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Acta Astronautica
Acta Astronautica
Acta Astronautica
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/actaastro
a r t i c l e i n f o
abstract
Article history:
Received 20 December 2013
Received in revised form
16 September 2014
Accepted 20 September 2014
Available online 6 October 2014
The plumes discovered by the Cassini mission emanating from the south pole of Saturn's
moon Enceladus and the unique chemistry found in them have fueled speculations that
Enceladus may harbor life. The presumed aquiferous fractures from which the plumes
emanate would make a prime target in the search for extraterrestrial life and would be
more easily accessible than the moon's subglacial ocean.
A lander mission that is equipped with a subsurface maneuverable ice melting probe
will be most suitable to assess the existence of life on Enceladus. A lander would have to
land at a safe distance away from a plume source and melt its way to the inner wall of the
fracture to analyze the plume subsurface liquids before potential biosignatures are
degraded or destroyed by exposure to the vacuum of space. A possible approach for the
in situ detection of biosignatures in such samples can be based on the hypothesis of
universal evolutionary convergence, meaning that the independent and repeated emergence of life and certain adaptive traits is wide-spread throughout the cosmos. We thus
present a hypothetical evolutionary trajectory leading towards the emergence of methanogenic chemoautotrophic microorganisms as the baseline for putative biological complexity on Enceladus. To detect their presence, several instruments are proposed that may
be taken aboard a future subglacial melting probe.
The Enceladus Explorer (EnEx) project funded by the German Space Administration
(DLR), aims to develop a terrestrial navigation system for a subglacial research probe and
eventually test it under realistic conditions in Antarctica using the EnEx-IceMole, a novel
Keywords:
Enceladus
Lander
Melting probe
Astrobiology
Icy moons
Abbreviations: (N)EP, (Nuclear) Electric Propulsion; ACTC, Attitude Control Thruster Cluster; ASRG, Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator; AU,
Astronomical Unit; C&DH, Command and Data Handling; EnEx, Enceladus Explorer project; EOI, Enceladus Orbit Insertion; EOM, End of Mission; FY, Fiscal
Year; GHe, Helium gas; GN&C, Guidance, Navigation and Control; GPR, Ground Penetrating Radar; HDA, Hazard Detection and Avoidance; HGA, High Gain
Antenna; IMU, Inertial Measurement Unit; IPR, Ice Penetrating Radar; Isp, Specific Impulse; kWe, kilowatt electric; kWt, kilowatt thermal; LGA, Low Gain
Antenna; LIDAR, Light Detection and Ranging (LIght raDAR); LV, Launch Vehicle; MAG-L, Magnetometer-Lander; MCT, Minimal Convergent Trait; MEA,
Main Engine Assembly; MGA, Medium Gain Antenna; MLI, Multi-layer Insulation; MMRTG, Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator; NSF,
National Science Foundation; PCA, Pressure Control Assembly; PFCA, Propellant Flow Control Assembly; RC, Reconnaissance Camera; RENC, Enceladus Radii;
ROM, Rough Order of Magnitude; RPS, Radioisotope Power Source; RS, Saturn Radii; RTG, Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator; SEP, Solar Electric
Propulsion; SIS, Site Imaging System; SOI, Saturn Orbit Insertion; SPT, South-Polar Terrain; TBR, to be refined; TM, Thermal Mapper; TRL, Technology
Readiness Level
64
maneuverable subsurface ice melting probe for clean sampling and in situ analysis of ice
and subglacial liquids. As part of the EnEx project, an initial concept study is foreseen for a
lander mission to Enceladus to deploy the IceMole near one of the active water plumes on
the moon's South-Polar Terrain, where it will search for signatures of life.
The general mission concept is to place the Lander at a safe distance from an active
plume. The IceMole would then be deployed to melt its way through the ice crust to an
aquiferous fracture at a depth of 100 m or more for an in situ examination for the presence
of microorganisms.
The driving requirement for the mission is the high energy demand by the IceMole to
melt through the cold Enceladan ices. This requirement is met by a nuclear reactor
providing 5 kW of electrical power. The nuclear reactor and the IceMole are placed on a
pallet lander platform. An Orbiter element is also foreseen, with the main function of
acting as a communications relay between Lander and Earth.
