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Bussiness Communication
Bussiness Communication
Bussiness Communication
Ans.:- If I am to speak ten minutes, I need a week for preparation; if fifteen minutes, three days; if
half an hour, two days; if an hour, I am ready now. ~ Woodrow Wilson
Communication is a process that involves exchange of information, thoughts, ideas and emotions.
Communication is a process that involves a sender who encodes and sends the message, which is then
carried via the communication channel to the receiver where the receiver decodes the message,
processes the information and sends an appropriate reply via the same communication channel.
Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity to another.
Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least two agents which
share a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules. Communication is commonly defined as "the
imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs".
Although there is such a thing as one-way communication, communication can be perceived
better as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of thoughts,
feelings or ideas (energy) towards a mutually accepted goal or direction (information).
The word communication, which has its origin in the Latin word communis, brings out many
images in one’s mind. It could be a two way process, a network, a technique or a form of
entertainment. It could be personal or business related communication and as we see, has
developed its modes, channels, instruments and gadgets over the years.
Communication are a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is discreeted
and imparted by sender to a receiver via a channel/medium. The receiver then decodes the
message and gives the sender a feedback. Communication requires that all parties have an
area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speech, song, and
tone of voice, and there are nonverbal means, such as body language, sign language,
paralanguage, touch, eye contact, and writing.
This definition emphasizes the fact communication has to do with interchange or exchange of
facts and opinions or social or commercial intercourse.
“Communication encompasses all forms of expression which serve the purpose of mutual
understanding.”
-REVESZ
This definition highlights the all-encompassing nature of communication and the fact that it
has a purpose to achieve
.
“Communication is the process that links discontinuous parts of the world to one another.”
-RUESCH
Here, the focus is on the fact that communication has a global reach.
Dimensions of communication
THE STRENGTHS and weaknesses of each communication method are not just a factor of
the media elements they can employ, but also the broad categories that they fall into. I have
identified four independent dimensions that help considerably in categorising the methods:
• recorded v live
• passive v interactive
• local v remote
• push v pull
Recorded Live
Recorded communication is prepared in advance of its Live communication is delivered as it happens, in real-
delivery. Examples are audio tapes and CDs; time. Examples are live radio and TV broadcasts; one-
videotapes; CD-ROMs; letters, memos and reports; to-ones; meetings; phone calls and video conferencing
manuals; printed materials; faxes; e-mails; intranet calls.
pages and some radio and TV broadcasts. The advantage of live communication is that it is
The advantages of recorded communication are that it immediate.
delivers a consistent message each time; the message
can be a considered one and the recipient can access
the communication at a time that suits them.
When planning communication strategies, many tend to take a very broad problem as a starting point
(desertification, for example), and then to move right into planning communication activities
(information sessions, awareness campaigns).
The result is that the target is often missed and, despite all the activities undertaken, the problem
remains untouched. To avoid situations of this kind, we should start from the needs expressed by local
communities and identify the communication objectives we want to achieve before undertaking
specific activities.
Communication objectives
Communication objectives are based on the communication needs of each specific group concerned
by a specific problem or a set of research activities. These objectives are identified and then
prioritised. The final choice of objectives may be made on the basis of the needs that are most urgent,
or those most susceptible to action. They are then defined in terms of the action which need to occur
for the objectives to be achieved.
Generally, in the context of natural resource management, the objectives are linked to one or several
of these communication functions: raising awareness, sharing information, facilitating learning,
supporting participation, decision-making and collaborative action, mediating conflicts, influencing
the policy environment.
An important aspect though is not to limit oneself to awareness-raising objectives. It may be
important to raise awareness for a community management of a forest, or for a better community
management of water resources. However, this objective should be accompanied by other objectives
aiming to:
The next stage is to regroup the different objectives involving the same community groups and to
consider the best way of supporting each group in achieving them. For each group of participants and
for each objective, we should then ask ourselves what the most appropriate modes of communication
are-
For example, if we want to work closely with women on water use, in many settings, it may be better
to arrange first for a global meeting with husbands and wives to explain the intention, discuss the
problem and then arrange for working exclusively with groups of women, than trying to isolate
women for participation in communication activities.
It is on the basis of such strategic considerations that communication activities are then identified and
ranked by order of priority.
It is particularly important at this point to be realistic about the feasibility issues and not to compile an
endless list of activities that is too ambitious.
Q. (3) What are the various type of non-verbal communication? How can
non-verbal communication be used effectively?
Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behaviour began with the 1872 publication of
Charles Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Since that time, there has
been an abundance of research on the types, effects, and expression of unspoken communication and
behaviour. While these signals are often so subtle that we are not consciously aware of them, research
has identified several different types of nonverbal communication.
Haptics--touch
Chronemics--time
Kinesics--body language
Proxemics--personal space
Facial Expression
Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication. Consider how
much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. While nonverbal communication and
behaviour can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions for happiness, sadness,
anger, and fear are similar throughout the world.
