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Case Study
Case Study
Chlordiazepoxide
Chlorazepate
Diazepam
Flurazepam
Halazepam
Lorazepam
Midazolam
Oxazepam
Prazepam
Temazepam
Triazolam
*CNS, central nervous
system
Medical uses for sedative hypnotic drugs have changed over the year. At one
time, sedative drugs were the agents to treat a wide variety of neurologic and
psychologic disorders ranging from minor anxiety and pain to epilepsy,
hypertension, and psychosis. Initially, opioids, bromides and alcohol were used,
but were later replaced by barbiturates, chloral hydrate, meprobamate, and similar
compounds. More recently, benzodiazepine derivatives have dominated the
market. A newer hypnotic, zolpidem, has been marketed recently as an agent that
has even less potential to cause toxicity in overdose.
Many of the older drugs are of historical interest only. Use of meprobamate,
methyprylon, and ethchlorvynol has declined over the pas decade, but they are
still causes of occasional tixic overdoses. Today, most sedative hypnotic drug
related poisonings are due to barbiturates or benzodiazepines. Whereas poisoning
with a barbiturate intoxications do not normally require aggressive treatment for
survival.
It cannot be disputed that Americans love to sedative themselves! sedative
hypnotic drugs account for hundreds of million prescription written annually in
the united states. If we add to this the many million doses of illicit depressants and
the tens of million of alcoholic drinks that are consumed each year, the magnitude
of the potential toxicity becomes clearer. Poisonings from CNS sedative hypnotic
occur too frequently, and are responsible for a large number of deaths annually.
There are pharmacologic differences among various classes of sedative
hypnotic drugs. However, management of acute toxicity is based on similar
general principles.
SEDATIVE HYPNOTIC DRUGS
A sedative is defined as a compound hat calms anxious and restless
individuals. Hypnotics cause drowsiness and facilitate sleep, which to close to the
normal pattern. An anesthetic produces deep sleep,unlike natural sleep. A person
who is a sleep after a dose of a sedative hypnotic can be aroused. But it is not
possible with anesthesia-induced sleep.
In a practical sense, the major difference among these three pharmacologic
classes is the degree of CNS depression produced, which is related to dose,.
However, large doses of many antianxiety drugs can cause anesthesia, and smaller
doses of a general anesthetic may produce mild sedation.
All of these agents produce similar effects on mood and consciousness. The
toxicity profile for CNS depressant is variable and depents not only on dose and
duration of action, but also the mental state of the individual and the physical
setting involved with the poisoning.
Barbiturates
By the advent of the 20 th century, bromides were the most popular and
widely used drugs to treat anxiety and insomnia. With synthesis of barbituric acid,
bromides were soon replaced with a new class of drugs, the barbiturates. These
drugs were divided into three groups based on latency of onset and duration of
action. Short-acting barbiturates have a duration of action of 4 to 6 hr, and include
pentobarbital and secobarbital. Intermediate-acting barbiturates produce sedation
persisting 8 to 10 hr, and include amobarbital and butabarbital. Long acting
barbiturates, such as Phenobarbital and barbital, have a duration of action of 12 to
24 hr. differences in potency of various barbiturates are minor.
Bullous lesions on the fingers, buttocks, and around the knees have been reported
in about 6% of all patients with acute barbiturate poisonings and may be helpful in
differential diagnosis of an unconscious patient. These lesions are not seen
exclusively wit barbiturates, however.
Recovery from barbiturate toxicity is usually complete after complete after a
prescribed treatment protocol. Complications, including hypostasis pneumonia,
bronchopneumonia, lung abscesss, pulmonary and cerebral edema, circulatory
collapse, irreversible renal shutdown, and neurologic lesions, may result. Such
complications are the usual cause of delayed death.
parameters,
and
therapeutic,
toxic,
and
lethal
blood
Short acting
Sekobarbital
Amobarbital
Butabarbital
Fenobarbital
Barbital
Nembutal
Seconal
amytal
butisol
luminal
veronal
6-8
4-6
8-10
8-10
12-24
12-24
23-40
20-28
14-42
34-42
24-140
hepatic
hepatic
hepatic/renal
50-100
100-200
50-200
0,01-0,10
0,01-0,10
0,70-1,0
action (hr)
Plasma half
life (hr)
Hypnotic dose
(mg)
Long acting
Fenobarbital
Duration of
Detoxification
Intermediate acting
renal
renal
100-200
100-200
300-500
0,01-0,50
0,01-0,50
1,5-3,9
1,0
0,70-1,0
1,0-3,0
1,0-3,0
4,0-6,0
6,0-8,0
7,85-8,03
7,90
7,75
7,7
Therapeutic
drug
Concentration
(mg/dL)
Toxic drug
Concentration
(mg/dL)
Lethal drug
Concentration
8,0 15,0
and >
(mg/dL)
Ka
7,24
7,8
by
the
victims
clinical
manifestations.
Barbiturate
blood
concentrations are usually used to confirm the initial diagnosis. If the clinical
features indicate signs of severe CNS depression, but laboratory results still show
low blood barbiturate concentration, this may indicate that one or more additional
CNS-depressant drugs are involved. The most likely offender is ethanol.
Drug concentrations can be used to identify the specific barbiturate
invoved, which aids in predicting the extent and duration of toxic effects. Progress
of the poisoned patient can be monitored by determining drug concentrations. To
illustrate, elimination kinetics for barbiturates after acute overdose or even chronic
abuse is not the same as with therapeutic doses. Serial drug concentrations can be
used to determine if elimination kinetics have changed.
Table 14.3 lists various states of consciousness and responses of the
poisoned patient. Blood barbiturate concentrations generally parallel clinicl
manifestations. However, the same precautions must be exercised when in
terpreting the data.