After launch, the Lander and Orbiter will perform the interplanetary transfer to Saturn
together, using the on-board nuclear reactor to power electric thrusters. After Saturn orbit
insertion, the Combined Spacecraft will continue using Nuclear Electric Propulsion to
reach the orbit of Enceladus. After orbit insertion at Enceladus, the Orbiter will perform a
detailed reconnaissance of the South-Polar Terrain. At the end of the reconnaissance
phase, the Lander will separate from the Orbiter and an autonomously guided landing
sequence will place it near one of the active vapor plumes. Once landed, the IceMole will
be deployed and start melting through the ice, while navigating around hazards and
towards a target subglacial aquiferous fracture.
An initial estimation of the mission's cost is given, as well as recommendations on the
further development of enabling technologies. The planetary protection challenges posed
by such a mission are also addressed.
& 2014 IAA. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Enceladus
1.1. General description
Analyses of Cassini measurements imply a subsurface
salt-water reservoir on Enceladus, where ice grains containing organic compounds escape via cryvolcanism from
warm fractures in the ice, known as Tiger Stripes, at
the moon's south pole.
Enceladus, only 504 km in diameter and once believed
too small to be active, has been found as one of the most
geologically dynamic objects in the Solar System [1]. Calculated from Enceladus' measured mass and density, models
assume a rocky core with a radius of E169 km (density
3 g/cm3) and a volatile crust with a thickness of E83 km
(density 1.01 g/cm3) [1]. Despite its small size, it has a wide
range of terrains, including old and young surfaces. The high
albedo of Enceladus results in a colder surface than most of
the other Saturnian satellites, with a calculated subsolar
temperature of 7573 K and an average temperature of
E51 K [2]. The spectrum of Enceladus shows that its surface
is almost completely dominated by H2O ice, with small
amounts of NH3 and tholins [3], except near its south pole.
At the south pole, the Cassini spacecraft has identified a
geologically active province, circumscribed by a chain of
folded ridges and troughs [4]. The terrain southward of this
boundary is distinguished by its albedo and color contrasts,
elevated temperatures, extreme geologic youth (possibly as
young as 5 105 years), and narrow tectonic rifts that
coincide with the hottest temperatures (145 K and more)
measured in the region [4,5]. Much ongoing research work
deals with the origin and explanation of this puzzling
thermal anomaly. The most prominent feature at the south
pole are four linear depressions, dubbed Tiger Stripes
Fig. 1. Plumes spray water ice out from many locations along the Tiger
Stripes near the south pole of Enceladus. Image credit: NASA/JPL/Space
Science Institute.
Fig. 2. Rough terrain at Enceladus' south pole with boulders resting along
the tops of high frozen ridges (edited from the original raw image to
enhance detail). Image credits: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute,
Universe Today.
from a crack and melt its way to the inner wall of a crack to
analyze the plume material in situ. This way, subsurface
liquids may be much easier to access. Nevertheless, such a
mission is still considered very challenging, given the
current state-of-the-art in space technology.
65
macroevolutionary change and an overall increase in biological complexity. The alternate perspective, which opposes
the dominating influence of contingency, is adopted by many
theorists of astrobiology on the basis of the pervasive
phenomenon of convergent evolution, the independent and
repeated emergence of similar adaptive traits in distantly
related lineages [1622]. This new paradigm proposes that
evolutionary processes can imaginably be extended beyond
Earth and it connects the onset of biological complexity to
the vast timescales of cosmological history, the differentiation of astrophysical objects and ultimately redefines it as a
subset within a vast phase space of universal complexity
[2325]. A new interdisciplinary branch of astrobiology is
exploring the hypothesis that genetically (as well as spatiotemporally) separated biological systems, for example on
Earth and Enceladus, could evolve functionally equivalent
adaptations by means of convergent evolution. In contrast to
the orthodox notion of contingency-driven evolution, the
novel hypothesis of cosmologically extended convergent
processes lends predictability to the astrobiological endeavor
[26]. Within the astrobiological landscape [27] or hyperspace [28] of biological complexity certain solutions of life
in dealing with environmental pressures are favored and
thus emerge in a convergent manner across planetary biospheres, much like dynamical systems are tending to evolve
towards physical attractors. Therefore, astrobiologists should
be able to constrain the nature of extraterrestrial life by
studying convergent evolution on Earth. Eventually the
insight gained through such an approach could be translated
into the evolutionarily informed design of biosignaturedetection instruments bound for in situ exploration of
astrobiological Solar System targets.