Gestures
Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without words.
Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate number amounts. Other
gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.
Paralinguistics
Paralinguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This includes
factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch. Consider the powerful effect that tone of
voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might
interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone of voice might convey
disapproval and a lack of interest.
Posture and movement can also convey a great deal on information. Research on body language has
grown significantly since the 1970’s, but popular media have focused on the over-interpretation of
defensive postures, arm-crossing, and leg-crossing, especially after the publication of Julius Fast’s
book Body Language. While these nonverbal behaviours can indicate feelings and attitudes, research
suggests that body language is far more subtle and less definitive that previously believed.
Kinesics:- Kinesics, or body language, is one of the most powerful ways that humans can
communicate nonverbally. It is used to portray moods and emotions and to emphasize or
contradict what is being said.
Body language is very important when in an interview. "To effectively communicate it’s not
always what you say, but what your body says, that makes the difference," according to
Patricia Ball. There are various different types of body movement one can do to come across
as being too strong or too weak. For example, when one first walks into the room and shakes
hands with the interviewer you want to have good eye contact as well as a good firm hand
shake. Not too strong, because you can come across as being a power player. Another
important aspect to remember when you are on an interview and that is to mirror your
interviewer, but not to the point that you over do it. For example, if the person that is giving
you the interview crosses his/her arms than you can cross your arms. If he/she crosses their
feet then you should cross your feet, but do it gradually.
The last two things to remember is when you first walk into the office do not cross anything
unless the person that is doing the interviewing crosses his or hers first. Next when you are
sitting down be relaxed as possible by opening your suit jacket. This shows the person that
you are not tensed. The other aspect to remember is to lean forward in your chair, but not to
close where you are in the individuals face. If you sit back in your chair you might be sending
off signals, such as, aloofness or rejection. Finally, nonverbal communication can also be an
effective sale when executives learn to read a client’s body language.
Proxemics
People often refer to their need for “personal space,” which is also an important type of nonverbal
communication. The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging
to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms, situational factors, personality
characteristics, and level of familiarity. For example, the amount of personal space needed when
having a casual conversation with another person usually varies between 18 inches to four feet. On
the other hand, the personal distance needed when speaking to a crowd of people is around 10 to 12
feet.
One of the terms used in non-verbal language is proxemics. Edward Hall defined proxemics
in the 1950’s and 1960’s when he investigated man’s use of personal space in contrast with
fixed and semi-fixed feature space. Fixed feature is what it is fixed has in unmovable
boundaries. Semi-fixed is fixed boundaries that can be moved like furniture.
Proxemics can be divided in two other ways, physical and personal territory. Physical
territory is like desks that are in front of the room of a classroom instead of center.
An example of the proxemic concept is that of stepping behind the desk of an associate at
work and invading the personal zone. But what if it is the boss; do you have the authority? If
it’s a co-worker you probably do. A workplace where you sit is a primary tool in establishing
certain communications and is his or her freedom to place that desk where and how it is a key
element in personnel considerations. The cubicles don’t offer the chance to allow the worker
to rearrange the furniture to his or her preference, nor do they allow visitors. Extra room or
the ability to move furniture in an office are both symbols of status.
Manager Tip: A manager can use proxemics to their advantage. The arrangement of
an office space can show the attitude or personality of the manager. To establish a
democratic and friendly style, speak with an employee side by side, such as at a table,
rather than from behind a large, imposing desk.
1. Eye Gaze
Looking, staring, and blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviours. When people encounter
people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another
person can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, interest, and attraction.
2. Haptics
Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behaviour. There has been a substantial
amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early childhood. Harry Harlow’s classic
monkey study demonstrated how the deprivation of touch and contact impedes development. Baby
monkeys raised by wire mothers experienced permanent deficits in behaviour and social interaction.
Research has found that touching can create both positive and negative feelings. Your
feelings are positive when the touch is perceived to be natural. A person gets the
opposite feeling when the touch is perceived to be manipulative or insincere. Touch is
experienced in many ways. Handshakes, pats, and kisses are just a few of the ways one
can communicate by touching.
Manager Tip: A firm handshake says, "I care." A weak handshake says, "I care less."
3. Appearance
Our choice of colour, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also considered a
means of nonverbal communication. Research on colour psychology has demonstrated that different
colours can invoke different moods. Appearance can also alter physiological reactions, judgment, and
interpretations
4. Chronemics
Time, or chronemics, can be used very differently with respect to individuals and even
cultures. Time perceptions include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions.
Time use affects lifestyles, daily agendas, speed of speech and movements, how long
people are willing to listen, etc.
The way time is used can provide information about people as individuals. There are
different perceptions about time usage and its value. Also, cultures differ in their usage
of time. For example, in European and American societies, when men are interacting
with women, they generally control the time use, talk more than women, and interrupt
more than women. In the business world, Americans are expected to arrive to meetings
on time and, usually, even early. On the other hand, they arrive late to parties and
dances.