Table 14.3. clinical manifestations of acute barbiturate intoxication
Stage of
consclousness
Alert
(blood concentration,
g/mL)
<6
Stuporous
14
18
pressure
Coma 2 (stage 2)
22
26
34
Benzodiazepines
Because of inherent dangers common to therapeutic and toxic doses of
barbiturates and older nonbarbiturate sedative hypnotic compounds, drug that are
as pharmacologically effective as barbiturates, but possess a wider margin of
safety, are constantly being developed. One of the outcomes of research is a class
of drugs known as benzodiazepines.
Thousands of Benzodiazepine derivatives have been synthesized and
hundreds tested for CNS depressant effects. Characteristics of those that are
currently used are summarized in table 14.4. they represent the single most widely
used group of sedative drugs. Current research is directed toward further
refinement of this class. It is doubtful that they will be replaced as a group for
many years.
Benzodiazepines have a high therapeutic index and are the safest of all
sedative hypnotic drugs. In other words, the range between therapeutic dose nd
toxic or lethal dose is extremely wide. Increasing dosage, even to massive
amounts, will not cause general anesthesia, as opposed to other sedative drugs.
Consequently, their overall potential for toxicity is low, and patients with
benzodiazepine overdose present with fewer problems.
Oral
dosage
range
Peek oral
Half
plasma
life
Elimination
rate
concentratio
ns
Anodolytics
Desmethyldiazepam (30-
Diazepam (Valium)
6-40 mg/day
1-2
20-50
Chlordiazepoxide
15-100 mg/day
2-4
5-30
(librium,
60)
Desmethylchlordiazepoks
ida, demoxepam,
Slow
Slow
libritabs,
various other)
Chlorazepate
desmetildiazepam
15-60 mg/day
Slow
30-60
(Treroxene)
Prazepam (centrax)
3-hydroksiprazepam,
20-60 mg/day
78
desmetildiazepam
n-3-hydroksihalazepam,
Slow
Halazepam
desmetildiazepam
(paxipam)
60-160 mg/day
1-3
Oxazepam (serax)
Lorazepam (ativan)
Alprazolam (xanax)
Hypnotic
Slow
None
None
Rapid
intermediete
30-120 mg/day
1-2
5-10
2-6 mg/day
10-20
0,75-4 mg/day
0,7-1,6
12-19
Flurazepam
-hydroxyalprazolam
Intermediete
desalkytflurazepam(50100)
(dalmone)
15-60 mg
50-100
15-30 mg
2-3
9-12
0,125-0,5 mg
0,5-1.5
2,3
none
Slow
Temazepam
(restorit)
Triazolam (tislclon)
-hydroxytriezolam
Moderate
Ataxia
Responds
Severa
to Responds only to deep pain
verbal stimuli
Drowsiness
Respiratory
Hypotension (rare)
Coma stage 1-2
Intermediate
rapid
to
Chloral hydrate as well chloral betaine and triclosof sodium, are potent CNS
sedatives. Chloral hydrate is converted to its active metabolite, trichloroethanol.
Chloral betaine
Chloral
hydrate and
formation and accumulation of an active metabolite, 4-hydroxy-2-ethyl-2-phenylglutaramide. This metabolite has a long half life. And is at least two times more
potent than the parent compound. Another factor unique to Glutethimide is that its
anticholinergic activity can reduce gastric motility significantly, permitting the
already absorbed drug to be metabolized. After a time, bowel activity returns,
more drug is absorbed, and the cycle continues.
Meprobamate
With introduction into medicine in the 1950s, meprobamate was an
alternative to barbiturates for reducing anxiety. For nearly two decades, until the
advent of benzodiazepines, meprobamate and its derivatives were the most
commonly used nonbarbiturate antianxiety drugs.
Symptoms of meprobamate overdose are similar to those of barbiturate.
Coma has been associated with blood concentrations be tween 10 and 20 mg/dl.
The dosage range for severe toxicity is varied and probably due to individual
differences in the rate of metabolism. Death results from irreversible shock,
respiratory depression, and pulmonary edema. Twelve grams was fatal in one
instance, whereas other patients have survived doses as high as 40 g (1, 16,36). An
interesting case study of meprobamate toxicity is presented at the end of this
chapter.
Methaqualone
Methaqualone is a drug with abuse potential. Users of illicit methaqualone
report that it increase interpersonal relations and has aphrodisiac activity.
Its precise mechanism of toxicity is unknown. Depressant action is believed
to be similar to that of barbiturates. However, because methaqualone does produce
sensual effects that differ from barbiturates , at least part of their activity differs.
Mild toxic effects include hangover, headache, stupor, restlessness, dry mouth,
and blurred vision. Severe overdoses, which are usually consistent with blood
concentrations exceeding 3mg/dl., generally produce cema accompanied by
pyramidal signs, such as hypenonia, hyperreflexia, myoclonus, and convulsions.
These effects are usually not observed in other sedative hypnotic overdoses.
Severe hypotension and pulmonary edema are usually absent with methaqualone
intoxication, but hemorrhagic tendencies, due to inhibition of platelet aggregation
and peripheral neuropathies, are frequently observed.
Antihistamines
Table 14.6. characteristics of anhistamine toxicity
CNS effect
Anticholinergic effects
Children
Adults
Excltement
Disorlentation
Dilated pupils
Tremors
Ataxia
Blurred vision
Hyperactivity
Dizziness
Tachycardia
Hallucinations
Sedation
Warm skin
Hyperreflexia
Coma
Dry mouth
Convulsions
long-action barbiturate, which are eliminated primarily via the kidney, are readily
eliminated by alkalinization. Urinary alkalinization is ineffective for short and
intermediate-acting barbiturate, or for any of the other CNS depressant presented
in this chapter.
