifted,ormore
probablyhadraisedforher,theveilwhichcoveredherface,andthesubsequent
exchange of looks between the husband and his new wife was witnessed by the
gatheredthrong.Polluxseemstosuggestthat,towardstheendofthebanquet,it
wasthegroomwhounveiledhiswife,aceremonialactthattherebygaveitsname
tothefollowingritualofgiftgiving:
Thegiftswhicharegivenarecalledhedna,andopteriaandanakalypteria.Notonly
isthedayonwhichheuncoversthebridesocalled,butalsothegiftsforher.Andthey
alsocalltheanakalypteria[and]prosphthegkteria[thesalute].99

MuchthesameideaistobefoundinabriefpassagefromtheAnecdotaGraeca:
Anakalypteria:Giftsgiventothebridewhensheisirstrevealedatthemarriagefeast
bythehusbandandthosefeasting.100

AndagaininHarpokrationslexicographicalentry:
Anakalypteria:giftsbestowedonthebridesbythehusbandandbymenofthefamily
and friends when they unveil her for the irst time so that she is seen by the men.
Thesamethingsarecalledtheepaulia.Amongustheyarecalledtheoretra[giftsof
viewing].101

TheSudafollowsthesameoutline:
Anakalypteria:giftsbestowedonthebridesbythehusbandandbymenofthefamily
andfriendswhentheyunveilherfortheirsttimesothatsheisseenbythemen.They
arealsocalledepaulia.102

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Chapter8
SchiblisuggeststhatinemulationofZasandChthonie,thebridegroompresented
hisbridewithagiftandperhapsevenwithasalutationsimilartotheonespokenby
Zas:Receivemysalutationandbemyconsort.103Inallprobability,thewedding
gueststhenpresentedaseriesofgiftstothebride.AccordingtoAeliusTheon,who
epitomizestwotreatisesofLysiascalledTheAnakalypteriaandTheAbortion,these
anakalypteriagiftscouldbecitedincourtasconirmationthatawomanwaslegally
marriedand,aswitnesseswouldhavebeenpresent,thebridalfeastwouldhavebeen
themostittingmomentfortheceremonyofgift-givingandunveiling.104
The public nature of the irst unveiling was probably the reason behind the
atrocity committed by the fourth-century tyrant Agothokles of Syracuse, whose
abductionofhiscousinfromherweddingtoanothermanatthetimeofthepublic
unveilingceremony(ektonanakalypterion)gavecommunalwitnessthatthemarriage
riteswereterminated.105
Stageoneoftheritualwasthereforeapublicunveilinginfrontofalargeassembly
ofgueststhatlegallyandcollectivelyconirmedtheunionoftwopeopleand,more
importantly,oftwohouseholds.Oncethegroomandtheguestshadgazedtheir
ill,theveil(whichIdoubthadbeenremovedaltogether)wasloweredagainover
thebridesface,anactwhichindicatedthatthenextstageofthemarriagecould
commence.
Stage2:Leavingthebrideshomeandthejourneytothegroomshouse.
Afterthepublicceremonialunveilingatthebridalfeast,thebridewasre-veiledin
preparationforherjourney.Thereisaclearexplanationforthisact:nowthatshe
hadbecomealegitimatewifeandwasthereforealliedtoonemanonly,thebride
hadtoveilherselfinfrontofallothermen.Shewasthepropertyofonemanand
apublicjourneythroughthestreets,evenatnight,warrantedherveilingasashow
ofreverencetowardshernewhusbandandhisfamily.Forthesakeofhonour,the
groomrequiredthathisbridebehiddenfromview;fromnowonhiswifesfacewas
forhimandhimalone.
There is much anthropological evidence that testiies to the almost universal
traditionofcompletelyveilingthebrideforherjourneytohernewhome.IntraditionalMoroccanweddingswheregendersegregationisstrictlyenforced,atthefeast
abridewillsitbehindacurtainwithhergirlfriendsuntilthemomentcomesfor
hertobeviewedbythegroomandthemaleguestsandsheisledforwardwithher
faceveiled(theveilreplacesthecurtain)andliftedontoasmalltable.Thebridethen
drinksalittlemilkfromacupprofferedbyhermotherandtakesasipfromother
cupsbroughttoherbythefemaleguestsinanactofsalutation(salaam).Sheisthen
coveredinlayersofclothing,presentedwithgiftsbythewomen,andisconsidered
readytoleavethehouse(Fig.152).106Itisconceivablethatsuchritesofseparation
werecelebratedinancientGreekweddingstoo,sinceweknowthatthedepartureof
thebridefromherfamilyhomewasconsideredtobeamomentofintenseemotional
strain,butevidenceforanyritualactsunfortunatelydonotexist.107
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Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle

Fig.152.AMoroccanbride,heavily
shroudedinanall-concealingredveil,
leavesherfamilyhomeonhorseback.
AfterNomachiandAsher1996.

Accordingtoanthropologicaltestimonials,thebridalveilcantakeseveralforms
butthemajorityofveilstylesareintendedtocoverthebridesfaceentirely.108The
brideiskeptinthisstateuntilherarrivalatthegroomshousewherethenextstage
ofunveilingisenacted.GiventheancientGreekevidence,itisprobablethatasimilar
processwouldhavebeenfollowed.
Themomentofthebridesdeparturehascausedscholarsmuchuneaseandsubsequentdebate;thosewhoargueforanunveilingatthebridalbanquetarewaryofthe
ideathattheiconographyoftheweddingprocessionclearlyshowsthebrideveiledfor
herjourneytothegroomshouse,whilethosewhoprefertoseetheanakalypteriaas
takingplacelaterusetheimagestosupporttheirthesesthatthebrideremainedveiled
throughoutthewholeproceedingsuntilshearrivedinthethalamos.109InfactSissa
issoconidentthatthebrideremainedstrictlyveileduntilherarrivalatthegrooms
house,thatshearguesforthebridalbanquetactuallytakingplaceatthegrooms
homeuponthebridesarrivalandnotinherfathershouseatall.110Thisscenario
isunlikelybecausethemajorityofancienttextsmakeitclearthattheprocession
followedthefeast.Thus,forexample,intheviolenthubbubthatruinsawedding
feastattendedbyLucian,abatteredandwoundedbridegroomisbandagedandput
intothecarriageinwhichhehadexpectedtotakehomehisbride.111
Intheiconography,theveil-gestureitselfofferslittledataforthetimingofthe
anakalypteria,andallthatcanbesaidwithanycertaintyisthatthedepictionof
aman,aveiledwoman,andacartbetokensanuptialcontextforthescene,butany
furtherevidenceforthetemporalchainofeventscannotbefoundhere.112Thereare,
however,anumberofrareportrayalsofbridesandbridalprocessionswhichatleast
provideevidencethattheveilcoveredthebridesheadandfaceasshedepartedonher
journeytohernewlife.AsmallAthenianred-igurevasefromBonn,datingtothe
middleoftheifthcentury,(Fig.153)showsayouthsquattinginfrontofawedding
cartunaware,itappears,thatthegroomandhisbridearereadytodepartfromthe
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Chapter8

Fig.153.AnAthenianbrideis
scrupulouslyveiledforherjourneyto
hernewmaritalhome.Drawingtaken
fromanAtticsaltcellar,c.540530.
BonnUniversity994.

house.Behindthecart,anakedmancarriesatorchwithwhichheleadsthebridal
coupleoutside.Thegroomgraspshisbrideshandasheleadsherawayfromher
father,whostandsinfrontofhishouseclutchingastaff.Withtheseiconographic
elementsirmlyinplace,itiseasytoestablishthetimingofthissceneasthemoment
whenthebridedepartsfromherhome,butwhatisofparticularinteresthereisthe
factthatthebridesheadandfacearecompletelyveiledfortheprocessionindirect
contradictiontotheestablishedrulesofweddingiconography(orveiliconography
generally).Hereisproofthatthebrideappearedveiledfortheparade,andinthis
instance the veiling is total. The result might not be as visually satisfying as the
conventionalportrayals(andisfarfrombeautiful)butitseemstoindicatethatthe
painterofthelittleBonnvasewasmoreinterestedinrealitythanaesthetics.113
ItissurelythisstyleofveilthatiswornbyAlkestisinEuripidestragedy,forwhen
HeraklesescortsAlkestisbacktoherhusbandandoffersherasanewbride,agiftof
hislabours,itisclearthatsheisveiledinsuchawaythatAdmetoscannotrecognize
herandheisreluctanttounveilthestrangerinagesturethatwouldindicatehis
acceptanceofherasanewwife.Alkestisveilmusthaveentirelyscreenedherfeatures,
evenhereyes,since,atthisjuncture,theplotreliesonAdmetostotalinabilityto
recognizehisfaithfulwife.114
Another representation of afully veiled bride is found on an Apulian bellkraterofthemid-fourthcentury,whichshowstwophlyakeswithtorchesescorting
HelenofTroytothehomeofherbridegroomParis(Fig.154).Helenwearsatall
Phrygiancapoverwhichisdrapedaweddingveilthatreachesdownpastherwaist
andisdepictedassheerenoughtoshowheruglyfacebeneath,whichisinstriking
contrasttoherlegendarybeauty.Whethertheveilwassotransparentinrealityis
doubtful,butheretheartistwantshisviewertoanticipatetheshockofthecomic
Helensgrotesqueanakalypteria.115Asimilarhideousunveilingawaitsthecharacter
Olympio, an Athenian slave who believes that he has married abeautiful slave
girlnamedCasina,thecauseofallthefussinPlautuscomedyCasina(basedon
aGreekoriginalbyDiphilus).116InfactOlympiohasmarriedhisrivalChalinus
who has switched places with Casina and has disguised himself as the blushing
234

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle

Fig.154.Agrotesquelycomicrepresentationof
Helenasabride.ShewearsatallPhrygiancap
overwhichisdrapedalongveil.Detailfroman
Apulianbell-krater,c.370350.Matera9579.

Fig.155.Abride,seatedwithaveiledheadandlower
face,iscoercedintohermarriagebyPeitho.Linedrawing
ofaSicilianpyxisfromtheAdranoGroup,c.325.MFA
Moscow510.

bridetobeledoutintothestreetforthebridalprocession.117Unabletoseethat
hisbelovedCasinaisinfactChalinusbecauseoftheimpedingveil,Olympioleads
hiswifetothedarkbridalchamberwherehequicklylearnsthetruth.118
IntheirrecentstudyofGreekmarriageritualsfromthefourthcenturytothe
Romanperiod,VrilhacandVialmaketheimportantpointthat,thereisveiling
andthereisveiling,thatistosay,ageneralveilingandacompleteveiling.Insome
Greekmarriagerites,likethoseofmanytraditionalsocieties,thebridewastotally
veiled,asthelittleBonnvaseshows.119However,changingcustom,tradition,and
personaltastecanaccountforthedifferentveilingtechniquesfoundinthesources.
ApyxisinMoscow,forexample,depictsabridewhoseheadandlowerfaceareveiled
butwhoseeyesareleftexposed(Fig.155).120Additionally,laterliteraryevidence
providedbyPolemonsuggeststhatinaweddingprocessioninsecond-centuryad
Samos,thebridesheadwasveiledbutherfacewasfullyvisible,andthusitwaswith
herfaceexposedthatshewasadmiredandthenabductedfromherownweddingby
adesire-crazedyouth.121Itwouldseem,therefore,thatthetechniquesandcustoms
ofveilingthebrideprobablyvariedbylocaleandchangedwiththetimesandthat
bridesappeartohavebeenveiledinvaryingdegreesofstrictnessfortheirjourney
totheirhusbandshome.
Stage3.Atthegroomshouse.
UponarrivalatthegroomshousetheGreekbridewasmetbyhernewmother-inlawwhostoodoutsidethedoorholdingalightedtorchinhonourofHymen,godof
hotdesire.122Shewasthenconductedtothehearthwhereshewasformallyaccepted
asthenewestmemberoftheoikosinaceremonycalledthekatakhysmata,inwhich
sheandherhusbandwereshoweredwithnutsanddriedfruit,symbolsofwealthand
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Chapter8
fertility.123Oncetheseritualsofincorporationwerecompletedthegroomappearsto
havetakenholdofthebrideandledherto
thethalamos.Itisprobablethatthroughout
theritesperformedinthegroomshouse
the bride remained veiled. As astranger,
surroundedbytheunfamiliarmenofthe
grooms family, the bride displayed her
modesty and acquiescence by remaining
covered, atypical response of brides
in many societies (Fig. 156). Covering
herself and using the veil as abarrier,
in effect making herself invisible, allows
abridetobecomeacclimatisedtohernew
home without imposing her presence on
members of the family who have agreed
toacceptherbeneaththeirroof.Theveil
becomesamechanismwherebythenewly Fig.156.AMuslimbride,splendidlyarrayed
inanexpensivebridalveil,ixeshergazeonthe
afiliated bride can avert awkward social
loor.WithkindpermissionofGillianVogelsangandfamilialsituationsandkeepheralien Eastwood(TextileResearchCentre)andtheRMV,
Leiden.
presence well apart from her husbands
kin.124InIndiansociety,abridesoutsider
statuswillberelectedinheractionofsittingquietlywithherheadloweredforweeks
followingtheweddingandhermovetoanewhome.Althoughshegraduallyrelaxes
withhermother-in-lawandtheotherwomenofthehouse,itmaybemanymonths
beforesheshowsherfacetoherfather-in-laworanymalerelativesofherhusband.
Jefferyreportshowonewoman,marriedforabouttenyears,explainedthecustom
ofveilinginthenewmaritalhome:
Ikeptmyfacehiddenfrommyhusbandsfatherforabouttwoyears.Thenhesaidthat
wasenough,andsoIjustcovermyheadwhenhecomesin.Butthenextbridewho
cameintothehouseaftermeisacousinofherhusband,andsosheonlyhadtocover
herfaceforthreeorfourdaysatmost.Butshestillcoversherheadwhenourfatherin-lawcomes,ofcourse.125

Stage4.Inthethalamos.
Towardstheendofthenightthegroomledthebrideintothespeciallyprepared
bridalchamberwhichappearstohavebeendecoratedwithkrokos-colouredveil-like
hangingsandaspeciicbedcanopyknownasthepastos.126Itwashereinintimate
andlessformalsurroundingsthattheinalunveilingswereperformed.Afterthe
bridalcouplehadenteredtheroomthedoorwasclosedandguardedwhiletheguests
remainedoutsidetosingtheepithalamium,127fortheprivacyofthechamberwas
respectedbyallconcernedandtherewasevenareluctancetodepicttheintimacyof
236

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
thethalamosinvasepaintings.128Araredescriptionofapaintingthatwassaidtohave
portrayedtheunionofAlexandertheGreatwiththePersiannoblewomanRoxane
isrecountedbyLucianwhogivesusareportofherprivateunveiling:
Thesceneisaverybeautifulchamber,andinitthereisaweddingcouchwithRoxane,
alovely girl, sitting upon it, her eyes cast down in modesty, because Alexander is
standingthere.Therearesomesmilingcupids:oneisstandingbehindherremoving
herveil(kaluptran)fromherheadandshowingRoxanetoherhusband;anotherlike
agoodservantistakingthesandaloffherfoot,preparingherforbedalready;athird
CupidholdsAlexanderscloakpullshimwithallhisstrengthtowardsRoxane.The
kinghimselfisholdingoutagarlandtothemaidenandtheirbestmanandhelper,
Hesphaestion,istherewithablazingtorchinhishand,leaningonaveryhandsome
youthIthinkheisHymenaeus.129

This is clearly aromanticized vision of the events that occurred in the bridal
chamberandcanbecomparedtoacharminglittleterracottastatuettefromhellenisticMyrinathatdepictsthebridalpairseatedonthemarriagebed(Fig.157).The
groomadvancestowardshisreluctantbridewithagesturethatindicateshistender
concern.Theterracottabrideisstillgarlandedandwellwrappedinainehimationveiloverwhichoneisabletomakeouttheeye-holesofategidionwhichhasbeen
foldedbackoverthecrownofthehead.Thisisclearlyamomentofunveiling.130

Fig.157.Anewlywedcoupleseatedonthebridalbed.Thebridestegidionispushedoffherface.
TerracottastatuettefromMyrina,c.150100bc.Louvre,ParisMYR28.PhotoRMN:Chuzeville.

237

Chapter8
Theritualundressingattheendoftheweddingceremonialsprobablybalancedthe
emphasisthathadbeenplacedontheceremonialdressingofthebrideatthestartof
thewedding.Aftertheveilhadbeenremovedandnotmerelyliftedanymore,but
actuallytakenoffandthecouplehadbeenpreparedforbed(perhapsafterwashing
andanointingwithperfumes),thebridalescortsmovedoutoftheroomandleftthe
husbandandwifealonetogetherfortheirsttime.Afullunveilingwasonlyproperin
theconinesoftheprivacyofthebridalchamberandforthebeneitofahusband.131
Duringthesexualactthatwasexpectedtofollow,theinalandmostintimatepersonal
unveilingoccurredasthegroompenetratedhisbrideandphysicallyorsymbolically
tookawayhervirginitybyremovingherinternalredveil,herhymen.
ItisclearthatGreco-Romanmedicalpracticefrequentlyconirmedtheexistence
of the hymen and that midwives in particular carried out tests for virginity by
locatingandexaminingitsstructure.Augustinenarratesanincidentofaclumsy
midwife who destroyed the chastity she was sent to investigate through rough
handling,whilethepopularstoryofSalomethemidwife,whosehandshrivelled
whenshelackedfaithandexaminedthepurityofMarythemotherofChrist,tells
ofthepopulartraditionoftestingforthephysicalsignsofvirginity.132Whilemuch
ofthismaterialisrelativelylate,HansonarguesthatintheGreekworld,fromearly
times,referencestothehymencanbefoundbutarenotstatedinsuchobvious
terms as in latter Latin texts. Popular medical and folkloric belief saw that the
mouthoftheuteruswasblockedoffwithsomekindofsealorstopper.133Themost
commonimageoftheuterusisthatofanupside-downjug,anotionexpoundedby
EustathiuswhojoinedtheIliadicphrasekredemnonluesthai, whichaswehaveseen
referstothesackingofacityorthebreachingofawomanschastity,toaquotation
intheOdysseywhichtellsoftheopeningofawinejugkredemnon eluse.134The
Homericpassagereads,
Andastheyenteredtheoldmanmixedthewinebowlforthemwithwinesweettodrink
whichthehousekeeperhadopenedinitseleventhyearandloosedthesealuponit(kai
apokredemnon eluse).Theoldmanmixedthewineinthebowlandprayedagooddeal,
pouringoutalibationtoAthene,daughterofZeusoftheaegis.135

Thereisananalogyherebetweentheshatteringofthesealofthewinejarandthe
mixingofthewineswiththebreakingofthehymenandtheinterminglingofbody
luidsduringpenetration.Thisisanotiontoobasetobeexploitedinepic,andso
itislefttotheimageofthebreachingofthecitywallsandthecastingoffofAndromakhesveiltohighlightthesexualdegradationsufferedbywomen.136Nevertheless,
bothimagesworkinparallelandtheremovaloftheveil-wallandtheveil-stopper
throughpenetrativedestructionactsasaneffectivemetaphor:
With virgins and city walls, athrust through aclosed and protective gate lays the
innermostpartswithineasyreachofanoutsidertoappropriateashechooses.137

There is atangible unity of image inkredemnonluesthai and kredemnon eluse

wheretheunsealingofthejugispresentedinthesametermsasthepenetrationof
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Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
citywallsandthesexualviolationofafemalebody.Allthreeactionsareconnected
byapotentvisiblesymbol,wherebyaninnerspaceispenetratedandopenedupby
anoutsideforcethatshattersabarrier.Thejuxtapositionofthebreachingofcity
wallsandthedelorationofvirgins(particularlythevirgindaughtersofPriam)is
athemefoundonseveraloccasionsinifth-centurytragedywhere,forexample,after
thewallsofTroyhavebeenpenetratedandthecityhasbeencaptured,Polyxenais
forcedtobleedfromherupperneckasasacriicetotheshadeofAkhilleus.138Her
sisterKassandraisfatedtobleedfromthelowerneckasAgamemnondelowers
her,butitisnotuntilshereturnswithhimtoArgosthatshebleedsfromherupper
neck.139
At alater date, the Christian bishop Tertullian made an explicit conjunction
betweenavirginshead-veilandhymen:Imposeaveilextrinsicallyonherwhohas
acoveringinternally.140Bywhichheimpliesthatavirginwhohasaveilcovering
hergenitalsshould,inordertodemonstrateherchastity,haveacorrespondingveil
placedoverherhead.Moreover,heinsiststhatthevirginshead-veilshouldbeof
aprescribedlengthand,inadivinerevelation,herecountstheincidentwhenan
angel appeared to afemale seer of Carthage and instructed her how to correctly
wearherveil:
It is proper for you to veil yourself from the head right down to the genitalia, [for
exposure]ofyourneckdoesnotbeneityou!141

Tertullianinsiststhatthehead-veilofavirginshouldreachpasthershoulders,right
downtoherloinstoensureherchastityanddisplayhervirtue.Thelongexternal
veilwillthenactasanextrabarriertoprotectherpreciousinternalveil.
ItisnosmallcoincidencethatNonnus,writingattheendofalongtradition,tells
ofPandorasjarherwombbeingcoveredbyakredemnon:
WouldthatshehadneveropenedtheheavenlykredemnonofthatjarPandora,the
sweetevilofmankind!142

The opening of the jar by the removal of itsveil-coveringisanalogouswiththe

openingofthewombthroughtheremovaloftheveil-hymen,aconceptthatisstill
incurrentuseintheweddingimageryofGreeceandTurkeyinashortmarriage
ritualknownasdancingthejar.Atmanymodernweddingsaclaywaterjar(much
liketheancient pithos)isbroughtintotheassembledweddingpartyandisilled
withmoneyandcoveredacrossitsmouthbyaredcloththatisstretchedtaught
andirmlysecured.Thejarstandsforthewombandthemoneycontainedinsideis
saidtosymbolizethebridestreasurehervirginitywhiletheredclothrepresents
herhymenandthebloodshewillshedontheweddingnight.Ideally,sevenvirgins,
usuallythesistersandcousinsofthebridalcouple,performthedanceinfrontof
thebridewhositspassively,veiledbyherownredveil.Thegirlsdanceinturn,
holdingthejarhighabovetheirheadsastheyspinandtwistuntiltheinaldancer
hasinishedherperformanceandthejarissmashedinasymbolicenactmentofthe
breakingofthebrideshymen.Childrenrushforwardtograbthemoneywhilethe
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Chapter8
unmarriedgirlstrytoretrievetheredcloth,asitisbelievedthattheirsttorecover
itwillbethenexttomarry.143
Thelawofthrees
TheancientGreekweddingceremonialisorganizedaroundthreegazes:144thatof
thebridalentourage(theguestsandrevellers)whobearwitnessthattheweddingis
legitimatebylookingatthefaceofthebrideunveiledbeforethemandpresenting
herwithgiftsofunveiling,andthenthatofthegroomwho,intheprivacyofthe
bridalchamber,viewstheuncoveredfaceofhiswifeasapreludetotheirsexual
congress.Theinalactofgazingfollowsthenextmorningattheepaulia,adayof
furtherfeastingandpresentationofmoregifts.Thetypesofthingsofferedtothe
bridearespelledoutindetailinEustathiuscommentaryonIliad22.49,quoting
thesecond-centuryadlexicographerPausanias:
Epauliaaretheceremoniesafterthewedding,asPausaniasmakesclear,sayingthat
thedayofepauliaisthatafterthebrideisirsthousedinthegroomshouse,andthe
epauliaarealsothegiftsbroughtbythebridesfathertothebrideandgroominthe
formofaparade,onthedayafterthewedding.Hesaysthatachildledit,wearing
awhitecloak,andthencameanotherchild,agirl,carryingabasket,andthentherest
bringinglekanides,unguents,clothing,combs,chests,bottles,sandals,boxes,myrrh,
soapand,sometimes,hesays,thedowry.145

Inotherwords,theepauliawasanoccasionforthebridesfathertomakeafurther
publicdisplayofthelegitimacyoftheunionandtohonourhisdaughterwithgifts
thattransferredandproclaimedherasamemberofanewoikos.146Eustathiusmakes
noreferencetoanyunveilinghere,whichseemstoindicatethatthesecond-century
sourcesdidnotassociatetheactwiththisparticularday.Thepresenceofthebride
wasessentialtotheproceedingsoftheepaulia,andshewouldhaveappearedveiled,
justasshehadbeenonthepreviousday.147Theinalpublicviewingofthebride
enabledthegueststowitnessherformalincorporationintothenewfamilythatwas
representedbyherappearingveiledinhernewroleaswife.Assuch,lookingather
facewasnowoutofthequestion.
Thethreeweddinggazesare,perhaps,analogouswiththethreebridalunveilings:
thepublicanakalypteriaatthefeast,theprivateanakalypteriaforthegroominthe
thalamos,andinallytheprofoundlyintimateunveilingofintercoursethatconirms
thebridesstatusasspouse.Theirstunveilingmakesapublicstatementthatabride
isbecomingawife,thesecondconirmsthematter,whilethethirdunveilingisreally
thepointofnoreturn.Sheismadeawifebythephysicalactofintercourseand
theremovalofthelowerveil,andhenceforthbecomesthesexualpropertyofone
man.Thethreeunveilingsmarkthestagesoffemaletransition.Atriadofeventsis
ofcourseacommonthemeinGreeklifeandthought,usuallywiththeideathatthe
thirdstrikeistheconirmation(positive)orthecrisispointofasequenceofevents:
OedipusmeetshisdestinyatthejunctionofthreeroadsnearDaulis,thethreeFates
aredestinedtospin,measure,andthencutthelivesofmen,andthegoddessHera
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Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
goesthroughthetriplelife-stagesofvirgin,wife,andwidow.Moreover,inasequence
ofthreethereisevidenceofsomekindofpatternorrepeatedbehaviour:oncemay
suggestuniquenessorevenanerror,twicesuggestsrepetition,butthricesuggests
conirmationthattheirstandsecondtimeswerestepsinaseries.Suchathought
processcanbeincorporatedintotheactualandsymbolicritualsofanakalypteria
withouttoomuchdificulty.
Theanakalyptria:indingameaning
Greekweddingceremonialsmanipulatedthebridalveilinaseriesofcoveringsand
uncoveringsthatmarkedthetransformationofabrideintoawife.Pherekydesof
Syros aition of the irst anakalypteria suggests that this transformation occurred
ataweddingceremonywhenZasprofferedagiftofaiguredclothtoChthonie,
whowassimultaneouslyunveiledinanactwhichsymbolizedtheirmaritalunion.
Theprecedentfortheirstanakalypteriaisthereforeanactofunveiling,andnot
veiling,whichsuggeststhattoveilawomanwasonlygoingpartofthewaytowards
marryingher.Toturnawomanintoalegitimatewife,shehadtobeunveiledbyor
forherhusband.ThisiswhatHesiodseemstohavehadinmindinhisdescriptionof
Pandorasbridalattire,forsheisveiledinherembroideredkaluptre inorderthatshe
canbeunveiledbyEpimetheuslateranditistheremovalofherupperandlower
veilsthattherebyuncoversthefamousjarofhumanmisery.148Likewise,Admetos
reluctancetounveilAlkestisisexplainedbythefactthattouncoverabridemakes
herintoawife.Theritualsoftheanakalypteriaconfronttheparadoxoftheveil:an
invisiblewoman,likePandora,maydeceiveandherveilrepresentsthedangerofthe
unfamiliarandtheacknowledgementthatshemaynotbewhatsheappearstobe.
Onlyafterthebridegroomandhismaleguestshaveseenbeneaththeveilcanthey
besureofwhatitcontains.Itisonlythenthatthenextstageoftheceremonycan
goaheadandthepublicacceptanceofthebridecantakeplacewiththeofferings
ofthegiftsofunveiling.Thebrideisunveiledinapublicritualinorderthatthe
groomandhismalekincanacquirethesupportandconsentofothermenwhobear
witnessthatthemarriageunionislegitimate.149
Thequestionofwhodoestheunveilingisthereforeofimmenseimportancesince
itencompassesnotionsofwillingnessandcontrol.Wasthebrideanactiveparticipantinherwedding?Ifso,didsheunveilherselfinagesturethatspokeloudlyof
herwillingnessanddesiretomarrythemanwhostoodbeforeher?Alternatively,
wasshesimplyanemblemofmarriage,someonewhowasunveiledbyamanwho
therebyconsentedtoploughherforthecreationofchildren? 150Thelatterview
ismorelikely.
Withoutanydoubt,theanakalypteriawasaceremonycreatedbyandformenand
originatedin,andrespondedto,maleinterests,for,asHarpokrationnoted,itwas
aritualthatplacedthebrideinapositionwhere,shemaybeseenbythemen.It
hasbeennotedthattheformativeritesoftheGreekweddingprovidednoroleforthe
futurebride.151Shehadnoparttoplayinthenegotiationsthatsecuredherfuture.
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Chapter8
However,scholarsoftenaffordthebrideprideofplaceintheweddingceremonies
andaccordherroleofhonourwith,itseems,mostoftheattentiondirectedather,
mainlybecauseourmajorsourcesforweddingsarepotsthatdepict,onthewhole,
female related scenes and were no doubt made as aspirational images for female
viewers.152Thisevidenceisextremelyone-sidedandweshouldbewareofoverusing
iconographyinourinterpretationoftheevents.Ibelievethatthefemale-biased
iconographicevidence,plusourownmodernimpressionthatthebrideisthecentral
elementofthewedding(itsherday),hascloudedourperceptionoftheroleofthe
brideinantiquity.Thebridewasnotthefocusofattentionatall,atleastnotinthe
modernsense.153Theancientwedding,likesomanyotherpublicevents,wasamale
affair;thewomenwerekeptsegregatedbutoccupiedwiththeirownrolesandrites
untiltheywereneededbythementoparticipateinthemaleceremonials.154Lucian
providesevidencethatatthefeastthewomenwerecrowdedtogetheratoneendof
theroomawayfromthemen,andthisgendersegregationisprobablyarelection
ofmuchoftheweddingproceedings,asintherestofdailylife.But,eventhough
scrupulouslyveiled,atleastthebridewaspresent;inancientJewishweddingsthe
bridedidnotattendedthebanquetatallbutwaskeptinanotherroomwiththe
otherwomen.155
MuchthesametraditionliesattheheartofmodernMuslimandHinduweddings.
Thedayisnotmeanttobeaspecialoccasionforthebride,butforthemenofher
family.Thebridesroleistolookbeautiful(forherhusband)and,moreimportantly,
suficientlymodest.Inaddition,sheistheretowearthefamilyswealth.Consequently she sparkles with jewels and costlyfabrics.156Sittingtherepassive,inert,
silent,andveiled,thebrideismoreofafetishtobeadmiredthanalivingwoman,
anobjecttobeadornedratherthanadored.JefferysaccountofMuslimwedding
traditionsinIndiaisparticularlynoteworthy:
Onthedayofthewedding[thebride]isheavilyshroudedinathickduppattaandis
guidedinandoutoftheroom,bentatthewaist,byafemalerelativewhogripsherirmly
acrosstheforehead.Herconsenttomarriageindicatesnoundueenthusiasmagrunt
ornodsuficesforthemodestbride.Herhusbandhasabrieflookatherunderneath
theduppatta,butshesitswithhereyesclosed.Sheishelpedtothesedanchairwhich
carrieshertoherhusbandshomeandoncethere,thehusbandliftsheroutandcarries
herintothehouse.Inthefeedingofsweetswhichfollows,shewillbesoshyandmodest
thatherhandsneedtobeguidedtoherhusbandsmouthwhile,incontrast,helacks
noconidence.Fortheirstdaysshehardlytalkssheisapassiveobjectofdisplayand
admirationwhileherhusbandsrelativescometoseeherface;shesitsinthecentreof
theroom,shouldersbentandheavilyveiledandsilent.Herexpressionlessface,with
eyesclosedandlipsshut,isbrielyexposedtoeachvisitorwhocomes.157

Jefferys evocative description will have parallels with how the Greek bride
appeared and how she was perceived by others: as an object of display she sat
bedeckedincostlyregaliatobeviewedanddiscussedwithouteveractivelyparticipatingintheeventsherself.Thebridewasconceivedassomethingthatafathermust
giveupinorderthatabondmightbesecured,forasVernanthasargued,thegiftof
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Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
awomanwascomparabletothoseofotheragalmataprizedpersonalbelongings
thatmarkedGreekgift-exchange.158ThevirginIphigeneiaisactuallycalledthe
agalmaofherfathershouse,thememberofherfamilyclosesttothefatherandone
whoembodiestherespectabilityofhisoikosandthepurityofhisfamilyline.159
However, the agalma is more than just afavoured possession; it is speciically
anobjecttobeviewed,aluxuryitemthatismeanttoattractthegaze.Itisaword
frequentlyappliedtoastatueofayoungwoman(akore),butalsotosculpturesof
horses.Osbornehaspersuasivelysuggestedthatthedesignationofakoreasagalma
canbeexplainedbyawomansrolewithinGreeksociety,inwhichshewasviewed
asacommodity,anobjectofexchange.160Moreover,thepassivequalityofthebride
canbecomparedtoastatue,likethatofAiskhylosHelen,devoidofdesireinher
lackofeyes.161Thestatue-likemannerismofthebridebecomesmostapparentin
weddingiconographywherethestiffnessofherigureisunmistakablylikethatof
asculpture.162AdepictionofthecreationofPandoraenvisagesherlikeastatuethat
iscoveredininegarments,whilealoutrophorosdatingtoaround430(Fig.158)
shows agroom lifting his extraordinarilyrigidveiledbrideintoawaiting
chariot,anactwhichdemonstrateshis
totaldominationoverherandsuggests
anabductioninwhichthehelplessgirl
iscarriedaway.163Thepickingupand
carryingofthebridehelpstodeinethe
rolesofthebridalcouple,thegroom
plays the active part as the one who
marries(hogamon),whilethebrideis
theobjectofhisaction,theonewho
ismarried(hogamoumene).Thebride
inthevasepaintingdoesnotrebuffthe
groomsembrace,butclutchesherveil
infrontofherfaceandacquiescesto
his authority in much the same way
as the Muslim bride submits herself
toherhusband.
Throughout the wedding the
Greek bride was pulled, led, carried,
covered,andexposedinaseriesofrites
thatrenderedherlittlemorethanan
objecttobecontrolledandviewed.In
apassagethatneatlyparallelsJefferys
accountoftheMuslimbride,Garland
notes that, Undeniably there is
Fig.158.Agroomliftshisveiledbrideintoachariot.
aheavyemphasisuponwhatappearto
Loutrophoros,c.430.Staat.Mus.,BerlinF2372.
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Chapter8
benegativeelements[intheGreekwedding],asevidencedbythefactthatthebride
isatirstanalienatedandveilednon-personwithinherownhome,thenavictim
ofabduction,andinallyaprisonerinhernewhome.164Thisconceptofthebride
asanon-personisrelectedintheideathatshesitsveiledandseparatedfromthe
mainfocusoftheweddingpartythegroomandhisguests.Interestingly,atreatise
onweddingorationswrittenbyMenanderRhetor(thirdcenturyad),advisesthat
whoevermakesaspeechataweddingshouldpraisethegroom,especiallyforhis
looksandskills,butwarns,
Asforthegirl,becautiousindescribingherbeautybecauseofthescandalthatmaybe
caused,unlessyouarearelationofhersandcanthereforespeakasonewhocannothelp
knowing,orunlessyoucanremovetheobjectionbysayingIhaveheard165