66
Table 1
Science-traceability matrix for in situ biosignature detection on Enceladus. Traceability is from science goal to science objectives to measurements to
detection methods.
Science goal
Science
objectives
Measurements
Detection methods
Cellularization
Microscopy
Flow cytometry
Fatty acid markers
Mass spectrometry
Metabolic
networks
Mass spectrometry
67
68
Table 2
Landing site selection traceability matrix.
Landing site selection criteria
Measurements
Instruments
Hi-Res
Reconnaissance
Camera
Sublacial morphology
Thermal emissions (higher plume activity means a greater likelihood Perform thermal mapping
of water nearer to surface)
Thermal mapper
Thermal mapper
Surface roughness
Radar
Terrain morphology
Thermal mapper
Hi-Res
Reconnaissance
Camera
(Bernd Dachwald and team from the Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Gerhard Artmann and team from
the Institute of Bioengineering).
Bundeswehr University Munich, Germany (Bernd Eissfeller and team, Roger Frstner and team, both from the
Institute of Space Technology & Space Applications).
University of Bremen, Germany (Kerstin Schill and team
from the Cognitive Neuroinformatics Group of the
Faculty of Computer Science).
Braunschweig University of Technology, Germany (Peter
Hecker and team from the Institute of Flight Guidance).
RWTH Aachen University, Germany (Christopher Wiebusch and team from the Astroparticle Physics Group of
the Faculty of Physics).
University of Wuppertal, Germany (Klaus Helbing and
team from the Astroparticle Physics Group of the
Physics Department).
69
The current IceMole bodies have the shape of a rectangular tube with a 15 cm 15 cm cross section. Their length
depends on the payload dimensions and the desired
maneuverability. The rectangular shape of the EnExIceMole provides support for the torque of the rotating
ice screw. The EnEx-IceMole can change melting direction
by differential heating of the melting head, which generates a torque (perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
EnEx-IceMole) that forces the probe into a curve. Side wall
heaters support its curve-driving capability. The required
electric power for the melting head, the ice-screw motor,
as well as for the payloads and the other subsystems, is
generated by a surface generator and transmitted via a
three-conductor power cable. In future IceMole versions,
this cable can be uncoiled from the probe to overcome
refreezing of the melting channel, and for depths of several
hundred meters the cable can be packed into separate
cable containers, each containing tens of meters of length
of cable, that are attached to the back of the IceMole.
Communication and data transfer to the surface can be
performed via the power cable or via an Ethernet cable.
For navigation, the EnEx-IceMole is equiped with an
inertial measurement unit (IMU) and a magnetometer to
measure its attitude. A second (reference) magnetometer
is installed at the surface ground station. Together with the
advance of the ice screw, the attitude history from the IMU
and the magnetometer will then be used to calculate the
probe's position. Four ultrasonic phased arrays in the
melting head are designed to detect the targeted aquiferous fracture as well as potential obstacles in the ice. In
addition, acoustic pingers on the surface emit signals that
are received by four separate on-board detectors. They
allow for an independent determination of the probe's
position using the principle of trilateration. A multi-sensor
data fusion system combines raw data streams from the
navigation sensors to generate a consistent scenario and to
display it in a user-friendly format to support the decisionmaking process of the human probe operator on the
surface. In the future, this may serve as a basis for the
autonomous control of the probe. This system will also
include a module to optimize the probe's trajectory in the
ice with respect to parameters such as available resources,
time, and risk. The EnEx-IceMole is described in more
detail in [57] and its navigation system in [58].
Several field tests of the various IceMole versions since
2010 have been conducted on the Swiss Morteratsch and
Icelandic Hofsjkull glaciers. The tests have successfully
demonstrated horizontal, upward, and downward melting
capabilities and maneuverability, the stability and the
interoperability of the newly developed navigation subsystems as well as the clean access and sampling subsystem. The latest IceMole version (EnEx-IceMole, see
Fig. 4) was tested in NovemberDecember 2013 on the
Canada glacier in Antarctica (see Fig. 5). The EnEx project
will culminate in the Antarctic field season 2014/15 with
the deployment of the EnEx-IceMole at Blood Falls, a
unique glacial feature at the terminus of the Taylor Glacier
in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, where it will
cleanly collect samples for chemical and microbiological
analyses within a collaborative exploration mission
between EnEx and MIDGE (NSF funded) [55].