Neuvonen and Elonen have shown that multiple doses of activated charcoal
starting 10 hr after Phenobarbital ingestion in healthy individual significantly
reduce blood concentration. Wheeas controls had a Phenobarbital half-life 110 hr,
activated charcoal reduce this to 20 hr. since Phenobarbital undergoes
enterohepatic circulation, it is possible that activated charcoal may interfere with
barbiturate reabsorpsion. Other have shown similar result with nasogastric
administration of activated charcoal.
Peritoneal dialysis increases elimination of some CNS depressant, but this
procedure appears to be of low efficiency and is no longer recommended.
Hemodialysis is variably effective in removing significant amount of CNS
depressant from blood in case in toxic/lethal ingestions, or when the patient is in
severe hemodynamic or renal compromise, and prolonged coma is likely.
Hemoperfusion have been shown to effectively remove significant amounts of any
of he CNS depressant discussed.
In some cases, greater efficacy may have been shown using charcoal
hemoperfusion over resin hemoperfusion. Even thought these extracorporeal
measures reduce blood drug concentration in vitro, their clinical significance may
be questioned. Many of the drugs discussed in this chapter are either highly
protein-bound or have a large volume of distribution that limits the effectiveness
of these procedures. Table 14.7 summarizes the effectiveness of various
procedures used to increase the elimination of CNS depressant overdoses.
FD
PD
HD
CH
RH
Ineffective
__
+/-
++
+++
Long-acting
++
__
Benzodiazepines
Not indicated
Not indicated
++
+++
Not
Not
Not
recommended
recommended
recommended
Chloral hydrate
Not recommended
Not recommended
+/-
++
++
Ethchloryvinol
Not recommended
Not recommended
++
+++
Gluthetalmide
Not recommended
Not recommended
+++
+++
Methyprylon
Ineffective
+/-
++
+++
Meprobamate
Not recommended
+/-
++
+++
+++
Methaqualone
Not recommended
Not recommended
+/-
__
__
antihistamines
Ineffective
Not
Not
recomended
recommended
FD, force dieresis; PD, peritoneal dialysis; HD, Hemodialysis; CH, Charcoal
hemoperfusion; RH, Resin hemoperfusion.
__, ineffective or no data; +/-, may be effective; +, effective; ++, good
effectiveness; +++, excellent effectiveness.
Benzodiazepine antidote
Flumazenil (Mazicon), 1,4-imidazobenzodiazepine is an antagonist that can
reduce or terminate the sedative, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, ataxic, anesthetic, and
muscle relaxant effects of benzodiazepines in a dose dependent manner. Despite it
short half-lofe, small doses (0,2 to 1,0 mg) of flumazenil are usually effective in
reversing the sedative action of benzodiazepine poisonings.
Flumazenil is generally well tolerated. Adverse effect are usually mild,
consisting mainly of nausea and vomiting. The appearance of a withdrawal
syndrome is possible due to displacement of the agonist from the receptor site, but
the incidence is low.
O
COOC2H2
N
N
N
CH3
Flumazenil
H2C
N
Cl
Midazolam
Summary
Intoxication with CNS depressants causes a series of predictable effect
highlighted by respiratory failure and cardiovascular collapse. Although certain
depressant drugs may produce other characteristic symptoms, none take
precedence over these two symptoms.
Treatment should be directed toward maintenance of vital functions,
prevention of further absorption, and reduction of blood levels of absorbed drug.
Good nursing is an important component of therapy, there are no specific antidote
for most sedative-hypnotic drugs.
Case studies
She was intubated with an andotracheal tube and lavage. With the
nasogastric tube in place, 40 gram activated charcoal was administrated followed
by 20 gram sodium sulfate. Activated charcoal (40 gr) and magnesium citrate (60
ml) were administrated every 4 hr for five additional doses.
Toxicology analysis of blood for alcohol and other drugs was negative
except for Phenobarbital. The initial blood Phenobarbital concentration of 141
g/ml dropped to 47 g/ml within 24 hr, during which time her clinical condition
rapidly improved.
Discussion
1. Mydriasis (dilated pupils) is a common sign of severe intoxication with
sedative drugs. This was reported for patient 1. Why do you think mydriasis
occurs? When present, what is the patients probable prognosis?
2. Yhe bullous skin lesions present in patient 1 contained barbiturate. Why is
this not surprising?
3. Patient 2 received an initial dose of sodium sulfate, and magnesium citrate
every 4 hr. what was the purpose of this treatment, and was it successful?
Case study : unexpected Death FromMeprobamate
History
a 51 year old woman was found unconscious by her husband after the
supposedly ingested 50 meprobamate tablet (400 mg each). She was a known
alcoholic and had attempted suicide previously. She was also an asthmatic, and
her medications included prednisone, bronchodilators, and multiple tranquilizers.
When she arrived at the hospital she was unconscious, all reflexes were absent,
and she responded only to deep pain. Her blood pressure was 110/60 mm Hg.
Gastric lavage was initiated mmediately. Three liters of fluid were necessary
before the returned solution failed to show the presence of a white cloudy
substance. Gastric lavage was repeated again on two separate occasions, and both
procedures resulted in negligible return of ingested drug.
Further treatment was supportive. Ten hours after she was found
unconscious, she was able to speak clearly, deep-tendon reflexes were normal, and
blood pressure was 140/90 mm Hg.
Toxicologic analysis revealed an initial blood meprobamate concentration of
14,4 mg/ dL. It wes later learned that she had actually ingested 95 meprobamate
tablets, or approximately 38 gram.
twitching movement was noted. She was given phenytoin and diazepam to control
these myoclonic movements. She also began to breath and move spontaneously.