Only aclose relative, it appears, can safely assume to know the physical appearanceofanewbride,andeventhenheshouldhesitatetocommentpubliclyonher
looks.166
Apprehension surrounding the new bride is further emphasized by the use of
thebridalveil.Fearoftheevileyeandoftheinluenceofmalignantforcesupon
thebodyofthebrideinhervulnerablestateoftransitionisoneofthereasonsused
byanthropologiststoaccountfortheuseofthebridalveilinmanytraditional
communities.Whileitappearsthatconcerntoprotectthebrideinherprecarious
stateisanodtowardsthefeelingsofthebrideandarecognitionofherimportance,
itshouldberememberedthatinmanysocietiesitisconsidereddangeroustolook
atdangerouspersons.Thereforetheveilingofthebrideisnotspeciicallydoneto
protecther,buttoprotectothersfromhergaze,whichcouldwellbecorruptedby
anevilpresence.167
Thenotionthatthebridewassimplyanadmired(butsimultaneouslyfeared)fetish
nodoubtaffectedtheprocessofthestagesoftheanakalypteria.Theideaofapassive
bridewhoispulled,led,andliftedwithoutanyresistanceindsarelectioninthe
unveilingsthemselveswhereitisnotthebridewhotakescontroloftheceremony
butthemen.Pollux,Harpokration,andtheanonymouscompilersoftheAnecdota
GraecaandtheSudaallstatethatatthebanquetthebridewasunveiledbythegroom,
orelseshewasexposedbythehusbandandthosefeasting.Inotherwords,itisthe
menwhoseemtotaketheactiverolewhilethebrideremainspassiveanddoesnot
appeartohaveremovedtheveilherself.Eveninthethalamos,accordingtoLucians
evidence,thebrideappearstohavebeenunveiledbyherattendants.Somethingof
thisisshowninararedepictionofamomentofunveilingonared-igurelekythos
bythePhialePainterinBoston(Fig.118)whichOakleythinksrepresentsarealistic
depictionoftheanakalypteria.168Thepot,however,showsanamalgamationofall
theessentialelementsthat,takentogether,representtheidealmarriage:notonlydo
wehavehereananakalypteriabutalsoasimultaneouskatakhysmata,bothperformed
inthepresenceofthecustomaryyouthandthenymphetria,whilealutteringEros
carriesabridalzone. Eventheprocessionofgiftsoftheanakalypteriaorepauliaispart
ofthescene.169Thepotdoesnotshowoneprecisemoment,butaseriesofessential
244

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
marriagemotifsmergedtogethertospelloutwedding.170Whatisofimportance,
however,isthefactthatthebridesitswithherheadandeyesdeeplyloweredin
acharacteristicdisplayofaidoswhiletheveilisliftedfromherfacebythenymphetria
whostandsbehind.Thebrideisjusttheobjectofthegazeofalltheotherigureson
thevase;sheremainsinactive.171
ThistypeofevidencestandsinsharpcontrasttoCarsonsinterpretationofthe
ritual,wherebythebridetakesanactiveroleintheceremonyandcontrolsthemale
gaze by manipulating her own veil. Citing the Boston lekythos as evidence, she
declaresthat,
theclimaxoftheceremonyisthemomentwhenthebriderisesorturnsinherplace
and,facingherbridegroomandthemenofthehouseholdacrosstheroom,takesoff
herveil.172

Butthereisnothinginthesourcesthatspeaksofthebridetakingsuchaleading
roleintheevents,andcertainlynothingwhichhasherstand,turn,andconfront
themenwhilecontrollingherownunveiling.173TofollowCarsonsmodelwould
necessitategivingthebridetheauthoritytorevealandconcealherselfaccordingto
herwishes.Inthatrespect,themalegazeisatthemercyofthebridewholiftsher
veilasshepleases.Thisreadingoftheeventsisseriouslylawedanddoesnotgive
anaccuraterelectionofthebridespositionintheweddingrituals,whichwasvery
humble.174Theveiledheadandfaceofthebrideensuredhercompletesilenceand
inabilitytoinluencetheeventsthatoccurredaroundherbecauseoftheinvisible
qualityenforcedonherbytheveil.Sittingthereveiledandsilent,cutofffromthe
societyaroundher,thebridewasatthemercyofthehusbandandhisrelativeswho
wereatlibertytolifttheveilandlookatherface.Thebridesritualabasementwas
emphasizedbytheuseofthecloth.Exposureofthatwhichwasnormallyconcealed
placedstructuresofhonourandstatusunderstressbecausetheideaofself-abasement
was, of course, precisely designed to exert pressure on ones honour. The bridal
unveilingcanperhapsbecomparedtothegestureofexposingthebreastasalike
wayofexpressingself-abasementanddrawingonthesympathyandgenerosityof
others.175
Thegeneraldemeanourofthebride,particularlyheroutwarddisplayofaidos,and
thevariousstagesofhertransitionaljourneyputoneinmindofthecharacteristicsof
Greeksupplicationandritualinitiations.Aswehavenoted,whiletheadjectiveaidos
isusuallyusedinthecontextofdisplayingaidosoneself ,itisequallyutilizedwhen
appealingtoorinducingaidosinothers.Thisreciprocalimageiscommoninencountersbetweenchildrenandparents,womenandmen,andbetweenhiketai(suppliants)
andthosewhoreceivethem:thesuppliantentreatsthemorepowerfulpartyand
hindersanyhostileactionbyaritualizedperformanceofself-humiliation.176
Asastrangerinthemarriage,awifetakesontheroleofhiketis(suppliant)and
displaysaphysicalpostureofinferioritytowardsthegroom,theobjectofhersupplication.Acommoncharacteristicofthesuppliantistocrouchorkneelinanimageof
utterabjectness,butequallythehiketisdisplaysnoresistancetothephysicalcontrol
245

Chapter8
ofothers,justlikethebride.177Moreover,likethesuppliant,thebridesincorporationintoherhusbandsoikosinvolvedherritualacceptanceatthefamilyhearth,the
symboliccentreoffamilialandcommunitysolidarity.Squattingbythehearthas
asuppliantimpliedapetitionforincorporationintoanewgroup.178APythagorean
sayingcategoricallyconnectsthewife,thehearth,andsupplication:
Itiswrongtopersecuteoneswife,forsheisasuppliant:henceweleadherfromthe
hearth,andhencealsothe(ritualof)takingbytherighthand.179

Likeanysuppliant,theveiledbridewasthenraisedtoherfeetinasymbolicactthat
elevatedhertoanewstatusasamemberofherhusbandsoikos.
Muchoftheimageryofsupplicationisfoundintheritualpracticeofinitiation
ofindividualsintovariousmysterycultswhereitwascustomaryfortheinitiateto
undergothenecessarytransformingritualsfromtheirunenlightenedtoenlightened
statebeneaththecoverofaveil.180
Themostsecurevisualevidencewehaveforthecloseconnectionbetweenthe
physicalappearanceoftheGreekbrideandtheinitiateisfoundontwoKabirian
vasesfromThebes,datingbetweenthelatesixthcenturyandthemid-ifth.181The
former,Fig.159,isablack-iguredepictionwhichshowsthecandidateforinitiationwearingachiton,ahimation,andashaal-veilwhichentirelyhidesherface.The
veilitselfisheldinplacebyagarlandoffoliage,muchinthewaythattheBoeotian
bridalveilwassecuredontheheadbyagarlandofasparagus.182Infact,theappearanceofthisinitiateisreminiscentofthescrupulouslyveiled(ifth-centuryAthenian)
brideonthelittleBonnpotofFig.153.Thesecondrepresentation,Fig.160,shows

Fig.159.Initiationsceneshowingaveiledfemale(?),farleft.Drawingfrom
aKabeiriankraterfromThebes,c.430.Unknownlocation.AfterGuthrie1952.

Fig.160.Initiationscene.Thewoman,farleft,wearsashaal-veil.Drawingfrom
anunidentiiedsource.AfterBianchi1976.

246

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
aburlesqueversionofthemythologicalrituals:anumberofindividualssingand
dance as abearded Hermes hands sprigs of foliage to Pan. Behind Pan stands
awomanwhosedecoratedshaal-veilisliftedoffherfaceandthebackofherhead
asshewitnessestheceremony;thistypeofveilisfrequentlyusedbybrides.Likethe
bride,thisveiledinitiatewomanstandsattheperipheryofthesceneanddoesnot
takepartintheactionoftheceremonyitself.
Theperiodbeforepuriicationisatimeofthreatandvulnerabilityandtheheavy
foldofclothpulledcompletelyovertheheadandfaceofthesupplicant,initiate
andbrideassymbolizestheirabasement.183Forthebride,herritualhumilitywas
atthecoreofherinitiationintoanewfamilyandanewstateasaweddedwife.
Theinabilitytocontrolaccesstoherownfacewasperhapsthemostdegrading
(andpossiblyfrightening)eventofthemarriageritualbecauseawomanscapacity
toveilherselfgavehersomemodicumofpersonalexpressionandcontrol.The
rites of the anakalypteria denied her this capability. The fact that she could be
unveiled without her control, or even her consent, meant that she was sexually
exposedandthissexualvulnerabilityfoundexpressioninthepenetratinggazeof
thegroom(andthemaleguests)ontothebridesfaceandintohereyes.Hencethe
alternativenamesfortheanakalypteriaareappropriatelylinkedwiththeverbto
see:opteriaandtheopetra,whileanotherterm,prosphthengomai,derivesfromthe
verbtosalute,toaddress.184Itisimportanttorememberthatalthoughthebride
satinert,silentandconcealed,shestillpresentedabeautifulanddesirableimage,as
shegleamedinherredveilandbridaljewelleryandthedesiretopenetratebehind
the veil must have seemed imperative to the groom. The penetration took two
forms,andliftingtheveilattheirst(public)anakalypteriawasbutaforerunner
totheeventsthatweretotakeplaceinprivatelaterinthebridalchamberwhere
theactofsexualpenetrationremoved(physicallyorotherwise)thelowerveil.It
isperhapsnosurprisetodiscoverthatPolluxglossedanalternativewordmeaning
giftsoftheunveiling;insteadoftaanakalypteria,heusedtadiapartheniagiftsfor
takingawaythevirginityofthebride.185Atthemomentoftheirstanakalypteria
theintactboundaryaroundthebridewasbrokenandviolatedbythegazeofthe
groom.Theglanceofthehusband,soperfectlycapturedontheBostonlekythos,
penetratedherliftedveilandfromthatmomentonshewasnolongerregardedas
parthenos;instead,shewastouched.186
Conclusion
InancientGreeceayounggirlspassagetowomanhoodwasmarkedbyheruseof
theveil.Nodoubtirstveiledatmenarche,sheofferedherveilstoagoddessonthe
eveofherweddingbeforedonningaspeciicweddingveilatthestartofthewedding
rituals.Dyedareddishcolour,likeasymbolichymen,thebridalveilbecamethe
focusoftheritualsoftheunveiling,fortheanakalypteriawerenotsimplyconined
toonespeciicmomentintheweddingceremonybutwereaseriesofunveilings
whichwereundertakeninprogressivelymoreintimatesurroundings.
247

Chapter8
Nodoubtinventedbyandformen,theanakalypteriavisualizedthebrideasan
objectoffetish,alivingagalmawhowassimultaneouslyadmiredanddistrusted.The
usemadeoftheredbridalveilbythemenoftheweddingpartyrenderedthebridethe
objectofthemalegazeandstrengthenedthenotionofnaturalmalesuperiority.Itis
highlyunlikelythatthebridehadanycontroloverherunveiling;insteadsheparticipatedinaritualdebasement,notunlikethatenactedbysuppliantsorinitiates.
Notes

ElGuindi1999.
SeefurtherGraham-Brown1988,123.
3
See,forexample,illustrationsinGarland1990,igs.8,10,14andinFitt1997,igs.
19,43,74,103,104,105.ForthedificultiesofinterpretingchildhoodimageryinGreek
artseeBeaumont1998,esp.igs5.6,5.7and5.8.
4
King1983,1201.ForthezoneseeLosfeld1991,222ff.
5
Ontheeroticqualitiesoftheveilseebelow,Chapter10.
6
ForPlutarchonunveiledSpartangirlsseeabove,Chapter6.
7
Apoll.Rhod.Argo.3.4447.
8
SeeStewart1997,56,ig.36.
9
FordetailsseeOakleyandSinos1993,1113.
10
Sissa1990,342;Cole1998,33;Chantraine19467,5960,22831.ForagooddiscussionofthecharactertraitsofArtemisseeBlundell1995,2931andBurkert1985,14952;
seealsoReeder1995,30321.OnArtemistheangrygoddessseeLloyd-Jones1983.Plutarch,
de superstit.10, recalls that Timotheus, in his play Artemis called the goddess, mantic,
frantic,Bacchic,fanatic.Apparently,duringtheperformancethepoetKinesiasstoodupin
theaudienceandshoutedout,Mayyouhaveadaughterlikethat!
11
Kondis1967.
12
SeeHippcorp.PeriParthenion56.
13
See Rayet 1881. Evidence for clothing dedications also derives from the epigrams
collectedintheGreekAnthologyandLosfeldsanalysisofBookVIoftheworkrevealsthat
ofthe358epigramscontainedthere,33recallofferingsofclothingtothegods,thevast
majorityofwhicharegivenbywomentoArtemis.SeeLosfeld1991,324ff.Othergoddesses
offeredtextilesareAthene,Hera,andRhea.
14
The ceremonial presentation of the sash is alluded to by Pausanias who tells of the
maidensofTroizenperformingtheritualinhonourofAtheneApatouria.SeePausanias
2.33.1.BronzebeltshavebeenexcavatedonChiosanditissuggestedthatthesewereritual
weddingdedications.SeeBoardman1967,21421;Jeffery1976,231.
15
Losfeld1991,3223categorizesthemcorrectlyaslevoiledette.
16
Anth.Pal.6.133.
17
Anth.Pal.6.206.ForacommentaryseeGowandPage1965,389.
18
Anth.Pal.6.207:
19
Anth.Pal.6.270.
20
Eitherthesetwoveilsareseparategarmentswithoutanyconnectionortheycouldbe
intendedtobeworntogether.Itispossiblethatoneoftheveilsmightcovertheheadwhile
theotherisintendedfortheface.InAP6.206and207,Herakleiaisspeciicallysaidtohave
wornaprokalummaprosopou.
1
2

248

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
Seeabove,Chapter2.
Losfeld1991failstomentionAphroditeastherecipientofofferingofclothing.
23
SeeOakleyandSinos1993,14,133,n.20.
24
SeeSoph.OT1227ff.OnthepowerofreligiouswaterseeParker1983,226f.
25
ForthenympheutriaseeAr.Achar.1056.Plut.Lyc.15,Poll.Onom.3.41;Pausanias
9.3.7;Hesychius,Suda,Photius,s.v.numfeuvtria.ForthenymphokomosseeHesychiuss.v.
21
22

numfokovmo".

FordetailsseeOakleyandSinos1993,16.
AJavanesebridegroomisdressedinthegarmentsofachief,whiletheMalayansrefer
tothegroomastheonedayking.FordetailsseeCrawley1965.Agoodsurveyofmodern
westernweddingritualsisprovidedbyLeonard1980.
28
Foranexquisitenecklacecomposedoftinygoldenpomegranates,eminentlysuitablefor
abride,andforageneraldiscussionofweddingjewelleryseeReeder1995,1746.
29
Plut.Mor.138D2.
30
Hes.Th.57380.
31
Hes.W&D6082.SeefurtherOgden1998,21330.
32
TheadornmentoftheGreekbrideindsparallelsintextsfromancientIsrael.TheBook
ofEzekiel(16.8ff.)givesadescriptionofhowthebride,Jerusalemherself,ispreparedforher
weddingtoYahweh:ThenwashedItheewithwaterandanointedtheewithoil.Iclothed
theealsowithrichlywovenclothandshodtheewithseal-skin,andIwoundinelinenabout
thyheadandcoveredtheeinsilk.Ideckedtheealsowithornaments,andIputbracelets
uponthyhandsandachainonthyneck.AndIputaringuponthynoseandearringsin
thineears,andabeautifulcrownuponthyhead.Infactthedecorationsaboutherwereso
numerousandsoostentatiousastobecomeproverbial:AndZionwilladornherselfwithher
newlyreturnedchildrenasabridewithherornaments.SeeIsaiah61.10.Foradiscussion
oftheJewishbridescrownandveilseeArcher1990,193f.
33
vanGennep1960,1525,18994.
34
IntheWest,popularbeliefsandtraditionsthatstillcentreontheweddingdressareeven
morestronglyassociatedwiththeveil.Thus,itiscustomarynevertoweartheveilwhentrying
ontheweddingdressbeforethewedding,althoughaseparateittingisallowed.Anoldbridal
veil,especiallyifitbelongstoahappilymarriedwoman,isconsideredlucky;forthisreason
manyyoungbrideschoosetoweartheirgrandmothersormothersveil.Itappearsthatthe
traditionaltabooofpollutionthroughclothingdoesnotapplytotheweddingveilwhich,if
anything,becomesasymboloffemalecontinuity.Formodernnuancesandphobiascentred
onthemodernbridalveilseeLeonard1980,37.Theveilisfrequentlythesubjectofinterest
inbridalmagazines;bridesareadvisedonlatestshapesandtrendsandareevengivenpotted
historiesofthegarment:Theveil,nowabeautifulandgossamer-likesymbol,isaromantic
reminderoftheroughandtumblethatusedtoaccompanyanexcursionintomatrimonyin
yearsgoneby!SeeWomanmagazine,6thJanuary1973,citedinLeonard1980,37.
35
Hes.Th.575.
36
SeeErdmann1934,255forreferencestocolouredormulti-colouredbridalrobesand
thepossibilityofembroideredrobes.
37
FollowingtheinterpretationofSutton,Jr.1992,20.Heusesheadcoveringrather
thanveil.
38
SuhrawardyIkramullah1992,74.
39
SeeLonsdale1993.Fordetailsofthewool-workinglekythosseevonBothmer1985,
1857,withfullbibliography.
26
27

249

Chapter8
AsisperhapsthecaseintheTimodemosvaseexaminedabove.Thereisplentyofanthropologicalevidencetosupporttheideaofthegroomofferingthebrideherweddingveil.
OnChios,forexample,aprospectivegroomwillvisitthehouseofhisbelovedearlyone
morningandpresentherwiththegiftofawhiteveilembroideredwithgeometricorloral
patterns.Fromthatmomentontheyoungcouplearelinkedtogethertosuchanextentthat
thegirlisabletohelphimwithhisfarmwork.SeeArgentiandRose1949,I302.
41
Aes.Ag.22848.
42
Hermann1859,2.385.Thisisaninterpretationthathadactuallybeenpostulatedbefore
Hermannandwasalsousedbylaterscholars.Thus:Potter1778,Rent(sic)ontheearthher
maidenveilshethrows;Plumptre1868,pouringrichfoldsofveilinsaffrondyed;Cambell
1890,sheshedtoearthherveilofsaffrondye;Murray1920,Herstoleofsaffronthento
thegroundshethrew;Lattimore1949,pouringtothegroundhersaffronmantle.
43
Fraenkel1950,II.1378.
44
Cunningham1984,912.
45
ArmstrongandRatchford1985.
46
Notallauthoritieshavebeeninagreement.Otherinterpretationsofkrokubaphasseeit
asblood,tearsorIphigeneiasrobesingeneral.Blood:Maas1951,94;Bollack1981.Tears:
Booth1979.Iphigeneiasrobes:Fraenkel1950,II.138,line239.Forageneralreviewof
interpretationsseeArmstrongandRatchford1985,25.
47
SeeKypria1.
48
Eur.IT36177.Cunningham1984,10seesIphigeneiasreluctancetoliftherveilas
anexpressionofhercoyness.
49
deRonchaud1886,76.
50
Il.8.1,19.1,23.227.
51
Hes.Th.273.
52
Hes.Th.358.ForacommentaryseeWest1966,267.
53
Alk.fr.46,ed.Page.
54
Eur.Hec.46874.
55
Ar.Ek.3312;seealso329.
56
Ar.Ly.44,47,51.
57
Ar.Ly.21922.
58
AulusGelliusNoctesAtticae.2.26.16.ThecolourdebateisbrielynotedbyHolfordStrevens1998,47,97.Ageneralbackgroundtotheintellectualtoneoftheworkisprovided
byBaldwin1975.
59
Aristot.Met.3.4.375a411.SeecommentsbyGage1993,1127.
60
Meier1977.
61
Arist.Met.375a.
62
AccordingtoHorace,Sat.2.4.68,saffronofCorycusinCiliciawasthebest.Therewere,
ofcourse,muchcheaperalternativestoexpensiveclothes-dyesasOvidpointsoutatArs
Amatoria3.16982:YouneednowoollendressblushingwithTyriandye.Whenthereareso
manycheapercolours,whymadlyspendallyourincomeonyourdress?Thisoneimitates
saffronthisonethemyrtlesofPaphos,thispurpleamethyst,thiswhiteroses.Agood
summaryofancientdyingtechniquesandproblemsisgivenbySebesta1994,6576.
63
However,traditionalweddingsaredecreasinginmostveil-societies.Asadisplayof
wealthandstatus, many families opt for western style weddings, or incorporate western
ideas into traditional rites. Western-style white wedding dresses are frequently worn by
non-westernbrides,orelseanuncomfortablecombinationofwesternandlocalstyleswill
40

250

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
bemade.Itisverycommontoseedisplaysofwestern-styleweddinggownswornwiththe
hijabinthebridalstoresofCairo,Damascus,TehranandIstanbul.Forasummaryofthis
phenomenonseeLindisfarne-TapperandIngham1997,326.Themajordiscussionofred
veilsisfoundinSamter1901,4759.Afurthercompilationofsourcescanbefoundin
Scott1953,16798.SeealsoPorter1991,712;Braddock1960,79112;Crawley1902,
425.Weir1989,254ff.,providessomeinterestingcommentsontheredbridalclothesof
thePalestinianbride.SuhrawardyIkramullah1992,74commentsontheredveilsofIndian
brides.SeealsoNomachiandAsher1996,1027.
64
See,forexample,Abu-Lughod1997,173.
65
Macedonia:Abbott1903,167.Herethebridesfaceisentirelycovered.Greece:Argenti
andRose1949,I.329.Thecolourofthebridesveilischangedduringtheceremonyfrom
whitetoredwithobvioussymbolism.Itisprobablethatthisveilalsocoversthebridesface
assheundergoesaritualunveilinglaterintheservice.Briefcommentsonthemodern(red)
TurkishweddingveilaregivenbyAllen1994,30.
66
Samter1901,4759.
67
ItisroutinelymentionedbyLatinauthors,eg.,Caecil.Com.198;Cat.61.8;Stat.Theb.
2.341;Juv.6.225.
68
ThebeststudyofthecolourtodateisstillWunderlich1925.SeealsoLaFollette1994;
Sebesta1994.
69
Vidal-Naquet1981,1968,4964and1986,12644.
70
ThefuneralgarmentwornbythedeceasedonGeometricpotteryisusuallyrepresented
asalongrobe,butlaterwehaveevidencethatthebodywaswrappedinashroudsupplementedbyanepiblema.Thecustomofdressingthebodyfortheprothesisiswellattestedfrom
tragedy.Theshroudwasfrequentlywhite,butdidnothavetoberestrictedtothiscolour.
Thelate-ifth-centurylawcodeofIoulisonKeos(LSG97A2)stipulatedwhitehimatia,
whilethefuneralordinanceoftheLabyadphratry(LSG77C6)decreedthatthemantle
shouldbegrey-black.ASpartanlawascribedtoLykourgosstipulatedthatthedeadhadto
belaidoutintheirredmilitarycloaks.Thefactthatostentatiousdisplayatfuneralswas
aconstantconcernforlegislatorssuggeststhattheuseofsplendidgarmentsandtextileswas
common.Fordetailsoftherichclothingofthedeceased,includingcrownsandjewellery
seeGarland1985,26.
71
Depicted in short tunics on an Athenian white-ground lekythos dated to the end of
theifthcentury.SeeRobertson1978,1501.ForadiscussionoftheimageryofSleepand
Death,seeVermeule1979,14577andShapiro1993,13265.
72
Maxwell-Stuart1970,11316.
73
PhilostratusLifeofApolloniusofTyre2.24.SeealsoGage1993,2933.
74
AristotleDeAn.418b;Sens.439a18.
75
Apoll.Argo.1.7214.
76
Il.6.288.
77
ForastudyoftheMykonosPithosseeAnderson1997,18291.Forshiningveilssee
Chapter10.
78
ExpertsinthematterofmythsandfolkloretellusthatifLittleRedRidingHoodscloak
isred,itisbecauseGrandmotheristryingtohandonthetorchofwomanhoodtohergranddaughter.Betterstill,thethreedropsofblooddrippingfromSnowWhitesmothersinger
areveryclearsignstellingtheheroinewhatisabouttohappentohereverymonth.
79
Macrobius7.11.5.ForblushinginantiquityseeBarton1999.Foranethnographicview
ofblushingseeMcNeil1998,2237.

251

Chapter8
Samter 1901, 57. For the ancient Greek idea of associating sacriice with marriage
ritual see Seaford 1987, 10630; Foley 1982, 15980. Further studies of note include
Burkert1983,esp.64,wherehearguesthatsacriiceoriginatedinthehunt;indiscussing
virginsacriice,hereasons,Huntingandwararesanctionedbysocialcustomastestsof
manhood,andtheytakeprecedenceovercourtshipandmarriage.Mandeclinestolovein
ordertokill:thisismostdrasticallydemonstratedintheritualslaughterofthevirgin,the
potentialsourcebothofahappyunionandofdisruptiveconlictwithinthegroup.Inthe
maiden-sacriice,allthetensionsthejealousyoftheelderly,thestrivingsoftheyoungare
released.Anirreparableacttransformsaneroticgameintoightingfury Intheperiodof
preparation,maiden-sacriiceisthestrongestexpressionoftheattempttorenouncesexuality.
SeefurtherSegal1975,3053;Osborne1993;Rabinowitz1993,325.Thesubversionof
weddingritualcontainedwithintragedyinparticularfrequentlydrawsananalogybetween
thebrideandasacriicialvictim(usuallyayoungheifer)because,likeasacriicialanimal,
ayoungbridehasherheadwreathedandisledouttoapublicgatheringaccompaniedby
joyoussonganddancetomeetherfate.Theassimilationofsacriicialandmaritalmotifs
isbestexploitedbyEuripidesinIphigeneiaatAulis.Towardstheclimaxofthetragedythe
chorussinganodeinpraiseoftheweddingofPeleusandThetis(aceremonyrenowned
amongtheGreeksforitssplendour,yetonethatwasdoomedtobringaboutwar,chaos,and
maritalstrifethroughuncontrolleddesire)whichendswithareferencetoIphgeneiasplight
astheyweavetogethertheimagesoftheprincessasbrideandassacriicialvictim(10808).
HesiodlikewiseconnectsmarriagewithsacriiceasPandoraispreparedforhermortallife
justasabrideispreparedforherwedding.Sheenterstheworldwreathedandglitteringin
gold,likeanuntamedsacriicialoxapproachinganaltar(W&D63,714;Th.578).
81
King1982and1998,8898.
82
Ontheveil-hymenimageryseebelow.
83
Essentially the Greek wedding worked in three stages: the engue, ekdosis and gamos,
althoughweshouldavoidseeingthesethreephasesasclearlydelineatedstepsinacivilor
religiousprocess.Rehm1994,11hasstated,wemustwalkatightropeintranslatingthe
Greekwords.Essentially,though,wearedealingherewithtermsrelatingtothebetrothal,
tothegiving-awayofthebrideandtocelebrationoftheweddingproper.
84
SofundamentalwastheveiltotheRomanmarriageceremonythattheverbusedforthe
bride,nubo,iscloselyconnectedtonubes,acloud,andliterallymeansIveilmyself,from
which,inturn,derivesnupta(amarriedwoman),novanupta(newlyweddedbride),and
nuptiae(wedding).Thesecond-centuryscholarVarroderivesnuptiae(wedding)andnuptus
(wedlock)fromnuptus(veiling),whichhedeinesasopertio(theactofcovering)andwhich
heassociatestonubes(cloud).Paulus,aneighth-centuryadlexicographer,derivestheword
nuptiaefromobnubit:hecoversthehead;fromwhichmarriagesalsogettheirnamefrom
theactofcovering(opertio)thehead.SeeLevine1995,100.
85
SeePatterson1991,54.
86
Much information concerning ancient weddings has no doubt been lost or might
neverhavebeenrecordedatall.Detailedaccountsofthemorenuancedaspectsofwedding
ceremonialsandtraditionshavenotsurvivedthecenturies,especiallyofthoseritualsthat
wereprimarilyafemaleconcern.Allsocietiesgivetheirwomenspeciicresponsibilitiesat
weddings,especiallyintheareasoforganizingbridaladornmentandtheenactmentofrituals
andtraditionsassociatedwiththebride.Ourmale-biasedsourcesare,ofcourse,largelysilent
aboutsuchrites.Aconvenientdiscussionoftheancientsourcescanbefoundinarecent
studyofGreekmarriagerituals:VrilhacandVial1998,30512.
80

252

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
Hesych.s.v.ajnakalupthvrion.
Pherec.Syros.Frg.68.Trans.Schibli1990.
89
ForinterpretationsseeDeubner1900,14454;OakleyandSinos1993,25;Carson
1990,162;Montuoro1960,49;Schibli1990,65;Toutain1940,350;Rehm1994,142.
ForareviewofthetheoriesseeLlewellyn-Jones2000.
90
Carson1990,163.
91
Epton1956,65,describingaweepingbrideataweddinginMorocco,recallsthat,She
couldonlyhavebeenaboutsixteenyearsoldandshelookedlikeaChristmastreefairyin
herwhitesatin(Western-style)weddinggownandgorgeousMoorishtiaraandjewellery.
Herfacecoveredwithanextrathickveil,oneofherrelativeslifteditforafewsecondsso
thatIcouldlookather.
92
Sutton,Jr.1997/98,31.
93
Ithasbeensuggestedthatthewomanstandingbehindthebridewasprobablydepicted
intheactofpouringadrinkintothebowlfromanoinochoe.SeeSutton,Jr.1997/98,31.
94
Aes.Ag.11889.ForKassandrasuseofweddingimageryseeRehm1994,4358.
95
LSJs.v.oJ, hJ, tov.
96
Luc.Symp.8.
97
Plut.Moral.(Quaest.con)666F667A.Thesocialprestigeofthrowinganenormous
weddingisjustasprevalenttoday;whenMohammed,thesonofSheikhRashidbinSaeed
AlMaktoum,forexample,marriedPrincessSalamainDubaiinMay1981,thewholeaffair
lastedforsevendaysandcostabout22million.Onamoremodestscale,in1988Saul
SteinbergthrewaweddingpartyforhisdaughterattheMetropolitanMuseumofArtinNew
Yorkthatcostabout$3million.TheaveragecostofaweddinginBritaintodayisbetween
3,000and8,000.ForthecostofweddingreceptionsseePorter1991,103ff.
98
Athen.Deip.14.644d.Perhapsaplayrevolvingaroundissuesofmistakenidentityand
deliberatedisguises,notunlikePlautusCasina.
99
Poll.Onom.3.36:ta; de; para; tou' ajndro;" didovmena dw'ra e{dna kai; ojpthvria kai; ajnaka 87

88

lupthvria: ouj ga;r movnon hJ hJmevra ejn h|/ ejkkaluvptei th;n nuvmfhn ou{tw kaloi't ajn, ajlla; kai; ta;
ejp aujth'/dw'ra. ta; de; ajnakalupthvria kai; prosfqegkthvria ejkalou'n.
100
Anec.Gr.1.200.6.Bekker(=390.26):Anakalupthvria: dw'ra didovmena tai'" nuvmfai",
o{tan prw'ton ajnakaluvptwntai ejn th'/ eJstiavsei tw'n gavmwn, toi'" ajndravsi kai; toi'" eJstiwmevnoi"
oJrwvmenai.
101
Harpokration:Anakalupthvria: dw'ra didovmena tai'" nuvmfai" parav te tou' ajndro;" kai;
tw'n oijkeivwn kai; fivlwn, o{tan to; prw'ton ajnakaluvptwntai w{ste oJraqh'nai toi'" ajndravsi.
kalei'tai de; ta; aujta; kai; ejpauvlia. tau'ta d eijsi; ta; par hJmi'n qewvrhtra.
102
Suda: Anakalupthvria: dw'ra didovmena tai'" nuvmfai" parav te tou' ajndro;" kai; tw'n
oijkeivwn fivlwn, o{tan to; prw'ton ajnakaluvptwntai ajndravsin oJraqh'nai. e[sti de; tau'ta kai;
ejpauvlaia.