70
Fig. 4. Technical drawings of the current EnEx-IceMole design (top) and the EnEx-IceMole head (bottom) as tested on the Canada glacier, Antarctica
(NovemberDecember 2013) [59].
probe can sample and analyze the materials in the fracture. Navigating from the Lander to the targeted fracture
requires an elaborate navigation solution that can detect
the aquiferous fracture but also potential obstacles along
the way (e.g., dry fractures and mineral inclusions).
The mission concept study is a work in progress. Design
features are therefore not final and could change until the
final mission concept definition.
71
3 1
Ws
Km3
U x0:726 vR2 T
3 2
3 3
72
using the chemical propulsion system will be performed. From the capture orbit, the spacecraft will start
a gravity assisted moon tour similar to the one proposed in the 2007 NASA GSFC Enceladus Flagship study
[71], to shave off enough orbital energy to reach the
orbit of Enceladus, and then capture in orbit around it.
All electric propulsion (EP):
The spacecraft will use the on-board small nuclear
reactor to power electric thrusters (Nuclear Electric
Propulsion or NEP). It will follow a gravity assisted
interplanetary trajectory, with intermediate low thrust
arcs, with a final thrust arc applied to capture around
Saturn. After Saturn capture, the spacecraft will perform a gravity assisted moon tour, while also performing low thrust maneuvers, to reach and capture in orbit
around Enceladus.
Electric propulsion using a chemical stage for Saturn
capture (EP Chem):
This option is similar to the all electric option above,
with the difference that no low thrust decelerating arc
is applied in the final leg before arriving to Saturn,
relying on a chemical stage for Saturn capture instead.
The moon tour is then performed using low thrust,
same as for the all electric option.
Chemical propulsion using an Aeroshell to perform
Aerocapture (ChemAero):
The spacecraft is launched and follows an interplanetary trajectory as described for the all chemical option.
Once at Saturn, an Aerocapture maneuver is performed
in the atmosphere of Titan. The spacecraft then reaches
a Titan Enceladus orbit, from which it begins a gravity
assisted moon tour as described above to reach and
capture around Enceladus.
Electric propulsion using an Aeroshell to perform
Aerocapture (EP Aero):
The spacecraft follows the interplanetary trajectory of
the EPChem option. The same Aerocapture maneuver
is performed as described for the Chem Aero option
above. EnEx then starts the gravity assisted moon tour
while also applying low thrust to reach Enceladus, as
described under the EP option.
73
Table 3
Key mission architecture choices. The selected architecture elements are given in bold red letters.
74
Fig. 8. Preliminary design of the Combined Spacecraft, comprised of the Orbiter and Lander, before Lander separation.
3.3.1. Orbiter
3.3.1.1. Instruments. Table 4 shows a list of the instruments
to be carried by the Orbiter, as derived from the landing site
selection traceability matrix (Table 2). All three instruments
75
Table 4
Reference instrument list for the Orbiter.
Instrument
Mass
(kg)
Data rate
Dimensions
Heritage
33.4
38
28 (acquisition)
13 (standby)
706 Mbps
2400 kbps (in flyby
phases)
Approx. 50 50 50 cm3
envelope
17.1
11
14
0.6 Mbits/s
Table 5
Component list for the communications subsystem [76].