The initial methyprylon blood concentration was 20,9 mg/dL. Five hr later it
had dropped to 9,2 mg/dL, and after dialysis, to 3 mg/dL. The quantity of drug
recovered by gastric lavage was 4,3 gram, or about 20% of the ingested dose. It
was also estimated that the amount eliminated during 8,5 hr dialysis period was
3,6 g, which accounted for another 20% of the ingested dose. Approximately 600
mg were excreted in the urine, which accounted for less than 5% of the ingested
dose.
By 18 hr after admission, the patient was fully awake, aware of the
environment, and attempting to talk. Over the next view days she was confused,
but this gradually cleared, and she was discharged on the 12 th hospital day.
Discussion
1. This patient, recovering from poisoning induced by a CNS sedative.
Comment on the use of a therapeutic measure.
CASE STUDIES : MASSIVE DIAZEPAM OVERDOSE
History : case 1
A 61 year old woman was admitted to a hospital approximately 8 hr after
ingestion of 450 to 500 mg diazepam. She was receiving chemotherapy for
multiple myeloma and imipramine for depression. Her drug overdose was an
attempted suicide. On admission, blood pressure was 110/80 mm Hg; heart rate,
75 to 80 beats/min; and respirations, 20/min. she was visibly depressed and
responsive only to noxious stimuli. Laboratory test results were within normal
limits.
The cause intoxication was not initially of naloxone hydrochloride (Narcan),
0.4 mg, and 50% dextrose. She showed no improvement. She was therefore
placed under constant monitoring, and further treatment was nonspecific. Fluid
administration continued. Other than isolated incidence of mild hypotension
(90/50 mm Hg) that soon resolved, there were no major changes in her clinical
state.
She was fully alert and responsive 24 hr after admission and was discharges
the following day with no apparent complications.
History : Case 2
he did ingest a large quantity of clonazepam, and (b) the tablets had dissolved and
he apparently absorbed the medication, he was taken to a larger medical center.
On admission, vitals included pulse, 80 beats/min; blood pressure, 80/56
mmHg; respirations, 18/min; and temperature, 36oC. He responded to vocal
commands, but made no spontaneous movements, and did not vocalize. Pupils
were miotic, and equal. Deep tendon reflexes were brisk and symmetrical.
Laboratory findings are shown in the table 14.8.
The boy was placed on a cardiac monitor in the ICU. A test dose of 0,4 mg
naloxone produced no change in his condition. Gastric lavage brought up no tablet
fragments. He was then given magnesium sulfate (5 g) and activated charcoal (5
g) via nasogastric tube. A charcoal was passed in 3 hr.
During the first 24 hr of hospitalization, seven distinct cycles ranging from
alert agitation to unresponsive coma with miotic pupils were noted. Abdominal Xray failed to disclose a concretion. By 5 hr postadmission, bowel sounds were
markedly hypoactive. A second dose of magnesium sulfate returned bowel activity
to normal.
By 24 hr postadmission (36 hr postingestion) the boy was alert, active, and
behaving normally. He was kept for 7 days, at which time physical examination
was normal.
A blood sample taken shortly after admission was sent out for analysis. It
revealed a clonazepam blood concentration of 69 ng/mL. A typical oral
therapeutic dose in a adult, measured 8 hr postingestion, would give a blood
concentration of 4.2 to 9.6 ng/mL. (see ref.35.)
Table 14.8. Laboratory findings
Na+
= 138 mEq/L
K+
= 4,8 mEq/L
Glucose
= 125 mg/dL
BUN
= 6 mg/dL
SGOT
= 17 U/L
BUN, blood urea nitrogen; SGOT. Serum glutamate oxaloacetate
transaminase.
Discussion
1. Explain the phenomenon of CNS cycling and explain how this shifting of
neurologic response is illustrated in this case.
2. When the boys pupils were described as miotic and equal, what does this
mean as far as a diagnostic feature?
3. Why was naloxone administered? When the patient did not respond to
naloxone, what conclusions could be made concering the possible ingestion
of benzodiazepine?
4. Why does clonazepam cause diminution of bowel sounds?
Case study: Flumazenil For the reversal of refractory benzodiazepineinduced shock
History
A 76-year-old woman arrived at an emergency facility complaining of
weakness. She had a long history of progressive orthopnea, leg edema, and
progressive cough. She had a long-term smoking habit, but denied any known,
related medical problems.
The woman was alert. Respirations (labored) were 40/min; pulse was
regular. 117 beats/min; blood pressure, 180/80 mmHg. Partinent physical findings
included the presence of rales in the right lower half of her left chest. Mild to
moderate pedal edema was abserved. A chest X-ray film showed multiple masses
in the right lung and large left pleural effusion.
Oral tracheal intubation was performed and diazepam 10 mg given over 3
min when the patient developed respiratory failure . One minute later the patient
became bradycardic (40 beats/min), hypotensive (systolic pressure 40 mmHg),
and she required ventilatory assistance. This deterioration was thought to be due
to the benzodiazepine.
The patient received 1 mg atropine and a dopamine infusion of 20
g/kg/min. These interventions increased her pulse to 50 beats/min and systolic
blood pressure to only 60 mmHg after 5 min.
She than received flumazenil 1 mg intravenously. Within 2 min, her pulse
increased to 74 beats/min, systolic pressure improved to 100 mmHg, and the
benzodiazepine-induced CNS and respiratory depression were completely
reversed. The dopamine infusion was rapidly discontinued with no change in the
patients condition.
The patient was admitted to the ICU and a diagnosis of adenocarcinoma of
the lung was confirmed. Several days later she again developed agitation for
which she received lorazepam 1 mg, intravenously. She again exhibited
bradycardia and hypotension. She was unresponsive to standard therapy. The
deterioration of her cardiovascular status was not treated and her vitar signs
returned to normal by 90 min. After a prolonged hospital course the patient
succumbed to her cancer (see ref.6)
Discussion
1. Outline the mechanism of action of flumazenil in reversing
diazepine-
induced pharmatologic effects. The patient did not receive flumazenil after an
adverse reaction to lorazepam. Would it have reversed this benzodiazepines
action had it been administered?