Schibli 1990, 645. It is possible that the bride responded, but unfortunately
Pherekydestextbreaksoffatthatpoint.
104
Theon.Progym.69.79(Lysias.frg.7).
105
TheincidentisonlymentionedbyPseudo-Longinus,OntheSublime4.5.6.Seefurther,
Russell1964,80.ForAgothoklesseeJustin223andDiod.1920.
106
TheceremonyisdescribedbyWestermark1914,138.
107
SeeHolst-Warhaft1992,162ff.;McManus1990;Seaford1987.
108
Indeed, some societies go as far as placing the already heavily shrouded bride in
adrapedboxthatisthenstrappedontothebackofahorseordonkeyForboxedbrides
103

253

Chapter8
seeWestermark1914,166ff.;Scott1953,184ff.JewishweddingritesinGraeco-Roman
Palestineplacedtheunveiledbrideinacurtainedlitter.SeeArcher1990,197.Asimilarrite
ispractisedbyIndianMuslims.SeeJeffery1979,105.
109
Toutain1940,347arguesthatthebridehadremainedveiledthroughouttheproceedings.SeealsoSissa1990a,98.
110
Sissa1990a,98.
111
Luc.Symp.47.
112
ThusRehm1994,142arguesthefactthat[abride]isdepicted[asveiled]doesnot
establishthataformalunveilingliesahead,anymorethanitsuggeststhattheanakalypteria
hasalreadyoccurred.
113
ForagooddiscussionofthevaseseeDeubner1936.SeealsoOakleyandSinos1993,
32.OakleyandSinosmentiontwounpublishedpotsfromtheSanctuaryoftheNymphs,
justsouthoftheAthenianAkropolis,andnowintheAkropolisMuseum,whichallegedly
showbrideswiththeirfacescoveredbyveils,Na.57.Aa.684andNa.55.Aa.8.Anunpublished
Atticred-igurelebesgamikos(c.450)inLaon(37.1186)showsthebridewiththebackofher
headandthelowerhalfofherfaceveiled.Unfortunately,ithasprovedimpossibletolocate
thesevases,despitemanyattempts.
114
Eur.Al.111522.Thepresenceoftheveilisgenerallyacceptedfrominferenceandthe
irsthypothesisofDicaearchus.SeeConnacher1988.SeefurtherSissa1990a,95;Buxton
1987;Rehm1994,93ff.
115
SeeTrendallandWebster1971,1389.
116
Plau.Cas.32.
117
Ibid.815ff.
118
Ibid.880ff.
119
VrilhacandVial1998,306.
120
It is impossible to know if this vase represents any single moment in the wedding
process,butmyguesswouldbethatitdoesnot;itissimplyasceneofaconventionallyveiled
bridesurroundedbythesymbolsoftheweddinganympheutria,Peitho(Persuasion)who
chucksherchin,andawingedEros.AdiscussionofthevaseisprovidedbyKernyi1976,
3723withfurtherrefs.
121
PolemonDePhys.Lib.69.CitedbyWinkler1990,71ff.
122
Eur.Tr.314ff.SeealsoSchol.Eur.Ph.344.Acomparableritualisfrequentlyfound
in anthropological evidence but is extended to enable the mother-in-law to inspect her
newdaughterssuitability.Thus,inmanyIslamicsocieties,asthebridearrivesatthehouse
herveilisliftedinorderthatthegroomsmothercanviewhersonsnewwifeandgiveher
approvalofthematch;thebriefunveilingsimultaneouslyestablishesthepeckingorderin
thehouseholdasthemothergazesdirectlyuponthefaceofthestranger-bridewhooutof
respectandhumility,keepshereyesclosedorixedontheground.Italsomeansthatthebride
passesintothedirectauthorityofhermother-in-lawwhoistheirstpersontoraiseherveil
afteritwasloweredbythebridesmotherattheirparting.SeeforexampleCampbell1964,
64ff.;Rose1991,815ff.ThemostcompletetreatmentoftheMuslimmother-in-lawandher
relationshipwithherdaughters-in-lawcanbefoundinMernissi1975,12136.Whilethere
isnodirectevidenceforsuchaceremonialinGreece,thepresenceofthemother-in-law(in
iconographicsources)atthismomenttestiiestoherimportanceinthefuturelifeofthebride
anditisnotinconceivablethatsomesuchritualmighthavetakenplace.Suchwomen-only
ritualsarenotoftencommentedoninthesources,althoughPlut.Mor.143.35doestellof
thebrideandmother-in-lawritualsfoundinLeptis.Hieronymus,AdversusIovinianum1.48,

254

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
speaksoftheimportanceofthebrideplacatinghernewmother-in-lawandsupportsthis
withareferencetoTerenceHecyra2.1.4:Allmothers-in-lawhatetheirdaughters-in-law.
Ontheimportanceofthemother-in-lawseeLys.OntheMurderofEratosthenes67.Itis
onlyafterthedeathofEuphiletusmother(atherfuneralinfact)thathiswifebeginsher
philandering,whichsuggeststhatwhilehermother-in-lawwasalive,thewifewasunderher
surveillance.Formother-in-lawrelationshipstonewwivesseeWalcot1994,2932.The
importanceofthebridesmotherandmother-in-lawintheactoftransitionisemphasizedin
anAtticred-igurecupbytheAmphitritePainterthatdepictsthebridesmotherstandingto
therightofthescenewithalightedtorchasherdaughteristakenawaybythebridegroom
tobewelcomedbyhismotherstandinginfrontofthehousewithtwotorches.SeeOakley
andSinos1993ig.73.
123
Theopomp.Com.14;Sudas.v.katacuvsmata.SeealsoOakleyandSinos1993,34ff.
124
Seeabove,Chapter6.
125
CitedbyJeffrey1979,106.
126
LSJs.v.pastov"andpastav".ThemostimportantworksonthetermarebyVatin1971,
21128andLane1988.Bothauthorsconcludethatthepastoswasundeniablycloselyassociatedwithmarriageandwas,inallprobability,acurtainthatwassuspendedaboveand
aroundthebridalbed.
127
TheScholiatoTheocritus18explainsthepurposeofthesinging:Maidenssingthe
epithalamiumbeforethebridalchambersothatthevoiceofthevirginmightnotbeheardas
sheisviolatedbyherhusband,butmightgounnoticed,coveredbythemaidensvoices.
128
OnthalamosscenesseeOakleyandSinos1993,37.
129
Luc.Herod.5.
130
Higgins1967,117;Toutain1940,3489;PottierandReinarch,1887,443,cf.556,
n.268.
131
Seeabove,Chapter6.SeefurtherCairns1993,115,185,20910,223.
132
AugustineTheCityofGod,1.18.ForSalomeseeTheProtevangelionofJames1920.For
virginitytestsinantiquityseeGoldhill1995,11623,andClark1993,736.Speculating
onthehymenofMary,StAmbrose,inhisDeInstitutioneVirginis,asked,Whatisthis
gate[thehymen]butMary,closedbecausesheisavirgin?Maryisthegatethroughwhich
Christenteredtheworld,whenhewasbornbyavirginbirth,withoutopeningthegenital
seal.Thebarrierofmodestyremainedintactandthesealsofintegritywerepreserved.The
ideathatMaryandJosephavoidedallsexualintercourseandthatChristenteredtheworld
withoutbreakingMaryshymenwasalsofollowedbyPeterDamian,BishopofOstia.He
alsoendorsedthisratherbizarredoctrinewiththeviewthatthehymen,evenifbroken,could
bemiraculouslyrestored.ForafulldiscussionseeBrooke1989,43.ForMarysvirginitysee
alsoDalarun1992,2530.
133
Hanson,1990,32430.
134
Eust.Com.adHom.Od.392,135.
135
Od.3.3904.Trans.Lattimore1951,withamendments.
136
Stanford1959,263commentsthatthedestructionofthebattlementsofTroyconjures
upafarmoregrandioseuseofmetaphor,butadmitsthattheuseofkredemnon eluse atOd.
3.392,hasnohumorouscontrastandthatnoparodyislikelytobeintended;instead,itis
afreeuseofformula.Commentingonthebottlesealitself,WaceandStubbings1962,501
state,tojudgebytheclaycapsofoiljarsfoundatMycenaeitwasacapofclayputoverthe
stopperandspoutandstampedwithaseal.Itthuscorrespondedtothecapsofleadfoiloften
putoverthecorksortopsofwinebottlestoday.Heubeck,WestandHainsworth1988,184

255

Chapter8
areunclearwhetherkredemnon eluse referstothecoverofthewinejugitselfortoastring
whichismeanttokeepitinplace.
137
Hanson 1990, 326. For men, delowering avirgin has often been seen as asign of
virility.InthesixthcenturyadthescholarAgathiasofMyrinawrote,AsIhavenotyet
destroyedthefortressofhermaidenhood,whichisstillkeptintactbydelaysinceIavoided
theight.Yetifthebattlebeginsanew,Iwillverilydestroythewallsofhervirginity,norshall
anybattlementsholdmeback.Thegratiicationderivedfromtheactmaybepartlyorwholly
sadistic, as demonstrated by the anonymous author of Rose dAmour, alate-nineteenthcenturypornographicnovella:NosoonerdidIfeeltheheadlodgedarightthatIdroveand
shovedinwiththeutmostfury;feelingtheheadprettywellin,Ithrustanddroveon At
lengthbymyiercerendingandtearingthruststhedefencesgavewaySogreatwasthepain
ofthislastshockthatRosecouldnotsuppressasharpscream,butIheededitnot;itwasthe
noteofinalvictory.FordetailsofAgathiasandRosedAmourseeIsaacs1993,276.
138
Eur.Hec.5368.OnPolyxenaandvaginalbleedingatthethroatseeLoraux1987,
3848,61.
139
Eur.Tr.30813;Aes.Ag.143743.
140
Tert.DeVirg.Vel.12.1:Imponevelamenextrinsecushabentitegumenintrinsecus.Trans.
DAngelo1995.
141
Ibid.17.4.Trans.DAngelo1995.
142
Nonn.Dion.7.5758.
143
SeeBridgewood1995.
144
contraSissa1990a,989.
145
SeealsoSudas.v.ejpauvlia.
146
Fortheiconographyoftheepaulia seeOakleyandSinos1993,3842.
147
Untilthe1950sthesplendidweddingrobesofAtticbrideswerewornforfamilyand
communitygatheringsandholidaysduringtheyearthatfollowedthewedding,oruntilthe
birthofasecondchild,or(inrarecases)untilthewomanreachedtheageof30.SeeBroufas
(nodate)16.
148
Nonn.Dion.7.578.
149
AncientNearEasternweddingceremonialsplaceasimilaremphasisonveilingand
unveilingthebrideandofferinterestingparallelstotheGreektradition.Theearliesttestimonialofapublicunveiling(fromBitik,nearAnkara,c.1400)comesfromtheHittiteempire
periodintheshapeofafragmentaryclayvesselwithreliefdecorationsshowinganindoor
sceneofaseatedmanofferingacuptoaveiledwomanwhosefaceisseenbeneaththecloth
whichthemanseemstobeintheactofraising.See1962,58,63,pl.XIV.Thisremarkable
indcanbeinterpretedwiththeaidofaHittitelaw(no.198)datingtothesameerawhich
speaksofamanwhoreinstateshiswifeashislawfulspousefollowingheraccusationasan
adulteress.Tomakethispublicknowledge,heveilsherinopencourt,anactreminiscentof
MiddleAssyrianlaw41onveilingaconcubineandmakingherintoalegitimatewife.See
Roth1997,237(Law198:Ifhebringsthemtothepalacegate(i.e.,theroyalcourt)and
saysMywifeshallnotdie,hecansparehiswifeslife,buthemustalsosparethelover,and
clotheherhead.Ifhesays,Bothofthemshalldie,theyshallrollthewheel.Theking
mayhavethemkilledorhemaysparethem.)Thetextiscorruptandthephraseandclothe
(i.e.,veil)herheadhassometimesbeentranslatedclothehishead.But,asTsevat1975has
demonstrated,thisreadingiscertainlywrong.Ofcourse,theAssyrianconcubineandthe
reinstatedHittitewifeareexceptionstotheusualrule;theyareveiledinapublicactthat
confersorreconirmswifelylegitimacyonwomenwhoarealreadyrecognizedasbelonging

256

Fromparthenostogyne:veilingandthefemalelifecycle
undertheauthorityofoneman.However,itistheactofunveilingwhichgenerallyidentiies
anewbridewhoisintheprocessofbeingmadeintoawife.Sheisthekullatu(bride)who
mustappearbeforehergroomkuttumu(veiled).Oneveilslikeabrideisthereconstruction
ofonedamagedAssyriantext(KUB4111.3).SeeHoffner1973,86,88whomentionsthat
KUB27.49r.iii1719hasthereadingTheytakeonehead-veil,onebluecloth,andthe
pins(?)fromtheheadofthebride.SeefurtherTsevat1975,239n.14.Itispossiblethat
thegroomwouldveilhisfuturebrideinordertounveilherlater.Moreprobablythough,
themanwhoexercisedthemostauthorityoverthebridethefatherorbrotherwasthe
onewhoveiledherandpresentedherformarriage.Itistheactofunveiling,symbolizing
legitimatemarriage,whichisdepictedontheclaypot.Thesymbolismoftheoccasionis
stressedbythedeviceofplacingthebridalcouplewithina(bridal?)chamber.Theunveiling
andthesharingofacupwithinachamberstresstheintimacyoftheoccasion,anideathatis
emphasizedintheGreatPrayertothesex-goddessItarwhoisaddressedastheone[who]
openstheveilofallyoungwomen.SeeTsevat1975,239.ForItarseeBlackandGreen
1992,10810.ForItarsrelationshipwithsexandsexualityseeLeick1994.
150
Men.Peri.101314:tauvthn gnhsivwn paivdwn ejp ajrovtwi soi divdwmi.AlsoinMen.Dis.
842.Seefurther,GommeandSandbach1973,262,531.Ontheploughingmetaphorsee
Vernant1983,13940;duBois1988,3985.
151
Redield1982,186.
152
On painted vase scenes being aspirational for female viewers see Llewellyn-Jones
2002a.
153
ContraRedield1982,191whocallsthebridethestarofthewedding.
154
Itistheseritualsthataredepictedinthevasepaintings.SeeSutton,Jr.1992,31ff.for
someinterestingideasonfemalecultureandfemaleviewersofthepots.
155
Archer1990,195.
156
See the description of jewellery and dress in Suhrawardy Ikramullah 1992, 2732,
5769.
157
Jeffery1979,105.
158
Vernant1980,56.
159
Aes.Ag.2437.ForadiscussionseeScodel1996,11128.SeealsoWohl1998,59ff.
Infact,thebridalveilitselfcanbeclassedasanagalma;ittooisapreciousandcostlyobject
ofconspicuousdisplay.
160
Osborne1994,90.
161
Aes.Ag.41819.
162
Blundell1998b,34,makestheanalogybetweenthestiffbrideandarigidcorpse.See
furtherJenkins1983,13745andpl.18.
163
Seeforexample,Ararusfr.17,CAFII,218.SeealsoPlut.Quae.Rom.27.271deand
Redford1982,1912.
164
Garland1990,221.
165
Men.Rhet.Treatise2.404.1114.
166
SeeRussellandWilson1981,31718,nn.404and405.
167
Westermark1914,148ff.;Crawley1902,44ff.Foradiscussionoftheevileyeand
veilingseeElworthy1895,366.
168
Oakley1982,11318andReeder1995,169.
169
Onthereverseofthepot,notillustratedhere.
170
ContraSutton,Jr.1997/98,45,n.27.AdiscussionalsofoundinVrilhacandVial
1998,31011.

257

Chapter8
ItisthislackofinterestinthemalegazethatconvincesmethatthePenthesileaPainters
pyxis(Fig.151)doesnotshowanoficialbridalunveiling,butsimplyaveilmanipulation.
172
Carson1990,163.Sherepeatsherideainher1999article(pp.913)inwhichshe
alsosuggeststhatSapphofragment31(c),insertsusimaginativelyintotheritualmoment
oftheanakalypteria.Carsonsuggeststhatinthispoemweviewtheceremonyfromthe
view-pointofthenympheutriawhostandsbehindthebrideandraisesherveilasonthe
Bostonvaseassheviewsthebridegroomsirstreactiontohisunveiledbride.Iindthis
unconvincing.ThereisnothinginSapphostextthatsuggestsaritualunveilingor,indeed,
anunveilingofanykind.
173
AsfarasIamawaretheonlytextthatpossiblyhintsatfemalecontrolofthemoment
comesfromafragmentofthehellenisticpoetEuphorion(fr.107)whichseemstorecount
ahighlychargedsexualencounterbetweenZeusandPersephone:Whenshewasabouttobe
seenfortheirsttimesheremovedtheveilofherweddingdress. Thecontextofthefragment
isdificulttoplace,butthismythologicalencounter,inwhichitseemsPersephonehasthe
upperhand,shouldnotbetakenasirmevidencethatallbridesoperatedinsuchafashion.
ForsimilarencountersbetweenZeusandPersephoneseeNonn.Dionys.5.586615.
174
ThebridesinabilitytocontrolherunveilingputsoneinmindofCallirhoewhowas
unveiledbyTheronforthelustfulgazeofLeonas.Patterson1991,55hasacredibleapproach
totheanakalypteriawhich,shebelieves,waspurelyasymbolicindicationofmutualconsent
tomarriage.Assheexplains,Iemphasizesymbolichere,forthebrideinparticularprobably
hadlittlevoiceintheactualmakingofthedecision;butitseemsthatinthecontextofthe
gamoscelebration,thegestureoftheanakalypsissymbolizedthebridesgivingherselftoher
husband.Again,thishasnothingtodowithactualconsent.Thebridemaynothavebeen
willing,justashusbandandwifemaynothavelovedoneanother.Myconcerniswithsocial
form,notaffectivereality.
175
SeeforexampleIl.22;Hdt.1.8.3.
176
SeeGould1973,74103;Bremmer1991,256;Parker1983,1816.Supplicationin
theHomericepicsistreatedbyCrotty1994.Thefullesttreatmentofsupplicationandaidos
isgivenbyCairns1993,11319,18993,2217,27687.
177
SeeforexampleIl.1.500;Od.18.394ff.Gould1973,757.
178
Parker1983,181classiiesthisasahelpmesupplication(incontrasttoaspareme
supplication).Thelowestofthehiketaiisnodoubtthebeggar;forsittingbeggarsseeEur.
fr.960;Antiphanesfr.960.ForsuppliantssittingataltarsseeSoph.OT32;Eur.fr.554;
AndokidesOntheMysteries44;Lysias13.24,52;Men.Sicy.190.SeealsoParker1983,
350.
179
58C4.
180
For discussions of veiling and initiation see Deubner 1932, 78; Reinach 1908,
299311;Bianchi1976;Nilsson1957;Kernyi1967and1976;Villani1991;Foley1994,
esp.68;Burkert1987,94ff.and1983,2669.TheinitiationritualisparodiedatAr.Nub.
25468.
181
OntheKabirianmysteriesseeGuthrie1952,123ff.
182
Plut.Mor.138D2.SeecommentsinPomeroy1999,47.
183
Burkert1987,94.
184
ForadiscussionofthecharisofthegazeofagroomuponhisbrideseeDetienne1977,
87ff.
185
Poll.Onom.3.39.
186
Carson1990,163.
171

258

9
VEILINGTHEPOLLUTEDWOMAN
Although many veil-societies, including those of ancient Greece, see women as
particularly vulnerable, they also view female sexuality as acutely dangerous and
threateningtomenandtothesocialorderasawhole.TraditionalArabculture,
forexample,viewswomenaspossessinganimalisticsexualappetites.Thefemale
veilcontrolsthechaos(fitna)thatmightbeunleashedifwomanlysexualitywere
allowedfreereign.Insomecasesthisisduetotheassumptionthatmen,bytheir
verynature,cannotcontroltheirsexualurgeswhenconfrontedbyirresistiblefemale
lures.Inothercasesitseemsthattheveilfunctionstocontaintheunpredictable
andoftendangeroussexualdesiresofthewomanherself.Inboththeseinstances,
thefemaleisseenasboththreatenedandthreatening.Aseitheranactiveorpassive
force,femalesexualityconstantlyjeopardizesthesocialorder,itsproperhierarchy,
anditsabilitytoinlictcontrol.InMuslimthought,womanisfitna,theepitomeof
theuncontrollable,alivingrepresentativeofthedangersofsexualityanditsrampant
disruptivepotential.Becauseofthedoublethreatsymbolizedbyuncoveredwomen,
theveildoesadoubledutyofprotection.Inotherwords,theveilisadoubleshield,
protectingwomenagainstexternaloffencesofsocietyandprotectingsocietyagainst
theinherentevilofwomen.1
SeveraloftheseIslamicideasareparalleledinGreece,mostnotablytheassumptionthatwomenaremoresexuallydrivenandinsatiablethanmen,thebeliefthat
womenareendangeredanddangerous,theperceptionofthefemaleasthelocation
ofdangertomenandtoorderedsociety,andtheensuingneedforthegendered
separationofspaceandcoveringforwomenincertainsocialcontexts,including
thoseinwhichfearofinvasionordisapprovalfromsacredbeingsispresent.Asthe
hellenistAndrewStewarthasputit,unveiledevenbymalecommandawoman
isadisasterwaitingtohappen.2
Akredemnonofstoneorofcloth,adefensivewall,isasmuchdesignedtoprotect
thosemenoutsideitsbarrierfromthedangersofthecontainedfemalesexuality,as
itistosafeguardthechastityofthewomenwhoutilizeitsfortiication.Thischapter
investigates why and how the veil was thought to act as acontainer of womens
naturallydangerouspollution.Weshallneedtoexamineevidenceasdiverseasthe
HomericHymnsandearlyChristiandogma.Theuseofsuchapparentlydisparate
evidence will demonstrate how hellenic perceptions of female miasma remained
essentiallyunchangedandunchallengedacrossthecenturies.3
259

Chapter9
Physicalandsocialcontactinvitesthepossibilityofpollutionand,asPadelhas
cleverlynoted,Greekconceptionsofpollutionwere,
asruthlessassyphilis Contactwiththepollutedcandestroyevenawholepopulation Where contact was intensely important and also potentially contagious and
damagingwasnotinsexbutinhospitality.Lettingsomeonein,nottoyourbodybut
yourhouse,hademotionalimplicationsthat,forthemodernWesternworld,isonly
comparableinintensitytosexWeshouldnotunderratethephysicality,andpersuasiveness,ofGreekpollution.4

ParkersinvestigationintotheGreekconceptofmiasmahasrevealedthat,essentially,pollution(andtherelatedconceptofpuriication)operatesasasocialdivider
andquitenaturallymarksouthigherfromlowerandbetterfromworse.Thisscience
ofdivision5canoftentakeaphysicalforminwhichsacredareasaremarkedofffrom
profane,andareoftenhighlightedbytheconspicuousappearanceoflustralbowls
forthepurposeofwashingawayonesimpuritybeforeenteringasacred,oreven
civic,space.AsParkeremphasizes,Akindofringofpurityexcludedthedisgraced
fromcommunallife.6
SincetheGreeks,likesomanyothersocieties,dividedtheirworldintosacred
andprofane,thisbasicdichotomywasnaturallyextendedintothesexualsphere,for
profanelifeisnecessarilysexual,andsexualityisinexorablythedomainofwomen.
Womenthreatenedmenspurityand,conversely,theirvirility.Moreover,ashasbeen
demonstrated,awomanhadthepowertobringdishonourtoamansname;licentiousandunmanageable,lackinginself-awarenessorself-control,womanwasthe
weaklinkinthefamilychainofhonour.7
TheGreekworldoperatedwithinasetofdivisions,orboundaries.Therewere
politicalboundaries,ofcourse;therewereboundariessetbetweenmenandgods;
thereweresocialboundariesbetweenthehavesandhave-nots,andtherewereeven
(movable)boundariesestablishedwithinthehome.Civilizationfunctionedbecause
ofthesedivisions.Men,itwasgenerallyagreed,wereincontroloftheirpersonal
boundaries;theywereself-awareandunderstoodtheirlimitations,thebalanceof
whatwascorrectandwhatwasmorallyorsociallyimproper,butwomenhadnosuch
awarenesssinceitwasgenerallybelievedthattheylackedcontroloftheirboundaries
because,afterall,theirverybodieswerewetandspongycontainersoflustfulnessand
miasma.Evenawomansskinrefusedtoconformoradheretotherulesofcontainmentbecauseitwasperceivedasporousandhencedestructive.8Awoman,herbody,
andhersexualitywerethingstobefeared.
Furthermore,womenwereseenasbeingincapableoffeelingtheneedtocontrol
theirdesires;femalenaturelackedsophrosynesoundnessofmind,self-control,
chastity.EvenfromitsirstusesinHomer,sophrosyneistheactivitymostclosely
alliedtotherestraintofsomenaturalimpulse,ortheclosingoftheboundariesof
thephrenes(wits)bythewill.TheresultingcontrolofphrenesisassociatedinGreek
thoughtwithaidos:botharevirtuesofself-containment,9althoughwhattheideaof
aidosprimarilyshareswiththeconceptofsophrosyneisthetrepidationofoverstepping
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Veilingthepollutedwoman
boundaries.EventhoughAristotleallowsforthenotionthatawomanmighthave
asenseofsophrosyne,itisenvisagedasdifferentfromthesophrosyneofaman;hisis
concernedwithmoderationofexcessandlogicalself-control,whilehersophrosyneis
rootedindeferenceandduty.Sinceawomancannotmasterself-awareness,shemust
willinglysubmitherselftothecontrolofothers.10Sheisincapableofsettingherown
boundaries,soshemustbeboundbyothers.Thisisbestachievedbycontrollingand
organizingfemalespace,bytheprescriptionofhergestures,theregulationofher
rituals,andbythecompulsionforhertoveil.Pollutionmustbecontainedwithin
theprotectivebarrierofthekredemnon.
Boundariesandbindings
TheconceptoftheGreekveilasanintrinsicallyboundingandbindinggarment
is best expressed in the word kredemnon itself, aword that is, as has been seen,
derivedfromkare(head)anddeo(tobind).11Theideaofshieldingoff,binding,
constraining, and containing powerful and often harmful forces is important in
ancientmagicalpractice,andtheGreekuseofbindingspells,orkatadesmoi,to
protectcities,ships,crops,andhomesstretchesbacktotheearliesttimes.12Thebasic
ideologybehindthesekatadesmoiistoensureapre-emptivestrike,asitwere,against
potentiallydestructiveforces,eitherofthisworldorofthenext;theywereawayof
restrainingonesenemieswithoutkillingthemor,ifthepurposewastoinspirelove,
theywereawayinwhichapotentiallovercouldberendereddefencelessagainstthe
charmsoftheindividualwho(perhapswiththehelpofprofessionals)activatedthe
spell.Aparticularfacetofkatadesmoiistheconcentrationonbindingandrestraining
certainpartsofthehumanbody.Themouthisanareaofspeciicattention;the
tongueinparticularisvisualizedasboundandrestrained.13
Theissueofrestrainingspeechisacentralfacetoftheideologyoffemaleveiling,
foriftheveilisdrawnacrossthelowerfaceitsupposedlyrestrainsthefemalevoice
andinhibitsthepollutionoffemalesoundemanatingfromthemouth.Theveilcan
beregardedasarestrainer,abinderofthefemalebodythatenclosesandcontainsthe
potentialhazardsofmiasmathatthefemalebodyandfemalesexualityarecapable
ofreleasingintoanunpreparedworld.Thisiswellillustratedinthecaseofwitches,
powerfulfemaleswhoseactionsandspeechareunrestrictedandunboundbysocial
conventions.ApolloniusRhodiusdescriptionofthemagicspellenactedbyMedea
ispunctuatedbyreferencestoherlashingeyeswhichpenetrateintoJasonspupils
herfeminineeyesunhiddenbyarestrainingveiloramodestlyloweredhead.The
verbaldirectivesshegivestoJason,withwhichhemightconjureupthesupportof
Hekate,knownoboundaries.14Incastingtheirspellsandconcoctingtheirpotions,
witchesareunboundandexceptionallydangerous.
However,byadheringtomalesocialcontrol,andenclosingthemselvesbehind
aprotective curtain of cloth, women who display aidos and sophrosyne through
theactofveilingparticipateinsafeguardingthegoodorderofsociety.Thosewho
donotshownaturalreverenceforthesocialgoodmustberestrainedbyenforced
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Chapter9
veiling/binding.Pausaniasalludestotheenforcedrestraintoffemalesexualitywhen
hedescribesacultstatueofAphroditeinSpartainwhichthegoddessisrepresented
asbothfetteredandveiled:
Aphroditesitswearingaveil(kaluptran)withfettersonherfeet.Thestoryisthat
thefetterswereputonherbyTyndareus,whosymbolizedbymeansofthebindings,
faithfulnessofwomentotheirmen.15

ItappearsthathereAphroditesveilbecomesanextensionoftheleasheswhichbind
herfeet,althoughherveilisnotafortressagainstpotentialsexualthreatoracontainerforherchastity,butadefensivebinding,abarrierthatkeepsherdangerous
sexualityinternalized.VeilingandbindingAphroditeisapre-emptivestrikeagainst
herdishonourablesexuallyunrestrainedinluence.Thus,besidesofferingprotection
andsafeguardinghonour,everywomansveilhasthenegative,butnecessary,associationofcontainingandrestrainingmiasmaanduncurbedsexuality,sothatveiling
womensymbolicallypre-emptsthedangerthatpollutionwillspilloutofthefemale
igureandcontaminatethesocialorder.
Womenleak16
Whatitisthatneedstobecontainedbehindthefemaleveil.Whatisthenatureof
femalemiasma?Carsonhaspersuasivelyarguedthatthefearofpollutioncomesfrom
thefactthatwomenleak,andthatwomensphysicalboundariesareporous,pliant
andmutableandthat,sinceshehasnocontroloverherboundaries,awomansbody
shrinks,swells,andisconstantlypronetoleakage.17Butwhatisitthatleaksout?Is
thereaphysicalmanifestationofmiasma?
Manysocietiesseemenstruation,theleakageofblood,aspollution,althoughin
thecaseofancientGreece,mentionofmenstrualbloodisconspicuouslyabsentfrom
thekindofsourcesthatspeakoffemalepollution.Itispossiblethatmenstruation
mayhavebeensoshamingandsosecretthatitwasnotmentionedeveninthesacred
laws,althoughmedicalwritersenvisagedmonthlybleedingsasnormal,healthy,and
desirabletraitsoftheitfemalebody.18Womenneededtobleedtostaywellandfertile
and,infact,thenotionthatmenstruation(andmenarcheinparticular)wasagood
thingmayhavebeenrelectedinthe(possible)practiceofofferingsofmenstrual
clothsasdedicationsinthesanctuariesofmarriageorchildbirth-goddessessuchas
HeraandArtemis.19
Ifthephysicalpresenceofmenstrualbloodisnotnecessarilypollutinginitself,
what is it then that oozes from women and deiles society as they move across
boundariesoffamily,home,marriage,prostitution,oradultery?Itismorelikelythat
themiasmaofwomanhoodisactuallycontainedintheintangible,in,forexample,
femalespeechandinthefemininegaze.Infact,muchofwhatiscontainedinthe
areaofthefemaleheadisseenasinherentlypolluting.Themouth,eyes,ears,andhair
areallseenaspotentiallydisruptiveanddangerousareasoffemalecontamination.
Theydonotoperatealone;Greekunderstandingusuallyassociatesthevariousparts
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Veilingthepollutedwoman
ofthefemaleheadwiththecorruptingevilscontainedinthefemalegenitalia,and
so,forsafetyssake,awomansheadneedstobecontrolledbeneaththeconinesof
aveiljustasthefemalesexorgansneedtobehiddenbeneathothergarments.The
femaleheadthusbecomesthefocusoffemininemiasma.
Eyesinparticularhaveanimportantparttoplayintheideologyofveiling.While
thevariousstylesofGreekveilswerenot,onthewhole,intendedtocovertheeyes
(theexceptionisthemaghmuq-typeveil),eyeswerecertainlyintendedtobeshrouded
orover-shadowedbytheveilandwere,inanycase,supposedtoloweredasasign
ofsubmissivefeminineaidos.20Oneparticulartypeofveilwascertainlyintendedto
covertheeyes,however:theweddingveil,aswehaveseen,securelyconcealedthe
bridesgazebeneathalayerofprotectivecloth,andforgoodreasontoothefemale
gazewasasourceofacutelypotentpollution.21
Awomansgazewasperceivedtobeintimatelyintertwinedwithhersexualityand
theloweredeyesofarespectablewomannotonlydemonstratedheraidosbutalso
sparedmenfromtheeroticandthreateningpowerofherstare.Thus,thefamiliar
Homeric epithet loosening the knees was used to describe awarrior receiving
afatal death-blow and aman who was weakened by the desire that pours forth
fromawomanseyes.22ThestareoftheGorgoncouldrenderamanhelplessand
lifelessandrecallsAlkmanscommentthatawomansgazeismoreliquefyingthan
death,while,accordingtoEmpedokles,itwasAphroditeherselfwhogavebirthto
theroundeye,anobjectsopowerful,andsopotent,thatitneededtobeenclosed
withinsoftmembranesandinterestinglydelicatecloths.23
Anotherareaofpollutionintimatelyassociatedwithfemaleveilingwasawomans
hair,apartoftheheadthatfrequentlystandsatthecrossroadsofnatureandculture,
forhairisirstandforemostnatural,butisoftentamedandculturedintoparticular
styles.24Greekmenwerereluctanttotametheirownhairbecauseitrepresentedthe
virileandgenerativepartofmanhood.25Likemen,womenmightweartheirhair
looseandlowingasamarkoffertilityandsexuality.Epicpoetry,thoughitplaces
greatemphasisontheveiledheadsofelitefemalecharacters,doesnotignorethe
effectthatunveiledhaircanhaveonanaudience,andgivestohair,asmuchastothe
veil,anunusuallyrichvocabularyofepithets.GoddessesandheroinessuchasRhea,
Demeter,Hera,Athene,Leto,Thetis,DanaeandNiobearefrequentlydescribedas
eukomos,rich-hairedorfair-haired.ThewordismostfrequentlyusedofHelen
who,inepictradition,bestrepresentsfemininesexuality,althoughitisalsousedof
sexualorthreateningfemaleiguressuchasKalypso,theHarpiesand,mosttellingly,
ofcourse,Medusa.26Inalmosteveryinstancetheepithetforfairorrichhairisused
incontextsthatstressthematernityorsexualityofthefemalesubject.27According
toArtemidoros,forawomantodreamofhavinglongandbeautifulhairisagood
thing,butformentodreamoflonghairisnotgood,becauseithasconnotationsof
feminineinactivity;afterall,Artemidorosexplains,thegroomingofhairdemands
manyhoursofcareandattentionmoresuitabletotheinactivelifeofawomanthan
tothebusylifeofaman.28
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Chapter9
Whenuncoveredbyaveilandwhen
displayedbycertaintypesofwomen,
haircanbeapositiveforceintertwined
as it is with notions of desirable
feminine fertility or even wealth,
but the same quality of luxuriant
hair can also assume anegative trait
in contexts where the same female
sexuality or fertility are viewed with
suspicion and disparagement. The
women who pose the biggest threat
to men are often envisaged with an
abundanceofuntamedhair,lyingfree
ofanyveil(Fig.161):theuncontrolled
hair of Medusa and the Maenads in
particularshowshowfemalesexuality Fig.161.DancingMaenadsintheworshipofDionysus.
LinedrawingofadetailofacupbyMacron,c.460,from
isperceivedasthreateningtothemale, Vulci.Staat.Mus.Berlin2290.
athreat that can be neutralized by
veilingthefemaleheadandconcealingherdangeroushair.Thelowinghairofthe
Maenadsisemphasizedintheconventionaliconographyastheydanceinecstasy,
whileLucanasks,whocanlookattheGorgonsheadunveiled?.29
The connection between awomans head and her sexuality is found in many
diversecultures,leadingsomescholarstodeviseanexplanationforwhattheyseeas
auniversallinkbetweentheheadandhairandthegenitalsorbetweenthemouth
andthevaginaorwomb.30Otherscholarsshyawayfromsuchuniversalisticexplanationsbutnote,nevertheless,that,especiallyinveil-societies,theheadandhairare
symbolicallyconnectedtosexualityandoftenspeciicallytothefemalegenitals.As
hasbeennoted,eventhemostscepticalanthropologistmustadmitthatthehair
isratherfrequentlyemployedasapublicsymbolwithanexplicitlysexualsigniicance.31Inveil-societies,thecoveringofawomansheadandhairemphasizesthe
concealmentofhermostvulnerableorgans,hergenitals.Becausethewomanisseen
aspenetrable,theveilprovidesherwithprotectionwhileatthesametimeitconceals
andconinesthepollutingnatureofthefemalegenitalia.SpeakingofBuddhistand
Hinduassumptions,Leachgoesasfarastosaythat,
Impurityisnotinventedbythesubtlemindsofanthropologistsbutisamatteroffundamentalimportanceinordinaryeverydaylife;everyoneknowsthatimpurityattaches
indiscriminatelybothtothegenitalregionandtothehead.Themosttypicallyimpure
thingsarefaeces,urine,semen,menstrualblood,spittle,andhair.32

ThereisevidencetosuggestthatthesameconnectionwasmadeinancientGreek
culture,certainlyinsymbolicandideologicalconcerns.Itiswellknownthatloosened
orwildhairwasasignofMaenadsand,possibly,ofsomelowerclassprostitutes,33
butsomeofthemostinterestingevidenceforthehead-genitalsconnectioncomes
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Veilingthepollutedwoman
fromthemedicalwriterswhooftencallthewombamouth,thelabia,lips,and
thecervix,thelowerneck.34Beyondtheparallelsinterminology,however,aphysiologicalconnectionwasbelievedtoexist,sothattheactivitiesoftheupperhead
wouldaffecttheactivitiesofthelowerhead,orviceversa.Thelinkbetweenthe
upperandlowermouthswasconirmedinGreekthoughtbytheexistenceofthe
hodos,anuninterruptedrouteextendinglikeatubefromthemouthtothewomb.35
Inancientwritersthisconnectionisusuallymadeunselfconsciously;Aristotle,for
instance,notesthatawomanswombshouldbecomemoistduringintercoursein
thesamewaythatthemouthislubricatedwithsalivawheneating36andSoranus
makesasimilarlinkwhenheinsiststhatintercourseshouldtakeplacewhenthe
womanfeelssexualdesire,forjustasawomanwhoeatswithoutanappetitewill
havetroubledigestingherfood,soawomanwhoreceivesmaleseedwithoutdesire
willnotbeabletoretainitinherwomb.37Inaninteresting(butconfusing)passage
intheHippokraticcorpus,oneauthorsuggeststhatinordertoretaintheseedafter
intercourse,awomanshouldavoidbathingandbevigilantagainstgettingherhead
wet.Noexplanationisofferedastowhyadampheadmightbringabouttherejection
oftheseedbythewomb,butperhapsnoexplanationwaslookedforbecauseofthe
assumedconnectionbetweenthetworegionsofthebody.38
One medical phenomenon that regularly highlights the ancient headgenitals
connectionisthatofthewanderingwomb.AlthoughSoranusandGaleninthe
second century ad rejected the theory that female hysteria and suffocation were
causedbytheactualdisplacementandmovementofthewomb,theydidnotsucceed
inoverturningtraditionalHippokratictheoriesthattaughtthatthewombwandered
aroundthebodyandcouldbemanipulatedbyvarioustechniquestoreturnittoits
rightfulposition.InHippokraticgynaecology,themostcommonmethodforcoaxing
thewombbacktothegenitalregionwastoplaceobjectsemittingsweetsmellsnear
thevaginaandthoseemittingfoularomasnearthenose,ears,andmouth,for,being
sensitivetosuchthings,thewombwouldleetheoffendingsmellof,say,burnthair
ordungrubbedonthenoseandears,andretreattowardsthevagina,whereitwas
luredonbythesweetfragranceofspikenardorsuppositoriesofmyrrh.39
Withthesedemonstrationsofthephysicalconnectionassumedtoexistbetween
theheadandthegenitals,itisasmallsteptorecognizinghowthatconnectionmay
haveexpresseditselfthroughveilingprocedures.Bycoveringheruppermouth,the
veilsimultaneouslycoversawomanslowermouthtoo.
This bond between the mouth and the genitals of awoman is mythologized
in the bizarre story of Baubo, recounted by the (somewhat horriied) Christian
Fathers,ClementofAlexandriaandArnobius.Accordingtotheveryancientmyth,
thegoddessDemeter,thoughmourningthelossofherdaughter,burstintopealsof
laughterattheobscenegesturesofanoldwomancalledBaubowhoadroitlychanged
thedarkmoodoftheMotherGoddessbyliftingupherdresstorevealherwithered
(butshaved)pudenda.40ThediscoveryofanumberofterracottastatuettesofBaubo
fromtheremainsofatempleofDemeterandKoreatPriene,datingtothefourth
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Chapter9
century, have added to the ancient
pedigreeofthelaterChristianretelling
ofthestoryandhavegonesomeway
towardsexplainingtheancientperceptionofthisoddmythologicalcharacter.
According to Maurice Olender, each
ofthecrudelittlestatuettes(Fig.162)
showsa,
disproportionatelylargeheadsit[ting]
directlyontopofthelegs,blending
into and replacing the hips of the
atrophied body. The huge face is
broad and frontal, with anose and
with two large eyes in the position
ofthebreasts.Belowthemouth,and
corresponding to the dimple in the
chin,isarepresentationofawomans
genitals The hair, parted and
drawn back above the forehead and
heldinplacebymeansofalargeknot,
surroundsthebelly,whichistheface
itself.41