Manager Tip: When addressing the issues of time and punctuality, be specific as to
what exactly is "on time." An employee may view arriving at 8:05-8:10 as acceptable,
while the manager may see 8:10 as being late. By citing a specific time rather than using
general phrases, communication can be improved and possible conflicts avoided.
People need to practice and acquire skills to be good listeners, because a speaker cannot throw you
information in the same manner that a dart player tosses a dart at a passive dartboard. Information is
an intangible substance that must be sent by the speaker and received by an active listener.
Many people are familiar with the scene of the child standing in front of dad, just bursting to tell him
what happened in school that day. Unfortunately, dad has the paper in front of his face and even when
he drops the paper down half-way, it is visibly apparent that he is not really listening.
A student solved the problem of getting dad to listen from behind his protective paper wall. Her
solution was to say, "Move your face, dad, when I'm talking to you.'' This simple solution will force
even the poorest listener to adopt effective listening skills because it captures the essence of good
listening.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
If you are really listening intently, you should feel tired after your speaker has finished. Effective
listening is an active rather than a passive activity.
When you find yourself drifting away during a listening session, change your body position and
concentrate on using one of the above skills. Once one of the skills is being used, the other active
skills will come into place as well.
Your body position defines whether you will have the chance of being a good listener or a good
deflector. Good listeners are like poor boxers: they lead with their faces.
Meaning cannot just be transmitted as a tangible substance by the speaker. It must also be
stimulated or aroused in the receiver. The receiver must therefore be an active participant for the
cycle of communication to be complete.
There are books written exclusively on the rules of giving presentation. With long articles and
publications on the subject, it_s not hard to learn the stead fast rules of speaking and how to write a
presentation, much like it isn_t hard to learn how to fix a car, albeit it takes some dedication. However
there aren_t long publications on simple little tips and tricks about presentations that make the whole
learning process easier. While tips won_t create a great speaker, they are possibly some of the greatest
information out there and they make the basics much easier and make even a weak presenter look like
a super star.
While there are many presentation tips to come, it_s important to learn how to find them on
your own. The old saying of give a man a fish and he_ll eat for a night, but teach a man to
fish and he_ll never go hungry again really applies. The only trick to getting presentation tips
is finding people who give presentations constantly and are extremely good at it. Often times
there will be a handful of people that are easily accessible that can give you presentation tips.
The first place to stop by would be a church. Ninety percent of what a priest or pastor does is
talk. Their jobs rely on being able to speak well to a large audience and to be able to keep the
entertained long enough to give them his message; someone that does such a job every day
for year's results in a strong presenter who has likely picked up a lot of presentation tips. Just
drop by and see them when they aren_t giving a ceremony and start a conversation with
them. To name a few other good resources politicians and public relations people in non
profit organizations often times have to speak to the public a lot and are a wonderful resource
of presentation tips.
Finally to actually name a few presentation tips. We_ll start with organization; a good tip on
organizing is to print clearly at the top of index cards the main topic of a presentation that
will often times have many sub topics, then on separate index cards write the sub topics at the
head and the points on the respective cards below the titles. Once the cards are all filled out,
pile them on top of each other in the correct order and this will allow you to clearly and
visually arrange the presentation in a way that flows smoothly without having to delete and
reword entire sections, instead all you have to do is move the index cards. A common
presentation tip to curb anxiety is to practice some form of meditation outside of public
speaking. Once you become proficient at it you can use it to calm yourself during a
presentation. Finally, to keep the audience_s attention, engage them somehow. Whether it_s
asking them a question or asking for a show of hands, it will keep them on their toes and
listening to what you have to say.
With a few of the presentation tips listed and the knowledge of where to find presentation
tips, it won_t be hard to master giving presentations. Presentation tips aren_t an excuse to not
learn the basics but they will help reduce the learning curve and give you more confidence
when you_re in front of people. A good presenter will never stop looking for new
presentation tips and often times discuss the subject with new presenters they meet
throughout their life. A good set of presentation tip is like a list of good recipes. They will
serve you well throughout your life and they are perfect to share and pass on.
For most technical writers, audience analysis is the most important step in planning a target
document. In order for a writer's final product to be fully successful, the piece must be aimed
toward the intended audience--its knowledge, its opinions, its needs, and its wants. The
question then, is how do you determine the knowledge, opinions, needs, and wants of your
target audience? These instructions will help you analyze your audience and develop a
strategy to target your writing to your audience.
Steps
Know the definition of audience analysis: determining the important characteristics of an audience in
order to chose the best style, format and information/arguments when writing or speaking.
Understanding the identity, personality and characteristics brought to a situation by the specific type
of audience.