2. A 10 mg intravenous dose of diazepam is not normally toxic. Outline the
factors that may have contributed to this patients adverse response to
diazepam.
yang kurang larut dalam lemak. Dosis mematikan barbiturat akting pendek
menghasilkan kematian dalam waktu singkat. Dalam kasus bunuh diri korban
sering ditemukan tewas di tempat kejadian atau mereka mati segera
sesudahnya. Sebaliknya, penderita yang overdosis pada barbiturat akting
panjang umumnya mati kemudian di rumah sakit. Dosis hipnotis normal
untuk barbiturat, parameter farmakokinetik yang bersangkutan, dan
konsentrasi darah terapeutik, beracun, dan mematikan diberikan dalam tabel
14,2. Toleransi terhadap barbiturat atau depresan lainnya, jika ada, dapat
memodifikasi profil toksisitas diantisipasi dan harus dipertimbangkan.
Perhatian harus dilakukan ketika di menggoda untuk mengaitkan
sesuatu melaporkan data konsentrasi darah ke tingkat keracunan. Harus
diingat bahwa ini bukan nilai absolut. Mereka mewakili berbagai konsentrasi
darah yang menunjukkan kadar terapeutik, beracun, atau mematikan.
Keparahan keracunan barbiturat lebih baik ditentukan oleh manifestasi klinis
korban.
Konsentrasi
darah
barbiturat
biasanya
digunakan
untuk
mengkonfirmasi diagnosis awal. Jika gambaran klinis menunjukkan tandatanda depresi SSP berat, tetapi hasil laboratorium masih menunjukkan
konsentrasi barbiturat darah rendah, ini dapat menunjukkan bahwa satu atau
lebih obat CNS-depresan yang terlibat. Yang paling mungkin adalah pelaku
etanol.
Konsentrasi obat dapat digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi barbiturat
spesifik invoved, yang membantu dalam memprediksi tingkat dan durasi efek
toksik. Kemajuan pasien keracunan dapat dipantau dengan menentukan
konsentrasi obat. Untuk menggambarkan, kinetika eliminasi untuk barbiturat
setelah overdosis akut atau bahkan penyalahgunaan kronis tidak sama dengan
dosis terapi. Konsentrasi obat Serial dapat digunakan untuk menentukan
apakah kinetika eliminasi telah berubah.
Tabel 14.3 daftar berbagai negara kesadaran dan tanggapan dari pasien
keracunan. Konsentrasi barbiturat darah umumnya sejajar manifestasi clinicl.
Namun, tindakan yang sama harus dilakukan ketika di terpreting data.
2. Benzodiazepin
Karena bahaya yang melekat umum untuk dosis terapi dan beracun
dari barbiturat dan senyawa sedatif hipnotik nonbarbiturate tua, obat yang
adalah sebagai farmakologi efektif barbiturat, tetapi memiliki margin yang
lebih luas keselamatan, yang terus dikembangkan. Salah satu hasil penelitian
adalah kelas obat yang dikenal sebagai benzodiazepin.
Ribuan derivatif Benzodiazepine telah disintesis dan ratusan diuji
untuk efek depresan SSP. Karakteristik mereka yang saat ini digunakan
dirangkum dalam tabel 14.4. mereka merupakan kelompok yang paling
banyak digunakan obat penenang. Penelitian saat ini diarahkan perbaikan
lebih lanjut dari kelas ini. Diragukan bahwa mereka akan diganti sebagai
kelompok selama bertahun-tahun.
Benzodiazepin memiliki indeks terapeutik yang tinggi dan paling
aman dari semua obat hipnotik sedatif. Dengan kata lain, rentang antara dosis
terapi nd dosis beracun atau mematikan sangat luas. Peningkatan dosis,
bahkan sejumlah besar, tidak akan menyebabkan anestesi umum, sebagai
lawan obat penenang lainnya. Akibatnya, potensi mereka secara keseluruhan
untuk toksisitas rendah, dan pasien dengan benzodiazepine overdosis hadir
dengan lebih sedikit masalah.
Benzodiazepin memiliki indeks terapeutik yang tinggi dan paling
aman dari semua obat hipnotik sedatif. Dengan kata lain, rentang antara dosis
terapi nd dosis beracun atau mematikan sangat luas. Peningkatan dosis,
bahkan sejumlah besar, tidak akan menyebabkan anestesi umum, sebagai
lawan obat penenang lainnya. Akibatnya, potensi mereka secara keseluruhan
untuk toksisitas rendah, dan pasien dengan benzodiazepine overdosis hadir
dengan lebih sedikit masalah.
Mekanisme toksisitas benzodiazepin
Kebanyakan efek toksik benzodiazepin hasil dari tindakan penenang
mereka pada SSP. Pada dosis yang sangat tinggi, neuromuskular blokade
mungkin terjadi. Juga, setelah injeksi intravena, vasodilatasi perifer
menyebabkan penurunan tekanan darah, dan shock bisa terjadi.
Dalam SSP, benzodiazepin yang selektif untuk jalur polisinaps.
Mereka
menghambat
transmisi
presinaptik
dengan
merangsang
DEPRESAN LAINNYA
Lain setengah lusin atau lebih CNS obat depresan merupakan yang tersisa
yang masih dilaporkan penyebab sesekali keracunan. Laporan toksisitas telah
menurun dalam beberapa tahun terakhir.
1. Kloral hidrat
Kloral hidrat juga betaine kloral dan natrium triclosof, ampuh obat
penenang
SSP.