While the mouth and the vagina

donotblendintooneintheseigures
(probablyowingtothefactthatBaubo
Fig.162.TerracottastatuetteofBaubofromPriene
needs to be shown smiling), they are
c.360.Staat.Mus.,BerlinTC8612.bpk,Berlin.
closeenoughtosuggestthelink,andto
Photo:IngridGeske.
playonthemeaningofBaubosname
cavity.42Furthermore,thehairthatsurroundstheheadisdeliberatelymadeto
looklikethefoldsofagarmentthatisbeingliftedawaytoexposethetorso,and
Isuggestthatwearemeanttoreadintothisimagethedoubleplayondrawingback
oftheskirttorevealthetorsoandgenitalsandthedrawingbackoftheveiltoreveal
thefaceandmouth.Thecloththatusuallycoversthegenitalsisliterallydisplacedto
Baubosheadandmouth;bothgesturesofuncoveringaregratuitousandunseemly
butsuitedtothedepictionofthiscoarseoldwoman.43
It is also interesting to note one of the details which Clement of Alexandria
decidedtoincludeinhisdiscussionofthemyth.Hestatesthat,
Baubopulledbackherpeplosanddisplayedhermostindecentparts;thechildIakkhos,
whowasthere,wasputtinghishandunderBauboskolpos,laughing.Thenthegoddess
smiled,smiledinherheart,andacceptedtheshiningcupthatheldthekykeon.44

Iakkhos action could be interpreted either as one whereby he places his hands
beneaththeoldwomansbreastsor,ifpreferred,snugglinghishandsbeneaththe
overhangofherpeplos;kolposhasbothofthesemeanings.45However,asapartof
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Veilingthepollutedwoman
thepeplos,thekolposcouldbedrawnovertheheadasaveilandcouldevenbefolded
acrossthemouthtoprovideamorecompleteveiling(Fig.62).46Butkolposhas
anothermeaning,whichmightassociateitmorecloselywiththeBaubomyth,since
thewordalsomeansvagina.47Thus,thegestureofdrawingthekolposacrossthehead
orfacemaywellcontainconnotationsofconcealingthetwofemalemouths.48In
Clementsversionofthemyth,Iakkhosseeminglyinnocentactofplacinghishand
beneaththenurseskolposmaythereforehaveamoresexualundertone,anambiguity
thatisheightenedbyStratosreferencetothegeneralcustomofspittingintoakolpos
toavoidbadluck.49Thenotionofspittingintosomethingthatissimultaneously
acoveringforthemouthandthevaginaitselfmaybeapertinentideaforwarding
offunwantedtroubleandcouldperhapshintatasexualassociationbytheancient
connectionbetweenspitandsperm.50SpittleiscertainlyutilizedinaRomanspellto
increasesexualvigourandwas,generallyinantiquity,believedtohavehadmagical
procreativepowersnotunlikethatofsemen.51
Further connections between the mouth and the genitals arise as afavourite
subjectforiambicpoetsandtheSiciliancomicschoolasawayofinsultingmale
enemiesanddescribingtheeroticskillsofpipe-girlsandhetairai.Infact,thenotion
of fellatio continued to be an erotic and defamatory literary topos throughout
antiquity;oralsexwasregardedashighlydegradingand,asAndrewStewarthas
emphasized,Callingsomeoneacocksuckerwasoneofthemosteffectiveinsultsin
thebook.52AccordingtoTheopompus,itwasaperversioninventedbytheLesbians,
whogavetheirnametothepractice:lesbiazdein.53Attheheartofthematteristhe
notionthatthemouthisbeingdeiledandthatitsuseasasecondvaginaisdirty
andcontaminating,nottomentiondegrading,especiallyforamanwhoperforms
fellatioandactivelyandwillinglyturnshismouthintoasymbolicvagina.54Thebody
hasahierarchy,andthemostnobleandpurepartofthebodyisthehead;ofthe
head,thepurestpartisthemouth,whichshouldbeopenedtoreceivefood,chaste
kissesand,mostimportantly,utterprayers.55Whenperformedbyawoman,fellatio
losessomeofitsstigma,sincewomenarenaturallytaintedinrelationtomen.The
naturalfeminineassociationbetweenthemouthandthefemalegenitalslessensthe
harmfuleffectsthatthepenetrationofthepenisintothemouthwouldhaveinthe
caseofaman.
Noisepollution
According to Aristotle, the high pitched sound that emulates from awomans
mouthisindicativeofherimmoralandwickednature,forcreatureswhoarebrave
andrighteouslikelions,bulls,cockerelsandhumanmaleshavebig,lowvoices,
becausetheirvocalchordsaretight,onaccountofbeingtautlyconnectedtotheir
testicleswhichactlikeloomweights.56Anaturallyhighvoiceindicatesthataperson
deviatesfromthemasculineidealofself-controland,notsurprisingly,maleeffeminates,eunuchs,andwomenfallintothiscategory,forthenoisestheymakearebad
tohearandmakerealmenfeeluncomfortable.57
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Chapter9
This discomfort is unsurprising when one considers how many mythological
femalesbringaboutdeathanddestructionwiththeuseofthevoices.TheGorgons,
theFuries,andtheSirensareobviouscandidateshere,butsotooisthegoddess
Artemis who, the Homeric Hymn tells us, routinely charges through the woods
makingablood-curdlinghullabaloo.58Otherfemalesmasktheirdeceptivelydestructivevoices:Helenusesherartofimpersonationdeliberatelytoconfusemen,59and
thedemi-goddessesKirkeandKalypsouseacombinationofsongtosuggestdomestic
respectabilityandbeguilingwordstotemptandcaptivate.60Incontrast,therearethe
obsceneshrieksoftheoldwomanIambe,andthemaduncontrollablebabblingsof
Kassandra.61Thelistcouldgoon.
Female noise pollution breaks the order of sophrosyne, aword that is often
associatedwithsound,andahusbandwhoexhortshiswifetosophrosyneislikelyto
mean,Bequiet!ThePythagoreanwomanTimychewhobitoffhertonguerather
thansaythewrongthing,istheexceptiontotherulewhere,generally,womenare
frequentlygivenovertomakingnoisesofpainandpleasureasanexpressionoftypical
unrestrainedandunboundfemaleemotion.62AsEuripidesputsit,itisawomans
inbornpleasurealwaystohavehercurrenttroublescominguptohermouthand
outofhertongue.63
Itisanaturalassumptionthatamanwhoshowssophrosyneandisawareofhis
naturalboundariesshouldbeabletorestrainanddissociatehimselffromhisemotions
andpassionsandthereforecontroltheirsounds.Itisalsonatural,therefore,tosee
womenasuncontrolledinthenoisesthattheyspontaneouslymake.Suchgender
differentiationismadeclearinamomentfromtheOdysseywhenEurykleiaenters
intothehallofthepalacetoindOdysseuscoveredinthebloodofthesuitors,whose
corpseslittertheloor.Sheliftsherheadtoletoutaritualcryofjoy,butOdysseus
stopsherbyliterallyreachingoutahandtoclosehermouth,tellinghertorejoice
inherheart,butnottoscreamoutloud.64
Awomansvoicewasbelievedtochangeduringmenstruationandwasenough
togiveasensitivemanasevereheadache.65Indeed,menarevulnerabletofemale
pollutionthroughtheirears,asthefemalevoicepenetratesintothemalehead.66
This explain why wise Odysseus blocks his shipmates ears with wax so that the
Sirenswordswillnotborethroughintotheirheads,althoughhehimselflistensto
theirsong.67
Becausewomensvoicesaredangerous,closingwomensmouthswastheobject
ofacomplexarrayofconventionsinpre-classicalandclassicalGreece,aconcept
thathasatitscoreSophoklesfamousblanketstatement,Silenceistheornamentof
women.68Suchmodelfemalebehaviourisenforcedbytheuseoftheveilbecauseit
alsoenfolds,encloses,makesinvisible,andsilences.Theanosdecorousassertionthat
hernakedarmwasnotforpublicviewisenforcedbyPlutarchscontentionthat,
Thearmofavirtuouswomanshouldnotbepublicproperty,norherspeecheither,and
sheshouldguardjustasmodestlyagainstexposinghervoicetooutsidersasshewould
guardagainstexposingherself.Forinherblabberingcanbeseenheremotions,character
andherphysicalcondition.69

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Veilingthepollutedwoman
Unfortunately,itwouldappearthatfewwomenknowhowtorestrainthemselves,
forPlutarchreturnstotheissueofthefemalevoiceinhisessay,OnTalkativeness,
where,totypifythefemaleuseofnoise,hetellsthestoryofapoliticianswife.The
politicianinventsacrazystoryand,onemorningbeforeleavingthehouseforhis
daysduties,hetellsittohiswife,commandinghertokeepthestoryasecret.He
warnshertokeephermouthshut,andsheagrees.Butnosoonerdoesthepoliticianleavethehousethanthewifetellsthestorytohermaid,commandingherto
keepmum.Butthemaidservantimmediatelyspreadsthestoryallaroundtown
and,beforemid-morning,thepoliticianreceiveshisownstorybackagain.Plutarch
concludestheanecdotebynotingthat,Thehusbandhadtakenprecautionsand
protectivemeasuresinordertotesthiswife,asonemighttestacrackedorleakyvessel
byillingitnotwithoilbutwithwater.70Thewifefailsthetestbecause,liketheleaky
jar,shetooisporousandherunrestrainedwordsnaturallytrickleoutofher.
Plutarchpairsthisyarnwithastoryaboutmasculinerestraintthroughspeechwhich
iscreatedthroughadescriptionofamannamedAnakharsis,afriendofSolon:
Anakharsis,hadbeenentertainedandfeastedatSolonshouseandwasresting,when
hewasseentobepressinghislefthandontohisgenitalsandhisrighthandontohis
mouth;forhebelievedthatthetonguerequiresastrongerrestraint.Andhewasright.It
wouldnotbeeasytocountasmanymenlostthroughincontinenceinsexualpleasures
ascitiesandempiresruinedthroughtherevelationofasecret.71

InanalysingtheimplicationsforthegenderingofsoundinGreeksocieties,we
needtotakeseriouslytheconnectionwhichPlutarchmakesbetweenverbaland
sexualrestraintandbetweenthemouthandgenitals,becausethematterturnsout
to have different implications for men and for women. The masculine virtue of
self-censorshipwhichAnakharsisdisplaysisunknowninawoman.72Laterinhis
discussion,PlutarchremindsusthatperfectsophrosyneisanattributeofApolloin
hisroleofLoxias,anepithetthatmeansthatheisagodoffewwords,onewhodoes
notrunoff atthemouth.73Butwhenawomangushesthereismoreatstakethan
amerewastageofwords.Aswehaveseen,theimageofaleakywaterjarwithwhich
PlutarchconcludeshisirststoryisoneofthecommonestiguresinancientGreek
literaturefortherepresentationoffemalesexuality.InthecontextofancientGreek
weddingritualswenotedthatthewordkredemnon,whichwehaveseenusedforboth
veilanddefensivewall,canalsomeanthestopperofabottle,andthatthephrase
kredemnonelusemeanstoundoastopper.Thusakredemnonissomethingthatseals
inliquidandpreventsseepage.Becauseawomancannotrestrainthenoisepollution
thatpoursoutofhermouth,thenthemiasmamustbecontainedbyastopper.The
veil,akredemnonofwallsandstoppers,keepsthedangerousfemalevoicebehind
asuperimposedboundary.
Silencingthewoman
In awell-known passage from Aristophanes Frogs, the character Euripides rages
againsttheartiicialmannerofwritingandperformingemployedbyAiskhylosand
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Chapter9
hisactors,theproponentsoftheso-calledGrandStyle.Oneexampleoftheatrical
artiicepractisedbyAiskhylos,claimsEuripides,ishisuseofveiledcharacterswho
sitmufledandsilentthroughmuchofthedrama,doingnothing,yetcausingthe
audiencemuchconcernbyrisinganticipation.Euripidesclaimsthat,
[Aiskhylos]wouldbeginbymakingsomesolitaryigure,sayAkhilleusorNiobe,sit
downwiththeirheadveiled(egkalupsas),notlettingthemshowtheirfaceandnot
evenmakingthismuchofasoundMeanwhilethechoruswouldireofffourstrings
oflyrics,oneaftertheother,withoutabreak,whilethecharactersstayedmuteSheer
nonsense!Theideawasthatthepublicwouldsitwaitinginexpectationforthemoment
whenNiobewouldactuallysaysomething;meanwhiletheplaydraggedon.74

AccordingtothehellenisticLifeofAiskhylos,thepoetswell-recognizeddeviceof
theatricalveiledsilenceswasusedtogreateffectforthecharacterofNiobewho
satveiledandinsilenceatthegraveofherchildrenwithoututteringasyllableuntil
theendoftheplayapproached,whileinhisworkentitledTheRansomofHektor
(orPhrygians),thecharacterofAkhilleussatveiledanddumbthroughouttheplay
exceptforonebriefexchangewithHermesatthebeginning.75Furthermore,there
isevidencetosuggestthatAiskhylosplayMyrmidonsdepictedaveiledandsilent
AkhilleusnursinghisangeragainstAgamemnonasheremaineddeaftotheentreaties
oftheGreekembassy,andsinceAristophanesquotesfromthisplayatFrogs992and
1264,itisprobablyMyrmidonsthathehasinmindinEuripidestiradetoo.76
TheseAiskhyleanveiledsilencesmusthavehadanextraordinarilypowerfulimpact
oncontemporaryaudiencesanditwouldappearthatAiskhylosgambleofpresenting
aprotagonistsilencedbyhisorherveilpaidoff.Theimagesofhisveiledcharacters
lingeredinthecollectivememoryformanygenerationsafterAiskhylosdeath.Soit
is,despitehislampooningcommentsintheFrogs,thatAristophanespayshomage
tothetragicmasterinhiscomedyLysistrata,aworkthatfullyutilizestheeffective
silencingpoweroftheveilinascenewherethewomenofAthensturnthetableson
thecantankerousProboulosbydressinghimintheirclothesandforcingtheirweaving
utensilsintohishands.77
AtthebeginningofthescenetheProboulosremindsthewomenthattheyhave
novoiceincommunityaffairsandthatitismenwhodebateseriousissuesinpublic;
womenmaysinginreligiousfestivals,hesays,butthereisnoplaceforwomens
wordsinciviclife.Withthisstatement,hisworldissuddenlyturnedupsidedown
asthewomentakecontrolofthecityandbegintospeakpublicpolicy.Theheated
debatebetweentheProboulosandLysistrataclimaxeswiththeheroinetellingthe
indignantmagistratetoshutup.Outraged,heanswersherbyreferencetoherveil:
Me,shutupforyou?Adamnedwomanwithaveil(kalumma)onyourfacetoo?Id
soonerdie!78

ButLysistratarespondsusingthesamedevice:
Ifitstheveil(kalumma)thatstheobstacle,here,takemine,itsyours,putitoveryour
face,andthenshutup!79

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Veilingthepollutedwoman
ItisclearthatthestageactionhadLysistratapull
offherveil,placeitovertheProboulosheadand
drapeitacrosshismouth.Thisactioneffectively
silences him; now he sits quietly and listens to
Lysistrataspublicpolicy.Asfarasthewomenare
concerned,allittakestorepresentoneofthemis
aspindle,abasket,andaveilwhichsubstitutesand
createstheimageofasilentwoman.TheProboulos
hasnolinestospeakasthewomenbegintheantistrophe,forheisforcedtoadheretohisowndictum
thatawomanhasnoplaceinpublicdebate.The
bullyingmagistrateisoverpoweredbythesilencing,
depersonalizing,powerofthefemaleveil.
Itwasnotedearlierthatacommontypeofterra- Fig.163.Linedrawingofacomically
grotesquegossipingwoman.Tarentine
cottaigurinerepresentingcharactersfromcomedy, terracottamould,c.300bc.BM,London
showsamodestmaidenpullingherveilacrossher 1887.725.7.
mouth(Fig.124),80sothattheveiled(andoftensilent)femalewasobviouslyastock
characterincomedy,andprobablysatirizedarecognizable(anddesirable)typeof
woman from daily life. But another stock character, the gossip or chatterbox, is
awomanwhocanbeeitheryoungoroldandisfrequentlyrepresentedinterracotta.81
Fig.163,(c.300)fromTaranto,butmostlikelycopiedfromanAthenianigurine,
depictssuchachatteringwomanasshestridesforward,wellwrappedinherpharosveil.Shetugsatitsfoldsandpullsitawayfromherface,affordingusaviewofher
hugegapingmouth;herheadleanstoonesideasthoughgossipingbusily.Itisthe
oppositeofthestandardveil-gesturefoundinotherartworkswhichemphasizesthe
converseofrespectablefemininebehaviour.82
AnotherpopularfemalecharacterfromNewComedy,thehetaira,isoftenrepresentedinterracottaigurines,suchasFig.126,wearingacharacter-maskwhichis
framedbyathickrollofhairbroughtupintoabunonthetopoftheheadwhere
itisheldinplacebyaillet.83Thehetairaappearstowearahimation-veilwhichis
drawnhighoverthetopknotandisheldinhertwohandssothatitsedgeconceals
herchin.Theveil-gesturemightbemistakenforthatofamodestmaiden,wereit
notforthefactthatthehetairasmouthisexposedandgapingopen,allowingher
tonguetopokeoutprovocatively.AsStevensnotes,Stickingoutthetonguepastthe
lipscaneitherbeaninsultorasexualinvitation,dependingonthesocialcontext.In
kissingandoralsexitisaphallicsubstitute.84Sothisappealingandamusinglittle
sculptureseemstoplayonthefamiliarmotifofdisreputablewomentoyingwith
notionsandgesturesofrespectability,anditconscientiouslypervertsthemodestand
silencingqualityoftheveiltohighlightthesexualizationandbasenessofthemouth
and,inparticular,thetongue.
Thepoweroftherestraining,silencingveilisalsoexpressedinthecharacterof
PhaedrainEuripidesHippolytus,especiallyinthepassagementionedearlier(lines
271

Chapter9
364439).85However,thepollutionofthefemalevoiceisanissuethatarisesseveral
timesthroughouttheplay.Inhisgreatdiatribeagainstthefemalesex,Hippolytus
stressesthatwomenarenaturallydeceitful,over-sexed,andover-talkativeandthat
they should, therefore, be isolated indoors so that no one will be able to speak
to them or will be constrained to hear their voices.86 For Hippolytus, womens
voicespollutebecausetheyaresoalliedwithfemalesexualityandhesuggeststhat
womenshouldbetotallydeprivedofspeechinorderthatmalehonourmaybeleft
untarnished.87
InitiallyitappearsthatPhaedraconformstothisview,forbeforetheaudienceeven
seesthequeen,welearnfromthechorusthatsheissuffering,thatsheliessilently
insidethehouseonhercouchandhidesherheadbeneathine-spunphare.88Because
ofherlustforherstepson,theonlysafecourseforPhaedraistotalwithdrawal,andso
shesitsindoors,beneathherveils,silentandfasting;shesealsoffallheropeningswith
hergarmentsandthenisdoublyenclosedbehinddoors.89Suchanimageinformsus
thateventhoughhermindmaytransgress,hermouthwillnotandcannot.Phaedra
isdoublyresignedtosilenceanddeathwithinhercoverings,andonceagainthereis
aclearmergerofveilandhouseinherthoughts,asthereis,indeed,betweenspeech
anduncoveredpublicappearance.EuripideshasPhaedraconnectspeechwithgoing
outdoorsthroughtheuseofthewordthuraiadoorway,opening:hertongueis
outofdoors,justlikeawifewhoseeksabedoutsidehermaritalhome.90Thefact
thatshesubsequentlyemergesfromthedarkrecessesofherhouseandentersinto
thepublicspherewarnsusthatPhaedraisickle,indeed,thenursesaysthatshe
cannotmakeuphermindaboutwhatshewants.Thequeendithersbetweenher
originalyearningandtheensuingshame,justasshewaversbetweenhersilenceand
therigoroussuppressionofhersexualityandatotalabandonmentofself-control.
Whenthenurseescortsheroutintothedaylight,Phaedraasksfortherelease
ofherhairandthecastingoffofherhead-covering,andsaysthatshewantsrelief
fromtheheavyburdenofthehead-dress.91Asherveilfallsaway,Phaedraspeaks,
andherspeechknowsnoboundaries:itisawomansspeech,passionate,hedonistic,
andlustful.Hermouthrunsawaywithherassheimaginesherselfintheplacesthat
Hippolytushaunts,becauseshelongsforhisfreedomasmuchasshelongsforhim.
When her gushing speech is done, she is suddenly illed with aneed to veil and
restrainherselfagainandtogobackindoorsandresumehersilence;sheseesher
speechasshamefulbecausesheviolatesthecodeofsilenceandsolitude.92Thestage
actioncallsforPhaedratobere-veiled(aroundline250)93and,withthisactofveiling,
oncemorewearecompelledtorecognizethesilencingqualityoftheveilanditsuse
asametaphorfortheinteriorandexterior,asweacknowledgethecommonplacethat
thefemalemouthandthedoorofahousearetobeviewedasone.Thehouseand
theveilcoverthewoman,enclosingherfromview,makinghersociallyinvisible.The
doorisclosedandtheveilispulledacrossthemouth.94Thewomanissilenced.95
Femalesilencethroughveilingisalsoanissueraisedinaveryinterestingearly
Christiantractdatingtothemid-irstcenturyad,namelyPaulsirstlettertothe
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Veilingthepollutedwoman
Greek-speaking Christian community at Korinth (I Cor. 11.216). This text is
deeplyconcernedwiththefunctioningofthehumanbodyandconcentratesmuch
attentiononthefemalehead.96Inparticular,Paulcontemplatesthenatureofthe
mouthandestablishesrulesforcontrollingtheopeningofthisoriiceand,most
importantly,forwhatemanatesfromit.97Korinthianwomen,itissupposed,are
(literally)lettingtheirhairdown,therebyuncoveringthetopsoftheirheads,and
opening their mouths to utter prophecies, much like the devotees of Dionysus
orotherdeitieswhovoicedloudpropheticfrenzy.98Unimpededbytheveiland
thereforeopentotheincomingoftheHolySpirit,thewomenoftheKorinthian
churchwere,itseems,fullyabletoparticipateinthespeakingofprayers,including
theactofspeakingintongues.99
ItappearsthatwhenearlyChristiansprayed(likemostGreco-Romanpeoples,in
fact),theytendedtooutstretchtheirarmsandraisethepalmsoftheirhandsheavenwardswhilstthrowingbacktheirheads.100Therefore,Christianbodiesespecially
heads were fully exposed to the much-anticipated incoming of the Spirit. On
thedownside,however,theback-tiltedheadmeantthatfemaleworshipperswere
unabletokeeptheirveilsinplace,astheywouldnaturallyslipofftheirheadswhen
theyadoptedthispositionofprayer,especiallyastheirhandswereoccupiedinthe
traditionalprayer-positionandthusnotcapableofholdingtheveilinplace.101This
isanideasupportedbyGerdTheissenwhoarguesthatthetypeofcoveringworn
byKorinthianwomenwasprobablythehimation-veil,astylethatisoftenlocated
inlocalRomansculpturesofthePaulineperiod:
Ahimationwouldsimplybepushedovertheheadandcouldeasilyfallbackonthe
shoulders.Thetransitionbetweenveilingandunveilingcouldoccursimplyandundramaticallyinthiscase.Womencouldcomeveiledtotheassemblyandtaketheveiloff
[orallowittofalloff]whentheyprayedorprophesied.102

Thus,unveiled,opentoSpirit,andfreetospeakintongues,theKorinthianwomen
wereprayingandprophesyingwithinthepublicsphereoftheChristiancommunity
andwere,almostcertainly,derivingfromthoseexperiencesastatusandprestigethat
Paulfoundbothoffensiveandproblematic.103Hisultimateaimseemstobetocurb
thepublicfemalevoice,andtodothishesimplyorderstheKorinthianwomento
re-veiltheirheads.BysodoingPauldeniesthemfullparticipationintheassembly
andcurbstheirunrestrictedspeech.EssentiallytheApostlesattitudeisnodifferent
tothatoftheAristophanicProboulos.104
WhatismostsigniicantabouttheKorinthianproblemisthatgenderisthecentral
issue:whatPaulindsparticularlyprovokingisthatwomen,byprayingopenlywith
theirheadsunveiled,dowhatmendo.105Butbeingwomen,thenoisefromtheir
mouthspoursoutand,naturally,debasesthepurityoftheSpirit.Therefore,women
havetoberestrainedandsilencedandveiled.
Yettheactofveilingcanalsobeameansofsilencingsomeoneelseswords,so
thattheveilactsasadefensivewallagainstspeechthatcomesfromtheoutside;the
veilblockadesthewordsandstopsthemfromreachingtheirtarget.InEuripides
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Chapter9
fragmentaryplayHypsipyleitisclearthatthewearingofaveilsigniiessocialseparationandanactivewithdrawalfromspeakingandlistening.106Hypsipyle,nurseto
Eurydikesson,momentarilyneglectsherchargeandheisbittenbyaserpentand
dies.Thenursethenpleadsherdefencebeforehermistress,butinvain.Eurydike
takesrefugeinahostilesilence,whichhastheresultofbreakingoffallcommunicationbetweenthetwowomen(lines17),sothatHypsipyleisforcedtocalluponthe
servicesofAmphiaraustopleadonherbehalf(lines356).Hisintroductorywords
suggestthatEurydikehasveiledherself,forheaskshertouncoverherfaceandlisten
tohim.ByaskingEurydikeirsttounveilandthentolisten,Amphiarausintimates
thatlisteningaswellasspeakingimpliestheunveilingoftheheadortheheadandface
(lines437).Accordingly,EurydikeunveilsherselfandspeakstoAmphiaraus,saying
thatsheisreadytolistentohisargument(lines504).Byunderliningthefactthatshe
hastakenoffherveilbeforeengaginginverbalcommunication,Eurydikeconirms
thatthethreeactsofunveiling,speaking,andlisteningarecloselyassimilated.107
Conclusion
Themetaphoricuseofveilingasadefensivewallthatkeepsunwantedforcesout
canbeexpanded;theveilcanbeconceivedasastopperthatkeepstheundesirable
in.TheGreekmalesfearoffemalepollutionwasnotexpressedintermsofareal
physicalleakage,sincemenstrualbloodwasapparently(andunusuallyforantiquity)
not considered polluting in itself, but pollution was conceived in more abstract
imagesofleakagethroughthehead,eyes,earsand,mostnoticeably,themouth.
Theveilingofthefemalehead,anareaofthefemalebodycloselyconnectedto
thegenitalia,andofthemouth,themostpotentareaofmiasma,helpedneutralize
thethreatofcontamination.Bindingwomenbeneathaveilconirmedsocialand
cosmicharmony,anothergoodexplanationofwhytheactofunveilingwasnotto
betakenlightly.
Notes

SeeMason1975,650,657;Mernissi1975,44;Makhlouf1979,38.
Stewart1997,195.
3
SpacepreventsafullinvestigationintothePaulinedictumonfemaleveilingandits
relationshiptobothGreco-RomanandJewishpractices.Itishopedthatthiswillformthe
basisoffurtherstudyinthefuture.
4
Padel1995,153.
5
Parker1983,31.
6
Ibid.19.
7
Ibid.101.
8
Padel1995,146ff.
9
North1966,1ff.
10
Arist.Pol.1260a204;1277b204.Aristotlealsodenieswomenfullknowledgeofaidos.
North1966,76,n.105,states,ThisviewoffemalearetealignsAristotlewithmostofthe
GreeksexceptSokratesandPlato.Whenthewordsophrosynebeginstomeanchastityfor
1
2

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Veilingthepollutedwoman
menaswellaswomen(fromthesecondhalfoftheifthcentury),masculineandfeminine
chastityprovetobedifferentlydeined:masculinechastityderivesfromself-control,the
oppositeofhybris,femininechastityfromobedience.
11
SeeChapter2.Inaninterestingsurveyoftherepresentationofthebodyinancient
literature, Newbold 1979, 93114 emphasized acommon belief (which has long been
recognizedbyanthropologistsanddresshistorians)thatclothingwasoneoftheprincipal
waysinwhichabodycouldbeidentiied,distinguishedandprotected.Clothinginthese
ancientliterarysources,itispropounded,isoftenenvisagedasasecondskin,butaskinthat
neverthelessactsasaboundarybetweenthepersonunderneaththeclothingandtheoutside
world.Allreferencestoclothing,arguesNewbold,canbeseeninthislight,ascanallusions
tojewelleryandbodyembellishmentslikearmour,shields,swords,andveils.
12
ForkatadesmoiseeFaraone1991and1992,7493;Winkler1991;Graf1997,11874;
Johnston1999,7180;Ogden1999withextensivebibliography.
13
IGXI,pt.4,no.1299.SeeFaraone1991,19.
14
Apol. Rhod. Argo. 3.100862. See further Ovid Met. 7.17985 and Horace Sat.
1.8.25.
15
Paus.3.15.10.611.9.
16
Carson1990,153.
17
Ibid.1536.SeealsoCarson1999,87.
18
Parker1983,102;King1998,89.
19
Thewordrhakosoftenhasthemeaningtatteredorraggedgarment(LSJs.v.rJavko"),
butithasbeensuggestedthatitcanalsomeanraginthesenseofbandageorsanitarycloth,
onwhichyounggirlsofferedtheirmenarchetoArtemis.Thedebateisongoing,butfor
adiscussionseeLinders1972,58ff.
20
Seediscussionabove,Chapter6.
21
AsPadel1992,60putsit,Eyesex-press.Somethingincomesout.Forthedangerous
gazeofthebrideandtheplayonissuesofveilingandunveilingduringtheanakalypteria
ritualsseeabove,Chapter8.Theeyewasasourceofsomethingverypowerful,asvision
andgazepenetratedinatwo-waychannel.Tragedyinparticularatteststothepotencyof
theeye,tosuchanextentinfactthatpeoplecanreademotionswithintheeyes.Thus,the
nursefearsforthesafetyofMedeaschildrenbecauseshehasseentheirmothergazeon
themwithacertainlook.SeeEur.Med.8995.Foradiscussionofthepowerofthegaze
inanthropologicaldiscourseseeMcNeil1998,227,1948.Veryoftentheglancefromthe
eyesislikenedtolashingire,andimageryfromepiconwardsfrequentlyusesthismetaphor
tosimulatethelareofthegaze.See,forexample,IliuPersisfr.8;Eur.Or.480;Theocr.
14.1819;Arist.Desensu437B438A;PlatoTi.45B46C,67C68D;PlinyNH8.323.
Thelashingemanationsoftheeyescanbedeadly,fortheFuriesdripbloodandpoison
fromtheireyes,andthegazefromtheeyesoftheGorgonturnsthosewhoseeherintostone.
SeeAes.Eum.54,781,832.FortheeyesoftheGorgonseeReeder1994,410ff.Eyesare
dangerousbecausetheyarereceptiveandwhiletheymaysendoutpoisonousliquid-ire,
theyalsoreceivepollutionback.Eyesarevulnerabletopollutingforcesandareharmedby
thepollutingeyesofothers;thus,havingcommittedtheheinouscrimeofmurder,Herakles
isdesperatetoavoideyecontactwithTheseusoutoffearthathewillpollutehisfriendand
soveilshisheadaccordingly.SeeEur.HF122933.SeeParker1983,371.
22
SeeIl.5.16,11.579,15.332,21.114,22.335;Od.18.212.
23
Emp.fr.84.SeeFreeman1971.
24
AdiscussionofthesociologicalimportanceofhairisofferedbySynnott1993,10327.

275

Chapter9
SeealsoStevens1998,40910.
25
InGreekthoughtfromHomeronwards,hairandfoliage(likethetreesoftheforest)
sharethesamename:kome.See,forexample,Od.23.195;Eur.Hipp.210,Bacch.1055.
ForthesimilarLatincomaanditscompoundsforfoliagesee,Catullus4.12;Vergil,Aen.
2.629,12.413,Geor.4.122;Horace,Carm.1.215,4.3.11,4.7.2;PlinyHN13.59.Toprune
oneshairistoimposethelimitsofcultureonnature.Inthecaseofmenshair,thegenerativevitalityofthehairisexpandedtoincludeissuesofheroicstrengthandpoliticalpower.
Homerfrequentlyportraysmaledivinitieswithpotentlowinglocks.See,forexample,Zeus
ofthethunderinglocks:Il.1.52730;cf.HH1.1315;OvidMet.1.17780.DarkHaired
Poseidon:Il.13.563,14.390,15.174,201,20.144;Od.3.6,9.528,536;Hes.Theo.278;
HH22.6,Luc.DeSacrificiis11.7.Hades:HH2.347,Eur.Alc439.Dionysus:HH7.45,
Eur.Bacch.150,2356,23941,4556.Thelong-hairedAchaeansepitomizethemartial
strengththatisrootedinthehairand isused29timesoftheAchaeansintheIliad,e.g.,Il.
2.323,443,4.261,13.312.NotethecontrastbetweenHomerslong-hairedheroesandthe
thin-haired,unheroicThersitesatIl.2.219.
26
Rhea:Hes.Theo.625,634;HH2.60,75,442.Demeter:HH2.1,297,315,HH13.1;
Hes.fr.280.20.Hera:Il.10.5.Athene:Il.6.92,273,303;Leto:Il.1.36,19.413;Od.11.318;
HH.3.178,27.21.Thetis:Il.4.512,16.860.Danae:Hes.Sc.216.Niobe:Il.24.601.Also
usedofThethys:Hes.fr.343.4inherroleasmotherofthegods:Il.14.2007andofDoris:
Hes.Theo.241.ForHelenseeHes.frgs.199.2,200.2,11,204.43,55;Il.3.329,7.355,
8.82,9.339,11.369,505,13.766;Cypria11.Kalypso:Od.8.452,12.389.Harpies:Hes.
Theo.267.Medusa:Hes.frg.37.21.
27
SeeIl.1.36(ofLeto),7.355,8.82(ofHelen);HH26.3(ofnymphs).
28
ArtemidorosOen.1.18.
29
ForMedusasserpent-hairseeApollodorusBib.2.7.3;Paus.8.47.5.Foradiscussion
ofthemythandimageryofMedusaseeReeder1995,410ff.Forthesexualsigniicanceof
MedusaslocksseeSlater1968,1720.FortheMaenadsseeEur.Bacch.695,7578,8645,
930.OnthesigniicanceofhairinEuripidesBacchaeseeSegal1982,1747.ForMedusas
unveiledheadseeLuc.Pharsalia6.
30
See,forexample,Leach1958;Berg1951;HiltebeitelandMiller1998;Eilberg-Schwartz.
andDoniger1995.
31
Leach1958,153.
32
Ibid.156.
33
SeeEur.Bac.6928.
34
ThisistrueinbothGreekandLatin.InGreek,stomaisusedforthemouthofthewomb,
kheilos forthelabiaandtrakhelosforthecervix.SeeLSJs.v.stoma II,cei'lo" II,travchlo"
II.2.ForfurtherdiscussionseeKing1998,28ff.
35
King1998,28.
36
Arist.HA10.3.635b1924.
37
Sor.Gyn.1.10.37.
38
Hipp.DiseasesofWomen1.11.SeeHanson1975,56784.
39
For the wandering womb and its treatments see King 1998, 7, 368, 206, 2224;
Dean-Jones1994,6977.
40
SeeClem.Alex.Protrepikos2.20.3.121.1.1andArnobius,Adv.Nat.5.25.ForadiscussionseeOlender1990.Seealso,Theophrastos,Characters4(TheLout)11,andcomments
byGraf1974,171n.66.
41
Olender1990,83.