Know the purpose of audience analysis: Having knowledge of a specific audience allows the writer or
speaker to understand the social situation in which he or she writes. It allows the writer to come up
with a strategy to adapt arguments to best suit an audience. Conducting audience analysis informs a
speaker or writer about the people he or she is talking to. This is important because based on what is
found out in the audience analysis a writer/speaker can adjust his work to relate to an audience in the
best way possible. It allows a writer/speaker to be able to succeed in their goal of writing or speaking
whatever that may be. If a speaker/writer wants to persuade, inform, motivate, excite, scare, warn or
cheer up an audience, then analyzing those people to which he/she is talking can allow them to pick
the best words, stories, tone, style and delivery to use when writing or talking to that specific group of
people.
Follow this acronym and answer the resulting questions. Just remember the AUDIENCE.
Analysis- Who is the audience?
Understanding- What is the audience's knowledge of the subject?
Demographics- What is their age, gender, education background etc.?
Interest- Why are they reading your document?
Environment- Where will this document be sent/viewed?
Needs- What are the audience's needs associated with your document topic?
Customization- What specific needs/interests should you the writer address relating to
the specific audience?
Expectations- What does the audience expect to learn from your document? The
audience should walk away having their initial questions answered and explained.
Tips
The intended audience of a document is often referred to as the who, what, where, when, and
why.
Interactive strategies
Interactive strategies call for communicating with audience members. Using these strategies
requires what Berger calls "interrogation" and "self-disclosure." These strategies can include
formal or informal methods.
Formal methods
Formal interactive strategies often utilized to analyze audiences for political speeches,
marketing research, and other formal addresses. They obtain excellent data, but require
careful planning. You will want to ask your instructor before employing these methods:
conducting a survey
forming a focus group
questioning the audience members individually
All of these methods require careful planning. You will want to make sure your questions are
clear, use several types of questions, and be as brief as possible.
Informal methods
Informal methods involve simply talking with audience members. One simple way to get
people to talk with you is self-disclosure, which means discussing yourself, your opinions,
and your feelings, and listening for their response. By doing this, you can set the topic for
discussion and hope your partner keeps to the topic. Most people are willing to help, since
they know they will have to give speeches, too.
Passive strategies
Passive strategies of information-gathering are those that do not directly affect your subject,
and do not require much effort on your part. Berger calls these strategies a "hide in the bushes
approach", since your subjects may not even know you are gathering information.
For instance, how could find out which exhibits at a rodeo were the most popular?
Non-passive ways:
- you could ask everybody what they saw,
- you could survey perhaps a hundred people,
- or you could set people at each exhibit to count people.
These methods would take a lot of work! Using a passive strategy, you could walk around at
the end of the day and see where the ground was most worn by people's feet, and that might
give a pretty good idea of which exhibits attracted the most people.
Passive strategies you can use to get information about your audience:
recall previous speeches
observe typical audience members
hang out in places frequented by members of your audience
TA outline
According to the International Transactional Analysis Association[1]'Transactional analysis is a theory
of personality and a systematic psychotherapy for personal growth and personal change'.
As a theory of personality, TA describes how people are structured psychologically. It uses what is
perhaps its best known model, the ego-state (Parent-Adult-Child) model to do this. This same model
helps explain how people function and express their personality in their behavior.
It is a theory of communication that can be extended to the analysis of systems and organisations
It offers a theory for child development, by explaining how our adult patterns of life originated in
childhood This explanation is based on the idea of a "Life (or Childhood) Script": the assumption that
we continue to re-play childhood strategies, even when this results in pain or defeat. thus it claims to
offer a theory of psychopathology
In practical application, it can be used in the diagnosis and treatment of many types of psychological
disorders, and provides a method of therapy for individuals, couples, families and groups.
Outside the therapeutic field, it has been used in education, to help teachers remain in clear
communication at an appropriate level, in counselling and consultancy, in management and
communications training, and by other bodies
Philosophy of TA
Communication Skills
Public Speaking
Assertiveness Training
Crisis Communications
Powerpoint Presentation
Personal Development
Business Presentations
Presentation Ideas
Professional Speaking
Presentation Tips
Executive Coaching
Presentation Speech
Good Presenter
Demonstration Speech
Improving Communication
Marketing Presentation
Telephone Presentation
If there is one attribute that anyone is lacking it is most likely self confidence. Self
confidence has been diminishing at an astonishing rate and this is largely due to the world we
live in today. We_re constantly being bombarded with images of perfection and the message
that not being first means we_re last. This subconsciously makes us very sensitive to all sorts
of judgment and makes us very self conscious in about everything we do. Self consciousness
is the enemy of self confidence and if one can defeat their self conscious habits they can
largely solve their self confidence issues and learn how to build self confidence. Learning
how to build self confidence will not only relieve a lot of the anxiety in ones life but it will
also prove to strengthen their career and make them more outgoing.