Chloral
hydrate
diubah
menjadi
metabolit
aktif,
lainnya,
glutethimide,
terlarang
melaporkan
bahwa
meningkatkan
hubungan
dari kegiatan mereka berbeda. Efek toksik ringan termasuk mabuk, sakit
kepala, pingsan, gelisah, mulut kering, dan penglihatan kabur. Overdosis
parah, yang biasanya konsisten dengan konsentrasi darah melebihi 3mg / dl.,
Umumnya menghasilkan CEMA disertai tanda-tanda piramidal, seperti
hypenonia, hyperreflexia, mioklonus, dan kejang-kejang. Efek ini biasanya
tidak diamati dalam overdosis obat penenang hipnotis lainnya. Hipotensi
berat dan edema paru biasanya tidak hadir dengan methaqualone keracunan,
namun kecenderungan perdarahan, karena penghambatan agregasi platelet
dan neuropati perifer, sering diamati.
5. Antihistamin
Dengan diperkenalkannya antihistamin pada akhir 1940-an, ia cepat
menyadari bahwa obat ini menghasilkan berbagai efek berpusat di sekitar
depresi SSP. Sedasi adalah efek samping yang paling umum dari kebanyakan
antihistamin pada orang dewasa (Tabel 14.6). dalam overdosis, depresi SSP
menyebabkan koma bisa terjadi. Namun, gejala tambahan yang menyerupai
tindakan antikolinergik juga dapat hadir, dan mungkin lebih penting daripada
tingkat depresi. Ini termasuk midriasis, flushing, demam, mulut kering, dan
penglihatan kabur. Anak-anak biasanya mengalami stimulasi pusat,
halusinasi, kejang tonik klonik, dan hiperpireksia, bukan depresi. Studi kasus
yang menarik yang menggambarkan tanda-tanda dan gejala overdosis
antihistamin disajikan.
MANAJEMEN CNS DEPRESAN OBAT OVERDOSIS
Manajemen SSP obat depresan overdosis mengikuti prinsip-prinsip dasar
yang sama. Kebanyakan pengalaman klinis telah terakumulasi dengan
pengelolaan intoksikasi barbiturat. Oleh karena itu, manajemen keracunan
barbiturat akan menjadi model untuk depresan SSP lain yang dibahas dalam bab
ini.
Bertahan hidup setelah CNS depresan overdosis sangat baik. Kurang dari
2% dari korban menyerah.
Neuvonen dan Elonen telah menunjukkan bahwa beberapa dosis arang aktif
mulai 10 jam setelah Phenobarbital dikonsumsi seseorang yang sehat secara
signifikan
mengurangi
konsentrasi
darah.
Sedangkan
kontrol
memiliki
Phenobarbital waktu paruh 110 jam, arang aktif mengurangi ini untuk 20 jam.
setelah fenobarbital mengalami sirkulasi enterohepatik, ada kemungkinan bahwa
arang aktif dapat mengganggu reabsorpsion barbiturat. Hasil lain menunjukkan
yang serupa dengan pemberian nasogastrik arang aktif.
Dialisis peritoneal meningkatkan eliminasi beberapa depresan SSP, tetapi
prosedur ini tampaknya memiliki efisiensi yang rendah dan tidak lagi dianjurkan.
Hemodialisis efektivitasnya bervariasi dalam menghilangkan sejumlah besar SSP
depresan dari darah dalam kasus beracun / suntikan mematikan, atau ketika pasien
dalam hemodinamik berat atau membahayakan ginjal, dan mungkin koma
berkepanjangan. Hemoperfusi telah terbukti efektif menghilangkan sejumlah
besar dari salah satu depresan SSP dibahas.
Dalam beberapa kasus, keberhasilan yang lebih besar mungkin telah
terbukti menggunakan arang hemoperfusi atas resin hemoperfusi. Bahkan
langkah-langkah ekstrakorporeal mengurangi konsentrasi obat darah secara in
vitro, signifikansi klinis mereka dapat dipertanyakan. Banyak obat yang dibahas
dalam bab ini yang terikat protein sangat-baik atau memiliki volume distribusi
besar yang membatasi efektivitas prosedur ini. Tabel 14.7 merangkum efektivitas
berbagai prosedur yang digunakan untuk meningkatkan eliminasi CNS depresan
overdosis.
Table 14.7 efektivitas prosedur untuk meningkatkan eliminasi obat Di CNS
keracunan obat
Obat
Barbiturates
FD
PD
HD
CH
RH
Ineffective
__
+/-
++
+++
Long-acting
++
__
++
+++
Benzodiazepines
Not indicated
Not indicated
Short-intermediate
Not
Not
Not
recommended
recommended
recommended
Chloral hydrate
Not recommended
Not recommended
+/-
++
++
Ethchloryvinol
Not recommended
Not recommended
++
+++
Gluthetalmide
Not recommended
Not recommended
+++
+++
Methyprylon
Ineffective
+/-
++
+++
Meprobamate
Not recommended
+/-
++
+++
+++
Methaqualone
Not recommended
Not recommended
+/-
__
__
antihistamines
Ineffective
Not
Not
recommended
recommended
FD, memaksa diuresis; PD, dialisis peritoneal; HD, Hemodialisa; CH, Arang
hemoperfusion; RH, Resin hemoperfusion.
__, Efektif atau tidak ada data; +/-, Mungkin efektif; +, Efektif; ++, Efektivitas
yang baik; +++, Efektivitas sangat baik
Antidote Benzodiazepine
Flumazenil (Mazicon), 1,4-imidazobenzodiazepine adalah antagonis yang
dapat mengurangi atau menghentikan obat penenang, ansiolitik, antikonvulsan,
ataksia, efek anestesi, dan relaksan otot benzodiazepin dalam dosis dengan cara
yang tergantung. Meskipun waktu nya paruh pendek, dosis kecil (0,2 sampai 1,0
mg) dari flumazenil biasanya efektif dalam membalikkan sedatif keracunan
benzodiazepine.