Component
Antenna
HGA (incl. LGA-1)a
LGA-1
LGA-2
Transmission lines
Radio frequency subsystem
Deep Space Transponder (2 )
Command Detector Unit (2 )
Telemetry Control Unit
Ultra Stable Oscillator
35 W X-band TWTA (2 )a
Waveguide Transfer Switch (4 )
X-band diplexer (2 )
3 dB Hybrid coupler (1 )
Radio frequency instrument subsystem
35 W Ka-band TWTAa
S-band Transmitter
Ka-band Exciter
Ka-band Translator
Microwave Components
a
Mass (kg)
100.6
8.0
0.7
7.3
1.8
10.8
1.5
3.4
0.1
10.2
5.1
3.0
53.7
4.9
2.7
2.4
3.5
0.1
33.7
41.3
3.1
8.0
0.5
12.5
passive
passive
76
A major driver for the Lander's design and configuration is the intense radiation emitted from the reactor, also
during the interplanetary transfer phase. Sensitive electronics, such as the IceMole, instruments and Lander
avionics will be protected behind radiation shielding in
Radiation Protected Regions (Fig. 10). The Lander design
will need strenuous attention to radiation levels for
materials and equipment outside of these shielded platforms. The water ice environment on Enceladus is a
strong absorber of neutrons, thus mitigating radiation
dosage due to scattering. At this stage we have bookkept
an additional 500 kg for shielding. Detailed radiation
dose analysis and shielding sizing is currently ongoing
using the LANL MCNP tool [79].
3.3.2.2. Instruments. Table 6 shows a list of the IceMole
navigation auxiliary instruments to be carried by the
Lander, as derived from the IceMole navigation requirements (Section 2.1). A site imaging camera (Site Imaging
System, SIS) is included in the Lander instrument suite, for
landing site context imaging.
The SIS will be placed on a raised platform, to have an
unobstructed view of the surroundings. Because the
Lander will land deep within a Tiger Stripe valley, there
is the possibility that it will not be illuminated by the sun
at all. A floodlight must then be added next to the camera
to illuminate the immediate surroundings. The Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR) dual parallel antennas will be
deployed extending from the side of the Lander. Radio
frequency Pingers aiding in IceMole navigation will need
to be deployed (Table 6).
3.3.2.3. Communications. The Lander will communicate
with Earth via the Orbiter that will function as a
communications relay. A pointable LGA is foreseen, that
tracks the Orbiter when it is above the local horizon and
transmits stored data to it. This is necessary instead of a fixed
zenith pointing antenna because the Orbiter will remain at
an orbit with inclination close to 601, and therefore will
remain close to the local horizon of the Lander on the SouthPolar Terrain. Achieving high data rates between the Lander
and the Orbiter is not hard, owing to the relatively small
distances involved. A UHF helical antenna with a length of
40 cm and a diameter of 3 cm can transmit close to 1.3 Mbps
(3 dB margin) to an identical antenna on the Lander over
375 km, the distance between the Orbiter and the Lander
when the former rises above the local horizon. The system
has a second LGA for redudancy.
3.3.2.4. Command and data handling (C&DH). Following
the approach of [74], a RAD750 single-board computer
was selected. Onboard data storage will accommodate
multiple copies of the Lander and IceMole science and
housekeeping data.
3.3.2.5. Structures & mechanisms. The Lander body is a
typical hexagonal pallet lander platform. Six lander legs
with incorporated crushable honeycomb for shock
attenuation are foreseen. The legs are crushable up to a
predefined height from the surface, to allow for the
necessary clearance to be maintained below the Lander.
77
Table 6
Reference instrument list for the Lander (IceMole navigation auxiliary instruments and Camera).
Instrument
Mass
(kg)
2.8
1.2 Mbps
0.15
2400 kbps
2.2
1.8 kbps
1 (each,
TBR)
1 (each,
TBR)
Dimensions
Heritage
78
79
Fig. 11. Thermal distribution on the Lander. Heat pipes are used to warm up areas of interest such as the top of the mast, to instrument operational
temperatures.
80
Table 7
Reference instrument list for the Lander (Landing guidance, navigation and control instruments).
Instrument
Mass (kg)
Sun sensors (2 )
IMUs (2 )
HDA Lidar (2 )
TRN Camera
Total
Generated data
22
22
10
54
Fig. 13. Two-EGA transfer of the Combined Spacecraft to Saturn with low
V1 approach at Saturn. The inset illustrates the first leg of the trajectory
containing the two EGA maneuvers, with thick line arcs denoting lowthrust arcs [90] (grid of the inset shows 1 AU from center to edge). The
final transfer leg after the second EGA to Saturn is shown in green. Thrust
arcs for this leg take place after the final EGA and before Saturn capture
(not shown). The orbits of Earth and Saturn are shown. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
81
Fig. 14. The trajectory of the spacecraft (green) from the original capture
orbit around Saturn, to a low energy Saturn orbit close to the orbit of
Enceladus (red). (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
3.4. Operations
3.4.1. Launch and interplanetary transfer
The low-thrust nuclear electric trajectories for the
entire transfer to Enceladus (Sections 3.4.1 and 3.4.2)
where modeled using the InTrance software package
(Intelligent Trajectory Optimization using Neurocontroller
Evolution). InTrance combines evolutionary algorithms
with neuronal networks in order to find an optimal
strategy for a given optimization problem [89].