The key to learning how to build self confidence is really a two step process. The first step is
to eliminate those things which chip away at your confidence such as self conscious
behaviors and negativity. Getting rid of the things that limit the confidence in yourself is
necessary because without doing so, your confidence will be stuck in a never ending cycle of
improving and then receding back to where it was to begin with. The first step is to try and
remove yourself from negativity; this means stop associating so much with the people who
try to diminish your accomplishments and who are hurtful. It also means recognizing the
situations that are inherently negative and trying to take steps to avoid them, even if it means
you have to avoid things you enjoy too. The next step is much harder and it is to get rid of
self conscious behavior. Reassuring yourself that what you_re doing is not a big deal in the
grand scheme of things works well but if you have serious problems with this area counseling
is usually best. Once all the impeding properties are removed, you_re ready to start learning
how to build self confidence.
The first step on learning how to build self confidence is to let others around you know
you_re trying to do so. Inform your loved ones of what your plan on learning how to build
self confidence and have them point out things you do right. The biggest piece of learning
how to build self confidence is feeling good about yourself. If you feel bad that you_re not
fit, lose some weight. You can never emotionally feel confident in yourself if you_re not
happy with your situation physically. The next step to learning how to build self confidence
is to recognize all the good things you do. In order to learn how to build self confidence you
have to ignore all the bad things and simply accept them as mistakes and not take them to
heart. Concentrating on only the good will put you in the right mindset to think more highly
of yourself. Last but not least, just smile. Learn to lighten up a bit and learning how to build
self confidence will come much more naturally.
It_s unfortunate that there isn_t more material out there to teach people how to build self
confidence, especially considered how low confidence levels are plaguing great deal of
people. If the problem is really serious then counseling is really the best option. However, if
you have a drive to succeed and want to change your life for the better, apply some of the
rules above to your life and learn how to build self confidence. With a better confidence level
almost all aspects of your life will improve.
TA outline
According to the International Transactional Analysis Association Transactional analysis is a theory
of personality and a systematic psychotherapy for personal growth and personal humanist and
cognitive approaches. It was developed by Canadian-born US psychiatrist Eric Berne during the late
1950s.change'.
As a theory of personality, TA describes how people are structured psychologically. It uses what is
perhaps its best known model, the ego-state (Parent-Adult-Child) model to do this. This same model
helps explain how people function and express their personality in their behaviour.
It is a theory of communication that can be extended to the analysis of systems and organisations.
It offers a theory for child development, by explaining how our adult patterns of life originated in
childhood. This explanation is based on the idea of a "Life (or Childhood) Script": the assumption that
we continue to re-play childhood strategies, even when this results in pain or defeat. thus it claims to
offer a theory of psychopathology.
In practical application, it can be used in the diagnosis and treatment of many types of psychological
disorders, and provides a method of therapy for individuals, couples, families and groups.
Outside the therapeutic field, it has been used in education, to help teachers remain in clear
communication at an appropriate level, in counselling and consultancy, in management and
communications training, and by other bodies.
Philosophy of TA
People are OK; thus each person has validity, importance, equality of respect.
Everyone (with only few exceptions, such as the severely brain-damaged) has the capacity to think[8].
People decide their story and destiny, and these decisions can be changed[9].
Freedom from historical maladaptations embedded in the childhood script is required in order to
become free of inappropriate, inauthentic, and displaced emotions which are not a fair and honest
reflection of here-and-now life (such as echoes of childhood suffering, pity-me and other mind games,
compulsive behavior, and repetitive dysfunctional life patterns). The aim of change under TA is to
move toward autonomy (freedom from childhood script), spontaneity, intimacy, problem solving as
opposed to avoidance or passivity, cure as an ideal rather than merely making progress, learning new
choices.
Key ideas of TA
Some core models and concepts are part of TA as follows:--
The Ego-State (or Parent-Adult-Child, PAC) model
At any given time, a person experiences and manifests their personality through a mixture of
behaviours, thoughts and feelings. Typically, according to TA, there are three ego-states that people
consistently use:
Parent ("exteropsyche"): a state in which people behave, feel, and think in response to an
unconscious mimicking of how their parents (or other parental figures) acted, or how they interpreted
their parent's actions. For example, a person may shout at someone out of frustration because they
learned from an influential figure in childhood the lesson that this seemed to be a way of relating that
worked.
Adult ("neopsyche"): a state of the ego which is most like a computer processing information and
making predictions absent of major emotions that cloud its operation. Learning to strengthen the
Adult is a goal of TA. While a person is in the Adult ego state, he/she is directed towards an objective
appraisal of reality.
Child ("archaeopsyche"): a state in which people behave, feel and think similarly to how they did in
childhood. For example, a person who receives a poor evaluation at work may respond by looking at
the floor, and crying or pouting, as they used to when scolded as a child. Conversely, a person who
receives a good evaluation may respond with a broad smile and a joyful gesture of thanks. The Child
is the source of emotions, creation, recreation, spontaneity and intimacy.