Flumazenil umumnya ditoleransi dengan baik. Efek samping biasanya
ringan, terutama terdiri dari mual dan muntah. Munculnya sindrom penarikan diri
ini dimungkinkan karena perpindahan dari agonis dari situs reseptor, namun
insiden ini jarang terjadi.
O
COOC2H2
N
N
N
CH3
Flumazenil
H2C
N
Cl
N
F
Midazolam
Ringkasan
Intoksikasi dengan depresan SSP menyebabkan serangkaian efek yang dapat
diprediksi ditekankan oleh kegagalan pernafasan dan kolaps kardiovaskular.
Meskipun obat depresan tertentu dapat menghasilkan gejala khas lainnya, tidak
diutamakan lebih dari dua gejala ini.
Pengobatan harus diarahkan pemeliharaan fungsi penting, pencegahan
penyerapan lebih lanjut, dan pengurangan kadar obat yang diserap. Baik
keperawatan merupakan komponen penting dari terapi, tidak ada obat penawar
khusus untuk sebagian besar obat sedatif-hipnotik.
Studi Kasus
Studi Kasus: Overdosis Barbiturat
Sejarah: Kasus 1
Seorang wanita berusia 55 tahun itu ditemukan dalam keadaan koma setelah
menelan sekitar 30 kapsul sediaan obat penenang, masing-masing berisi 100 mg
sodium Pentobarbital dan 260 mg carbromal. Saat masuk ke rumah sakit, tekanan
darah 80/60 mmHg; denyut nadi, 80 denyut / menit; dan pernapasan, 20 / menit
dan dangkal. Pupil yang melebar dan tetap, tidak ada refleks, dan pasien benarbenar tidak tanggap terhadap perintah atau rangsangan. Dia diintubasi dan terus
respirator. Vesikel besar dan bula yang berisi cairan bening yang hadir pada
permukaan dorsal tangan, di sekitar kedua lutut, dan tumit.
Konsentrasi serum darah barbiturat awalnya adalah 4,3 mg / dL. Karena
kondisinya memburuk dan asidosis pernafasan muncul, hemodialisis dilakukan.
Setelah dua sesi 8 sampai 9 jam masing-masing, dia terbangun pada hari sakit
ketiga. Pada titik ini ia mampu bernapas tanpa bantuan respirator. Dia membuat
pemulihan yang lancar dan dibebaskan sekitar 2 minggu setelah masuk.
Pada saat dikeluarkan pasien ini, lesi kulit telah sembuh. Dokter yang
melaporkan kasus ini mengamati bahwa barbiturat hadir dalam melepuh ini, dan
tersirat bahwa obat ini memiliki kapiler kulit teriritasi menyebabkan pembentukan
vesikel. Pembentukan lepuh serupa juga telah dicatat setelah keracunan dengan
berbagai obat penenang lainnya dan bahan kimia, termasuk karbon monoksida.
Dengan demikian tampak bahwa ini tidak spesifik dan tidak boleh digunakan
untuk membedakan satu obat dari yang lain ketika mencoba untuk menentukan
sifat racun.
Sejarah : Kasus 2
Seorang wanita berusia 22 tahun, dengan riwayat kejang umum dan
skizofrenia, tertelan kuantitas belum ditentukan Phenobarbital. Dia juga telah
memakai hidroklorida fluphenazine dan benztropine mesylate untuk kondisi
medisnya. Dia dibawa ke gawat darurat dalam keadaan koma, menanggapi hanya
pada stimulus yang menyakitkan. Tanda-tanda vital nya termasuk: tekanan darah,
110/60 mm Hg; denyut nadi, 102 beta / min, dan suhu rektal, 37,3 0C. cairan infus
yang diberikan. Respirasi didukung secara buatan.
Dia diintubasi dengan tabung endotrakeal dan pencucian lambung. Dengan
tabung nasogastrik di tempat, 40 gram arang aktif diberikan diikuti oleh 20 gram
natrium sulfat. Arang aktif (40 gr) dan magnesium sitrat (60 ml) diberikan setiap 4
jam selama lima dosis tambahan.
Analisis toksikologi dari darah untuk alkohol dan obat-obatan lainnya
adalah negatif kecuali Phenobarbital. Konsentrasi Fenobarbital darah awal 141 mg
/ ml turun menjadi 47 mg / ml dalam waktu 24 jam, selama waktu kondisi klinis
nya cepat membaik.
Diskusi
1.
Midriasis (pupil melebar) merupakan tanda umum dari keracunan berat dengan
obat penenang. Hal ini dilaporkan untuk pasien 1. Mengapa Anda berpikir
2.
3.
tidak mengherankan?
Pasien 2 menerima dosis awal natrium sulfat, dan magnesium sitrat setiap 4 jam.
apa tujuan dari pengobatan ini, dan itu berhasil?
Studi Kasus: Kematian Tak Terduga Dari Meprobamate
Sejarah
Seorang wanita berusia 51 tahun ditemukan pingsan oleh suaminya setelah
diduga menelan 50 tablet meprobamate (masing-masing 400 mg). Dia dikenal
alkoholik dan telah mencoba bunuh diri sebelumnya. Dia juga seorang penderita
asma, dan obat-nya meliputi prednison, bronkodilator, dan beberapa obat
penenang. Ketika ia tiba di rumah sakit dia tidak sadarkan diri, semua refleks
tidak ada, dan dia menjawab hanya rasa sakit yang mendalam. Tekanan darahnya
110/60 mm Hg.
Bilas lambung dimulai segera. Tiga liter cairan yang diperlukan sebelum
larutan kembali tidak berhasil menunjukkan adanya zat berawan putih. Bilas
lambung diulang lagi pada dua kesempatan terpisah, dan kedua prosedur
menghasilkan pengembalian diabaikan obat tertelan.
dan pernafasan dijaga dengan respirator. Tekanan darah kembali normal dengan
metaraminol bitartrat (Aramine).