The mission will be launched directly on an interplanetary trajectory with a C3 of 0 km2/s2. An Earth gravity
assist (EGA) maneuver is performed one year after launch,
and a second EGA 2 years later. These two EGAs, in
conjunction with intermediate NEP thrust arcs will impart
an outgoing velocity of 8 km/s to the spacecraft for the
final leg of the transfer to Saturn. This final leg includes a
thrust arc during its final part to reduce the incoming
velocity at Saturn and enable capture. This final leg takes
8.7 years. The complete interplanetary transfer takes thus
14.55 years and is illustrated in Fig. 13.
Since the trajectory includes Earth gravity assists only, a
launch opportunity occurs every 1.04 years according to
the Earth Saturn synodic period.
82
IceMole scientific
instrument suite
Mass
(kg)
Power (W)
(Max)
Data volume
(Mb)
38
147
Table 9
Data volume generated, and maximum power usage during a pass over the South-Polar Terrain during the Reconnaissance phase.
Instrument
Data volume
(Gb)
Power (W)
(Max)
Comment
2.4
1
38
28
0.53
14
Source for data volume: data rate from Tables 4 for 15 min. operational
duration
3.93
80
Table 10
Data generation per Lander instrument and the IceMole during a six hour
period.
Instrument
Data
(Mb)
Comment
78
1024
38
17.64
1140
83
Table 11
V budget for the Combined Spacecraft.
Combined Spacecraft V budget
Phase
Basic
V
(m/s)
Margin
(%)
3000 5
Nominal
V (m/s)
3240
5
5
5
100
17,850
8347.5
199.5
50
Comment
Approximate value for first two legs of EESGA trajectory from [90], including 35 m/s to
account for preparation and correction for each gravity assist maneuver.
26.2
29,637
Basic V (m/s)
Margin (%)
Nominal V (m/s)
Comment
0
150
246
90
0
5
5
100
0
157.5
258.3
180
595.8
Table 13
Master Equipment List for the IceMole.
IceMole Master Equipment List
Element
Basic
Mass (kg)
Maturity
Margin (%)
Nominal
Mass (kg)
Comment
20
18.0
Instruments
Deployment mechanism
IceMole Deployment
Mechanism total mass
20
20
7.2
6.0
31.2
6.0
5.0
Note: All maturity margins are according to current ESA recommendations [103]: 5% for Off-The-Shelf items, 10% for Off-The-Shelf items requiring
minor modifications and 20% for new designed/developed items, or items requiring major modifications or re-design.
84
Table 14
Master Equipment List for the Lander.
Lander Master Equipment List
Element
Power
HOMER
Batteries (2 ) (for EDL
and deployment)
Structures
Shielding
Communications
C&DH box
Thermal
GN&C
Sun Sensors (2 )
IMUs (2 )
HDA LIDAR (2 )
TRN Camera
Instruments
SIS
GPR
MAG-L
Pingers (4 )
Propulsion and AOCS
GHe tank
PCA
N2H4 tank (4 )
PFCA
MEA (4 400 N
thrusters)
ACTC (4 8 4 N
thrusters)
Harness
System level margin
(20%)
IceMole Total Mass
Lander total dry mass
Propellant mass
Residual prop. mass
Lander total wet mass
Basic Maturity
Mass (kg) Margin (%)
Nominal
Mass (kg)
800.0 NA
800.0
73.0 10
80.3
Comment
35.0
500.0
33.0
17.0
2.0
10
NA
10
10
10
38.5
500.0
36.3
18.7
2.2
0.2
8.8
7.4
3.0
10
10
10
10
0.2
9.7
8.1
3.3
Table
Table
Table
Table
7
7
7
7
2.8
0.25
2.2
4.0
61.0
7.0
20.0
34.0
20.0
7.4
5
20
5
10
2.9
0.3
2.3
4.4
Table
Table
Table
Table
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
10
7.7
22.0
37.4
22.0
8.2
10.6 10
11.6
82.4
329.5
31.2
2059.2
654.5
13.1
2713.7
Note: All maturity margins are according to current ESA recommendations [103]: 5% for Off-The-Shelf items, 10% for Off-The-Shelf items requiring
minor modifications and 20% for new designed/developed items, or items requiring major modifications or re-design.