Berne differentiated his Parent, Adult, and Child ego states from actual adults, parents, and children,
by using capital letters when describing them. These ego-states may or may not represent the
relationships that they act out. For example, in the workplace, an adult supervisor may take on the
Parent role, and scold an adult employee as though they were a Child. Or a child, using their Parent
ego-state, could scold their actual parent as though the parent were a Child.
Within each of these ego states are subdivisions. Thus Parental figures are often either nurturing
(permission-giving, security-giving) or criticizing (comparing to family traditions and ideals in
generally negative ways); Childhood behaviours are either natural (free) or adapted to others. These
subdivision categorize individuals' patterns of behaviour, feelings, and ways of thinking, that can be
functional (beneficial or positive) or dysfunctional/counterproductive (negative).
Berne states that there are four types of diagnosis of ego states. They are the behavioural diagnosis,
social diagnosis, historical diagnosis and the phenomenological diagnosis of ego states. For a
complete diagnosis one needs to complete all four types. It has been subsequently demonstrated that
there is in fact a fifth way of diagnosis. It is known as the contextual diagnosis of ego states. For
example if a man says, “On July 5th, 2007 the alignment of the planets will create a magnetic field so
large that there will be the biggest tides in half a century”, what ego state would be diagnosed?
If that man was of a dishevelled appearance, had not shaven for 2 days and was sitting on a park
bench drinking out of a bottle in a brown paper bag what ego state would be diagnosed?. Probably
some kind of regressed Child ego state. If that man was in an observatory wearing a white coat and
carrying a clip board what ego state would be diagnosed? Probably Adult ego state. The different
contexts for the same statement would tend to result in a different diagnosis. The context in which the
statement is made is central to the diagnosis of ego states.
Ego-states do not correspond directly to Sigmund Freud's Ego, Superego and Id, although there are
obvious parallels: ie, Superego:Ego:Id::Parent:Adult:Child. Ego states are consistent for each person
and are argued by TA practitioners as more readily observable than the pats in Freud's hypothetical
model. In other words, the particular ego state that a given person is communicating from is
determinable by external observation and experience.
There is no "universal" ego-state; each state is individually and visibly manifested for each person.
For example, each Child ego state is unique to the childhood experiences, mentality, intellect, and
family of each individual; it is not a generalised childlike state.
Ego states can become contaminated, for example, when a person mistakes Parental rules and slogans,
for here-and-now Adult reality, and when beliefs are taken as facts. Or when a person "knows" that
everyone is laughing at them because "they always laughed". This would be an example of a
childhood contamination, insofar as here-and-now reality is being overlaid with memories of previous
historic incidents in childhood.
Although TA theory claims that Ego states do not correspond directly to thinking, feeling, and
judging, as these processes are present in every ego state, this claim is self-contradictory to the claim
that the Adult is like a computer processing information, therefore not feeling unless it is
contaminated by the Child.
Berne suspected that Parent, Adult, and Child ego states might be tied to specific areas of the human
brain; an idea that has not been proved.
The three ego state model has been questioned by a TA group in Australia, who have devised a "two
ego-state model" as a means of solving perceived theoretical problems:
"The two ego-state model says that there is a Child ego-state and a Parent ego-state, placing the Adult
ego-state with the Parent ego-state. [...] How we learn to speak, add up and learn how to think is all
just copied from our teachers. Just as our morals and values are copied from our parents. There is no
absolute truth where facts exist out side a person’s own belief system. Berne mistakenly concluded
that there was and thus mistakenly put the Adult ego-state as separate from the Parent ego-state."
In TA theory,"Life Position" refers to the general feeling about life (specifically, the unconscious
feeling, as opposed to a conscious philosophical position) that colours every dyadic (i.e. person-to-
person) transaction. Initially four such Life Positions were proposed:
"I'm Not OK, You're OK" (I-U+)
"I'm Not OK, You're Not OK" (I-U-)
"I'm OK, You're Not OK" (I+U-)
"I'm OK, You're OK" (I+U+)
However, lately, an Australian TA analyst has claimed that in order to better represent the Life
Position behind disorders that were not, allegedly, as widespread and/or recognized at the time when
TA was conceptualized as they are now (such as borderline personality disorder, narcissistic
personality disorder etc, the above list requires alteration. Also, two additional Life Positions are
proposed .
"I'm not-OK, You're OK" (I-U+)
"I'm not-OK, You're not-OK" (I-U-)
"I'm not-OK, But You're Worse" (I-U--)
"I'm not-OK, You're Irrelevant" (I-U?)
"I'm a Bit More OK Than You Are" (I++U+)
"I'm OK, You're OK" (I+U+)
"I'm OK, You're Irrelevant" (I+U?)
The difference between one's own OK-ness and other's OK-ness captured by description "I'm OK,
You're not-OK" is proposed to be substituted by description that more accurately captures one's own
feeling (not jumping to conclusions based only on one's perceived behavior), therefore stating the
difference in a new way: "I'm not-OK, but You're worse" (I-,U--), instead.