Untuk memulai diuresis paksa, manitol hipertonik dan furosemide
diberikan. Cairan intravena yang terdiri dari 5% dekstrosa dan 0,45% larutan
garam dengan kalium klorida kemudian dilanjutkan.
Empat jam setelah masuk, hemodialisis dilakukan dan, dalam waktu 2 jam
setelah dialisis, yang kornea dan mendalam refleks tendon pasien menunjukkan
tanda-tanda respon. Dialisis dilanjutkan selama 6,5 jam lain ketika gerakan otot
berkedut sedikit tercatat. Dia diberi fenitoin dan diazepam untuk mengendalikan
gerakan-gerakan mioklonik ini. Dia juga mulai bernapas dan bergerak secara
spontan.
Konsentrasi darah methyprylon awal adalah 20,9 mg / dL. Lima jam
kemudian turun menjadi 9,2 mg / dL, dan setelah dialisis, 3 mg / dL. Jumlah obat
ditemukan oleh bilas lambung adalah 4,3 gram, atau sekitar 20% dari dosis yang
tertelan. Ia juga memperkirakan bahwa jumlah dieliminasi selama periode dialisis
8,5 jam adalah 3,6 g, yang dicatat 20% dari dosis yang tertelan. Sekitar 600 mg
yang diekskresikan dalam urin, yang dicatat kurang dari 5% dari dosis yang
tertelan.
Dengan 18 jam setelah masuk, pasien benar-benar terjaga, sadar lingkungan,
dan mencoba untuk berbicara. Selama tampilan hari berikutnya dia bingung, tapi
ini secara bertahap dibersihkan, dan dia dipulangkan pada hari ke 12 di rumah
sakit.
1.
Diskusi
Pasien ini, pulih dari keracunan yang disebabkan oleh obat penenang CNS.
Komentar pada penggunaan ukuran terapeutik.
STUDI KASUS: OVERDOSIS MASSIVE DIAZEPAM
Sejarah: Kasus 1
Seorang wanita berusia 61 tahun itu dirawat di rumah sakit sekitar 8 jam
setelah mengkonsumsi 450-500 mg diazepam. Dia menerima kemoterapi untuk
myeloma ganda dan imipramine untuk depresi. Overdosis narkoba merupakan
mencoba bunuh diri. Pada saat masuk, tekanan darah 110/80 mm Hg; denyut
jantung, 75 sampai 80 denyut / menit; dan pernapasan, 20 / menit. ia tampak
Diskusi
Apakah tampak aneh bahwa kedua pasien dinyatakan selamat dari dosis besar
obat ini? Jika Anda tidak setuju, jelaskan mengapa. Dalam kasus juga tidak
terjadi muntah yang spontan, juga bukan disebabkan. Dengan demikian, kedua
2.
korban mungkin tidak menyerap sebagian besar dari apa yang mereka telan.
Mengapa nalokson digunakan dalam pengobatan awal pasien kedua? Mengapa
3.
dekstrosa diberikan?
Meskipun pemulihan adalah cepat untuk pasien 2, konsentrasi darah diazepam
tetap meningkat jauh di atas kisaran terapi selama beberapa hari. Mengapa ia
oral yang khas pada orang dewasa, diukur 8 jam pasca konsumsi, akan
memberikan konsentrasi darah dari 4,2-9,6 ng / mL. (lihat ref.35.)
Tabel 14.8. hasil laboratorium
Na+
= 138 mEq / L
K+
= 4,8 mEq / L
Glukosa
= 125 mg / dL
BUN
= 6 mg / dL
SGOT
= 17 U / L
BUN, nitrogen urea darah; SGOT. Serum transaminase oksaloasetat
glutamat.
1.
Diskusi
Jelaskan fenomena SSP siklus dan jelaskan bagaimana pergeseran respons
2.
3.
4.
yang
bisa
dibuat
mengenai
kemungkinan
konsumsi
benzodiazepine?
Mengapa clonazepam menyebabkan penurunan bunyi usus?
Studi Kasus: Flumazenil Untuk Pemulihan Refraktori Benzodiazepin Yang
Disebabkan Guncangan
Sejarah
Seorang wanita 76 tahun tiba di fasilitas darurat mengeluh kelemahan. Dia
memiliki sejarah panjang ortopnea progresif, edema kaki, dan batuk yang
progresif. Dia memiliki kebiasaan merokok jangka panjang, namun membantah
diketahui, masalah medis yang terkait.
Wanita itu siaga. Respirasi (bekerja) adalah 40 / menit; denyut nadi adalah
biasa. 117 denyut / menit; tekanan darah, 180/80 mmHg. hasil fisik yang
bersangkutan meliputi kehadiran rales di bagian bawah kanan dada kirinya.
Ringan sampai sedang pedal edema diamati. Sebuah film rontgen dada
menunjukkan beberapa massa di paru-paru kanan dan besar efusi pleura kiri.
Intubasi trakea oral dilakukan dan diazepam 10 mg diberikan selama 3
menit ketika pasien mengalami gagal napas. Satu menit kemudian pasien menjadi
bradikardia (40 denyut / menit), hipotensi (tekanan sistolik 40 mmHg), dan dia
membutuhkan bantuan ventilasi. Kerusakan ini dianggap karena benzodiazepine
tersebut.
Diskusi
jelaskan mekanisme kerja dari flumazenil dalam membalikkan efek farmakologis
diazepine-diinduksi. Pasien tidak menerima flumazenil setelah reaksi yang
merugikan
2.
lorazepam.
Apakah
ia
memiliki
membalikkan
tindakan