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Veilingthepollutedwoman
Hesychiuss.v.Baubo.AccordingtoLSJthenounbaubw;isusedasasynonymforkoiliva,
whichdenotesthefemaleuterus,butasasounditderivesfromtheonomatopoeicbauv bauv,
thenoisemadebyabarkingdog,i.e.,bow-wow.
43
Asaninterestingparallel,attentioncanbedrawntoafamousanddisturbingimage
created by Ren Magritte in 1945 called Le Viol (The Rape), where there is asimilar
displacementofeyesandmouthforbreastsandvaginaasanovertstatementoftheeroticizationofthehead.
44
Clem.Alex.Protreptikos2.21.1.59.Trans.Olender1990.
45
LSJs.v.kovlpo".
46
Seeabove,Chapter3.
47
Sor.Gyn.1.16:Thefemaleshame[i.e.,vagina],ontheotherhand,isalsocalledthe
femalekolpos.Temkin1956(reprint1991),translatesthisawkwardlineas:Thevagina,
ontheotherhand,iscalledthefemalesinus.SeealsoRuf.Onom.196;Poll.Onom.2.222
(usedintheplural).
48
As aveil-like covering, the kolpos is sometimes likened to afortiication. See Philo
Mechanicus.Belopoeica.86.8.
49
AP 12.229 (Strato): What agood goddess is Nemesis, Alexis, because of whom we
spitintoourkolpos,dreadingherasshefollows.IamgratefultoEmmaStaffordforthis
reference.
50
Spittingissometimesreferredtowiththewordhaimatos(Hp.Aph.3.29;Arist.Ph.
243b13, etc.), which is frequently associated with blood and the loss of blood. LSJ s.v.
42

aiJma'tovei".

SeeLuck1999,138.
Stewart1997,165.
53
Theopompos35.SeefurtherHenderson1975(reprint1991),183ff.
54
SeeAeschines2.88.SeefurtherForberg1964,10136.
55
Parker1983,101.
56
Arist.Physiognomics807a,GA787b8.IamgratefultoRuthBardellfordrawingmy
attentiontothispassage.
57
Ibid.
58
HH5.1820.
59
Od.4.275.
60
Od.1.556,10.221.
61
Iambeistheprototypeofthereligiouspracticecalledtheaiskhrologiaorsayingofugly
things.SeeXen.Lac.5.6;Arist.AE1128a23.;Burkert1985,105.ForKassandraseeAes.
Ag.121314.
62
IambikhosLifeofPythagoras31.194.
63
Eur.Androm.935.Accordingtosometexts,womentakepleasureingriefandtrouble.
SeeIl.23.98;Od.19.213;Eur.El.126;Tro.608ff.
64
Od.22.411.
65
Gleason1995,99andn.84.
66
Padel1992,64notes,Hearingisintrusionfromtheoutside,throughears,intothe
innards Wordsdrillthrough[theears]intothemind.SeealsoAes.Choe.4512.
67
SeeOd.12.40,46,177,18991;Hes.frs.278;Eur.Andr.9378.Foradiscussion
seeReeder1995,415ff.Thecaretakenwithhiscrewisagoodmovebecause,accordingto
aSophokleanfragment(858.12.),Theimpactofwordscomesslowly,andhasdificultyin
gettingthroughanearthatisblocked.Earsarecentraltoaseriesofdreaminterpretations
51
52

277

Chapter9
according to Artemidoros (Oen. 1.24), and to dream about ears generally has negative
connotations.
68
Soph.Ajax293.SeecommentsintherecentstudybyMcClure1999,3269.InAcrisius
(fr.64),Sophoklesreinforceshisnotionthatfemalesilenceisgolden.Foranexamination
ofsilenceinancientGreeceseeMontiglio2000.
69
Plut.Mor.142D.
70
Plut.Mor.507F.
71
Plut.Mor.505A.Trans.Babbitt(Loeb)1927,withamendments.
72
SeealsoGleason1995,98.
73
Plut.Mor.511B.
74
Ar.Frogs90813,91415,91920.Trans.Sommerstein1996,withamendments.
75
VitaAesch.214.Foradiscussionofthefeminizingqualityoftheveilwhenwornby
men,seeabove,Chapter1.
76
SeeDover1997,180.SeealsoTaplin1977,284,318,3312,4234.ForAiskhylean
silencesseeMichelakis2000.Foradiscussionoftheseplaysasrepresentedinvasepaintings
seeTrendallandWebster1971,548.
77
Ar.Lys.476613.ForadiscussionofthesceneseeTaaffe1993,62ff.;Henderson1987,
128ff.
78
Ar.Lys.5301.ForcommentsseeHenderson1987,1367.Cf,Sommersteinstranslation:You,confoundyou,awomanwithyourfaceveiled,daretoordermetobesilent?
Godsletmedie!
79
Ar.Lys.5324.Cf.Sommersteinstranslation:
Well,ifthatswhatsbotheringyou
Withveilingbedeck
Yourheadandneck
Andthen,itmaybe,youllbequiet!
80
Seeabove,Chapter4.
81
ForadiscussionoffemalemasksseePickard-Cambridge1968,2279.
82
SeeGreenandHandley1995,778.Comparealsotheterracottachatterboxillustrated
byPickard-Cambridge1968,.ig.131.Thesametypeofcharacterisshowninawell-known
mosaicfromPompeii(c.100)whichdepictsascenefromMenandersSynaristosai,which
PlautuslateradaptedintohisCistellaria.Thebeautifulandwell-knownmosaicisprobably
acopyofaGreekwallpaintingandshows,ontheright,wrappedinayellowpharos-veil,
anoldgossipingwomansittingontheedgeofacouch.Toherrightsitsayoungerwoman
(apseudokoreorfalsemaiden),alsoinayellowpharos,butnotwornonthehead,andatthe
leftofthescenesitsahetairaclaspingherhandstogether.Theoldwomanschatteringnature
isemphasizedbyhergestureofpullingherveildownfromherfacesothatshecanspeakher
gossipthroughhercavernousmouthunimpededbytherestraining,boundingnatureofthe
garment.ThemosaicissignedbyDioskouridesofSamosandwasplacedintheso-called
VillaofCicero.ThesceneisfoundagainonamosaicfromMyteline,c.ad300450.For
discussionsofthetwomosaicsseeTrendallandWebster1971,145.
83
ForthisparticularhairstyleseeLSJs.v.lampavdionandHiggins1986,123andig.155.
ForadiscussionofthehetairaigurineseeUhlenbrock1990,121.
84
Stevens1998,414.
85
Seeabove,Chapter6.
86
Eur.Hip.64550.
87
For adiscussion see Rabinowitz 1986, 1289 and 1993, 15569. See also Barrett

278

Veilingthepollutedwoman
1964,281ff.
88
Eur.Hip.1334.
89
Ibid.13140,394,399,401.
90
Ibid.395,409.
91
Ibid.2001.
92
Ibid.244,246.
93
Thenurseconirms,There,youareveiled.Butmyownbody,whenwilldeathveil
that?
94
Seeabove,Chapter7.
95
Paduano1985,557deinesPhaedrasveilasthevisualrepresentationofsilence.
96
TheliteratureonthePaulinetextisenormous.SeeinparticularPadgett1984;Pape
1977;Oster1988;Lsch1947;Jaubert1972;Feuillet1975,15791;Thompson1988;
MalinaandNayrey1996;MacDonald1999,esp.2002;Corrington-Streete1993;Hooker
1964;Schmidt1989;Kraemer1992;DAngelo1995;Corrington1991,22331.
97
ForPaulsattitudetothebody,headandmouthinICor.,seeNeyrey1990,10246.
98
ThesexualconnotationsoffemaleprophecyarefullyexploredbySissa1990.
99
SeeJansen1993,255.SeealsoSalisbury1997,64ff.Pauldoesnotnecessarilywant
tolimitwomensuseofprayerperse,buthedoesseemtosuggestthatprayersshouldbe
spokenoutofpublichearingandshouldnotbeallowedtoiniltratetheearsofother(male)
worshippers.Greeksourcesstatethatwomencouldpray,andwehavenoreasontosuppose
thattheirprayerswerefundamentallyanydifferentfromthoseofmen.Foradiscussionsee
Pulleyn1997,16871.
100
Aristotle,Demundo400a16,tellsus,Allofushumanbeingsstretchoutourhandsto
theheavenswhenpraying.OnthephysicalpostureofprayinginantiquityseeKeel1978,
30823.Burkert1985,75notesthatinGreeceprayerswereusuallysaidstandingupwith
armsoutstretchedinagestureofentreaty,withthehandsraisedtotheskyandbothpalms
upturned. Hands can also be stretched towards acult image. Keel 1978, 321 illustrates
asteleerectedtoHelioswhichhasaprayerinscribedoveranimageofapairofupturned
hands.FurtherdetailscanbefoundinPulleyn1997,188ff.Hesuggeststhatthereisaclose
linkbetweenthemouthandhandsinprayerandthattheverbproskuneohasbeenwrongly
translatedtomeanprostrateorfallonthegroundbutshouldrefertoagestureofraising
thehandtothemouthasanactofprayer.ForearlyChristianiconographicrepresentations
ofprayerseeMcNamara1985,41,ig.3andCroon2000,80,ig.35.
101
The back-tilted head is not featured in Christian art. Women tend to be shown
conforming to the ideal with palms raised, mouths closed, and heads veiled. See Croon
2000,80.SeealsotheveiledigureofthedeceasedComminiaatprayer(c.fourthcentury
ad)illustratedinVeyne1987,279.
102
Theissen1987,1601.EvidenceforveilinginRomanKorinthianiconographyisas
contradictory as that found in other Greek cities in earlier and later periods: There are
certainlyunveiledwomensheadspreservedfromtheRomanperiod,butotherswearillets,
diademsandhimation-veils.SeeJohnson1931,1067andnos.160,163,164,221,222,
224.However,nootherstyleofveilisfoundintheKorinthiansculptures.Seealsothe
discussionbyThompson1988.
103
Kraemer1992,146.
104
SeefurtherTheissen1987,165:Theremovalofhead-coveringmusthavebeenunderstood in an emancipatory manner, for the removal of the kalumma has precisely this
meaninginAristophanesLysistrataTheconnectionbetweensilenceinpublic(i.e.,

279

Chapter9
withregardtopublicaffairs)andthekalummaisnoteworthy.Idonotatallclaimthatthe
ChristianwomeninCorinthconsciouslyimitatedLysistrata.Theanalogyonlyilluminates
howtheiractionwouldhavestrucksomepeople.
105
Although Moses and Elijah were required to veil their heads when they spoke to
Yahweh,theincarnationofGodinleshallowedmentoapproachGodwithoutveils.See
IICor.3.18.ForadiscussionseeTheissen1987,117ff.ThatKorinthianmenpraywith
uncoveredheadsshowsthattheRomanpracticeofveilingtoperformreligiousriteswasnot
necessarilyprevalentintheGreekEastbythemid-to-lateirstcenturyad.Romandevotional
apparellackedatruecounterpartamongtheGreeks.TheRomansdevelopedsomethingof
aixationwithproperapparelforsecularandsacredoccasionsand,consequently,Roman
clothingisoftenmoresymbolicthanGreekdress.Greekclothingtendedtoremainthesame
fordifferentactivities,whereasRomandresswaschangedfordifferentoccasions.SeeBieber
1967,3942.AsaGreek,PlutarchfounditoddthatRomansworshippedwiththeirheads
veiled(Mor.266CD),althoughhenotesthatindividualRomansveiledandunveiledtheir
headsforavarietyofreasons,athemeexploredinawiderangeofothersources:thehead
couldbeveiledasprotectionfromtheweather(CicerodeSenectute10.34),tohideones
facefromimpendingdeath(HoraceSermones2.3.37),andtodemonstratesubservienceor
respect(Petronius57).SomeRomansacerdotaloficialskepttheirheadscoveredconstantly,
andtheFlamenDialis,forexample,neverappearedinpublicwithouthistight-ittingcap
(AulusGellius,NoctesAtticae10.1517).Others,notjustpriests,woreadistinctlydifferent
apparelwhentheyperformedreligiousduties:thisgarmentwasworninprivateandpublic
devotionalactssuchasprayers,sacriices,andprophecy,andwastypicallyreferredtobythe
phrasecapitevelato.Thisgesturecomprisedtheactofpullingonesgarmentortogaoverthe
backoftheheadandforwarduntilitcoveredtheears.SeeStone1994.Thefamousstatue
ofAugustusasPontifexMaximusin12bcshowshimwearinghistogainsuchafashion.For
detailsseeLaRegina1998,612.WhileGreekwomenwereexpectedtobeveiledinpublic,
therulewasnotsostronglyendorsedforRomanwomen,althoughRomanwomeninthe
GreekEastmayhavefeltcompelledtocomplywithlocalcustom.If,however,Greekwomen
wantedtoappearmoreRomanandimitatefashionsattheImperialcourt,thentheymay
haveunveiled(iftheywerepermittedtodoso).Theevidenceispatchy.Foradiscussionsee
MacMullen1980,20818.Sebesta1994,489,however,arguesthatveilingwasoffundamentalimportanceforRomanmatrons.Thus,likePaul,Isidore(19.25.4)commentsthatthe
headisthesignofmaritalrankandpower.Formanistheheadofwoman,andtheveilisover
theheadofthewoman.WhileRomanwomen(exceptingtheVestalswhowereroutinely
veiled)rarelyappearassacerdotalpersonsinreligiousrites,wedohaveevidencetosuggest
thatwomenwereexpectedtobeveiledduringreligiousceremonies.Juvenal(Sat.6.3902),
forexample,recountshowawomanofthearistocracy,stoodbeforethealtar,thinkingit
nodisgracetoveilherfaceinfrontofthecheapjackharpist.Shemadeherresponsesinthe
properway,andblanchedasthelambwasopened.InJewishtradition,respectablewomen
wereroutinelyexpectedtobeveiled,especiallyforreligiousrites,asuncoveredhaircouldbe
perceivedasthesignofanadulteress(Num.5.18).Sowhateverthemake-upofthewomenof
theChristianassemblyatKorinthGreek,Roman,orevenJewishtheiruncoveredheads
wouldhavebrokenwithanumberofsocialconventionsandappearedasanathematoPaul.
InviewofKor.11,twoRomanstatuesfoundinKorinthwarrantparticularmention:theirst
depicts(anover-life-size)Augustuscapitevelato,whileanothermaleheadrepresentsNero,
thesonofGermanicusandAgrippinatheElder,againwithheadveiledreadytoperform
sacriice.WhenonerealizesthatthesetwopublicKorinthianportraitsdatefromtheperiod

280

Veilingthepollutedwoman
ofPaulsministrytothecity,thenoneiscompelledtothinkofPaulsstatementthatformen
aveiledheadisadisgrace.ItisnotimpossibletosupposethattheChristiancommunityin
Korinthwouldhavethoughtoftheimperialstatueswhichwere,nodoubt,familiartothem,
aswasindeedthesightofmaleRomansparticipatinginreligiousrituals.Forthetwostatues
seeJohnson1931nos.134and137andThompson1988,101,103.
106
Eur.fr.60Cockle.
107
AccordingtoBond1963,online43,AmphiarauswordssuggestthatEurydikeveils
herselfonlywhenheappears,notduringHypsipylesplea.Ifthisisthecase,thenherveiling
wouldnotbedirectlyrelatedtohersilence.Hetellsher,thereistalkalloverGreeceabout
themoderationofmyeyes,whichsuggeststhatheisrespectfulofawomansdesiretoveil
infrontofmalestrangers,butthatdoesnotprovethatEurydikeonlyveiledherselfwith
hisarrival.

281

10
THEWHITEANDTHEBLACK:
CONSPICUOUSVEILING
Thenotionofconspicuousveilingmay,atirstglance,seemabsurd,especiallyso
giventhenotionthattheveilactsasasymbolicbarrierwhichrendersthewearer
sociallyinvisible.Thisremainsthecase,butitisimportanttorememberthattheact
ofveilingaffordsawomanamodicumofexpression.1Butthereareotheroccasions
whenveilingbecomesanexpressiveactthatisintentionallyundertakenoftenin
publictodrawattentiontothewearerandtoconveyacertainmessage.Inparticular
awomancanaccentuateherownsexualitythroughveiling,andshecanusetheveil
toemphasizeasenseofangeroroutrage,aswellastoexpressgriefanddespair.Inthe
caseofsexuality,theveilissometimesconsciouslyusedtodrawtheeyeoftheobserver
towardsthecoveredwoman;veilinginangerandgriefisintendedtodistancethe
wearerfromsocialinteraction.Bothformsofveilingactuallycompelandsolicitthe
gazeoftheviewerandaretenaciouslyusedtoinvokeanemotionalresponse.2
Sex,eroticismandtheveil
InhisaccountofthefallofAgrippinatheYounger,theemperorNerosmother,
theRomanhistorianTacitusbrielydivertsattentionfromthemainthrustofthe
storytoponderonthenatureofNerosinfatuationwiththebeautifulbutcorrupt
noblewoman,PoppaeaSabina.Notingherbeauty,andheringraineddepravity,he
states:
Poppaeahadeveryassetexceptgoodness.Fromhermother,theloveliestwomanofher
day,sheinheriteddistinctionandbeauty.Herwealthtoowasequaltoherbirth.Her
speechwascleverandelegantandnotpreposterous.Sheputforwardafrontofrespectability,butherlifewasdepraved.Inherfewpublicappearancesshewentoutwithpart
ofherfaceveiledtoarousecuriosityandbecauseitsuitedher.3

Inotherwords,TacitusnoteshowPoppaeadeliberatelycontrivedtomagnifyher
mystiquebymakingonlyveryoccasionalpublicappearancesduringwhichtimeshe
skilfullyveiledherselfinsuchawaythatthehalf-drawnveilhighlightedherbeauty
andcharmsandcapturedtheimaginationoftheRomanpopulace.Herskilledveiling
techniqueswereadeliberateattempttoteasetheonlookerswiththeskilfulpretence
ofappearingmodestlycoveredwhileeffectivelyheighteninghersexualityandher
greatbeauty.
283

Chapter10
Poppaeawasnottheirstorlastwomaninhistorytounderstandandexploitthe
inherentdichotomyoftheveil;veilinganderoticismarefundamentallylinked,as
anycasualperusalofpopularculturalicons,pastandpresent,willquicklyreveal.
Natasha Rambovas vampish Salome in the 1922 ilm version of Oscar Wildes
notoriousplayrecreatesthedrawingsofAubreyBeardsleyassheself-consciously
raiseshersheerblackveilacrossherface,allowinghereyestopenetratethoseofher
malevictims(Fig.164);thechiffonveildoesnothingtomaskRambovasbody,
insteadithighlightstheconceptoftotalrevelationthathastofollowherinfamous
dance.MoreambiguousisJean-JacquesLequeusastonishingeighteenth-century
image(Fig.165)ofayoungnunexposingherfullbreastsandpertnipplesbylifting
herwimpleandveil,anactwhichplaysonanessentialuncertaintyastowhether
theyoungwomanismakingamaternalorsexualgesture,or,indeed,ifsheliftsher
garmentsdeliberatelyfortheviewersgratiication,orwhetherwehavestumbled
uponaprivatemomentandcaughtthenununawares.4Thus,thesexualallureofthe
veilmaybeconscientiouslyexploitedbythewearer,oritssexualappealmayderive
fromanaveinnocence,althoughitscharmmaystraddlethetwopoles.5
In contemporary veil-societies, ayoung woman may wear the correct amount
ofclothingprescribedbyhercommunity,sothattoallintentsandpurposesshe
is beyond reproach, but the manner in which she holds her veil enables her to
appropriateaudiencesanalluringandprovocativedemeanour,asthoughshewere
exposingnakedlesh.Theveilcanhavetheeffectofmakingthefacialfeaturesalluringlyvague;sometimesitenhancestheimpressionofattractiveness.Veilscandraw
attentionawayfromphysicaldefects,likewrinklesandlines.Veilsalsohighlight
thebeautyofpaleskin.Manysociologistsanddresshistoriansnowaccepttheidea
that the deliberate concealing of certain parts of the body does not necessarily
discouragesexualinterestbutoftenactivatessexualstimulation.Infact,adelicious

Fig.164.HollywoodpublicitystillofNatasha
RambovaasSalome,1922.Originalpublicity
stillfromthecollectionoftheauthor.

284

Fig.165.Teasingimageofayoungnun
toyingwithherwimple.Drawingafteran
engraving,c.1780.AfterBayley2001.

Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
parody of western pornographic clothing
fetishes can be found in an edition of
Playboyfrom1986(Fig.166)amullah
isgettingexcitedbyathree-pagepull-out
centrefoldofawomanwrappedinachador
whichrevealsonlyhereyes,herbarefeet
andasolitaryanklet.Theveiledwomanis
theplaymateofthemonth,butitisnotthe
Fig.166.Veiledcentre-pagepull-out.Re-drawn
femalebodythatsoarousesthecleric;itis
fromPlayboymagazine1986.
6
theveilitselfthatembodiesdesire.
Inthe1930sthepsychiatristJ.C.Flgelfamouslyexpoundedthetheoryofthe
shiftingerogenouszone,asystemwherebycertainpartsofthebody(sometimes
partswithnodirectsexualappeal,likethewaist,theback,orthenapeoftheneck)
becometemporarilyimbuedwithimmensesexualattraction.Henotedthatareas
ofthebodythatweremostcompletelycoveredbecamethecentreoferoticfocus
andthatmomentaryglimpsesoftabooareasnormallyhiddenbehindconcealing
clotheswereandareespeciallysexual.7DrawingonFlgelsoriginalideas,Lacanhas
notedtheimportanceoftherimorthecutinthesexualityofdressanddressing
andsuggeststhaterogenouszonesoccuratthemarginsofthebodywhereacutor
adiscontinuityisapparent.8
Whenaveilisplacedonthehead,itcreatesarimthatframesandemphasizesand
sexualizestheface.Whenitispulledacrossthelowerfacethenitformsacutthat
highlightstheeyesandempowersthemwithaparticulareroticappeal.Iftheveilis
aniqaborategidion,thentheeyeholesoreye-slitsactasrimstosexualizetheeyesand
thegazethatemanatesfromthem.Thecuts,rims,slashes,andopeningsexploitedin
veilingcanbeastonishinglysexualizedandcanpurposelyemphasizethecorrelation
betweenthefemaleheadandgenitalsandhenceawomansprocreativerole.9
Asasymbolofthesexualdivisionbetweenmenandwomen,theveilisnaturally
imbued with asexuality of its own. The veil endorses the idea that eroticism is
omnipresent.Infact,theveiloftenbecomesasexuallureinitsownright,atheme
thatisfrequentlyfoundinclassicalArabicpoetry:
Yourblackveilenticesme,
Opensmetothehungerofdesireandenvelopsme.10

Theoreticallytheveil,whichissupposedtoprotectagainstexternalsexualaggression(orinternalizedsexualpollution),is,inreality,sexy.Itadvertisessex.Bycovering
theheadssymbolicsexualorganstheveilistransformedintoanobjectoffetish.
Awomancompletelyenvelopedwithinaveiliscompletelyeroticized;shebecomes
anobjectoferotic,oftenmysterious,desire.11Aveiledwomanhasnocontrolover
hersexuality;sheisamereobject.Butthatisnottosaythat,evenwhenstrictly
veiled,awomanstillhaspowertouseherveiltogiveoutcertainsignals,including
sexualcome-ons.Theeroticpowerthatcanradiatefromeyesframedbytheslitor
rimofaveilcantransmitpowerfulsexualsigns.Thestarefromtheeyesofaveiled
285

Chapter10
womanisafamiliarthemeinGreek
poetryandisalsoattestedintherare
artworks that show veiled women
gazingoutattheviewerofavase(Fig.
66;compareFig.167).JohnChrysostomfoundtheplayfuleyesofveiled
women particularly disturbing, and
in apassionate diatribe against the
affectationoffemaledressheasked,
When, though you do not indeed
painttheface,youspendsomuch
Fig.167.Advertisingimageofaveiledwomandrawing
speciicattentiontotheeyes.PostcardpurchasedinTunisia.
time and pains washing it, and
spread aveil (kalumma) across
theforehead,whiterthanthefaceitself,andabovethatspreadapharosofwhichthe
blacknessmaysetoffthewhitebycontrastistherenotinallofthisvanityindress?
Whatcanonesaytotheperpetualrollingoftheeyes?12

Drawingonmanycenturiesoferotictradition,intheifthcenturyadtheGreek
pseudo-epigraphist Aristaenetus noted the sexual allure of the female gaze semihiddenbyaveil,intwoverylivelypassages.Theirstreads:
IntheshrineswherewebegthegodsforreleasefromoursufferingsIfellintothemost
terribletrouble.ForIwasholdingmyhandsouthighandbabblingmypersonalsupplication,when,Idontknowhowithappened,IwassuddenlyseizedbyLove.Iturnedto
youandwasarrow-struckatthesightofyourbeautyandwhenIsawyouIwasunableto
movemyeyes.You,seeingmelookingatyou(ashappenswithrespectablegirls)lightly
veiledyourselfandturningyourneckaroundyouputyourhandinfrontofyourface,
butyouleftabitofcheekshowingontheside.Doyouwantmeasaslave?13

ThesecondtexttellsofPamphilosinfatuationwiththehetairaThelxinoe,awoman
whoclearlyunderstandstheeroticallureoftheveil:
AwomannamedThelxinoe,drawingthegleamingveiloverhereyes,likearespectable
woman,andlookingoutfromundertherathernarrowopening,misleadsyoungmen
by her tricks, as awolf is like adog avery wild thing like the most gentle thing.
Pamphilioswasswiftlysmittenattheirstsightofthebeautyemanatingthroughthe
eyes,likeacowstruckbyagadly.14

PamphilosreactionisnotdissimilartothatfeltbythemodernjournalistDouglas
Botting who, whilst sitting in aSouthern Arabian airport waiting-lounge, had
acomparableexperience:
BeforelongIrealizedthateverysinglemalewasstaringatthepersonsharingabench
withme.Icastasidewaysglance.ShewasanArabwomandressedfromhead-to-toe
inblackinthestrictMoslemway,sothatitwasimpossibletoformanyimpressionof
herbodyandevenherhandswerehiddenbyblackgloves.Outofherentireanatomy
onlyhereyeswerevisibleanditwasonaccountoftheseeyesalone(andperhapsher
calm,assured,superstarkindofpoise)thatsheattractedthelongingstares.Theywere

286

Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
sensationaleyeslarge,brown,liquid,gazelle-like,withclearbrightwhites,awideiris
andlongblacklashes.Herskinwaspaleandshewasobviouslyyoung.Sherevealednext
tonothingofherselfshedidnotmoveorspeakyetshewasutterlyunforgettable.
IturnedtolookatheragainandasIdidsoshecastaglanceatmeandIfoundmyself
staringatpointblankrangeintothosequintessentiallyeroticeyes.Thecornerofher
eyescrinkledslightlythen,andIrealizedthatbeneaththatall-obscuringveilasmile
hadformed.Hereyesseemedtosignalaconspiratoriallook,asifsherecognizedthat
wesharedamutualperceptionofthecomicsideofthesituation.Thensheturnedback
toresumehercool,aloof,unblinkinggazeintothatseaofyearningmalefacestruly
anAphroditeofthedesert.15

AccordingtoMakhlouf,Muslimmenareallowedtofantasizeaboutthefaceand
bodyhiddenbeneathaveilandsherecallshow,thehusbandofoneofmyinformants
toldmethatwhatirstattractedhimtoherwasashortglimpseofherfacewhenshe
happenedtoliftherveil.16Otheranthropologicalsourcesspeakofsubtlewaysin
whichwomen,particularlyunmarriedgirls,canbreachtherulesofdecorumwithout
incurringsanctions,foritisgenerallyacceptedinveil-societiesthatawomanmay
liftherveilforashorttimeshouldsheneedtolookatsomethingorsomeoneat
adistance,orwhensheannouncesherselfatadoor.But,asAristaenetusconirms,
someyoungwomendeliberatelytakeadvantageofthistemporaryfreedomandwill
purposelylifttheirveilearlierorloweritlaterthanisstrictlynecessarywiththeresult
thattheirfacesareuncoveredforalongertimethanisacceptable,especiallyifmen
arepresent.Makhloufcallsthesewomenveilmanipulatorsandnotes,
Ioncewatchedoneofmyinformantsgodowntheinsidestairsofahousewithout
coveringherfacewhensheknewthatthereweremenonthelowerlevelsofthehouse
andevenonthestairsthenshecoveredherfaceinfeignedsurprise Otherwomen
knewthisgirlasonewhowilllifttheirveilandletmenseetheirface,andtheyspoke
ofherwithamusementandnotsevereadmonishment.17

Soasexualawarenesscanbeemphasizedbytheskilfuluseofaveilandsexual
signalscanbetransmittedbywomendespitetheapparentrestrictivenatureoftheir
garmentsandtheirpositionwithinsocietyasawhole.Butworkingalongsidethis
ideaofanactiveveiledsexualityisonewhereinawomanspassiveveiledmodesty
andchastity,anaivetytowardsherownsexuality,becomesaneroticturn-oninitself.
Itmightseemparadoxicalthattheveil,theguarantorofchastityandhonourfor
thosewhoareperceivedtowarrantthatrespect,mightactuallyberesponsiblefor
sexualizingthechasteanddecorouswearer,butthetruthofthematteristhatsexual
innocenceisoftenviewedasdesirable.Thiswascertainlytrueasmuchofantiquity
asitistoday,anditisathemeexploitedbyCharitoninhisnovelCallirhoe.Towards
theendoftheworkChareasisreunitedwithhistruelove,Callirhoe,theheroine
ofthestory:
SoChaereascrossedthethresholdintotheroom.Themomenthesawher,reclining,
andveiledthoughshewas,hisheartwasstirredbythewayshebreathedandlooked,and
hewasstirredwithexcitement Whilehewasstillspeaking,Callirhoerecognizedhis
voiceandunveiledandatthesamemomenttheycriedout:Chaereas!Callirhoe!18

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Moreover,foraGreekmaleacircumspectdisplayofaidosorsophrosyne onthe
partofawomanorayoungmanwasfrequentlyregardedasasexualstimulus(in
thecaseofmaleyouthsthatdesirabilitycanbeenhancedbyacircumspectveilingin
whichthebodyisfullyenvelopedinclothorbyamoreobviousfeminizationofthe
malebodybymeansofdressandaccessories.19Aidos,afterall,wasoneoftheirst
giftsthatHephaistosinstilledinhistemptinglyveiledclayvirgin,Pandora.20
The difference between active and passive awareness of the erotic effects of
veilingcanbeillustratedbytwocasesthoseofHeraandPenelopeintheIliadand
Odysseyrespectively.AnotablemotiffoundthroughoutancientGreekliteratureis
thatofdressing:inHomer,forinstance,asacounterpointtothescenesshowing
wealthywarriorsarmingthemselves,weinddepictionsofwomen(thatistosay
goddesses)dressinginmultiplelayersofrichclothing.Someoftheseaccountsare
mere outlines,21 but others are much more substantial and give us an invaluable
insightintoawomanswardrobeoftheHomericage.ThedressingofHeraatIliad
14.17086isaparticularlyinterestingexample(asamotif,itcanbecomparedwith
thetoiletteofAphroditeintwooftheHomericHymns).22IntheHeraepisodethe
dressingthemeisusedtodrawattentiontotheattractivenessandsexualityofthe
goddessaswellastoindicatetheirobviousdivinestatus.Thesamemotifisfoundin
NearEasternhymnstoInannaandItarandinvokessimilarallusionstotheerotic
powersofthedeities.Inannaissaidtobedressedinclothesofpower,23whilein
thefamousDescentofItarintotheUnderworld,thenakedgoddesssystematicallyreceivesherdivinepowersassevenlayersofclothing(representingtheme,or
powersofdivinity)areplacedonherbody.Whilesheisdeprivedofherclothesand
wandersnakedintheunderworld,sheispowerlessandthereforesubjugatedtothe
willofothers,butwhensheisdressedsheisimbuedwithherfulleroticpotential
forgreatness.24ThemotifofbeautifulclothesandadornmentswhichexpressHeras
powerasafertilitygoddessandherconsequentcaptivationofZeus,isalsoessentialto
Itarwhosequalitiesofloveandsexualarousalarealsoembodiedinherclothes.25
InbothNearEasternandGreeksources,theveilisusedasaclimaxtothedressing
scenes.ThevoyeuristicpeepintothegoddessboudoiratIliad14availsusofthe
raresightofHeraanointingherbodywithfragrantoilstomakeherskinshine.In
herpreparationforherseductionofZeus,aftercombingandplaitingherhair,Hera
beginsdressingherselfwithartfulskill.Shepinsonasweet-smellingpatternedrobe
craftedforherbyAtheneandholdsitinatthewaistwithaspecialtasselledzone,and
placesdrop-earringsinherearswhichshinewithkharis.Thenasainalornamentin
herarmouryofseduction,Herathrowsoverherheadabeautifulveil:
Lovelyamongthegoddesses,sheveiledherheaddownwardwithasweetfreshveil;it
wasaswhiteasthesun.26

TheveilisseenastheperfectculminationtoHeraspreparationforthesexualact,
itcompletesheroutitandthesexualizationofherperson.Itisanimagethatinds
aparallelinMesopotamianliterature,particularlyinthehymnstothesex-goddess
Itar,whoisnotinfrequentlyportrayedintheactofpreparingherselftomeether
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Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
loverDumuzi.Inonehymnshetellshow,
IbathedfortheWildBull.
IbathedfortheshepherdDumuzi,
Iperfumedmysideswithointment,
Icoatedmymouthwithsweet-smellingamber,
Ipaintedmyeyeswithkohl.