Redefining means the distortion of reality when we deliberately (but unconsciously) distort things to
match our preferred way of seeing the world. Thus a person whose script involves "struggling alone
against a cold hard world" may redefine others' kindness, concluding that others are trying to get
something by manipulation.
Discounting means to take something as worth less than it is. Thus to give a substitute reaction which
does not originate as a here-and-now Adult attempt to solve the actual problem, or to choose not to
see evidence that would contradict one's script. Types of discount can also include: passivity (doing
nothing), over-adaptation, agitation, incapacitation, anger and violence.
TA identifies twelve key injunctions which people commonly build into their scripts. These are
injunctions in the sense of being powerful "I can't/mustn't ..." messages that embed into a child's belief
and life-script:
Don't be (don't exist)
Don't be who you are
Don't be a child
Don't grow up
Don't make it in your life
Don't do anything!
Don't be important
Don't belong
Don't be close
Don't be well (don't be sane!)
Don't think
Don't feel.
In addition there is the so-called episcript:
"You should (or deserve to) have this happen in your life, so it doesn't have to happen to me."
(Magical thinking on the part of the parent(s).)
Against these, a child is often told other things he or she must do. There is debate as to whether there
are five or six of these 'drivers':
Please (me/others)!
Be perfect!
Be Strong!
Try Hard!
Hurry Up!
Be Careful! (is in dispute)
Thus in creating his script, a child will often attempt to juggle these, example: "It's okay for me to go
on living (ignore don't exist) so long as I try hard".
This explains why some change is inordinately difficult. To continue the above example: When a
person stops trying hard and relaxes to be with his family, the injunction You don't have the right to
exist which was being suppressed by their script now becomes exposed and a vivid threat. Such an
individual may feel a massive psychological pressure which he himself doesn't understand, to return
to trying hard, in order to feel safe and justified (in a childlike way) in existing.
Driver behaviour is also detectable at a very small scale, for instance in instinctive responses to
certain situations where driver behaviour is played out over five to twenty seconds.
Broadly speaking, scripts can fall into Tragic, Heroic or Banal (or Non-Winner) varieties, depending
on their rules.
Ways of Time Structuring
There are six ways of structuring time by giving and receiving strokes:
Withdrawal
Ritual
Pastimes
Activity
Games
Intimacy
This is sorted in accordance with stroke strength; Intimacy and Games in general allow for the most
intensive strokes.
Withdrawal
This means no strokes are being exchanged
Rituals
A ritual is a series of transactions that are complementary (reciprocal), stereotyped and based on
social programming. Rituals usually comprise a series of strokes exchanged between two parties.
For instance, two people may have a daily two stroke ritual, where, the first time they meet each day,
each one greets the other with a "Hi". Others may have a four stroke ritual, such as:
A: Hi!
B: Hi! How are you?
A: Getting along. What about you?
B: Fine. See you around.
The next time they meet in the day, they may not exchange any strokes at all, or may just
acknowledge each other's presence with a curt nod.
Some phenomena associated with daily rituals:
If a person exchanges fewer strokes than expected, the other person may feel that he is either
preoccupied or acting high and mighty.
If a person exchanges more strokes than expected, the other person might wonder whether he is trying
to butter him up or get on good terms for some vested interests.
If two people do not meet for a long time, a backlog of strokes gets built up, so that the next time they
meet, they may exchange a large number of strokes to catch up.
Pastimes
A pastime is a series of transactions that is complementary (reciprocal), semi-ritualistic, and is mainly
intended as a time-structuring activity. Pastimes have no covert purpose and can usually be carried out
only between people on the same wavelength. They are usually shallow and harmless. Pastimes are a
type of smalltalk.
Individuals often partake in similar pastimes throughout their entire life, as pastimes are generally
very much linked to one's life script and the games that one often plays. Some pastimes can even be
understood as a reward for playing a certain game. For example, Eric Berne in Games People Play
discusses how those who play the "Alcoholic" game (which Berne differentiated from alcoholism and
alcoholics) often enjoy the "Morning After" pastime in which participants share their most amusing or
harrowing hangover stories.
Activities (Work)
Activities in this context mean the individuals work together for a common goal. This may be work,
sports or something similar. In contrast to Pastimes, there is a meaningful purpose guiding the
interactions, while Pastimes are just about exchanging strokes. Strokes can then be given in the
context of the cooperation. Thus the strokes are generally not personal, but related to the activity.
Intimacy
Intimacy as a way of structuring time allows one to exchange the strongest strokes without playing a
Game. Intimacy differs from Games as there is no covert purpose, and differs from Activities as there
is no other process going on which defines a context of cooperation. Strokes are personal, relating to
the other person, and often unconditional.