85
Table 15
Master Equipment List for the Orbiter.
Orbiter Master Equipment List
Element
Structures
Main structure
Extended fixed structure
Instruments
RC
IPR
TM
Communications
C&DH
GN&C
Thermal
Power
MMRTG (3 )
Power subsystem
Propulsion
NEP
Launcher adapter
Harness
System level margin (20%)
Basic
Mass (kg)
Maturity
Margin (%)
270.0
600.0
20
20
324.0
720.0
[74]
Rough approximation for a 10 m hollow Al
tube
33.4
17.1
11.0
180.0
6.0
80.0
64.0
5
20
5
5
5
20
20
35.1
20.5
11.6
189.0
6.3
96.0
76.8
Table 4
Table 4
Table 4
Cassini Comms System [76]
[74]
[74]
[104]
135.0
42.0
5
10
141.75
46.2
[77]
[74]
300.0
20
360.0
155.0
162.8
102.5
438.0
Nominal
Mass (kg)
2737.4
93.0
Comment
2830.5
Note: All maturity margins are according to current ESA recommendations [103]: 5% for Off-The-Shelf items, 10% for Off-The-Shelf items requiring
minor modifications and 20% for new designed/developed items, or items requiring major modifications or re-design.
Table 16
Total launch mass for the Combined Spacecraft.
Element
Comment
5544.2
5866.0
11410.2
Note: All maturity margins are according to current ESA recommendations [103]: 5% for Off-The-Shelf items, 10% for Off-The-Shelf items requiring
minor modifications and 20% for new designed/developed items, or items requiring major modifications or re-design.
86
5. Technical budgets
Tables 11 and 12 give approximate V values for the
Combined Spacecraft and the Lander. Tables 1315, give
the Master Equipment List for each mission element, and
Table 16 gives the total launch mass.
The total launch mass is quite high, and indeed higher
than the capabilities of any current launcher to place on an
interplanetary trajectory. The main issue will be to reduce
the launch mass via an optimized low-thrust trajectory. This
will have to include the design of a low thrust moon tour, a
low thrust trajectory performing multiple gravity assist
maneuvers at the moons of Saturn that lie between Titan
and Enceladus. This, however, is an exceptionally difficult
task. The required mission analysis software is very restricted
and in addition its proper use requires expert supervision.
Thus the optimization of the NEP trajectory is left for a later
stage. It is thus expected that once such a trajectory is
modeled, and the reduction in V afforded by the moon
gravity assists taken into account, the propellant mass
estimation will be significantly reduced. According to NEP
trajectories to Saturn given in [90], it does not seem
unreasonable to expect a total mission V of 20 km/s or
lower. In this case, the total launch mass would drop to
approx. 8 t, within the capabilities of current launchers for
placement on an interplanetary trajectory.
Other steps will also be taken to optimize mass during
further design of the system. This will include e.g. a more
detailed assessment of the radiation effects of the nuclear
reactor, to reduce the mass allocated for shielding against
these effects.
It is expected that after these steps are taken, the
launch mass will be much closer to the capabilities of
current heavy launchers.
Acknowledgments
The Enceladus Explorer (EnEx) project is based on an
idea and initiative of the German Space Administration
(DLR). It is funded by resolution of the German Parliament
under project number 50 NA 1206. The mission concept
study presented in this paper is also funded in the context
of the EnEx project. Field tests in Antarctica are carried out
within the scope of the MIDGE project, funded by the US
National Science Foundation under Grants ANT-1144178
and ANT-1144192.
This paper benefited from work by the entire Enceladus
Explorer collaboration.
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