Then,oncesheisprepared,achorustakesuptherefrain:
Sheisclothedwithpleasureandlove.
Sheisladenwithvitality,charm,andvoluptuousness.
Itarisclothedwithpleasureandlove
Atherappearancerejoicingbecomesfull.
Sheisglorious.
Veilsarethrownoverherhead.27

Again,veilingprovidestheinishingtouch.TheclimaxofHerasdressing-scene
withherveilingisalsorelectedintheHesiodicmythofPandorawho,ashertoilette
nearscompletion,isveiledwithanelaboratelyworkedveilbyAthene;itbecomesthe
culminationofPandorasarsenalofdesireanddeceitwhichbringsaboutthefallof
mankind.28Echoingtheearlyepictheme,ApolloniusofRhodesenvisagestheveil
asthecrowninggloryofawomanssexualcharmsashedescribedMedeaspreparationforherirstmeetingwithJasonintheArgonautika.Shebeginsbybathingand
anointing herself with oils, plaiting her hair, perfuming her cheeks, slipping on
adelicaterobe,andinallycoveringherheadwithasilveryveil(kaluptrenargupheen)
whichshesubsequentlyusestogreateffect(byraisingitandloweringitacrossher
face) in front of the love-smitten Jason.29 Like the veils worn by the goddesses,
Medeasveilisputoninordertobeguile,tempt,andseduce;itsseductivequalityis
fullyrealizedbythewearerandshedeliberatelywearsittoachieveherdesiredend.
TocontrastwiththedeliberatelyeroticveilingdecisionsofHeraandhercompatriots, Penelopes acts of veiling throughout the Odyssey are not self-conscious
decisionsonherparttoseducehersuitors,insteadherveiling-actsareintendedto
helpmaintainherdignity,highlightherchastityandmodesty,magnifyhersocial
rankaswifeandqueen,andinstilapropersenseofaidos inthosewhothreatenher
honour.Penelopesconcernwiththepreservationofheraidos andthehonourofher
absenthusbandisstressedbytheuseofher(veiled?)amphipoloiwhocircumspectly
accompany her into the hall. She certainly has no intention of encouraging or
arousinghersuitorsanyfurtherwithadeliberatedisplayoferoticveiling.However,
theintendedresponseisnotrealized,andasPenelopedrawshershiningveil(lipara
kredemna)acrossherface,
Onthespot,thekneesofthesuitorswereloosened,indeedwithdesireintheirhearts
theywereenchanted,andtheyallliftedupprayerstoliebesideherinbed.30

Thenagain,atleastoneancientsourcequestionsthemotivationbehindPenelopes
publicanddeliberateactofveilinginthisratherrisqusetting,becauseweindthat
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Chapter10
thefourth-centurypolymathDicaearchusofMessanacamedownheavilyonher
questionablemoralitywhenheclaimedthatPenelopesveilingwasacalculatedand
shamefaced act of titillation. He is cited in Porphyrys commentary on Odyssey
1.332:
DicaearchuscriticizesHomersPenelopeonthebasisoftheselines:Whenthegreat
queenhadreachedthesuitors,shehaltedbesidethepillarthatborethemassyroof,
hershiningveildrawnoverhercheeksHesaysthatsheisnotatallwell-behaved:
irstbecausesheappearsinpersonbeforethedrunkensuitors;secondlybecausewhen
shecoveredthemostbeautifulpartsofherfacewithherveilshelefttheeyesaloneto
beseenthatkindofposturingisunnecessaryandcontrived,asishavingmaidsstand
besideher.Inbothrespectsheshowsthattheappearanceofexceptionalbeautyisnot
achievedwithoutcontrivance.31

To counter this argument Porphyry questions Dicaearchus understanding of

Homeric custom and seeks to show how Penelope acts in accordance with the
etiquette of the time and that she appears in public without rousing criticism.
Accordingly,hecitesthecasesofArete,Helen,andNausikaa.Hefurthernotesthat
Penelopehadnointentionofarousingthesexualpassionsofhersuitors,butthat
sheusedherveiltohideandwipeawayhertears;shedoesnot,hesays,veilherself
outofanymorally-questionablemotive:
Ifsheveilsherheadandface,shedoesthisbecausesheisashamedtocryincompany,
notbecausesheisactinglikeacourtesanthroughthisartiice.32

HequaliiesthisbyalludingtoOdysseusactofveilinghisheadandfaceduringthe
Phaiakianbanquetinordertohidehistearsandasks,
IfOdysseus,aman,wasashamedtobeseenweepingatasymposiumandcoveredhis
headandface,howmuchmoreishisgood-breedingappropriatetoPenelope?Foris
suchasenseofshamenotsowellestablishedamongmen?33

Whatevertheintention,theeffectwhichPenelopesveilinghasonthesuitorsis
notdissimilartothatwhichHelensveiledappearancehasontheoldnoblemenof
Troywho,whensheapproachesthematthecitywalls,likenhertotheimmortal
goddesses.34BothincidentsarereminiscentofapassageinXenophonsCyropaedia
wherethemotifofaveiledwomansunwittingsexualityishighlightedinthenovella
ofPanthea,theLadyofSusa:
Whenwe[AraspasandthePersianoficers]cameintothetent,wedidnotmakeher
[Panthea]outatirst,forshewasseatedonthegroundwithallherwomenaroundher,
andsheworethesameclothesasherslaves,butwhenwelookedatthemalltodiscover
their mistress, we soon saw that one outshone all the others, even though she was
veiledandkepthereyesontheground.Andwhenwetoldhertorise,allherwomen
rosewithher,andthenwesawthatshewasmarkedoutfromthemallbyherheight,
andhernoblebearing,andhergrace,andthebeautythatshonethroughherragged
clothes.And,undertheveil,wecouldseebigteardropstricklingdownherrobesto
herfeet Buttheladytoretheveilthatcoveredherheadandgaveapitifulcry,
whileherwomenlifteduptheirvoicesandweptwiththeirmistress.Andsowecould

290

Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
seeherface,andherneck,andherarms,andItellyou Imyselfandallwholooked
onher,feltthatthereneverwas,andneverhasbeen,inallofAsiaamortalwomanhalf
sofairasshe.35

HereagaintheveilisusedtogreateffectandXenophonclearlydrawsonthe
exampleofHomericepic:PantheaisdepictedasasecondPenelope,forshestays
veiled (kekkalummene) in front of strangers, and is surrounded by maidservants.
LikePenelope,Pantheaisaloyalwifeseparatedfromherhusband,sheistalland
beautiful,buthasnodesiretolookattractiveforanymanexceptherhusbandand
soshesquatsonthegroundwithherwomen.36Likethesuitorswhoeagerlywaitto
gazebehindPenelopesveil,soAraspasandthePersianoficerslongtoseebehind
Pantheascoverings.Assheweeps,andtheynoticeatearlowingdownherveiled
cheek,thetensiongrows.Finallyinanoutcryofgrief,andinperfectaccordwith
Homericwomen,Pantheatearsoffherveilandthemalegazeissatedbythesight
ofherface,neckandarms.
ButneitherHelen,PenelopenorPantheadeliberatelysetsouttoseduce.Even
thoughHelensactofveilingstimulatestheagedmenintocomparinghertofemale
divinities,herhonourisnotcompromisedbytheiraffectionatemusings.Incontrast,
PenelopeandPantheasveilingstimulatesagenuineandthreateningeroticdesirein
theirmaleobserversandrousestheirpassionstosuchanextentthat,inPenelopes
case,thesuitors(silently)offerupprayersfortheirsexualsatisfactioninPenelopes
bed.Penelopeisinrealdangerofsexualassault.
Theveilistheprojectorofsexualkharis.37ThepositiveallureofPenelopesveilis
enhancedbyitsassociationwithbrightnessandbyitsdescriptionasliparos,aword
thathasasitscoremeaningfatorgreasy(asusedbytheparodistMatron).38When
usedofearthitimpliesfertility;whenusedofthehumanbodyorskinithasthe
meaningsleekandhealthy.39WhenusedofveilsassociatedwithHomericwomen
itsuggestsabundantfertility.ThereforetheepithetliparokredemnosisusedofHekate,
agoddessfrequentlyassociatedwithabundance,increase,andfertility,40andthesame
appliestoRhea,themother-goddess.41Shining-veiledgoddessesareoftenplacedat
thejunctureofastoryinwhichthemoodoftheplotchanges;indeed,theappearance
ofthedazzlingly-veileddeitiesoftenheraldsthatchange.HekateandRheaappearin
theHomericHymntoDemeterjustasthegoddessmoodbeginstotransformfrom
grieftojoyassheissummonedtoOlympus,whileintheIliadthegoddessKharis,
thewifeofHephaistos,alsowearsashiningveilasshewelcomesthegrievingseagoddessThetisintothesocietyofthegodsonMountOlympus.42Theshiningveils
ofthefemaledeitiesliterallylightenthemoodoftheepicstorylines.
Theshiningveilreiteratesfemininefertilitybothwithitsdoubledassociationof
wetnessandmoistureanditsprivilegingofthehead,thesymbolicseat(becauseofits
associationwiththefemalegenitals)offertilityandbirth.AccordingtotheHomeric
HymntoHestia,thegoddessofthelife-sustaininghearthiswelcomedintothehome
withliquidoildrippingfromherhair,43andinexactlythesamemannertheshining
kredemnoncansuggestabundantfertilityinitsfunctionasahead-coveringimbued
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Chapter10
with life-giving moisture. Liparos is the most common epithet of kredemnon,44
althoughitshouldbenotedthatitisalsousedofthekaluptrewornbyHekabe,the
motherofPriamsmanychildren.45
Inadditiontotheoilymoistureoftheveil,itisitsshiningpropertythatmakes
thekredemnonorkaluptreparticularlyattractive,andMacLachlanhasshownhow
theconceptofkharisisendorsedbyvisuallycompellingtwinklingandnotesthat,
sparklingbeautywaseroticallyattractivetotheGreekeye.46Thustheoilingand
perfumingoftheskin,thewearingofglisteningjewellery,andthedonningofshining
robesdenotekharis,aconceptofsparklingexquisitenessthatworksintandemwith
theGreeksirresistibleloveoflight.47Herasveilisdescribedasbeingsodazzlingly
whitethatitshineslikethesun,andthewordleukos(white)isusedbyHomeron
atleastsixtyoccasionswhereitisusuallyimbuedwithpositivequalitiesthatoften
includeconnotationsoflight.48AccordingtoAristotle,whitewasseenasastable
andeasilydeinablecolourandwasnaturallyconcoctedfromatransparentmixture
of water and air and so was the colour of any diaphanously shining substance.
Therefore,starsarenaturallyshinybecausetheyrelectraysoflightandbouncethem
backtothehumaneye,whileair,waterandmanysolidsalsohaveatransparencythat
leadstoglisteningwhiteness.49WhenHeraandZeusmakeloveonthesummitof
MountIdatheydosodiscreetlyveiledwithinawhitecloudwhichrelectsthesuns
raysandglistenswithdropsofdewthatgleamasbrightlyasHerasshiningveil.
AstudyoftheHomericreferencestoshiningclothhasdiscoveredthatgleaming
garmentsareverymuchpartofHomerictradition;ofthegarmenttypesdescribedas
liparos,shiningveilspredominateandthenumberofreferencestotheliparokredemnos
faroutweighsanyothertypeofclothing.50Thereferencestothesespecialgarments
mightbelinkedtotheMycenaeanindustryofperfumingfabric.Throughaboiling
process,linenandwoolcouldbeimbuedwithsweet-smellingperfumesthatwould
simultaneouslymaketheclothfragrantandshiny,andeventhoughthepractice
ofperfumingclothdiedoutwiththeBronzeAge,itstillfounda,distortedand
specializedroleinHomer.51
TheepithetsattachedtotheHomericwordsforveil(includingthepharos)suggest
thatthegarmentsweremadefrominelywovenlinenorwell-spunwool.Wooland
linenarecalledliparosinepicandbothfabricswereseeminglyconsideredsuitable
forperfuming.However,whileahand-wovenwoollenfabriccouldpossiblybecalled
malakos(soft),itcouldhardlybedescribedasshininglikethesun,adepictionthat
iseasiertobelieveofbleachedlinen.TwoHomericpassagesdemonstratethatoil
wasclearlyusedintheweavingofcloth,whichwouldhavetheeffectofproducing
ashiny appearance. The slave women in the palace of Alkinoos are described at
theirloomsweavingclothfromthesoftoliveoil,52whileontheshieldofAkhilleus,
dancingyouthsweargarmentsthatareperfumedwithoil.53
Allusions to shining cloth and the association of fabrics with oil appear only
infrequentlyinlaterarchaicandclassicalsourcesandallbutdisappearaftertheifth
century,54whichsuggeststhat,essentially,theperfumingoffabricswasaHomeric
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Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
idea.Itwasanexpensivetreatment,nodoubt,whichimpliesthattheveilsfound
inepicsourcesmanyofwhichbeartheepithetliparoswereapreserveofthe
wealthiestandmostinluentialwomen.
Whateverthesocialramiicationsofshiningcloth,itisclearthatshiningveils
wereregardedasvisuallyappealinganderoticallystimulating.Herasglisteningveil
iscalculatinglyusedasaneroticpropthatseduces,quells,anddeceivesZeus.At
itsextreme,however,theparadoxofthegood-wifescoveredheadissymbolizedin
Penelopesshiningveilasanemblemofwifelymodestyandsocialidentitybutalsoof
sexualmagnetism.InOdyssey18Penelopesveilshimmerswithperfumedoil,justas
herskingleamswithsweet-smellingunguents,andherhead-dressbetokenschastity
evenasitssheenbespeaksfertilityandsexualallure.Bycoveringherfacewithherglisteningveilandtherebydenyinghersuitorswhattheymostdesire,Penelopestresses
theeroticappealofstrictlyobservedaidos.LikeHerassun-whiteveil,Penelopes
shiningkredemnonmarksheroutasthemostdesirableofwives.
Veil-dancing
One more category of erotic veiling belongs to amore public form of conscious
display,namelydance.Itisgenerallyacceptedthatfromthearchaicperiodonwards,
publicdancingwasprimarilyperformedbywomen(thereareobviousexceptions,since
menperformeddancesinritualistic,choral,andmilitarycontexts,andlessformally
indrunkennight-timerevels).Thefragmentaryevidenceforfemaledancers(professional and non-professional) is scattered throughout predominantly late sources,
althoughitisclearthatthereweremanyformsofpublicandsemi-publiccontextfor
danceperformanceinthearchaic,classical,andhellenisticperiods;theevidencefor
womenasdance-performersisstrong.55Publicperformerswerebydeinitionhighly
visibleandperhapsthemajorityofpublicdancingwomencamefromthemargins
ofrespectablesociety,asisthecase,forexample,incontemporaryEgyptiansociety
wherethesocialopinionsregardingfemaledancersarewidelydiverse.56Membersof
theeliteclasses(particularlywealthywomen)tendtocondemndancersasimmoral,
whilewomenofthelowerclasses,closertothestatusoftheperformersthemselves,
tendtopresentthembanallyasordinaryworkingwomen.Butitismoredificultto
assessthepositionoffemaledancersinancientGreeksocietywheretheluidmargins
of female social status, especially in regard to various types of hetairai, no doubt
affectedattitudestodancersanddanceperformancesasmuchastheydidthewider
issuesofvisibilityandinvisibility.57Nodoubtthereweretrainedgirlshiredspeciically
todanceatsymposiaandothergatherings(maybeevenatweddings),whileothergirls
dabbledindanceandperformedinpublicorsemi-public,butcouldnotbeconsidered
specialists.Atthetopendofthemarketthegreatcourtesanmightperformadance
forherwealthyclient(s)asaspecialtreat,muchinthesamewaythatagrandgeisha
ofKyotomightperformaskilled,elegant,andwell-rehearseddanceforherspecially
honouredclientorpatron.58Thereis,therefore,considerableambiguityregarding
thestatusofdancingwomenencounteredinthesources.
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Chapter10
Red-igurepaintingsofveileddancers
arerare,buttheydoexist.59Theearliest
evidence for veiled dancers occurs on
the red-igure Mount Holyoak krater of
c.450440 (Fig. 66), where ive pharosveiled women dance to the tune played
by asixth woman on her aulos.60 These
women,ofunspeciiedsocialrank,canbe
compared with asimilarly veiled dancer
onacontemporaryoinochoebythePhiale
Painter(?)nowintheAshmoleanMuseum
Fig.168.Veiledfemaledancerandanakeddwarf.
(Fig. 168). It shows adancing pharosLinedrawingfromanoinochoebythePhialePainter
veiledwomanstaringatanakeddancing (?),c.450.AshmoleanMus.Oxford1971.866.
ithyphallicdwarfbutseparatedfromhim
by alying phallus-bird, images which might suggest that the veiled dancer and
thedwarfmustbeperformingsomekindoferoticdance,perhapsareligiousrite
performed,perhaps,attheHaloa.61IntheOxfordoinochoethemovementsofthe
dwarfseemstoimitatethoseoftheveileddancer(bothliftonelegandleanforward),
whichsuggeststhattheyperformadanceinunison.62Byplacingtheithyphallic
dwarf in such close proximity to the veiled woman, the Oxford scene might be
implyingasexualpotencyandavailabilityappropriateforcertaintypesofreligious
rites,ofwhichtheHaloa,withitsemphasisonsexualsymbols,ribaldry,feasting,
andrejuvenation,mighthavebeenconsideredparticularlyapt.63However,itisnot
strictlynecessarytoconnectsuchimagestoritualpractice,anditisjustasfeasible
toreadtheOxfordoinochoeasascenedepictingamorecasual(butstillerotic,or
evencomic)dance-performanceat,say,asymposium.Fivescenesonwinevessels
shownakeddwarfentertainersdancinginpairs,andthreeofthescenesaredeinitely
located at asymposium, the setting where female dancers are commonly found
performing.64TheOxfordpot,whichlacksasceniclocation,couldeasilyrepresent
asympoticdance-performancebytwohiredentertainers,butitcouldjustaseasily
showtwoparticipantsinareligiousritual,oritmightsimplyberegardedaneccentric
sceneofdancersthatdoesnotneedaprecisesettingnor,indeed,alogicalexplanation.65Itmightbeenoughtosaythattheiguresofthenakeddwarf,thephallus-bird,
andtheintensegazeoftheheavilyveiledwomanactaslabelsthatcansimplyberead
assexor,perhaps,quirkysex,orsimplyascomical.66
There are, however, some fourth-century representations, mainly from South
Italy, that illustrate veiled dancers in an indisputably theatrical context which
suggeststhattheseveiledwomenaretrainedandpaidprofessionals.Fig.169,for
instance,showsafrontal-facingdancerveiledinarichlypatternedpharos.Sheraises
herconcealedarminadancemovementasshesimultaneouslyliftsherselfuponto
hertoes.Sheisaccompaniedontheaulosbyaseatedwomanwhoisheavilyarrayed
withjewellery,andbothperformersseentobeplacedonadecoratedplatformor
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Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling

Fig.169.Front-facingveileddancer.Line
drawingofanApulianoinochoefromRuvo,
c.320.JattaCollection,Ruvo1167.

Fig.170.Linedrawingofaveileddancerandacomic
character.ApulianaskosfromRuvo(detail),c.380360.
JattaCollection,Ruvo1402.

stagewhileonthewallbehindthemhangsapieceofcloth(perhapsthepipe-girls
veil)andwhatappearstobealoopedsashorbeltwithtasselorpom-pomtrimmings.
Ascenefromacomedy(Fig.170)depictsanelegantpharos-veileddancerraising
herselfuponhersandaledtoesassheturnsawayfromthemaleigurewhostands
nexttoher;shecoversherfacewithherveiledhand.
Another (and somewhat richer) source for the study of veiled dancers are the
terracottaTanagraigurinesdatingtothehellenisticera.Mostofthem,especially
those of superior quality such as the bronze veiled dancer in the Metropolitan
Museum(Fig.72),arethoughttohavebeenproducedasvotiveofferingsatsanctuariesandthishasledcertainscholarstosuggestthattheyrepresenttempledancers
and,moreover,toassumethatveilingwascarriedoutasareligiousact.67Butthis
istoseriouslylimittheuseoftheveilinGreeksociallife,anditisbettertoconcur
withDorothyBurrThompsonthat,veilingcanscarcelyhaveareligiousconnotation Thereisnoreasontoascribetheveilingoftheheadtoreligiousgrounds.68
Instead,Thompsoncorrectlystressestheimportanceofveilingindailylifeinhellenisticsocietyandunderlinestheuseoftheveilasagarmentthatismuchusedin
thatperiodtoemphasizetheplayfulnessoftheage,since,revelationsofidentity
motivatemuchofthedramaandictionofhellenistictimes.Plutarchtellsushow
thegreatrevelledindisguises.69
TheMetropolitanbronzeveil-dancermightbeoneoftheprofessionalmimes
thatappearedinAlexandriaandotherGreekcitiesduringthehellenisticperiod.
AccordingtothelaterChurchFathers,thesemimesportrayedcharacterswithout
theuseofwords,butthattheyemployedmasksorface-veilsaspartoftheirperformanceinwhatwemightcallinterpretivedance.70TheMetropolitandancermight
wellitthedescriptionofamimewellifweconsiderthatherveilactsasamask
to suggest atype of woman familiar on the streets of Alexandria.71 The veileddancerisdressedincontemporaryclothinganddeliberatelysexualizestheevery-day
appearanceofAlexandrianwomeninhermimeperformance.72Infactapassage
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fromPhilogelosJokeBook(acompendiumofearliertextscompiledinthefourth
centuryad)playsonthenotionthatwhenhiddenbehindaface-veilitisimpossible
totellaladyfromawhore:
Theladyofahousehadasimple-headedslave.Butwhenshegotapeekatjusthow
thickhisotherheadwasalso,shelustedafterhim.Sheputaveiloverherfacesothat
hewouldntrecognizeher,andplayedaroundwithhim.Joininghergame,hehadsex
withher.Then,grinningasheusuallydid,hereportedtohismaster:Sir,sir,Ifucked
thedancerandthemistresswasinside!73

Modern-dayeroticveil-dancing(orbelly-dancing)isfrequentinthemen-only
clubsofmoderncitiesCairoandDamascus,butwhetherstripteasewasatypical
dnouementfortheveileddancersofantiquityisopentoquestion.Certainly,an
ancientprofessionaldancecalledtheladleorstirring-dancewasliterallyintended
tostirupthepassionsofamaleaudience,perhapsbytheremovalofclothingand
theswivellingofthehips,atechniquestillemployedbymodernbelly-dancers.74In
hisLettersofCourtesans,thesecond-centuryadauthorAlkiphronrelatesanamusing
taleofacontestbetweentwosuchdancers,ThryallisandMyrrhina,onthequestion
ofwhopossessedtheloveliestbuttocks.Eachwomandisplayshercharmsthrough
adance movement that we might today recognize as the shimmy. The letter
purportedlyfromonehetairatoanothersuggeststhatthesewomenwerenot
aversetosheddingafewlayersofclothing:
Butthethingthatgaveusthegreatestpleasure,anyhow,wasaseriousrivalrythattook
placebetweenThryallisandMyrrhinainthematterofbuttocksastowhichcould
displaythelovelier,softerpair.AndirstMyrrhinauntiedherwaist-sash(herlittlechiton
wassilk),andbegantoshakeherhips(visiblethroughherdress),whichquivered[and]
shelookedbackatthewigglingofherbuttocks.Andsogently,asifshewereintheact,
shesighedabit,thatbyAphrodite,Iwasthunderstruck.Thryallis,nevertheless,didnot
giveup;onthecontrarysheoutdidMyrrhinainwantonness.Icertainlyamnotgoing
tocompetebehindacurtain(parapetasmaton),shesaid,norwithanyaffectationof
coynessSoshetookoffherlittlechitonandsaid,Therenow,lookatthecolour,
howyouthful,Myrrhina,howpure,howfreefromblemish;seetheserosyhips,how
theymergeintothethighs,howtheresneithertoomuchplumpnessoranythinness,
andthedimplesatthetips.But,byZeus,theydontquiver,shesaidwithaslysmile,
likeMyrrhinas.Andthenshemadeherbuttocksvibratesofast,swayingtheirwhole
bulkabovethehipsthiswayandthatwithsuchanundulatingmotion,thatweall
applaudedanddeclaredthatthevictorywasThryalliss.75

Maurice Emmanuels lively study of Greek dance techniques lays particular

emphasis on erotic dancing, particularly when performed with aveil, and notes
the coquettish attitudes adopted by veil dancers in the terracotta statuettes and
vasepaintings.Henotesthatonedance,inwhichtheperformerirstgraspsher
enveloping mantle-veil by its border and then raises it on high so that the veil
loatsingreatfolds,seemstohavebeendevisedforthesolepurposeofaffording
anopportunitytoplaywiththeveil.76AnApuliankalyx-kraterofc.350seemsto
depictanenticingstripteasebeingperformedbyawomanwearinglittlemorethan
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anecklace,earrings,braceletsandanklets(Fig.171).The
nakedwomantoyswithherveilandtantalizinglywavesit
infrontofherasshedancesforamaleaudience;theveil
emphasizeshernudity.77
The puzzling dichotomy that confronts us in the
figures of the more reserved veiled dancers who are
modestly covered but swathed in such away that their
enticing movements beneath the veil arouse desire and
anticipatetheremovalofthegarmentand(perhaps)other
layersofclothing,istheunderlyingthemeofthestoryof
Salome,theinfamousJewishprincesswho,throughher
veil-dancing, is popularly conceived as having brought
aboutthedeathofJohntheBaptist.HerDanceofthe
SevenVeilsisperhapsthemostfamousOrientaldance
inWesternculture,immortalizedinOscarWildes1893
Fig.171.Eroticveil-dancing.
lyric-drama Salom and Richard Strauss opera of 1905, Linedrawingofadetailfrom
Apuliankalyx-krater,c.350bc.
in which the princess systematically removes all of her Basle,loan.AfterCarpenter
clothingasshedancesforthepleasureofkingHerodand 1991.
atthedesperatebehestofhermother,QueenHerodias.78
ButinneitherofthetwoNewTestamentaccountsoftheBaptistsdeathisthere,
in fact, adescription of Salomes dance.79 The closest we get is the information
providedbyMark:ForwhenHerodiasdaughtercameinanddanced,shepleased
Herodandhisguests.80
EventhenameSalomeisomittedfromtheNewTestamentaccount,sheissimply
knownasthedaughterofHerodiasandPhilipandthusthestepdaughterofPhilips
brotherHerodAntipas,anditisonlythroughJosephusthatweknowherasSalome,
althoughhedoesnotcreditherwithadancethatresultsinthedeathoftheBaptist.81
DespitethelatertraditionsthatgrewuparoundSalomeandherDanceoftheSeven
Veils(particularlyintheLateAntiqueandByzantineperiods),itisunlikelythat
intheirstcenturyadayoungnoblewomanofthehellenizedJewishcourtwould
haveperformedatamaleentertainment;indeeditisquestionableastowhethereven
queenHerodiaspresencewouldhavebeenconsideredacceptable.82Nevertheless,
thesubsequentlate-Victorianandearly-twentieth-centuryimageofapureyounggirl
sexualizedbyherveil-dancecontinuestobeappealing,anddoesmanagetocapture
theambiguityoftheeroticallyconcealingbutsimultaneouslyconspicuousveil.After
all,theSalomemythdrawsontheancientHerodoteantheorythatawomansheds
hermodestywithherclothing;inSalomescase,heryouthfulinnocenceiscastoff
insevenlayers,andashersevenveilsfalltotheloor,systematicallyrevealingmore
ofherbody,hersexualityanddesirablefertilityarefullyexposed.83
TheeroticismoftheancientGreekveildependsontheideathatitcoversand
concealsthefemalebodyandkeepsitchasteandsecure.Butinconcealingtheigure,
the same veil highlights the bodys sexualityandmakesitdesirable.Menexpect
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womentoveilinorderthattheycanbeunveiled.Veilingtemporarilydeniesmen
accesstowomenssexuality,buttherebuffitselfisaneroticturn-on.Womenand
girlscantoywiththisveilinginadeliberate(evenprofessional)bidtoarousemale
desire,ortheymayunwittinglycontributetotheeroticizationofveilingsimplyby
conformingtosocialnorms.Inthatcasetheeroticdisplaycentreduponveilingcan
beentirelyunselfconscious.Whateverthecase,theveil,sooftendescribedinGreek
texts as glistening, gleaming, and dazzlingly-white, is linked to desirable female
fertilityandsexualityandishighlyconspicuous.
Veiledanger,concealedgrief
Theuseoftheeye-catchingveilcanoftenhighlightotheremotionsorsituations,
because veiling can express anger and grief.84 In Euripides Medea, for example,
accordingtothereportthatthemessengerbringstoMedea,uponJasonsarrivalinto
Glaukesbridalhouse,theprincesswasoverjoyedtoseeherprospectivehusband.But
herelationquicklyturnedtoangerwhensherealizedthatJasonwasaccompaniedby
thetwochildrenbornetohimbyhisforeignwife.AtthesightoftheboysGlaukes
physicalresponsetoherangerisvisuallymanifestedbyheractionofdrawingher
veilacrossherface:
Afterwards,though,sheveiledhereyes,hercheekturnedwhite,andsheturnedherself
awayfromhim,sodisgustedwassheatthechildrencomingthere.Butyourhusband
triedtoendthegirlsbadtemperandsaid,Youmustnotlookunkindlyonyourlovedones.Ceasebeingangry.Turnyourheadtomeagain.Takeasyourloved-onesthesame
onesthatyourhusbandhas.Andtakethesegifts,andbegyourfathertoreprievethese
childrenfromexile.Doitformysake.85

Glaukesactionservestwopurposes:irstly,herveilingseparatesherfromcircumstancesthatsheconsidersundesirable,sothatthepresenceofMedeaschildrenand
theshameofhavingtoacknowledgethempubliclyaresimultaneouslyremovedby
theblockageimposedbytheveil.Secondly,Glaukesveilingandenforcedseparation
isnotintendedtobeaprivateact,becauseherpublicdemonstrationofdeliberate
concealmentandseparationisintendedtoinformanyviewersaboutheremotional
state, in this case, her anger. By her action Jason is immediately made aware of
Glaukestemperamentandisforcedtoquellherragethereandthen;heisfully
awarethatbyveilingherselfGlaukeismakingapublicdisplayofherdispleasureat
thehumiliationofhavingtoreceiveherrivalsoffspring.
AsimilarreasoningaccountsforanincidentofmaleveilingrecalledbyHerodotus
whostatesthattheexplanationofwhyDemaratuslefthishomelandforMedialay
inhispublichumiliationinthetheatreattheGymnopaidiaiwhenLeotychidas,
who had taken over the kingship in his stead, insulted him by calculatingly
drawing attention to his diminished status. Angry and embarrassed, Demaratus
veiledhisheadandleftthetheatre.86HerodotusmakesitclearthatDemaratus
angryresponsewasadirectresultofthehumiliationhesufferedinpublic,which
makeshisreactionandhissubsequentveilingnotdissimilartothatofGlauke.The
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Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
princessandtheex-kingveilthemselvestoperformasymbolicforcedseparation
fromtheirsurroundingsandtomakeanovertpublicdemonstrationoftheiranger.
Thisheatedwithdrawalbehindtheveilisasblatantasthesexualanderoticmessages
thattheveilcanalsoemit.
This angry concealment within the folds of aveil is, of course, aparticularly
striking feature of the iconography of the heroes Akhilleus and Aias, and may
wellhaveinluencedtheirportrayalthiswayontheAthenianstage.87Yetinthe
IliadAkhilleusdoesnotveilhimselftoexpresshisangerbutinsteadhephysically
withdrawsfromthecompanyofhisfellowAchaeanstocommunicatehismood.88
Similarly,inSophoklesAjaxtheherospendsmuchoftheirsthalfoftheplaywithin
histent,bemoaninghishumiliationinawaythat,accordingtoTekmessasreport,
heusuallyscorns.89Buttheveryactofseparationandwithdrawalindoorsfeminizes
theheroes,justastheactofveilingcanfeminizeaman;amansseclusionindoors
orbeneathaveilreducesamantothestatusofawoman,forwhatisawomanafter
allbutadishonouredman?90
VeilingasanexpressionofangercanoftenbefoundintheGreektextsaspartof
awiderstandardpatternofangerwithdrawalreturn.IntheIliad,forexample,in
additiontoAkhilleusangryalienation,Meleagersfuryathismotherisexpressed
byhiswithdrawalfromsocietyintothebedroomofhiswife,Kleopatra.Theelders
oftheAetoliansbeghimtocomeoutandaidtheirightagainsttheKoureteswho
arelayingsiegetothecityofKalydon,andtheirentreatiesarelaterreinforcedby
Meleagersfatherandevenbyhismother,butitisonlywhenKleopatrainformshim
aboutthedevastatingsackofKalydonthatheisinallystirredintoactionbydonning
hisarmourandenteringthefray.91
ThesamethemeisfamouslyfollowedintheHomericHymntoDemeter,where
thegoddessangerattheabductionofherdaughterismanifestedinheriratewithdrawalirstfromtheothergodsandthenfrommankind,beforehereventualreturn
todivineandhumansociety.Hermenis,orwrath,isshowninaphysicalseparation
fromthosearoundherandinthehighlyvisibleactofveiling.92Whenthegoddess
hearsthatherdaughterisnotdeadbutheldcaptiveinHades,Demetersgestureof
coveringherselfwithablackveilsigniieshertransformationfromthepassivestate
ofsorrowintoanactivestateoffury.ThelanguageemployedintheHymnstresses
herangerassheripsoffherkredemnonandthrowsonakalumma:
Sharpgriefseizedherheart,andsherippedtheveil(kredemna)fromherambrosialhair
withherownhands.Shethrewadarkveil(kalumma)overbothhershouldersandsped
likeabirdoverdrylandandsea,searching.93

IntheHymntoDemeter,theplot-patternofthegoddesswrath,withdrawal,
andreturnservestobringtheworldsofmortalsandimmortalstogetherforabrief
moment and there are similarities between the menis of Demeter in the Hymn
andthatofAkhilleusinthe Iliad.Themenisofboththegoddessandthehero
ultimatelystemsfromtheabductionofawoman(KoreorBriseis)whobecomes
thewifeorconcubineoftheabductor(HadesorAgamemnon)andthesubsequent
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withdrawaloftheheroandthegoddessbringsaboutimmenselossesfortheGreeks
andadevastatingfaminethroughouttheworld.Inepictradition,Akhilleusmenis
isexpressedbyhisdeparturefromtheield,althoughbytheclassicalperiodhis
angerisarticulatedbytheuseofveiling,butDemetersangerisexplicitlypublicizedthroughheractofveiling;sheremainsenvelopedinherdarkkalummauntil
hermenisisappeasedandhergriefisinallydispelled.Thecombinationofanger
andgriefpromptsherbehaviourthroughoutlines195205oftheHomericHymn
where, until she is amused by Iambes jests, she rejects all social interaction by
refusingtosit,byavoidingeye-contactandthen,wheninallyseated,byveiling
herself,remainingsilent,andrefusingsustenance.Onceagain,herveiledalienation
hastheeffectofdrawingotherstoher.Thesegesturesofinactivityanddeliberate
withdrawalare,ofcourse,themythicaloriginfortheEleusinianmysteryrituals,
butarenonethelessmotivatedonapersonalandemotionallevelforthegoddess
oftheHymn.94
At Phygalia in Arkadia, the goddess was worshipped in this angry aspect as
DemeterMelania(TheDark)andwasseenasagoddesswhoveiledherselfbecause
ofthegriefshesufferedatthelossofKoreandbecauseoftheintenseangershefelt
atherownsexualviolationbyPoseidon.95PausaniasalsorecordsthatDemeterwas
worshippedbytheThelpusiansasDemeterErinys(TheFury)because,asshewas
searchingforherdaughter,shewasrapedbyPoseidonandbecamesoenragedthat
shewasgiventhetitleErinysincommemorationofherdivinewrath.96Demeter
inhertwoaspectsofMelaniaandErinysisseenasavengeful,wrathfulgoddess
conspicuouslywrappedinblackveils.97
Thereisonemorecandidateinepicforveilingasanexpressionofanger:Thetis.
AtBook24oftheIliad,lines8796,Thetiswishestodistanceherselffromtheother
godsandexpresseshermoodbythedonningofablackkalumma:
Iris the swift-foot came close beside her and spoke to her: Rise Thetis. Zeus whose
purposesareininitecallsyou.InturnThetisthegoddess,thesilver-footed,answered
her:Whatdoeshe,thegreatgod,wantwithme?Ifeelshametominglewithimmortals,
andmyheartisgrievedwithsorrows.ButIwillgo.Nowordshallbeinvainifhesaysit.
Soshespoke,andshiningamongdivinitiestookupherblackveil,andthereisnodarker
garment.Shewentonherway,andinfrontofherrapidwind-footedIrisguidedher.98

ThetisdispositioncanbedecipheredbecauseitissoneatlyparalleledbyDemeters
actionandmood,andalsobecausetheIliadpresupposesthatThetisisunforgiving
inherhatredforZeus,thegodwhoabandonedherandgaveherinmarriageto
amortalman.Akhilleus,themortalchildofherunionwithPeleus,canneverclaim
thelordshipoftheuniverseandmustthereforebecontentwithhislotastheforemost
oftheheroes.SinceThetisgriefcannotbeatAkhilleusdeath,thenitmustbeatthe
lossofwhatshethinksshouldrightlybehers,namely,herchildsdivinity.AccordinglySlatkinarguesthat,Theimageofthegoddesstakingupherkalummakuaneon
maybeseenasalludingtotheimplicitthreatofmenis.ThatThetiswearsadark
[veil]accordswithherhavingacosmicpotentialforrevenge.99
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Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
However, Cairns has questioned whether the goddess emotional state in this
passage is really one of anger, although he concedes that there is some parallel
withDemetersdarkkalumma anditsassociationwithanger.100Itmaybebetterto
regardThetisveilingasamanifestationofherfeelingsofgriefandangercombined,
amixed emotion aroused by the imminent loss of ason unjustly condemned to
fragilemortality.Fateoftendealsabitterblowtomothersinepicandtragedyandit
issomethingofacommonplacetoindthedespairofamothergrievingthedeathof
achildturnintosomethingmorepowerfulasgriefgiveswaytobitterwrath.101
VeilingasanexpressionofangerisforthemostpartalientoWesternthought.
Itiscommoninsomemodernveil-societieshowever,mostnoticeablyamongmale
Tuaregwhohaveadoptedstylesofdrapingthetagelmusttocreateacomplexset
ofsignalsforanindividualsmoodandstatus.Whenevermalehonourisatstake,
aTuaregmanwillveilmuchofhisface,exposingonlyhiseyes,thebridgeofhisnose
andcheekbonesinagesturecalledamawal,orguard,anactwhichisunderstood
toprotecttheindividualshonour.Amoreaustereformofveilingcalledtemedert
(reserve)createsabarrierwhichismeanttobereadasaforcethatcompelsrestraint
andrestriction.102
FortheTuareg,veilingandhonourarecloselyconnected,arelationshipthatis
alsostressedintheGreeksources.Topossessaidosmeansthatoneisawareofhow
topresentoneselftoothersandhowtoshowalevelofregardandrespectthatcanbe
expressedbyloweringtheeyesorveilingthehead.Tobeanaides,however,istobe
unconcernedwithhowoneappearstoothersanddeliberatelytoinitiateeyecontact
incircumstanceswhichareconsideredinappropriate.103FortheGreeks,angerwas
frequentlyconnectedwithhonour,sothatasanexpressionofanger,veilingcan
beregardedasabreachofnormalreciprocity.Whenoffended,theaffrontedparty
breaksoffcommunicationwiththecommunityandstepsoutsidebyveilingorby
some other act of physical removal. Aman veils when honour is impugned but
awoman,whosehonourisalwaysmarredwhencomparedwiththatofmen(especiallyhermalekin),shouldideallyremainindoorsorcircumspectlyveiled.However,
sheispermittedtoexpressheranger,shame,oremotionalstate,andconsequently
adisplayoftheseemotionscanbeachievedthroughtheconspicuousactofveiling
inpublic.Thatactmighttaketheformofreplacingoneveilwithanotherinthe
caseofDemeterandThetisitmeanscastingoffanormalveilandreplacingitwith
ablackone.104
Theveiloftears
Theso-calledAltarofKleomenesdatestothesecondcentury(butispossiblybased
on an earlier classical model); it depicts the sacriice of Iphigeneia (Fig. 172). It
shows abearded male possibly Kalkhas veiling or unveiling Iphigeneia, who
isaccompaniedbyanakedyouthprobablyAkhilleus.Onthefarright,standing
beneathatree,isAgamemnon;hisheadandfaceareveiledandheraiseshishands
tohisheadinanattitudeofjointgriefandshamebroughtaboutbyhisallowinghis
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Fig.172.ThesacriiceofIphigeneiadepictedontheAltarofKleomenes.
AfterRumpf1953.