Ans.:- Formal communication includes all the instances where communication has to occur in
a set formal format. Typically this can include all sorts of business communication or
corporate communication. The style of communication in this form is very formal and
official. Official conferences, meetings and written memos and corporate letters are used for
communication. Formal communication can also occur between two strangers when they
meet for the first time. Hence formal communication is straightforward, official and always
precise and has a stringent and rigid tone to it.
Format
Knowledge of the letter formats is essential. Consistency is good; people do not want to
read a letter with components of multiple formats. This makes a letter sloppy and less
attractive to readers. Block, modified block, and AMS (American Management Society)
Simplified are three different formats letters can have.
Block lines the whole letter up at the left margin, are single spaced in paragraphs, and
double-spaced between paragraphs. Headings are optional, and if used they are bold-
faced. The first paragraph never has a heading and the paragraphs are not indented.
The only difference in block and modified block is that modified block lines the date line
and signature block up together over two-thirds to right margin. Here, paragraph
indentation is optional.
AMS Simplified is a little different than block and modified block. The subject line is in
all capital letters. If a list is used in the letter, the items in the list should be double-
spaced between. There is no salutation line in AMS and headings are optional as well.
The author’s name is placed at the bottom in all capital letters in place of a signature.
Format
Knowledge of the letter formats is essential. Consistency is good; people do not want to
read a letter with components of multiple formats. This makes a letter sloppy and less
attractive to readers. Block, modified block, and AMS (American Management Society)
Simplified are three different formats letters can have.
Block lines the whole letter up at the left margin, are single spaced in paragraphs, and
double-spaced between paragraphs. Headings are optional, and if used they are bold-
faced. The first paragraph never has a heading and the paragraphs are not indented.
The only difference in block and modified block is that modified block lines the date line
and signature block up together over two-thirds to right margin. Here, paragraph
indentation is optional.
AMS Simplified is a little different than block and modified block. The subject line is in
all capital letters. If a list is used in the letter, the items in the list should be double-
spaced between. There is no salutation line in AMS and headings are optional as well.
The author’s name is placed at the bottom in all capital letters in place of a signature.
A report is a very formal document that is written for a variety of purposes, generally in the sciences,
social sciences, engineering and business disciplines. Generally, findings pertaining to a given or
specific task are written up into a report. It should be noted that reports are considered to be legal
documents in the workplace and, thus, they need to be precise, accurate and difficult to misinterpret.
Business report writing becomes an essential part of the communication process in the business
environment. Business report writing standards grow in complexity to meet the needs of a rapidly
developing environment. Whether you are writing a financial, statistical or an audit report, you have
to determine the scope of your research and isolate the problem to collect relevant data. business
report writing starts with the executive summary that is written in a non-technical manner. You should
keep in mind audience needs, since the typical audience for business reports is upper level managers
with little or no technical knowledge.
Do not forget to state the precise quantitative tools that will be used to achieve the desired results.
This part of a business report is tough for many students, as it requires not only in-depth knowledge
of statistical tools, but also general information about the tools used in similar studies to estimate the
accuracy and relevancy of the selected tool. Often, more than two writers at Custom-Writing.org
work to ensure that your report ends up being statistically correct. Be careful with findings and
interpretation of the results, since your conclusion and future research suggestions are based on this
section. We make interpretations of technical findings for those who have less technical expertise.
Writers at Custom-Writing.org have extensive experience with business report writing
Types of Report Writing ---
Research Report Writing--- To presents the tangible proof of the conducted research is the major
intention of the academic assignment. When writing on research report, you must ponder over clarity,
organization, and content. Research reports are all the more same to technical reports, lab reports,
formal reports and scientific papers which comprise a quite consistent format that will facilitate you to
put your information noticeably, making it crystal clear.
Science Report Writing--- Parallel to a business report, science report writing also corresponds with
the line of investigation. To report upon an empirical investigation, these reports make use of standard
scientific report format, portraying technique, fallout and conclusions. As an assignment in
undergraduate papers within the scientific disciplines, it is required frequently.
The main objective of the Science report is to boast an aim, the technique which enlightens how the
project has been analyzed, the outcomes which presents the findings and the conclusion. This
embraces advance research suggestions and your own biased opinion on the topic which has been
talked about.
When writing a science report, do not fail to remember to use heading and subheadings in order to
direct a reader through your work. In the form of tables and graphs, Statistical evidence should be
incorporated in appendices. Than refer to it in the body of your scientific report.
Reports are a common form of writing because of the inclusion of recommendations which
are helpful in implementing the decision.
Local
Local communication is stand-alone and off-line. It occurs where you are, even though it might have been
originated at a distance. Examples are audio tape and CDs; videotapes; CD-ROMs; letters, memos and reports;
manuals; printed materials; one-to-ones and meetings. Faxes are local even though the process by which they
are transmitted is not.
The advantages of local communication are that no sacrifice has to be made to quality because of bandwidth
limitations and that there are fewer restrictions on where the media can be used or the communication can take
place.