daughtertobesacriicedtoArtemis.105AwallpaintingfromtheHouseoftheTragic
PoetatPompeiifamouslyrecallsthesamescene:thistime,though,Odysseusand
DiomedescarryofftheyounggirlwhileKalkhas,whoordainedthatthesacriicehad
tobemade,holdshishanduptohismouthinthetraditionalattitudeofconsternation.OntheedgeoftheRomancompositionstandsAgamemnon,hisfaceand
headveiledbyhisrobe.ThispaintingisnowgenerallyconsideredtobeaRoman
elaborationbasedonseveralclassicalGreekmodels,suchastheAltarofKleomenes,
althoughtheexamplethatimmediatelycomestomindisthe(nowlost)painting
created by the fourth-century artist Timanthes whom Pliny the Elder praises in
hisNaturalHistoryasbeingatrulyremarkableartistintermsofhisingenuityand
inventiveness.106Henotes:
Particularlyfamousowingtothepraisegiventoitbytheorators[i.e.,Cicero,Orator
74andQuintilian,Inst.Or.2.13.12]ishisIphigeneia,whomhedepicted,asshewas
abouttoperish,standingatthealtarwithotherslookingongloomily,especiallyheruncle
[Menelaos];he[Timanthes]hadexhaustedeveryexpressionofsadnessandhadveiledthe
faceofherownfather[Agamemnon],whomhecouldnotrepresentadequately.107

ItislikelythatTimanthesunderstoodhiscraftbetterthanPlinygiveshimcredit
for:bychoosingtoconcealAgamemnonsfacebeneathaveil,theartistskilfully
drew attention to the fathers plight and allowed the spectators of the scene to
imagineagriefmoreintenseanddesperatethancouldbeportrayedbyconventional
means.WhatbecomesclearfromFig.172isthattheanonymoussculptorchose
tofollowTimanthesbrilliantexampleandskilfullyappliedthesameconvention
tohiscarvedrelief.
Artisticmeritaside,itisinterestingtonotehowtheigureoftheveiledandgriefstrickenAgamemnonimmediatelydrawsthegazeoftheviewer(despitehisplacement
atthepicturesedge);theveiledigureelicitsanemotionalresponsefromtheobserver.
Nodoubt,followingonfromTimanthesoriginalidea,thiswasthereactionanticipatedbytheartist.FortheoriginalGreekspectator,animageofemotionalsuffering
couldbeconveyedinpictorialshorthandbytheuseofaconcealingveil.
Veilingwasaculturallyapprovedexpressionofgriefatthedeathofaloved-oneor
comrade.Moregenerally,itwasusedritualisticallyandsymbolicallytoacknowledge
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Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
andemphasizedistressandapprehension.Thereweredevelopments,ofcourse,in
theattitudestopublicdisplaysofgriefthroughoutGreekhistory,butbytheclassical
periodtheactofcoveringtheheadorfaceasasignofsorroworanxietywasde
rigueurforbothsexes,almostdemandedbyetiquette,infact.Itseemsthattheinitial
coveringoftheheadandfacewasjustonestageintheriteofmourningandwas
perfectfordrawingattentiontoonesplight.108Thisexpressiveveilingworkedin
twoways:ithadthefamiliareffectofcuttingofftheveiledindividualfromsociety,
whilesimultaneouslydrawingattentiontohisorherdilemma.WeindthatPriam,
Hekabe,andIolausliewiththeirheadsveiledinsorrow,109Amphitryonsitswith
hisrobecoveringhiseyes,grievingattheresultsofHeraklesitofmadnessandthe
deathsofhischildren,110andtheherohimselfveilshisfacewhenhecomestohis
sensesandbeginstounderstandhisatrociousactions.111Elektracoversherfaceto
weepindespairforOrestesfrenzy,112andthechorusofslavewomenintheLibation
BearersandthechorusofsailorsintheAjaxveiltheirfacesenmasse.113Additionally,veilingalsoexpressesanindividualsemotionalreactiontoastressfulsituation:
OdysseuscovershimselfinhispharoswhenhehearsthesadsongsofDemodokos
fromacombinationofshameandsuffering,andinalike-father-like-sonscenario
inSparta,TelemakhosveilshiseyesasheremembersOdysseus.114Theoldslave
intheIoncovershisfaceandweepsforKreousaspoignantchildlessstate,115while
IphigeneiaandPolyxenahidetheirtearsbeneaththeirveilsastheycryabouttheir
ownsadpredicaments.116InCharitonsnovel,CallirhoeandChaereasweepandveil
themselvesattheslightestprovocation.117
Finally,veilingisdonebythoseonthepointofdeath;thecoveringofthefaceatthis
momentforeshadowstheultimateseparationthatdeathwillbring.Mostfamously
PlatosSokratesveilshimselfatthemomentofdeath(brielyunveilingtodeliverhis
lastfamouswords),118andPlutarchalsorelatesthesimilareventssurroundingthe
near-deathexperienceoftheifth-centuryphilosopherAnaxagoras:
ItissaidthatatatimewhenPerikleswasabsorbedinpublicaffairs,Anaxagoraswho
wasbythenanoldmanwithnoonetocareforhim,tooktohisbedandveiledhisface,
determinedtostarvehimselftodeath.WhenPeriklesheardthenews,hewashorriied
and rushed to the poor man and begged him to live. He used every argument and
entreatyandlamentednotexactlyatAnaxagorasfate,butathisown,ifheshouldnow
losesuchatrustedcouncillorinmattersofgovernment.AtthisAnaxagorasunveiled
andsaid,Perikles,evenalamphasoilputintoitbythosewhoneedit.119

Byveilingjustpriortodeath,individualsremovethemselvesfromreality(solong,
thatis,astheyresistthetemptationtoraisetheveilanddeliveronelastpieceof
advice).Theyprematurelytakeontheappearanceofacorpse,whichwascustomarily
veiledbyashroudoragarment.120Whenamandied,blackdarknesswassaidto
haveveiledhiseyes121;thusAntigonesaystoherdeadfather,Nowyouareveiledin
eternaldarkness.122Theassociationoftheveil,orofveilingtheheadandface,with
deathissuchacommonfeatureofGreekliteraturethatitprobablyhadaparallel
phenomenoninactualburialpractice.Thecustomaroseofwrappingaclotharound
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thecorpsesheadandtheclothitselfmayhavereplacedthedeathmasksofearlier
generations. There was certainly atradition of imagining the personiication of
Deathaswearingorholdingsomekindofhead-covering.AsfarbackastheHesiodic
ShieldofHerakles,Deathwasenvisagedwearingadogskinonhishead.123
Unlikemen,womenwereexpectedtobeveileddaily.Intheircase,therefore,
conspicuous inversion of the normal state required the casting off of the veil as
apublic display of loss. This is the case in the Iliadic examples of Hekabe and
Andromakhe.AiskhylosalsousesfemalegriefasafocusforlamentationinhisPersai,
sothatthemalechorusofwailingPersianeldersrecountshowthecitadelofKissa
echoestothemourningcriesofwomenwhoteartheirinelinenrobesinanguish.124
Aiskhylosreferstotheuseofveilsinmourningritual:
OZeusmyking,nowyouhavedestroyed
ThearmyofthePersians
Whocouldboastsomanymen?
AndyouhaveshroudedthecitadelofSusaandAgbatana
Overwithgriefandgloom.
Therearemanywomentearingtheirveils(kaluptras)
Withtheirsofthands,
Soaking,drenchingtheirbreasts
Withtears,takingtheirshareofthepain.125

HerethewomenofSusaaresaidtobetearingtheirveilsintwo,ratherthansimply
throwingthemofftheirheads.However,thereisnothingexpresslyPersianabout
theact;itisanappropriateactionforanywomanindiredistressanditisevoked
bySapphowhoinstructsyoungwomentobeattheirbreastsandteartheirrobesas
theylamentthedyingAdonis.126Aiskhylosuseofkaluptreinthiscontext,itcould
beargued,isatypicaladaptationofepicusageandthemotifofrendingtheveilis
onethatisalreadyfamiliartohisGreekaudience.Heusesthesamemotifinhis
Suppliants,astheDanaidesrendtheirveilsindespair:
ManytimesIlaymyhandsuponmySidonianveil(Sidoniakaluptra)andtearthelinen
intorags.127

Thetearingoftheveilisagesturethatifth-centuryAtheniansocietywouldknow.
ThewomenofAiskhylosSusabehaveinaveryGreekway.128
Ofcourse,itishardtoknowwhethersuchgestureswereanacceptedpartofreal
life,orwhethertheabandonmentortearingofaveilwasanartefactofepicand
tragicinvention.129Yetinordertowringpathosandunderstandingfromanaudience
(maleorfemale),epicandtragicpoetsverylikelyusedcontemporaryconventions
thatspokedirectlytothoseattendingtherenditionofafamousmyth.Athenian
citizensmusthaveunderstoodthatthenatureofawomansuncontainedgriefcould,
indeedperhapsshould,beproperlyexpressedintheconspicuousabandonmentor
destructionofherveilintheirststageofheroutpouringofanguish.Theetiquetteof
thisirststageofmourningmayhaveprescribedadeliberateinversioninthenatural
orderofgenderedappearance:thatamanshouldnoticeablyindulgeintheactionof
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Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
coveringhimselfwithagarmentwhile,conversely,agrievingwomanshouldinitially
unveilherselfinademonstrativegesture(whichinpre-Solonictimesalsoseemedto
haveincludedthelacerationoftheskin).Withthisreversalofthegenderedlanguage
ofdressgoesaninversionintheprincipleofmalespeechandfemalesilence:the
veiledmancontainshisgriefbeneathhisveiland,ofnecessity,remainsmarkedly
silent,butthegrief-strickenwomanabandonsherveilwithanimmediateoutburst
ofsobs,criesandritualscreams.Bothactionsdeliberatelydrawontheattentionsof
observersandareaimedatmusteringsympatheticresponsesfromthem.130
Brilliantblackness
Theabandonmentoftheveilandtheassociatedoutpouringofdespairareonlythe
irststageintheritualprocessofmourning.Itseemstohavebeenregardedasde
rigueurforpeoplewhohadpassedthroughtheirstuncontrollableandtopsy-turvy
stateofgrieftoreturntoasemblanceofnormalityandtorestorethemselvestothe
naturalsocialorder.Inotherwords,oncetheinitialdisplayofgriefisinished,men
shouldoncemoreactlikemenandwomenshouldbehavelikeproperrespectable
wives,mothers,sisters,anddaughters.Thismeantthatmeninmourningshould
putasidetheirunrestrainedemotionaldisplaysofweeping,throwingthemselveson
theloor,coveringthemselvesindust,andveiling,andshouldconductthemselves
withamoreformalregardforselfcontrol.Women,whilegivengreaterfreedomto
continuetoexpresstheirdistress(whichsimultaneouslybolsteredthemalesenseof
naturalsuperiority),werenodoubtconstrainedtoshowacertaindegreeofsophrosyne
oncemoreandwereprobablyexpectedtore-veil.Iconographicsourcesseemtoreveal
thatatcertainritualssurroundingthedeathofanindividual,bothmenandwomen
wereinvolvedinthemourning,andarecentstudyhasdemonstratedthatthetwo
sexesappeartohavemournedindifferentways,withwomentakingonthemore
activeandovertattitudesofgrief.131Buttheperiodfollowingtheinternmentor
cremationofthedeceasedislessstudiedandlittleresearchhasbeenundertakenon
thenotionofaGreekmourningperiod.132WasthereaconceptioninvariousGreek
societiesthatindividualsorfamilieswhohadsufferedalossshoulddisplaytheirgrief
foraprotractedorevenprescribedperiodoftime?Unfortunatelyitisdificultto
know.Whatisclear,however,isthatindividualscouldwearblackclothesasamark
ofgriefandancienttextsalertustothefactthatgrievingwomeninparticularare
associatedwiththiscolour.133Blackisacolourthatweeasilyassociatewithdeath
andgrief,andhasbeensointheWestforcenturies.Itprobablyreachedaclimaxin
themid-Victorianperiodwhen,sinceupperandmiddleclassmenhabituallywore
black,itwasincreasinglylefttothewomenandchildrenofafamilytodemonstrate
thepublicfaceoffamilygrief.134
ItwouldbefoolishtoimposeontheGreekevidenceVictorianformsofpublic
mourning,butthereisenoughinthesourcestosuggestthatGreekwomenused
thecolourblackintheirdressasanindicationofgrief.Blackwasregardedasan
appropriate(ifnotsole)colourfordeathrituals.135
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Chapter10
Blackdoeshaveclosetieswithdeath:chthonicdeitiesareofferedsacriicesof
blackrams,heifers,goats,andpuppies;136dyingwarriorsbledblackbloodandwere
enclosedbyblackmists.137Griefandsorrowwerevisualizedasblack,138aswerethe
dangerouswavesthatswelledupfromthebowelsofthemysterioussea.139According
tothefamousmythofthereturnofTheseustoAthens,itwasablacksailhoisted
onthemastthatdroveAigeustothrowhimselfintotheAegean,thinkingthatit
heraldedhissonsdeath.140Blackwaspartoftheritualcostumeofdeathandlittle
childrendressedinblackrobestoserveattheshrineofHeraAkraiaatPerakhora
ontheoutskirtsofKorinthtoappeaseavengefuldemonwhokilledinfantsand
expectantmothersandtomournforthedeathsofMedeaschildren.141
IntheHomericHymntoDemeter,blackveilsandblackclothesarecentralto
thegoddesscharacterizationaswetraceherprogressfromherintroductionasthe
fair-tressedawesomegoddess,tothemomentofherdarkestdespairwhenshelearns
ofKoresabductionandripsthekredemnonoffherhead,replacingitwithablack
kalumma.Thedarkclothesofthegoddessarefundamentaltothestoryandconvey
Demetersgrief:
She,grievedinherheart,walkedwithherheadveiled(kekkalummene).Andthedark
peplosswirledaroundthefeetofthegoddess.142

ThetisalsodonsaveiloftotalblacknesstovisitthegodsonOlympus.Aunique
pictureofthedark-veiledThetiscanbefoundonalate-sixth-centuryhydriafrom
Caere which shows two black-veiled goddesses pleading their respective cases to
Zeus.143
Athenian tragedy also attests to the use of black clothing as an indication of
mourning. On his arrival home in Argos, for example, Orestes witnesses aparty
offemalelibation-bearersapproachingthegraveofhismurderedfatherconspicuouslyveiledinblackphare.144InThebes,QueenIokasteintentionallywearsablack
pharos-veilinsteadofawhiteoneasasignofmourning.Asshesaystoherlong-lost
sonPolyneikes:
Icutmywhitehairshortandletitfallloose,weepingtearsforyou,myson.Ineverwear
awhiteveil(pharos)now;insteadIputonthisolddisarrayedrag,murkyasnight.145

Onceagainwecansupposethattragiccharactersrelectthereal-lifesocialsituation;
the wearing of black garments and black veils was commonplace for women in
mourning and that ablack veil was considered the appropriate garment for the
deceasedonherjourneytotheunderworld.ThemourningwomenintheLibation
BearersandEuripidesgrievingThebanqueenallcontinuetoweartheirblackveils
longaftertragedyirststrikes:Polyneikeshasbeenabsentfromcourtforseveralyears,
whileAgamemnonhaslaidburiedbeneaththeearthforatleastadecade,ifnotmore.
Butthewomencontinuetomourninblackgarmentsasaittingandevidentsign
ofcivicdespairanddisorder.
The use of black veils at atime of emotional upheaval is noteworthy for the
Greekideathatthecolourblackisbrilliantlyintense.146Itisnottoberegardedas
306

Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
anabsenceofcolour(asblacksometimesisinmodernWesterntradition),forit
hasanexistenceandafunctionspeciictoitselfanditisevenseen,likewhite,asan
intensiierofothercolours.147
In epic we meet with the idea of darkness descending onto battleields and
surroundinganindividual(usuallyawarrior)inaveilofmist,cloud,ornight.This
blackveilisusuallycreatedbyadeity(mostoftenZeus,Hera,AtheneorAres)and
symbolizesallthatisbadorfeared:grief,disaster,peril,defeat,anddeath.Itisno
surprise,therefore,tohearHomerspeakofbanefulnightorevilmist.148Black
mistsandfogcanenshroudadyingwarrioronthebattleield,andblacknightcan
enfoldaheroinsleep;darkgriefenwrapsandenclosesbothmenandgodsandblack
wavescanenvelopswimmingheroes.Theverbsusedforalloftheseactionsaretaken
fromthestemkalup-,sothatitisfeasibletospeakofheroesandwarriorsbeing
veiledbydeath,veiledingrief,veiledindarknight,andevenveiledbyawave.
Blackness,darkness,andtheideaofveilingarecloselylinked,asarethenotionsof
whiteness,brilliance,andveiling.
In the often puzzling array of ancient Greeknotionsofcolour,blackisoften
imbuedwithnegativequalities,notablydeathandloss,whitewithpositiveproperties,inparticularsexualityandfertilityButbothcoloursareseenasappropriatefor
naturaloccurrenceslikeclouds,mists,andwaterand,asanextensionofthis,they
areusedfornatureveilsandforthecorrespondingphysicalveilswornbywomen
indailylife.Theseblackandwhiteveilsaredeliberatelywornbywomenwhoneed
torelectasocialsituationoraninternalfeelingandtheyarepurposefullyintended
toattracttheattentionofanonlookerwhoisexpectedtoreadasocialmessagein
thewomanschoiceofclothing.
Womenwhochoosetowearblackveils,likethegrievingThebanmothersonthe
ChalkidianamphoraofFig.128,dosobecausetheywanttopassonthemessagethat
theygrieve.Byusingthesocialsemioticsoftheblackveil,mourningwomendraw
attentiontothemselvesandtotheirplightsandsolicitthesupportofothers.
Adeliberateactofpublicveilingcansendoutthemessagethatthewearerisangry
andshouldnotbeapproached.Thisconspicuousveilingisutilizedbybothsexesbut
womentendtoveilthemselvesinblackgarmentstostrengthenthemessage.Thisis
alsoaphenomenonofmourningdressforwomen;thecolourblackwasregardedas
astrongandvividcolourbytheGreeksandwasusedinmourningdresstoemphasize
thepublicnatureofanindividualsgriefandthefactthatshewasseparatedfrom
hersociety.
Conclusion
Intheactsofveilinghighlightedinthischapterveilingandsexuality,veilingand
anger,andveilingandgriefthemotionofraisingtheveilovertheheadoracross
thefacebecomesapublicgesture.Heretheveildoesnotrenderthewearerinvisible,
butinsteadmakesaconspicuousdisplayoftimelyemotion.

307

Chapter10
Notes

Seeabove,Chapter6.
Ashasalreadybeennoted,forexample,withthereactiontoPhilippusveilinginPlatos
Symposium.
3
TacitusAnnals13.45.Trans.Grant1956,withamendments.
4
Bayley2001,2845.
5
SeeShirazi2001,3961.
6
Theideathatconcealingclothesaretobeimaginedasateaseoraturn-onisapoint
endorsedbyLurie1981,212,whoclaimsthat,Itiscertainlytruethatcertainpartsofthe
humanformconsideredsexuallyarousingareoftencoveredinsuchawayastoexaggerateand
drawattentiontothemPeople[clothedinlayers]affectusjustasabirthdaypresentdoes:
werecurious,turnedon;wewanttoundothepackage.SeefurtherShirazi2001,567.
7
Flgel1930.Forafurtherdiscussionofhistheoryoftheshiftingerogenouszoneinthe
contextofGreekartanddressseeLlewellyn-Jones2001.
8
Lacan1977,314:Theverydelimitationoftheerogenouszone,thatthedriveisolates
fromthemetabolismofthefunction,istheresultofacutexpressedintheanatomicalmark
ofamarginorborder-lips,theenclosureoftheteeth,therimoftheanus,thetipofthe
penis,thevagina,theslitformedbytheeyelids,eventhehorn-shapedapertureoftheear.
9
Seeabove,Chapter9.
10
QuotedinMakhlouf1973,93.HebrewpoetryoftheOldTestamentalsocontains
imagesinwhichtheveilservesasasexualstimulant.SeeSongofSongs4.1,3.
11
Lambin1999,219.
12
JohnChrys.InepistulamadTim.I13.434.PG.62.542.Trans.Hartney2002,with
amendments.Chrysostomstextseemstoenvisagetwoveils,contrastinginblackandwhite,
beingwornovertheheadandperhapsacrossthefaceiftheimageoftherollingeyesistohave
fullimpact.ForadiscussionofChrysostomsattitudestofemaledressseeHartney2002.
13
Aristaenetus2.2.111.
14
Aristaenetus2.18.18.
15
CitedinBottingandBotting1995,58.InOmantheuseoftheburqaaoftenhasthe
effectofthrowingtheeyesintorelief.SeethecommentsmadebyWikan1982,98:Timeand
againIwasstruckbythemarvellousingenuityofthiscloakingdeviceinbeautifyingnotso
beautifulwomen.Irememberonecaseinparticular,aBaluchwomanofstrikingbeauty.She
seemedtohavethemostsuperblybalancedfacialfeatures,andeyesofenrapturing,magnetic
beautywhenwearingtheburqaa.Iwasstruckwithsurpriseanddisappointmentwhen,one
day,shepresentedherselfwithouttheburqaatohaveherphotographtaken.Gonewasthe
wonder.Shehadbeentransformedintoanordinarywomanofordinarygoodlooksher
facetoosquare,herfeaturestoocoarse;but,mostimportantly,hereyeswerenolongerin
focus,andtheirradiantmagnetismwasgone.
16
Makhlouf1979,33.
17
Ibid.35.
18
CharitonCall.8.1.78.Trans.Goold(loeb)1995.
19
e.g.,PindarOl.6.76;Theognis13313.SeediscussionsinMacLachlan1993,323,
6970,10910.Theeroticaspectofmalesophrosyne isalsodiscussedbyHumble1999.
20
HesiodW&D71.
21
SuchastheimageswearegivenofKirkeandKalypsoatOd.5.2302;10.5435.
22
HH5.615,1613;6.55.
23
Jacobson1987,16.
1
2

308

Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
SeePenglase1994,278.
Seux1976,39.
26
Il.14.1845.Trans.Lattimore1951,withamendments.
27
WolksteinandKramer1993,44ff.
28
Hes.Theog.574.
29
Apol.Rhod.Argo.8345.
30
Od.18.21213.Trans.Lattimore1965.
31
PorphyryonOd.1.332[DicaearchusF92Wehrli].IamgratefultoMalcolmHeathfor
alertingmetothispassage.
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
34
Il.3.15460.Trans.Dakyns1914,withamendments.AlexanderPopes1743editionof
thepoemconjuresupthecorrectatmosphere:These,whentheSpartanqueenapproachd
thetowr/Insecretowndresistlessbeautyspowr:/Theycryd,Nowonder,suchcelestial
charms/Forninelongyearshavesettheworldinarms;/Whatwinninggraces!What
majestickmien!/ShemovesaGoddess,andshelooksaQueen!
35
Xen.Cyr.5.1.57.
36
ForPenelopesbeautyseeOd.18.24851.Forherreluctancetoappearbeautifulsee
Od.18.17181.Sittingontheground,seeOd.4.24851.ForadiscussionofthePanthea
novellaseeGera1993,221ff.
37
Nagler1974,59.
38
Seeabove,Chapter5.
39
LSJs.v.liparov".
40
HH2.438.Cf.Hes.Theog.44052.
41
HH2.459.ThesameepithetisusedoftheNymphsandKhariteswhoadornAphrodite
priortoseduction(Kypriafr.6.)andoftheNereidKhariswho,asthewifeofHephaistos,
greetsThetisasshereachesMountOlympus(Il.18.382),althoughintheseinstancesthe
fertilityelementisnotasimportantasthegeneralfeelingofbeauty.
42
Il.18.382
43
HH24.3.
44
Nagler1974,58,n.44.
45
Il.22.406.OntheassociationbetweenfertilityandmoistureseeGiacomelli1980,119
andStewart1997,1289.CallimichusdescribesApolloshairasgivingoffhealingoils.The
samenotionofwetnessisfoundintheLatintermnitidus(gleaming)appliedtothehead
orhair.SeeHoraceCarm.1.4.9;Tibullus1.8.16,1.7.51;VirgilGeorg.4.337;OvidHer.
20.166.InHebrewtraditiontheanointingofthekingsheadwithoilissimilarlymeantto
invokefertility.SeeISam.10.1(Saul),16.13(David).
46
MacLachlan1993,34.
47
ForadiscussionofkharisandlightseeMacLachlan1993,35.Muchoftheshining
qualityisfocusedontheheadandhair:thestephanethatcrownstheheadsofGreekgoddesses
highlightsthebeautyandvitalityoffemalehairwithepithetslikegold-crowned(HH6.1,
ofAphrodite)andfair-crowned(HH2.295,ofDemeter).TheSudaconnectstheideaof
theHomericglisteningveiltoerotickharis,s.v.Liparokrhvdemno".
48
See,forexample,Il.20.94ff.(alightofdeliverance).Theotherwordsusedforwhite
byHomerareargosandleirioeis.
49
Aristot.DeAn.418b11;Sens.439a18.
50
Liparenkaluptre:Il.22.406;liparokredemnon:Il.18.382;Od.1.334,13.388,16.416,
24
25

309

Chapter10
18.210,21.65;HH225,438,459.Sun-white:Il.14.185.Addtothisreferencestothe
pharosshininglikethesunormoon:Od.24.148.ForadiscussionseeShelmerdine1995.
51
Ibid.104.
52
Od.7.107.SeecommentsbyShelmerdine1995,101.
53
Il.18.5956.
54
Shelmerdine1995,102.
55
ForthegenderedaspectsofdanceseeNaerebout1997;Delavaud-Roux1994;Lawler
1964.
56
vanNieuwkerk1995,95178.
57
Seeabove,Chapter5.
58
ForadiscussionoftheGeisha-clientrolesseeDalby1983,165ff.NeverthelesstheGreek
vaseportrayalsandterracottaimageswehaveofveileddancersmaynotnecessarilyrepresent
womenofthedemimondeatall,since,asLawler1964,113suggests,Itispossiblethat
theseattractiveiguresdonotrepresentdancersofanyonetype,butareratherevidenceof
thefactthatGreekwomenwhenparticipatingindances,wereusuallymodestlyclad.
59
Oakley1990,38.
60
SeeGalt1931,35,ig.1.
61
Robertson1979b.Itisjustiiabletointerpretthepresenceofthedwarfinareligious
context because we know that dwarfs, by their usually disturbing appearance and social
marginality,couldhaveaveryspecialplaceinthereligioussystemsofvariousGreekcommunities.DiscussedbyDasen1993,236ff.
62
Ibid.237.He suggests that this painting can be compared with akrater scene from
Chiusiwhereaveiledmaenadisadvanceduponbyagroupofsatyrsadoptingthesame
stanceastheOxforddwarf.
63
SeeBrumield1991,10431.
64
Dasen1993,2303.
65
Iamremindedoftheunusualsceneoftheveiledwomanandtheseatedmonkeyonthe
NolanAmphorainFig.147.
66
EquallypuzzlingisascenethatshowsawingedNikeperformingaveil-danceinfront
ofagroupofsatyrs,Aphrodite,andPan.Themeaningoftheimagemayalludeus,butit
isclearthatNikeadoptsthetypicaltwisting,raised-armposeofother,mortal,veil-dancers
andconcealsherfaceinordertoexposehereyesinthemanneroftheMountHolyoak
womenandtheOxfordoinochoeperformer.FordetailsseeBoardman1989,191.Aveiled
NikeisalsofoundinaNorthAfricanmosaicofc.18090ad(TheFourSeasonsMosaic).
SeeYacoub1995,129.
67
RobinsonandGraham1931,69:Insomecasesitwouldseemthatthereisareligious
signiicanceintheveiling,andthatdancersoftenveiledpartoftheirfaces.
68
Thompson1950,379,383.
69
Ibid.383.SheillustratesherpointwiththeexampleofMarcAntonywho,Plutarchsays,
usedtodresshimselfandKleopatrainservantsclothesandwanderthestreetsofAlexandria
indisguise(Plut.Ant.29.1ff.).Masqueradedoesseemtohavebeensomethingofapenchant
forAntonywho,Plutarchonceagaintellsus,oncedressedasaslaveandvisitedhisownhouse
atnightsayingthathewasthebearerofamessagetoFulvia.Hewasadmittedtohiswifes
presencewithhisfaceveiledanddelightedinrevealinghistrueidentitymuchtoFulvias
surprise.SeePlut.Ant.10.9.1andalsoCicero,Phil.2.75ff.wherethefeminineaspectsof
theveiledAntonyareexpounded(Cicerocallshimacatamite).
70
SeealsoFrontoOnOrations5:Asactors(i.e.,mimes),whentheydancecladinmantles

310

Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
with one and the same mantle representing aswans tail, the tresses of Venus, aFurys
scourge.
71
Thompson1950,383.SeealsoFriedman1994,68,16forfurtherdiscussionofthe
dancersappearanceandperformance.
72
Weknowthatamoregeneraltypeofveilingwaspartofmimetradition:astorytoldby
AthenaeusrelatestokingAntiochusIVEpiphanesofSyriawho,itwouldappear,wasinthe
habitofthrowingelaboratepartiesforhiscourtiers.Thesewouldoftencontinueforseveral
hoursinhisabsence,butatthepointwhentheguestswerebeginningtodepart,themime
actorswouldcomeintothebanquetinghallcarryingaigurethekinghimselfentirely
wrappedinveils.Hewouldbedepositedonthegroundandasthemusicbegan,hewould
leapup,systematicallythrowingoffhisveilsanddancenaked,muchtotheembarrassmentof
hisguests.SeeAthenae.Deip.5.24.24;Polybius,14.11.Bevan1902,129notes:Antiochus
hadsomethingoftheBohemianinhim.ForAntiochusIVEpiphanesseealsoOgden
1999,143ff.Thekingsentranceintothepalaceshroudedinveilsputsoneinmindof
KleopatraVIIsfamedentryintoJuliusCaesarspresencewrappedinacarpet.
73
Philogelos251.
74
OndancetermsseeLawler1964,22ff.SeealsothediscussionbyFear1996.
75
AlkiphronLettersoftheCourtesans14[i.39]46.Trans.BennerandForbes(Loeb)
1949,withamendments.
76
Emmanuel1916,182.SeeBaldwin1983;Thierfelder1968.
77
Thedancemighthavebeenanelementofreallifepractice,buthereitisgivenamythologicalsettingasthestripteaseartisteiswatchedbythe(named)handsomeOlympos(who
accompaniesheronthepipes),byhismentor,thelecherousMarsyas,andbyaskipping
satyr.IntheupperregistersitsAphrodite,holdingamirror,whowatchesErosasheprepares
tocrownMarsyaswithalaurelwreath.FordetailsseeCarpenter1991,99,ig.135.For
eroticveil-dancingseeJarrett1997,59105.FortheveilemphasizingnudityseeEmmanuel
1916,27.
78
ForadiscussionoftheDanceoftheSevenVeilsinWesterntraditionfrom1893onwards
seeVogelsang-Eastwood1996a,179ff.;Bach1997,21062;Buonaventura1994,117ff.
79
Matt.14.311;Mark6.1728.
80
Mark6.22.
81
Jos.Ant.28.5.14.Kokkinos1998,givesherthetitleSalomeIII.Bach1997,213ff.,
comparesthestoryofthebeheadingtoanincidentrecordedbyPlutarchinwhichtheRoman
senator Lucius Flaminius beheaded acondemned prisoner at abanquet at the behest of
hislover(inoneversionofthestoryayoungboyinanotherayoungwoman).Ithasbeen
suggestedthatSalomesDanceoftheSevenVeilsisinfacttobeconnectedtotheancient
NearEasternmythofthegoddessItarwhocastoffsevengarmentsasshedescendedinto
theunderworld.ForadiscussionseeBuonaventura1983.
82
Bach1997,229.ForadiscussionoftheSalomestoryanditsdevelopmentunderthe
ByzantinechurchleadersseeWebb1997.
83
ButifHeroddidcallforhisstepdaughtertodanceathissymposium,thenitshowsthe
ambiguousnatureofhisdesireforSalome,ayoungprincesswhoperformsasahetaira.The
ambiguityofthegirlspositioninregardtohersexualityandtheprotectionthatsheshould
beexpectedtoreceiveathomeiscomparabletothatofAiskhylosIphigeneia(Ag.2437)
whoisparadedoutinfrontofherfathersgueststoperformapaean.Bothgirlsaredescribed
askore,andbotharetheobjectsoftheirfathersaffections,butbotharesexualizedforthe
malegazeastheyperformtheirentertainments.Foradiscussionoftheinherentlysexual

311

Chapter10
natureoftheSalomestoryinitsmythicalcontextseeKnapp1997,87110,andforthe
Iphigeneiamythseeibid.6985.
84
SeeinparticularCairns2001and2002.
85
Eur.Med.114755.
86
Hdt.6.67.
87
Seeabove,Chapter9.
88
Il.1.3067,32730,48892;9.35663,4289,6505,68292;16.613.
89
Soph.Ajax31720.
90
Aristot.Gen.An.728a1721.
91
Il.9.550607.
92
ForastudyofmenisseeWatkins1977.
93
HH23944.Trans.Lattimore1951.Slatkin1991,93hasnotedthat,thegoddess
deliberateassumptionofthedarkgarmentbetokensherdirespiritofretaliation,therealisationofherimminentwrath.IamgratefultoProfessorSlatkinforhergenerosityindiscussing
ideasonveiledanger.
94
ForveiledinitiatesseeChapter8.
95
Paus.8.42.14.
96
Paus.8.25.46.
97
ForadiscussionseeJohnston1999,25864.
98
Il.24.8796.Trans.Lattimore1951.
99
Slatkin,1991,96.
100
SeeCairns2001and2002.
101
Eur.Hec.1122ff.;Aes.Ag.155.ForadiscussionseeLoraux1998,50ff.
102
SeeHawad-Claudot1992,202andigs.218.
103
SeeCairns1993,989,158,21718.
104
SeefurtherCairns2002.Itshouldbestressedthatangry-veilingisusuallymanifested
asapublicreactiontoasocialsituation;thisiswhatenablesawomantomakethebold
gestureofunveilingandre-veiling.Onadailybasis,however,womenareinconspicuous
beneaththeirveilsandareregarded,aswehaveseen,asinvisibleaslongasmaleideology
wantsthemtoappearso,thatis.
105
SeefurtherLIMC5(1)720,no.42;LIMC5(2)474,no.42.SeealsoRumpf1953,
121.
106
SeeLing1991,1345;DeCaro1996,183.
107
PlinyNH35.73.Trans.Rackham1938.
108
SeevanWees1998b.
109
Il.24.15965;Eur.Hec.487;Heracl.604,633.
110
Eur.HF1111.
111
Ibid.1202(Heraklesmusthaveveiledhimselfattheendofhisspeechatline1162).
112
Eur.Or.280.
113
Aes.Ch.81;Soph.Aj.245.
114
Od.4.11416,1534;8.836,902.SeealsoPorphyryonOd.1.332:Odysseustoo
irmlyseizedthebigcrimsoncloakhewaswearing,drewapieceofitdownoverhishead
andveiledhiscountenance,ashamedthatthePhaeaciansshouldspythetearsthatstreamed
fromhiseye[Od.8.846].WhenthesongendedOdysseuswouldwipehistears,draw
backthecloakfromoverhisheadbutwhenthebardbeganoncemoreattheirwishthen
Odysseuswouldcoverhisheadagainandgroanandweep.
115
Eur.Ion967.

312

Thewhiteandtheblack:conspicuousveiling
Eur.IA1223;Hec.4324.
Chariton,Call.1.1.14.2,3.3.14.2,7.6.9.2.
118
PlatoPhaed.118a.16.
119
Plut. Per. 16.8. Cf. Plut. Cic. 47.9. Trans. Frazier 1906, with amendments. The
veilingoftheheadbythoseabouttodieisalsoanhomagetothemysterycultsaswellas
acknowledgingthecustomofPythagoraspupilswhoveiledtheirfacesduringhislectures
asthoughtheywerepresentatthemysteriesorelsesoremovedfromrealityandthereby
notdistractedbysightsandsoundsthattheirphysicalstates-of-beingimpingedondeath.
SeePlut.Mor.266E(10).SuchanactionisparodiedinPlatoPhaedr.237a,whereSokrates
speaksegkalupsamenosinordernottoseePhaedrusashetalks.Cf.Ar.Frogs911ff.
120
See,forexample,Soph.Tr.1078;Eur.El.1227;Tro.508;Men.Aspis346.Forshrouded
corpsesseeGarland1985,245.
121
Iliad13.425.
122
Soph.Oed.Col.1701.
123
ShieldofHerakles227.EarlyEtruscantraditionseemstohaveimagineddeathdemons
carryingapieceofclothwhichwasintendedtocoveracorpseorbewrappedaroundits
head.SeePoulssen1922,55ff.Centurieslater,theLatinpoetTibullusdescribesdarkDeath
appearingwithacoveredhead(tenebrisMorsadopertacaput).SeeElegies1.1.70.
124
Aes.Per.1205.
125
Ibid.53240.Trans.Hall1996.SeecommentsbyHall1996,147.
126
Sapphofr.140(a).12.Itshouldbeborneinmind,however,thatthecultofAdonis
originatesintheEastandmaywellhavepreserveditsearlytraditionsinthelaterGreek
practices.SeevanWees1998b,423,52n.66.
127
Aes.Supp.1201.
128
WehavetowonderhowthecharactersofPersaiweredressedforthatirstperformance.Throughouttheplaythereisreferencetoluxuriousdress,soitwouldbeproperto
envisage the chorus and the ghost of Darius looking particularly opulent in their robes.
Thisisindirectcontrast,ofcourse,totheshabbyappearanceofXerxeswhoarrivesbattered
andbruisedfromthebattleield.ButhowdidAiskhylosunderstandPersiandress?Were
hiscostumesmereartisticinterpretationsofPersianfashion?Heseemstohavehadsome
kindofunderstandingofPersiandress,sincethechorusrecountshowDariuswillappearin
yellowPersianslippersandatiara(6602).Hall1989,84,n.127,assumesthatcharacters
andchorusesofbarbarianoriginworeethnicallydifferentiatedcostumes.ThefamousPersai
vasedatingtothemid-fourthcenturycertainlyshowsDariusandhiscourtbedeckedin
awidearrayofPersianinery.Thereiseveryreasontosupposethatthedetailsofthevase
paintingwerebasedontherealityofaperformance.SeeTrendallandWebster1971,112.
Whatthevaselacks,however,isarepresentationofafemalePersiancharacter.Wehave
noideahowroyalwomen,likeAiskhylosAtossa,wererepresentedonthestage.Didthe
GreeksthinkthattherewasadistinctivecostumeforaPersianqueen?Ifsodiditresemble
anythingweindinthePersianevidence?DidAtossawearaveil?Isuggestthatgivenherrole
asmotherofXerxesandmotheroftheempire,andtheempathysheisexpectedtoshowfor
defeatedPersia,herwearingofaveilwouldhaveidentiiedherwiththemourningmothers
ofSusa.Moreover,ifshewerecastintheveinofIliadicroyalwomen,likeHekabe,thenthe
veilwouldhavebeenanessentialattribute.ForcostumesofOrientalsinAttictragedysee
Pickard-Cambridge1968,199ff.
129
vanWees1998b.41ff.asksthesamequestionofrepresentationsofgriefintheiconographicsources.
116

117

313

Chapter10
See,forexample,Eur.HF1198.
vanWees1998b.
132
Ratherthanamourningperiod,itispossibletoenvisageapollutionperiodfollowing
adeath.
133
PlutarchMor.609Bsuggeststhatthereisanacceptableperiodoftimewhenwomen
shouldwearmourninghairstylesandblack-dyedclothing.Forwomenandmourningsee
Vermeule1979,13ff.andStears1998.
134
SeecommentsinGoldthorpe1988,69ff.
135
Maxwell-Stuart1970,114,116conirms,Blackwasacolourwornonlyoncertain
speciicoccasionsorbymournersimmediatelyafteradeath Black[was]thecolourof
emotionaldisturbanceandoverwhelminggrief.
136
Od.10.571;Stat.Theb.4.445ff.SeefurtherHeadlam1902.
137
e.g.,Od.10.553.
138
Il.11.250;17.591;20.41718.
139
Il.23.693.
140
SeeDiod.Sic.4.61.4,67;Paus.1.22.5;Plut.Thes.22.1;Strabo8.7.4.
141
Paus.2.3.11.ForafulldiscussionseeJohnston1997.
142
HH21813.Seealsolines319,360,374,442.
143
SeeSchefold1992,26970.
144
Aes.Choe.1012.
145
Eur.Phoe.3226.
146
Melas is found 175 times in Homer alone, and in diverse usage. He applies it, for
example,toblood(Il.5.354),freshlyploughedland(Il.18.548),andwater(Od.4.359).
Bacchylidesattributesittoclouds(3.55),anelder-tree(8.33),aneye(16.17),andearth
(12.153).Hesiodusestheword14timesforearth(Th.69),hair(S.186),weapons(S.22),
andblood(S.252).Anothercommonwordforblackiskelainos.Homerusesitforblood(Il.
1.303),waves(Il.9.6),storms(Il.11.747),andtheearth(Il.16.384).Hesiodappliesitto
bloodandearth(S.153,172)andAiskhylostowaves(Eum.832)andEthiopians(PV808).
Interestingly,melasisacompoundofthewordmelathron,whichappearsincreasinglyinthe
classicalperiodtobeusedforadescriptionoftheinteriorofahouse.Asthedarknessofthe
houseenclosesthefamilyandprotectsthewomen,sothedarknessoftheveilenshroudsthe
mourningwomanandemphasizesherwithdrawal.
147
Pseudo-AristotleOnColours795b,25ff.Thus,blackisthecolourofelementsinthe
processoftransmutation.Pseudo-Aristotlethoughtthatitwasderivedfromdarknessand
thatthingsappearedblackwhentheywerenotseenatall,thatistosay,iftheyrelectedno
lighttotheeye,althoughthesurfacesurroundingthemmaybevisible.Therefore,things
from which little light is relected appear black, like shadows and rough water, because
theydonotrelectlightevenly.Cloudsandmassesofwatertoodenseforlighttopenetrate
appearblackbecausethelight-raystheyrelectarenegligible;sotocreateblack,adarkness
isrequired,sincetrueblackiscreatedoutoftheprivationoflight.
148
Il.16.567;Od.20.357.
130

131

314

11
CONCLUSION
Intheshiversofherclothesareherstories
Ofyearninganddesireandacharmingworld.
Andsheseesmefrombehindtheveil,
AndIknowwhatisbehindtheveil.
Butisshelaughingatme
Orisshesmilingatme?

AlSharai,Yemenipoet,

citedinMakhlouf1979,3.

InGreekculturefromthearchaicerathroughtotheRomanperiod,theveilingof
womenwasroutine.Anideologyofveilingwhichwasimposedandendorsedby
menwasprobablyadheredtobymostwomeninGreeksocietyasamatterofdaily
practice,atleastwhentheyappearedoutofdoorsorathomeinthecompanyof
strangemen.Becauseofitshabitualnature,veilingtendstobeunderplayedinthe
ancientandrocentricsources,exceptonoccasionswhenthemaleprinciplesofgender
constructionareviolatedandinverted,thatistosay,whenwomenunveilandmen
veil.Theapparentlackofsolidsourcematerialmeansthatthestudyofveilinghas
notenjoyedthefulltreatmentitdeservesincontemporaryclassicalscholarship.Also
wemaysuspectamorepoliticalreasonforscholarshipsreluctancetotackletheissue
ofancientGreekveilingpractices:coulditbethatWesternscholarshipisunwilling
toconcede(orevensuggest)thenotionthatGreekwomenwereveiledbecausethe
practiceconnectstheGreekstoocloselywiththetheOrientalOther?Thelackof
scholarlyattentionpaidtotheancientGreekveildoesthecontemporarystudyof
ancient social and gender history agreat disservice, chiely because arecognition
thatveilingideologiesandveilingpracticeswereofdeepimportancetothemale
constructionoftheGreekfemaleand,indeed,tofemalelife-experienceitself,would
meanthatcertainproblematicissuesofmale-femaleinteractioninGreeksociety
mightberesolved.
Ihaveattemptedtodemonstratethatveilingwasahabitualfemalepracticein
theGreekworld.Thisisrelectedintheartisticsources,whichdisplayanimpressivevarietyofveil-styleswornoverawidegeographicalareaandacorrespondingly
broadperiod.Theveilsthemselvesroughlyfallintotwogroups:irstly,thegarmentveilslikethepharosandthehimation-veilswhichtendtoconcealmuchofthebody
by swathing it in drapes, and secondly, separate veils, like the shaal-veil and the
315

Conclusion
tegidion,whicharedesignedtojustcovertheheador,inthelattercase,giveamore
completeformofveilingbycoveringthefaceandexposingonlytheeyes.Tracing
thedevelopmentoftheseveil-stylesletsusspeculateonexternalandinternalinluencesonGreeksocietyandthedevelopmentofthetreatmentandperceptionof
Greekwomen.Forexample,earlyveil-styleshaveclearNearEasternandAnatolian
inluences,whichappeartogivewayinthelatesixthcenturytoplainerandsimpler
formsofveilingwhichseemtobeintunewithmalefashiondevelopmentsandthe
generaltrendtowardsthedemocratizationofdress.Moreover,theintroductionof
thetegidionface-veilinthelatefourthcenturycoincideswithamovetowardsthe
moreconscientiousseparationofpublicanddomesticspaceswithinGreekhouseholdsandagrowingtendencyforwomentoappearinpublicspaces,andIhave
suggestedthatthisstricterformofveilingpermitsawomantohavegreateraccess
topubliclife.
Hand-in-handwiththevarietyofveil-styleslocatedintheartisticevidencegoes
arichassortmentofveil-wordsfoundintheliterarysources.Whileitisnotpossible
tomatchaveil-termwithanartisticexample(althoughtherearenotableexceptions
tothis),andwhileourunderstandingoftheveil-vocabularyisimperfect,thesheer
varietyofveil-termslocatedinthetextualsourcesrangingfromHomertothelate
lexicographers,alertsustothefactthatveil-wordswerefamiliartoGreekspeakers.
Moreoverthereiseverypossibilitythattheveil-termsrecordedintheancienttexts
couldhavebeensubjecttoaseriesofmetamorphoses(likeGreekgarmentsthemselves)andthattheywereadaptedoradoptedinvariouswaysatdifferenttimesand
placeswithintheGreekworld.Greekveil-vocabularywasoncealiving,evolving,
andadaptingentity.
Finding an ancient vocabulary of veiling is dificult but ultimately rewarding.
The popular veil-term kredemnon, for example, has along history (from Homer
toHesychius)andisfrequentlyusedmetaphorically.Thusthekredemnon-veilis
assimilatedwithcityorfortresswalls,sothattheunveilingofawomanstandsas
ametaphorforthebreechingofthedefencesofafortressandtheviolationofthe
citythatinevitablyfollowsandvice-versa.Itisapotentsymbolofthemetaphoric
importanceoftheveilasaguardofawomanschastity,honour,andsocialposition.
Kredemnon is also aword that means the protective covering of abottle and, by
extension,itmeanssomethingthatactsasacontainer;butthekredemnoncanbe
broken,soitbecomesaittingmetaphorforthehymenwhichistornapartwhen
awomanschastityisbreeched.
Kredemnon has the literal meaning of head binder, and together with other
veil-wordslikekaluptre andkalumma,whichhavethegeneralmeaningtoconceal,
accentuatestherestrictivenatureoftheveil:itencloseswomenandkeepsthemsafe
frommaleaggressionandinterferencebymakingthemsociallyinvisible,securing
womenschastityand(byextension)thehonourofthemenoftheirfamilies.The
veilseparateswomenfrommale(thatistosay,public)society,butatthesametime
itactsasacontainer,aboundaryfrombehindwhichthefemalepollutionofgazeand
316

Conclusion
soundcannot(easily)escape.Theveilsafeguardsmalesocietyfromapotentsexuality,
whichisinherentinasexthatcannotimposeitsownlimitsandboundaries.But
thatisnottosaythatmenareunencumberedbyanyformofsocialcommitment
themselves:iftheideologyofveilingistobesuccessful,thenbothsexesneedto
obeytherules.Veilingmeansthatwomencanhaveapubliclifestyleandintervene
inmalesocietyaslongastheystay(relatively)silentbeneaththeveil,atleastwhen
inthepublicsphere.Theyshouldavoideyecontactwithanymanandtheyshould
certainlynotspeaktomeninpublic.Thiswouldshattertheillusionoffemaleinvisibilityandtheimportantconceptthattheveilactsasaportableformofdomestic
seclusion,anampliicationoftheprivacyofthehouse.Butthemanhasadutyto
ignorethewomaninpublictoo.Hemustshowherthesameaidosthatshedisplays
byherconscientiousactofveilingandherobservanceoftheruleswhichconstruct
Greekgender.
TheGreekmalesideologyofveilingisperhapsbestencapsulatedinthewedding
ritualsoftheanakalypteria,aseriesofunveilingsinwhichabridewasrituallydebased
asshewasexposedtothegazeofaseriesofmen.Intheanakalypteriaceremonies
thebridehadnocontroloverherownunveilingandshewasatthemercyofothers
(men)whocouldunveilherastheritualsrequired.
Normallytheactofveilinggavewomenaformofself-expressionandactedas
ameansofnon-verbalcommunication.Socialstatusmayhavebeenrelectedatone
timeintheuseofveiling,althoughbytheclassicalperiod(atleastinAthens)the
veilwaswornbywomeninmostclassesofsociety(withthepossibleexceptionof
slaves).Veilingcertainlygavewomenvaryingformsofsocialrespectability(evenfor
hetairaiwho,byveiling,almostplayedtheroleofrespectablecitizenwoman)asthey
wereconnectedtoahusband,father,brother,guardian,orevenapatron.Veiling
theheadand,mostimportantly,theface(relectedinthepopularveil-gesturemotif
inGreekart)allowedawomantoexpresshermoodandsituation.Byveilingshe
coulddisplayhergrief,anger,andseparationfromsociety(asindeedcouldamanin
theseinstances),orherrespectforthosearoundherandherreverenceforherown
aidosandtheaidosofothers.However,awomancoulduseherveiltohighlighther
sexuality,andtheveryactofveilingagirlwhoreachespubertyacknowledgesthat
whatiscontainedbeneaththeveilisinherentlysexual.Deliberateconcealmentof
thatwhichisdesiredmightintentionallyarousedesire,althoughagenuinedisplay
offemaleaidosthroughveilingcouldalsoprovokemaleardour.
ItisthemultivalenceofthegarmentthatmakestheGreekveilsofascinating;on
apracticallevel,itsvarietyofstyles,forms,names,andusagesmakeusawareofits
importanceinGreekdailylife.Onanideologicallevel,theveiltellsusmuchabout
theGreekmalesconstructionoftheGreekwoman;itinformsusthatmenlikedthe
thoughtthattheirwomenwerecontainedandseparatedfrompublic(male)society,
thattheirchastityandidelitycouldbesafeguarded,andthatfamilyhonourcould
beupheld.ThemaleideologyofveilingalertsustothefactthatGreekmenfeared
thepollutionthatemanatedfromfemaleeyes,hair,andmouth;theydislikedthe
317

Conclusion
pollutingsoundofthefemalevoice,sofeltthatitwasbettertorestrainandsilence
itbehindabindingcloth.Theveilandtheuseofveilingencapsulatedintherituals
oftheanakalypteriaspeakofmalecontroloverwomen.
Butwhatismostcompellingabouttheveilisthewayinwhichthetwoworldsof
maleideologyandfemalelife-experiencecollideandconverge:ideologically,theveil
isaninvisiblebarrierthatkeepswomenoutofthepublicworldofmen;practically,
itisagarmentthatallowsawomanadegreeofsocialfreedomandmovementinthat
verysameworldandinamoreconinedwomensworldofhome-visits,conversation,midwifery,festivals,andshopping.Suchindependencewouldbedeniedherin
itsabsence.TheveilallowsAphroditestortoisetomanoeuvreinamaledomain.
ThisinvestigationintotheGreekveilbeganbyexaminingthebatteredveiledhead
ofFig.1andendsnowwithanothersculptedhead,Fig.173.Againthereisasubtle
renderingofthefalloftheveilspleatsasitcoversthedelicatefeaturesoftheface.
Halfofthevisageisobscured;halfisexposed.Butthistimethesculptedbustisin
abetterstateofpreservation,itisnotsoweatheredorfragmentary.Letthisveiled
stoneheadstandasametaphorforourknowledgeoftheGreekveil:itstilllacks
acompletecontext,butitlooksinamorecompleteform,amoresatisfyingstate,
thanwhenourinvestigationbegan.

Fig.173.Headofawomanwithasemi-transparentveilpartiallycoveringherface.The
MetropolitanMuseumofArt,N.Y.(onloanfromprivatecollection).Unknownprovenance.
Wereproducethroughthekindpermissionofthesculpturesowner.(Photo:H.vanWees.)

318

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352

INDEX
Aelian 15,162,163
Afghanistan 6,12,23,41,128,178
agalma 243,248
Agathokles 232
AgrippinatheYounger 283
aidos 7,15,1718,49,106,127,132,137,
143,15666,16876,180,202,206,
208,2456,2601,263,2889,293,
301,317
Aiskhylos 30,323,64,195,224,227,
243,26970,304
Aithra 33,49,101,1267,129,155
Akhilleus 32,1301,202,2234,239,270,
292,299,3001
Aktaeon 106
AlexandertheGreat 64,237
Alexandria 34,635,199200,2656,295
Alkestis 197,234,241
Alkman 46,224,263
ampekhone 278,35
amphipoloi,amphipolos 1269,132,136,
145,155,174,289
Amphitrite 56,87,91,105,227
ampux 301
anakalypsis 85,98104,114
anakalypteria 3,18,1012,10910,161,
22734,2401,244,2478,31718
anakalyptesthai 1001
Anatolia 478
Andromakhe 302,42,49,124,1302,
134,137,1589,161,304
anger 1,6,1718,323,155,169,174,
178,283,299,3001,307,317
AngloSaxon 25
Aphrodisia 144
Aphrodite 1,30,45,512,557,64,100,
105,130,144,155,170,172,18991,
200,208,21719,2613,2878,296,
318
Apollo 108,170,190,269
ApolloniusRhodius 25,177,226,261,289
Arab,Arabic 67,12,234,35,412,45,

66,167,192,198,215,259,2856
Arete 130,1623,174,290
Ariadne 25,95,103,105
Aristaenetus 197,2867
Aristophanes 1516,25,33,49,123,139,
190,203,224,26970
Artemidoros 128,191,194,263
Artemis 25,278,46,92,103,106,170,
21618,262,268,302
AsiaMinor 1,11,34,42,64,99,199
Aspasia 4,145
Assyria 69,501,67,1248,131,141
Aurbanipal 50
Aururrat 501
Athene 52,91,174,200,2234,226,238,
263,2889,307
Athens 7,9,10,1516,56,112,127,138
9,142,147,199,219,270,306,317
Attica 16,34,42
Auge 112
AulusGellius 225
Bacchylides 33,127,227
battlements 1302
Baubo 2657
Bedouin 1578,163,166,178,2156
belly-dance 5,296
black 24,323,43,59,1278,134,225,
2836,299301,303,3057
blood 179,227,239,262,264,268,274,
306
blush 162,183,227,234
Boeotia 34,545,58,59,61,64,220,246
Bollywood 110
boundfeet 125
breast 4,32,162,206,245
bride 3,18,24,33,56,59,8990,98,
10110,137,140,144,161,1656,173,
179,195,21517,21948,263,317
Burgon,Thomas 63
burqaa 5,23,42,128,141

353

Index
Callirhoe 101,167,287,303
Casina 2345
chador 23,41,128,136,164,285
chadri 41
Chalkedon 175
chaperone 1278
chiton 4,15,468,557,96,100,15960,
176,207,246,296
chitoniskos 88
Christian,Christianity 13,25,29,34,
1323,239,259,265,266,272,273
Chthonie 232,241
chypry 41
ClementofAlexandria 2657
concubine 103,1245,127,1301,136,
161,299
cotton 234,133
courtesan 11112,1436,290,293,296,
seealsoharlot,hetaira,prostitute
crocus 44,2245,seekrokos
cross-dressing 10,1516,49
curtain 29,1945,197,232,261,296
Cyrene 2

169,174,224,227,263,267,2859,
291,293,296,2989
Etruria 31
Etruscans 312
Euripides 16,33,49,107,127,1312,
1578,161,165,167,201,224,234,
26873,298,306
Eurydike 967,274
Eurykleia 1267,268
eyes 1,89,14,29,30,33,59,625,113,
128,1334,1367,146,155,1589,
1612,165,167,169,173,177,2012,
205,220,2223,2345,237,2425,
247,2613,266,274,2837,28990,
292,298,3001,303,31617

DanceoftheSevenVeils 297,seealso
Salome
dancers,dancing 3,5,645,143,146,197,
223,239,247,264,284,2937
dedications,ofclothes 25,278,21819
Demeter 33,556,62,164,1689,203,
263,265,291,299301,306
Demosthenes 203
DioChrysostom 205
Dionysus 25,105,169,224,264,273
door 89,169,190,1957,199,2067,
2356,272,287
dreams 128,177,191,194,197,203,263
dye 2245
EastGreece 11,46,199
effeminacy 138
Egypt 1,13,34,41,42,45,50,64,142,
146,168,199,293
Elektra 101,201,204,303
Elis 189
epaulia 229,231,240,244
Ephesus 467
epiblema 267,30,41,194
Eriphyle 52
eroticism 17,18,858,90,105,113,129,

face-veil,face-veiling 3,9,2930,412,61
6,124,146,159,1624,194,199200,
208,218,2956,316,seeghungat,laj,
niqab,prosopidion,tegidion
illet 26,28,301,49,58,62,226,271
fitna 157,259
flammeum 98,223,2256
fountain-house 85,88
fundamentalism,Islamic 3,133
GaiusSulpiciusGallus 167
Galen 265
genitalia 87,239,2637,269,274,285,
291,seevagina
ghungat 164,170,179
grief 1,4,1718,323,44,50,101,134,
171,206,283,291,298307,317
Gyges 160
gynaikonomoi 201
hair 18,269,31,36,435,4950,56,
589,634,96,98,101,125,1301,
143,162,168,218,226,2626,2713,
288,291,299,306,317
hairnet 15
harem 5,70n.25,2001,206
harlot 1245,131,seealsohetaira,prostitute
hasham 1578,163,166
HelenofTroy 16,31,4952,567,91,
1035,124,126,127,129,130,155,
157,164,174,1789,195,206,217,
2345,243,263,268,2901
Hera 28,31,47,56,59,103,124,129,

354

Index
164,166,2189,240,2623,2889,
2913,3067
Hesiod 1378,170,204,220,226,241,
289,304
Hestia 58,291
hetaira,hetairai 27,567,104,111,1212,
128,140,1426,267,271,286,293,
296,317,seealsoharlot,prostitute
hijab 6,14,19,23,133
Hippodamia 102
Hittites 6,8,467,50
Hebrews 6,8,148n.10
Hekabe 312,124,1312,165,224,226,
292,3034,313
Hektor 302,1301,137,158,270
Hera 28,31,47,56,59,103,124,129,
164,166,21819,240,2623,288,
2913,3067
HeraclidesCriticus 62
Herakles 107,11112,161,2056,234,
3034
Hermione 1612
Herodotus 140,1601,2978
Hesychius 27,34,36,62,131,2289,316
himation,himation-veil 4,8,15,257,41,
538,63,67,88,902,100,109,111,
136,13940,15960,205,207,237,
246,271,273,315
Homer,Homeric 2933,425,49,66,
101,12138,140,143,145,147,166,
170,1736,179,2023,217,226,238,
25960,263,268,288,2902,299,300,
307,316
honour 17,122,1256,1559,161,
16570,1745,199,203,208,229,232,
235,240,242,245,260,262,272,287,
289,291,293,301,317
house 8,12,18,30,139,144,158,169,
174,1908,2001,204,2068,2289,
2326,238,240,243,260,269,272,
287,296,298,302,317
Hubristica 15
huik 41
Hygieia 96,104,1089
hymen 227,235,2389,247,316,seealso
lowerveil
Iberia 423
India 12,14,23,412,110,130,135,158,
1646,169,179,225,236,242

Ino 28,124,134
invisibility 1,17,87,122,128,131,142,
1556,159,161,165,198,2001,
2047,216,236,241,245,268,272,
283,293,307,316,318
Iokaste 95,306
Iphigeneia 33,106,157,159,162,164,
178,202,2234,227,243,3013
Iran 23,412,164,169,225
Iraq 23,215,216,226
Islam,Islamic 5,6,1213,41,62,133,
157,166,1923,194,201,259
Islamophobia6
Itar 2889
Italy 1,294
izar 24,41
Jason 25,177,226,261,289,298
Jew,Jewish 8,2289,242,297
Judaism 13
kalumma 16,28,336,43,195,270,279,
286,299301,316
kaluptre 289,323,356,175,177,218,
237,241,262,289,292,304,316
Kalypso 32,124,263,268
Kassandra 33,230,239,268
katadesmoi 261
kekruphalos 301
kerchief 4,289,31,47
kharis 288,2912
Kirke 32,124,263,268
Klymene 126,129,155
Klytemnestra 50,107,202
kolpos,kolpos-veil 5960,96,100,2667
korai 43,458,50,88,92,98
Koran 1667
Korinth 52,177,273,306
kredemnon 2836,1302,134,143,162,
173,218,226,2389,259,261,269,
289,291,293,299,306,316
krokos 15,2245,236
labia 265
laj 1646,16970
Leto 103,108,16970,227,263
Levant 7,225
lexicographers 29,336,62,104,228,231,
240,316
linen 27,50,557,645,129,135,139,

355

Index
146,155,173,221,292,304
lips 159,229,242,265,271
lithma 23,35,42,66,198
loom 55,129,2223,267,292
lowerveil 240,241,247,seealsohymen
Lucian 204,231,233,237,242,244
Lysistrata 15,33,166,224,2701
Macedonia 11,34,64,226
Maenads 130,264
maghmuq 35,42,65,67,263
mantle 3,4,7,15,26,413,4751,53,66,
91,94,124,135,177,204,226,296
maphortes 34,36
MatronofPitane 143,291
Medea 164,166,177,217,261,289,298,
306
Medusa 2634
Melissa 176
Menander 1,3,123,197,202
MenanderRhetor 244
menarche 163,215,219,247,262
menstruation 217,262,268
miasma 18,25963,269,274
Miletus 43,64,67,217
Minoan 43,292
mist 134,307,seealsonature-veils
mitra 26,31,36,501,107
modesty 3,7,13,15,28,88,94,100,
1045,110,112,124,12830,132,135,
1434,148,152,15564,16977,190,
196,201,204,227,2367,242,262,
268,271,283,287,289,293,297
mourning 3,323,44,501,95,12930,
139,162,265,303,3047
mouth 61,64,66,945,136,146,196,
2023,2389,242,2612,2649,
2714,289,302,317
Muslim 5,6,1215,133,157,160,162,
1667,192,198,201,206,222,229,
236,2423,259,287
Mycenaean 43,292
Mykonos 501,104,226
Myrina 66,237
mysterycults 246,300
nakedness 27,44,86,94,99,132,143,
159,1612,175,189,1989,203,206,
219,226,234,268,284,288,294,297,
301

nature-veils 134,307,seealsomist,wave
Nausikaa 28,31,127,132,140,175,
1789,217,290
Neaira 142
NearEast 68,31,456,50,67,86,124,
1278,13940,288,316
Nemesis 49,137,170
Nereid 33,589
Nero 283
niqab 42,623,136,285
nomos 165,167,174,197,202,206
nudity 10,11,13,160,200,216,297
nun 245,284
odhani 23
Odysseus 28,49,126,132,134,155,171,
1735,268,290,3023
Oedipus 113,203,240
OldOligarch 141
Olympias 94
orchard 89
Otherness 4,5,7
Palmyra 110
Pandora 137,170,204,2201,226,239,
241,243,2889
Panthea 2901
pastos 236
Paul,Saint 25,29,2723
Pausanias 127,171,189,240,262,300
Peloponnese 42,51,1767,189
Penelope 289,55,124,12730,143,164,
171,1734,1789,28891,293
peplos 4,256,44,50,52,5960,92,100,
15960,2234,2667,306
Perikles 107,139,192,303
Persia 6,32,195,237,2901,304
Phaedra 1634,2712
pharos,pharos-veil 26,41,4754,634,
667,915,97,100,105,108,11112,
1278,136,140,146,1601,172,205,
271,286,292,2945,303,306,315
PherekydesofSyros 2289,241
Phillidas 1445
Philo 144,204
Philostratus 102
Phinitas 108,170
Phokion 15
Phryne 143
pipe-girls 56,144,267,295

356

Index
Playboymagazine 285
plekteanadesme 301
Plutarch 15,145,161,167,1757,18990,
192,1968,203,217,220,231,2689,
295,303
PolemonofLaodikeia 2056,235
pollution 1,14,18,1556,160,166,
25963,2679,272,274,285,31617
Pollux 27,34,36,194,231,244,247
Polyxena 59,239,303
Pope,Alexander 30
PoppaeaSabina 2834
pornai 143
Porphyry 29,290
private 11,14,86,89,91,156,1667,173,
190,1923,197,200,207,2289,237,
240,247,284,298
prosopidion 64
prostitute,prostitution 16,27,122,124,
128,138,1404,147,168,189,199,
262,264
public 3,4,7,1114,86,8990,101,
110,1213,128,133,136,139,1413,
146,155,1579,1624,1669,1723,
1757,180,190,1923,195,197202,
2068,222,22832,2402,244,247,
264,268,2703,283,28990,293,
2989,301,3035,307,31618
Pudicitia 172,200
purdah 192,197,200
purple 30,45,138,168,218,225
Rambova,Natasha 284
rape 131,169
red 30,445,2257,233,23840,2478
roof 624,158,1901,1945,236,290
Roxane 237
saffron 44,162,2235
sakkos 31
Salome 238,284,297
Samos,Samian 43,45,479,67,235
Sappho 11,45,67,137,304
sari 234,41,50,110,136
SaudiArabia 5,42
seclusion 4,18,133,178,1923,2001,
299,317
segregation 12,122,140,232,242
sex,sexuality 1,5,1011,13,15,1718,
27,85,878,103,111,1225,12833,

1367,140,1424,15564,167,169,
171,174,189,198,199,21517,219,
2267,2389,240,247,25965,267,
269,2712,28391,293300,307,317
shaal-veil 35,456,569,67,88,92,96,
100,108,140,221,223,2467,315
shame 1,3,7,17,124,126,129,131,132,
135,15566,16971,175,176,1978,
2014,272,296,298301,303
sharshaf 24
shawl 4,7,15,26,29,50,124
shining-veil 2830,129,131,137,143,
1734,177,204,227,289,2903
silence 24,911,14,141,165,1901,
206,216,245,268,2704,305,318
silk 24,65,146,221,226,296
sitara 23
slave,slavery 6,11,88,1012,1212,
1258,1302,135,1402,1457,166,
1967,234,286,290,292,296,303,
310,317
snood 31
socialstatus 12,15,59,103,12132,
1356,1417,156,1615,1745,
17880,216,220,228,236,240,2456,
250,273,288,293,2989,301,317
Solon 139,269,305
Sophokles 49,131,158,190,203,268,299
sophrosyne 15,158,161,176,202,260,261,
2689,288,305
Soranus 265
Sparta 46,512,97,99,100,107,126,
171,174,176,262,303
star 59,109,221,226
stephane 301,36,220
Strabo 42
Strauss,Richard 297
Suda 27,34,36,231,244
Sumer 6
suppliants 30,2456,248
tahashsham 158,170
Taliban 5,12
Tamar 144
Tanagra 53,56,612,64,146,217,295
tegidion 345,624,667,111,136,146,
162,194,199200,205,237,285,316
terracottas 9,16,53,56,61,63,656,95,
109,11112,114,237,2656,271,
2956

357

Index
Tertullian 29,133,139
thalamos 229,233,2367,240,244
Theano 54,161,177,268
Thebes 62,64,113,1446,199,246,306
Theocritus 27
Theodote 142,145
Thespis 64
Thetis 33,106,124,131,134,195,263,
291,3001,306
threshold 190,206,216,287
tongue 112,190,261,2689,2713
tortoise 1,18991,208,318
Troy 16,64,126,1312,136,155,195,
234,239,290
Tuareg 66,1778,301
Tunisia 13,286
turban 26,43
Turkey 42,52,239
tympanion 43,70n.19
unveil 3,1011,1618,85,889,91,98,
10010,11314,1256,128,1304,
1402,144,146,1602,1689,1758,
1978,201,2035,217,223,2279,
2318,2401,2445,2478,259,263,
2734,287,298,301,303,305,31517
vagina 2645,267
vanDyck,Antony 989
veil
anthropologyof 1115passim
artisticrepresentationsof ch.2passim,ch.
3passim
bridal ch.8passim
classicalscholarshipand 36
colourand2217,3056
stylesof ch.2passim,seealsoface-veil
terminologyfor 7,9,ch.2passim
veil-gesture 10411,113,162,16973,
195,222,233,271,317
veil-manipulation 136,177,230
veiling
angerand298301
eroticismand 28398
femalecommunicationand ch.5,ch.6,
ch.10passim
modestyand ch.6passim,seealsoaidos,
modesty
mourningand3015

pollutionand ch.9passim
riteofpassageandch.8passim
socialsegregationand ch.7passim
socialstatusand ch.5passim
violation 125,1302,162,198,227,239,
247,272,300,313,316
violence,domestic 11,107,1669,206,see
alsoviolation
virgin,virginity 29,104,1245,133,144,
162,170,215,217,219,227,2389,
241,243,247,288
wall 5,9,25,32,434,1303,136,140,
155,191,194,197,2012,206,222,
2389,259,269,2734,290,295,302,
316
wave 134,3067,seealsomist,nature-veils
weaving 11,86,12930,140,217,2213,
225,270,292
wedding 3,9,33,59,64,989,1014,
10910,130,1367,165,179,192,195,
21648,263,269,293,317
white 24,2830,32,49,50,57,134,161,
16870,220,225,240,283,286,288,
2923,298,3067
widow 124,131,175,241
wife 15,59,98,103,1047,1212,125,
12934,136,142,1602,1667,174,
179,190,202,217,219,224,226,
228,2302,2345,238,2401,2456,
2689,289,291,293,2989
Wilde,Oscar 297
womb 239,2645
wool 16,24,34,36,126,174,2212,225,
292
Xanthos98,225
Xenophon 112,142,1446,161,190,192,
205,2901
yamak 423,94
yellow 44,128,225
Yemen 234,42,65,178,315
Zas 2289,232,241
Zeus 103,129,131,166,220,2278,238,
288,2923,296,300,304,306,307
zone 216,244,288

358